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It is important to realize that there are correlating relations between the frequencyand time-domain performances in linear system so that time-domain properties of
the system can be predicted based on the frequencydomain characteristics. With
these in mind, we shall study the frequency response analysis of control systems.
It is well known from linear system theory that, when the input to a linear time
invariant system is sinusoidal with amplitude R and frequency o, i.e.,
r(t) R sin ot
the steady-state output of the system, y(t), will be a sinusoid with the same
frequency o, but possibly with different amplitude and phase; i.e.
Let the transfer function of a SISO system be M(s); the output Y(s) and the input R(s) are related
through
Y(s) M(s)R(s)
Y(j) j) Rj)
By writing Y(j) and M(j) as (similar expression for Rj) also):
Y ( j) Y ( j) Y ( j)
M ( j) M ( j) M ( j)
Y ( j) M ( j) R( j)
and the phase relation:
Y ( j) M ( j) R( j)
Thus, for the input and output signals described by equations (6.1) and (6.2),
Y M ( jo ) R
M ( jo )
Thus, by knowing the transfer function M(s), the frequency response of the system can be
obtained.
The frequency response of the loop transfer function G(s)H(s) [G(s) if H(s) is unity]
can be plotted in several ways. The two commonly used representations are:
a. Bode diagram, or Logarithmic plot.
b. Polar plot, or Nyquist plot.
A Bode diagram consists of two graphs. One is a plot of the logarithm of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase angle;
both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale.
The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of G(j) is 20 log |G(j)|,
where the base of the logarithm is 10. The unit used in this representation is the
decibel (dB). The curves are drawn on a semilog paper, using the log scale for
frequency and linear scale for either magnitude (in dB) or phase angle (degrees).
For s :
GjHj=j
For s :
GjHj=j
-n
The Bode magnitude plots are a straight line in semi log coordinate. The slope
of the line is 20n dB/decade i.e. the magnitude change by 20n dB for the
frequency change of 10 times. The straight line passes through 0 dB at = 1. The
0
phase angle () of jis constant and equal to 90 .The Bode plots are shown in
Fig. 6.2.
GjHj= + jT
Magnitude:
= 20 log10 + T ] (dB)
(6.11)
To obtain asymptotic approximation we consider both very large and very small values of
. For low
T >> 1,
20 log 1
2
T
20 logT dB
At =1/T, log magnitude = 0 dB while at =10/T, log magnitude = 20 dB. Thus, the value of
20
logT
by two straight-line asymptotes, one a straight line at 0 dB for the frequency range
0 < < 1/T and the other a straight line with slope 20 dB/decade for the
frequency range 1/T < < . The frequency,
=1/T, at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency or break frequency.
20 log
1
20
1 j
log1 jT
T
= (phase angle of
tan T
(1+jT).
For low frequencies such that /n << 1, the log magnitude becomes 20 log 1 = 0
dB. The low frequency asymptote is thus a horizontal line at 0 dB. For high
frequencies such that /n >> 1, the logdB. The equation for the high frequency asymptote is a
magnitude becomes
20 log
40 log
The frequency n is the corner frequency. The two asymptotes just derived are
independent of the value of . Fig. 6.5 shows exact curves with the straight-line
asymptotes and the exact phase angle curves.
G(s)
1
Soluti
on:
G(s)
, G( j)
s 2
j2
s 2
2 j
1
1
Magnitude: 20 log G( j) 20 log 20log
2
G( j) tan
2
1
2
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
To: Y(1)
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function as a product of the basic factors discussed above.
Draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper slopes between the
corner frequencies considering all the basic factors together. The exact
curve, which lies very close to the asymptotic curve, can be obtained by
adding contributions from all the factors and proper corrections.
Phase-angle curve can be drawn by adding the phase-angle curves of individual factors.
The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(j) is a plot of the magnitude of
G(j) versus the phase angle of G(j) on polar coordinates as is varied from zero
to infinity. Note that, in polar plots, a positive (negative) phase angle is measured
counterclockwise (clockwise) from the positive real axis. The polar plot is very often
called the Nyquist plot in control system engineering. An example of such a plot
is shown in Fig. 6.7. Each point on the polar plot of G(j) represents the terminal
point of a vector at a particular value of . In the polar plot, it is important to show
the frequency graduation of the locus.
Figure 6.8: (a) Polar plot of 1/(1+jT) ; (b)Same plot in X-Y plane.
The polar plot of the transfer function 1+jT is simply the upper half of the straight
line passing through the point (1, 0) in the complex plane and parallel to the
imaginary axis as shown in Fig. 6.7.
G( j )H ( j )
12j/
j/
s /
The low and high frequency portions of the polar plot of the following transfer function
GjH ( j)
12j/
2
1 j/
n
n
lim GjH ( j)
0
10
an
d
Thus, the high frequency portion is tangent to the negative real axis. The polar
plots are shown in Fig. 6.8.
tan
n
2
n
j/
n
12j/ n 2
2
j/
n
GjH ( j)
for > 0.
12j/
1 2 j
n
n
The low-frequency portion of the curve is:
lim GjH ( j) 10
10
s(s 1)(s 2)
Soluti
on:
G( j)
10
j( j1)(
j2)
10
G( j)
( 2 1) ( 2 2)
G( j) 90
tan
tan
The Cauchy criterion (from complex analysis) states that when taking a closed
contour in the complex plane, and mapping it through a complex function G(s), the
number of times, N, that the plot of G(s) encircles the origin is equal to the number
of zeros, Z, of G(s) enclosed by the frequency contour minus the number of poles,
P, of G(s) enclosed by the frequency contour.
N=ZP
Encirclements of the origin are counted as positive if they are in the same direction
as the original closed contour