Topic Selection

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

State the objectives of an employee selection process;

2.

Identify the types of information sources that can be used in the

selection process;

3.

Describe the types of employment tests;

4.

Discuss the approaches in carrying out job interviews; and

5.

Examine the strategies of achieving results in selection.

INTRODUCTION
We are often exposed to news on deviation, misuse of power and sexual
harassment in the workplace. Therefore, the selection of suitable candidates is
very important to ensure the success of an organisation.
If in recruitment, an organisation tries to obtain as many applicants for a
position; in selection, the number of candidates is reduced by selecting the most
eligible candidates.
The main purpose of selection is to maximise the accuracy of selecting qualified
employees and to avoid not taking qualified employees. Even though the human
resource department is responsible in carrying out the selection process, the
decision to hire a candidate is usually done by the departments manager.

92

5.1

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

SELECTION PROCESS

What do you understand about the selection process?

Selection is a process of selecting individuals who possess suitable
qualifications to fill an existing or future job vacancy.
The selection process is an ongoing process and involves a few steps. Among the
steps in the selection processes are as follows:
(a)

Completing the application form.

(b)

Preliminary interview at the human resource department.

(c)

Employment test (cognitive aptitude test, achievement test).

(d)

Investigating the candidates background.

(e)

Preliminary selection at the human resource department.

(f)

Team/supervisor interview.

(g)

Medical check-up/drug test.

(h)

Recruitment result.

From the steps above, we can see that an organisation uses various ways to
obtain information about applicants. Among the methods used are application
forms, interviews, employment tests, medical check-up and background checks
on applicants/candidates.

ACTIVITY 5.1
In your opinion, why are some applicants exempted from certain
steps in the selection process while other applicants have to go
through the whole selection process?
Visit www.hr-guide.com/selection.htm to obtain information on how the
selection process is carried out and how information on employees is obtained.

TOPIC 5

5.2

SELECTION

93

INFORMATION RELIABILITY AND

VALIDITY

Information on job applicants and candidates must be accurate, reliable and

valid. This is to ensure the selection purpose, which is to hire employees who are
really eligible and to avoid not hiring those who are eligible, can be fulfilled.

5.2.1

Information Reliability

Reliability means the level where an interview, test and other selection
procedures show consistent data every time, even when using other
methods of measurement.
Reliability, thus, means how far a selection tool is able to give consistent data.
Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 are examples of stable and consistent reliabilities.
Table 5.1: Reliability as Stability over Time

Applicant
Ahmad
Chin
Rama
Kuntum
Applicant
Ahmad
Chin
Rama
Kuntum

A. High Reliability
Test score
90
65
110
80
B. Low Reliability
Test score
90
65
110
80

Re-test score
93
62
105
78
Re-test score
72
88
67
111

Source: Adapted from Bohlander, Snell & Sherman. (2009). Managing human resources
(15th ed.). Ohio: South-western College Publishing.

94

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

Table 5.2: Reliability as Consistency

A. High Reliability
Applicant

Evaluator 1

Evaluator 2

Evaluator 3

9
5
4
8

8
6
5
8

8
5
5
8

Ahmad
Chin
Rama
Kuntum

B. Low Reliability
Applicant

Evaluator 1

Evaluator 2

Evaluator 3

9
5
4
8

5
9
2
4

6
4
7
2

Ahmad
Chin
Rama
Kuntum

Source: Adapted from Bohlander, Snell & Sherman. (2009). Managing human resources
(15th ed.). Ohio: South-western College Publishing.

5.2.2

Information Validity

Validity means the level where a selection test or procedure is able to

measure a persons characteristics.

There are three types of information validity, which are:

(a)

Criterion-related validity;

(b)

Content validity; and

(c)

Construct validity.

Figure 5.1 shows how a test score is validated by applying the criteria evaluation
(one type of information validity).

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

95

Figure 5.1: Valid test and invalid test

Source: Adapted from Bohlander, Snell and Sherman. (2009). Managing human resources
(15th ed.). Ohio: South-western College Publishing.

(a)

Criterion-related Validity
Criterion-related validity is the level where selection tools which are chosen
are able to forecast or have a correlation with the main elements of work
behaviour (Bohlander, Snell and Sherman, 2004). The performance from a
certain test will be compared to the actual production records, supervisors
evaluation, result from training, and different success measurements which
are suitable to a particular job. For example, the criteria for a job in the
production sector are quality and product quantity, whereas the criterion
for a salespersons job is total sales.
Criterion-related validity can be divided into two types:
(i)

Concurrent Validity
Concurrent validity means how far a test score or other forecasted
information matches the criteria data obtained from existing
employees. For example, a supervisor carries out a work evaluation
on a few clerks by giving them aptitude tests on clerical matters. Test
scores will be compared to the supervisors evaluation to see whether
or not a relationship exists between the test scores and the
supervisors evaluation.

96

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

(ii)

Predictive Validity
Predictive validity means how far the score of a test done by an
applicant before he or she was hired matches the data obtained from
the applicant or the employee after they are hired, after a certain
period.
Cross validation can be done to strengthen the validity of a test. Cross
validation strengthens the validation of a particular validity result by
running a test on a different sample from the same population.

(b)

Content Validity
Content validity measures how far a selection tool, such as a type of test, is
able to sample knowledge and skills which are needed to perform a certain
job. The higher the relationship between the test contents and the actual
work requirements, the higher the content validity. For example, a test to
become a kindergarten teacher should not contain activities on solving
accounts problems.

(c)

Construct Validity
Construct validity measures how far a selection tool is able to measure
construct or potential employees characteristics theoretically. Construct
examples are intelligence, an understanding in mechanical matters and
anxiety.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Refer to Table 5.2. How does Table 5.2 relate the three validity
concepts?

5.3

SELECTION METHODS

Through selection methods, we will discuss how to:

(a)

Obtain information about applicants and potential job candidates;

(b)

Test candidates for the purpose of identifying those who are most qualified
for a particular job;

(c)

Obtain information through effective interviews; and

(d)

Decide on determining qualified candidates for the job offer.

TOPIC 5

5.3.1

SELECTION

97

Information Sources

When you apply for a job, do you have to fill in your personal information? What
are the methods used at that time?
There are a few methods which are trusted and valid in order to obtain
information about candidates. Figure 5.2 shows a few techniques of obtaining
information in the selection process and its effectiveness.

Figure 5.2: The effectiveness of selection methods

The following are some types of information sources usually used by an

organisation to obtain information about a job candidate:
(a)

Application Form
An application form provides information as to whether an applicant has
experience and educational background, and other matters related to the
job. Information from the application form will be made the basis, by the
interviewer, for questions about the applicants background and checks on
references provided by the applicant. Among the items included in an
application form are date of application, educational background,
experience, criminal records, nationality and disabilities.

(b)

Biographical Information Blank (BIB)

Through the BIB, questions asked are more on family life, interests or
hobbies, club membership and experience in sales and investments.
Therefore, the BIB is able to give a general description of the applicants
behaviour.

98

(c)

Investigating Candidates Background

When an interviewer feels that a candidate has potential, some of the
information obtained from previous employers or other information given
by the candidate will be investigated. Among the methods are:

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

(i)

Calling the previous managers;

(ii)

Writing a letter to get information;

(iii) Obtaining a written permission from the candidate so that the

interviewer can get information from previous employers; and
(iv) Going through the credit report to look at the applicants or
candidates financial position.
(d)

Polygraph Test
A polygraph test is an equipment to detect lies. It measures changes in
breathing rate, blood pressure and an individuals pulse when the person is
being questioned. Questions asked often include matters involving drug
abuse, theft or criminal offences that are not detected by others.

(e)

Honesty and Integrity Tests

Honesty and integrity tests are usually used by an organisation where its
employees have access to money and sales items. Questions often asked
relate to values and attitudes towards issues such as theft and punishment
for thieves. A total analysis will become an assumption of work
performance and disciplinary problems.

(f)

Graphology
Graphology refers to a system that analyses handwriting. Through a
candidates handwriting, a graphologist makes an assumption of the nature
of his or her intelligence, energy level, organisational abilities and emotions.

ACTIVITY 5.3
For which job should a candidate be tested by using graphology?

(g)

Health Examination
A health examination is done to ensure that the applicants health level
fulfils the job requirements.

(h)

Drug Test
A drug test aims at ensuring future employees are free from hazardous
drugs. The sampling method is usually implemented.

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

99

EXERCISE 5.1
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1.

The selection procedure does not have to be validated before it is used.

2.

The more related the contents of a selection tool with the actual
work sample, the higher the value of content validity.

3.

Construct validity is a level where a certain selection tool is able to

measure characteristics or constructs theoretically.

4.

Most organisations require application forms to be filled because

application forms provide fast and systematic information about
the applicants.

5.

To filter and select applicants as well as predict their performance,

organisations have to go through applicants information through
their source of reference.

5.3.2

Employment Test

Another method of obtaining information about candidates is through

employment tests. Some organisations employ consultants to perform
employment tests. An employment test is an objective and standard way to
measure knowledge, skills, abilities and other candidates characteristics.
Employment tests can be categorised into two, which are:

Aptitude test
An aptitude test measures an individuals capacity or ability in learning and
mastering new skills.

Achievement test
An achievement test measures what an individual knows or is able to do at
this frame of time.

Among the types of employment tests are:

(a)

Cognitive Aptitude Test

A test that measures an individuals mental abilities such as aptitude,
fluency, calculating ability, reasoning ability, thinking and drawing
conclusions. The test is believed to be able to represent an individuals
general intelligence.

100

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

(b)

Job Knowledge Test

A test to measure an individuals knowledge and understanding of a job.

(c)

Work Sample Test

A test that requires applicants to perform tasks that are part of the duties
for the position applied. For example, a test on reading maps for traffic
officer candidates, and judgement and decision making tests for an
administrative officer candidate.

(d)

Personality and Interest Inventory

A test to measure an individuals disposition and temperament.
There are five dimensions that reflect an individuals personality, i.e.:
(i)

Extroversion
Extroversion projects the external characteristics, i.e. at a level where
an individual talks a lot, is sociable, active, aggressive and cheerful.

(ii)

Agreeableness
Agreeableness is a level where an individual can be trusted, is warm,
generous, able to compromise, honest, cooperative and able to discuss.

(iii) Conscientiousness
A level where an individual can be depended on, is rule abiding and
perseveres in carrying out duties.
(iv) Emotional Stability
Emotional stability is a level where an individual feels secure, is calm,
independent and autonomous.
(v)

Open to Experience
This involves being open to new experiences, i.e. an individuals level
of intelligence, philosophy, in-depth understanding, creativity, artistic
abilities and curiosity.

ACTIVITY 5.4
In the personality and interest inventory, there are five personality
dimensions. Which one reflects your personality, and based on
your personality, what type of job would be suitable for you?
(e)

Physical Ability Test

This test aims at examining an individuals physical abilities in performing
a task in a particular job. Risky jobs such as those of a fireman and lorry
driver need physical strength and endurance. This limits applications from
women and those who are handicapped.

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

101

ACTIVITY 5.5
Classify these job tests according to their categories (aptitude test
or achievement test).
Type of test
Cognitive Ability Test
Job Knowledge Test
Work Sample Test
Personality and Interest Test
Physical Ability Test

5.3.3

Category

Job Interview

Information about candidates can be obtained through a job interview.

An interview, traditionally, is the main tool for most organisations to gather
information about candidates. Even though many researchers are still sceptical
about its validity, this method remains the main choice when conducting a
selection process. This is because:

An interview is easy to carry out, especially when the number of applicants is

small.

Apart from aiming to gather information, it also aims to get to know the
candidate better.

Recruiters believe and are confident that it enables them to judge the
candidates.

In a job interview, there are three important factors that one should be aware of:

Types of interview;

The variables that influence an interview; and

Guidelines for the interviewer.

(a)

Types of Job Interview

There are several types of job interviews such as:
(i)

Non-directive Interview
During a non-directive interview, an applicant has the freedom to
give his or her opinion. The interviewer tries not to influence any
opinions offered by the candidate. Usually, the interviewer will ask

102

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

general questions such as the candidates experiences in his or her

previous company.
(ii)

Structured Interview
This type of interview contains a set of standard questions together
with pre-determined answers. The questions are based on a job
analysis that has been carried out beforehand. Information from a
structured interview is able to reduce unfairness in the perspective of
the law.

(iii) Situational Interview

Through this interview, the applicant is given a situation or an event
to which he or she needs to respond. The feedback given will be
evaluated based on standardised answers. This type of interview is a
part of structured interview.
(iv) Behavioural Interview
Through this interview, applicants will be asked their response in
dealing with specific circumstances. For example, from an applicants
previous experience, what were the actions taken against employees
who practise truancy. This approach is based on the critical incident
method of the job analysis.
(v)

Panel Interview
Through panel interview, a group of interviewers will question and
observe the candidate. The number of interviewers is between three
and five people. The interviewers will compare their observations and
reach a consensus concerning the candidate. This method has a high
level of validity.

(vi) Computer Interview

Through this interview, candidates are required to answer multiple
choice questions (from 75 to 125 questions) that are related to the job.
The answers given will be compared to an answer profile developed
from previous candidates answers. A computer interview is usually
used as an additional interview for a common or conventional
interview.
(b)

Variables in a Job Interview

An interview process is influenced by the interviewer, the applicant and the
interview context. Figure 5.3 shows these variables and the processes
involved in a job interview.

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

103

Figure 5.3: Variables in a job interview

Source: Adapted from Bohlander, Snell & Sherman. (2009). Managing human resources
(15th ed.). Ohio: South-western College Publishing.

(c)

Guidelines for the Interviewer

ACTIVITY 5.6
Bias can occur during an interview process. The interviewer is
often influenced by negative information about the candidate. In
your opinion, what should be done by interviewers to prevent this
from happening?

A job interviewer can influence candidates on whether to accept or reject a

job offer. Therefore, an organisation must be careful in choosing
interviewers. An interviewer needs to have attributes such as humbleness,
objectivity, maturity and composure. Communication skills are also
needed. The interviewer should not talk too much, be excessive in giving
opinions and show bias.

104

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

Some of the guidelines that can be observed by interviewers are as follows:

(i)

Set Interview Plans

Go through the purpose of the interview and determine the subjects
and questions that will be asked. Get related information.

(ii)

Determine and Maintain Rapport

This can be done by welcoming the candidate, explaining the
interview purpose and showing interest in the candidate.

(iii) Be a Good Listener

Try to understand what the candidate means.
(iv) Pay Attention to Body Language
Observe the candidates facial reactions, movement of head and
hands, body positions and other movements that can indicate his or
her attitude and feelings. However, an interviewer must be careful
with his or her own body language too.
(v)

Give Information Properly and Sincerely

Answer the candidates questions properly and sincerely. Provide a
clear picture of the job offered.

(vi) Use Questions Effectively

Avoid from questioning a candidate while he or she is still answering
a question. Give opportunities to the candidate to guess what must be
answered.
(vii) Separate Facts from Opinions
During an interview session, the interviewer needs to note down
facts. The interviewers conclusion can then be compared with those
of the other interviewers.
(viii) Identify between Bias and Stereotypes
Most often, bias happens during an interview when the interviewer
easily accepts candidates who are compatible with him or her.
Stereotyping also happens during interviews. A candidate is often
judged based on race and appearance.
(ix) Control Interview Direction
Follow what has been planned. Give opportunities for candidates to
speak. However, the interviewer needs to monitor the situation so
that the objective of the interview can be achieved.
(x)

Standardise Questions
Ask the same questions to all candidates that are interviewed for the
same position. This can increase reliability and avoid discrimination.

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

105

EXERCISE 5.2
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1.

Even though it has good potential, a physical ability test can

give a negative effect to women and handicapped applicants.

2.

An achievement test requires applicants to carry out tasks

that are part of the actual work.

3.

In using a non-directive interview approach, the interviewer

listens attentively and does not interrupt candidates or
change topics suddenly.

4.

A panel interview is a situation where three to five

interviewers interview a group of future employees at the
same time.

5.3.4

Reaching Selection Decision

When the necessary information is obtained, the process to determine the

candidate to be offered the job is done. At this level, there are three important
things to be observed, i.e.:

Simplify a candidates information;

Decision strategy; and

Final decision.

This level is important as it involves cost. Therefore, there has to be an

information checklist on the candidates, as well as strategy options in selecting a
candidate.
(a)

Simplifying Candidate Information

The management is usually interested to know what can be done and what
will be done by a candidate in his or her job. The management must take
these two factors into account when evaluating candidates. Factors of what
candidates are able to do include knowledge, skills and ability to gain new
knowledge and skills. Factors of what candidates will do include
motivation, interest and other personality traits (refer to Figure 5.4).

106

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

Figure 5.4: Able to do and will do factors

Source: Adapted from Bohlander, Snell & Sherman. (2009). Managing human resources
(15th ed.). Ohio: South-western College Publishing.

An employee who has the ability to do something but has no interest to do

it is better than an employee who has interest but not the ability. It is easier
to measure what an applicant is able to do rather than what he or she will
do. Test scores can be used as a tool to measure a candidates abilities. The
result of the interview can be a basis to assume what the candidate will be
able to do in future.
(b)

Decision Strategy
The decision strategy used in hiring personnel differs according to the
different job categories. For example, the strategy used to hire a manager is
different from the strategy used to hire a clerk.
Some factors need to be observed by the management before any decision
on staff intake is made. They are as follows:
(i)

Is the hiring of a particular individual based on his or her ability, or is

it based on the organisations needs?

(ii)

What is the starting fee for the individual that is offered a particular job?

(iii) Is selection based on the candidates suitability for the job, or does it
take into account the candidates career opportunities in the
organisation?
(iv) How far would those who are less qualified be put under
consideration?
(v)

Will an individual who is more than qualified for the post be

considered and offered the job?

(vi) What are the effects of a candidates intake on the regulations and
employee diversity in an organisation?

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

107

The management must also determine the types of approach to be

implemented in deciding to hire an individual for a particular job. The
approach can be clinical approach or statistical approach.
(i)

Clinical Approach
Through clinical approach, those involved in the selection process will
go through all data on the candidates again. Decision will be made
based on the interviewers understanding of a particular job, and their
observations of the individuals who are successful in that particular
job. The clinical approach is subjective in nature but is often practised
in most organisations.

(ii)

Statistical Approach
The statistical approach is more objective in nature and is better
compared to the clinical approach. The data obtained about the
candidates will be considered in detail and the forecaster will be
identified statistically.

There are a few models in the statistical approach. They are as follows:

Compensatory model
Through the compensatory model, the high score that a candidate
obtains in one particular part of a test will be able to assist a lower score
obtained in another part.

Multiple cut-off model

Through the multiple cut-off model, a candidate must reach a particular
level or a minimum score for all selection dimensions.

Multiple hurdle model

Through the multiple hurdle model, candidates who obtain high scores
in the entry test will be allowed to go to the next stage. This can save
cost if the selection cost is high.

The number of sufficient candidates is important so that the selection

process runs smoothly. If the number of candidates for a particular position
is not enough, the selection method can be questioned. There may be
circumstances where an unqualified candidate is hired as the organisation
does not have other choices.
A selection ratio is able to illustrate the effectiveness of a selection process.
A selection ratio is the number of applicants hired compared to the number
of applicants who applied (Mondy. Noe and Premeaux, 2002).

108

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

ACTIVITY 5.7

Figure 5.5: Test score distribution with hypothetical cutoff

Based on Figure 5.5, candidates from Quadrants 1 and 2 will be hired

to work. What will the effect be if the acceptance cutoff is moved to
the left to increase the number of eligible candidates when the
number of manpower is still insufficient?

(c)

Final Decision
After going through the pre-selection process, a candidate who is qualified
will be referred to sections or units where there are vacancies to be filled
up. The manager or supervisor in these sections or units will interview the
candidate and decide whether or not he or she can fill the vacancy. The
human resource department is responsible for delivering the result of the
candidates application, as well as providing work details of the job if the
candidate is offered the job.

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

109

EXERCISE 5.3
Fill in the Blanks
(a)
(b)

Selection
Multiple hurdle model

(c)
(d)

Aptitude test
Validity

1.

_______________ The process of selecting a qualified

individual to fill a vacancy at present and in the future.

2.

_______________ A continuous strategy whereby only

applicants who obtain the highest scores in the preliminary
test are allowed to proceed to the next test.

3.

_______________ Measures an individuals ability to learn or

acquire new skills.

4.

_______________ How far a test or selection procedure

measures a persons characteristics.

Multiple Choice Questions

1.

Generally, the selection procedure is the responsibility of the

human resource department. However, the decision to hire
someone to work in a unit or section is made by
__________________.
A. Operations personnel
B. The department manager
C. The staff manager
D. A management consultant

2.

To save cost, _________________ is performed as a final step

in the selection process.
A. An interview
B.
A background check
C. A job test
D. A medical check up

3.

A tool to measure mental abilities such as intelligence,

eloquence, ability to calculate and ability to rationalise is the
__________________.
A. Personality test
B.
Achievement test
C. Cognitive test
D. Evaluation centre

110

4.

TOPIC 5

SELECTION

Even though every step in the selection process is important, the

most critical is the decision to _________________.
A. Accept or reject candidates
B.
Implement a job test
C. Use application forms
D. Check references

Essay Question
1.

What is meant by the term criterion as it is used in selecting

personnel? List some examples of criteria used for jobs that you
know of.

The selection process is supposed to give reliable and valid information about
an applicant. An interview is one of the methods used to obtain information
about an applicant.

The interview method can be used together with application form,

biographical information blanks, references, background check, cognitive test
and job sample test.

A job test is more objective than an interview and is able to give a wider
behaviour sample.

Each type of test has a specific purpose, such as the work knowledge and
work sample tests which are designed to determine whether a person
requires training or not.

A variety of methods can be used in the interview process. An interview can

be performed structurally or non-structurally, as well as on a one-on-one
basis or with a panel.

In the process of deciding whether a candidate will be offered a post, factors

that are taken into account are what the candidate can do, and what he or she
will be able to do. The recruitment section may use a clinical or statistical
approach.

TOPIC 5

Biographical Information Blank (BIB)

Reliability

Employment test

Validity

Graphalogy

SELECTION

111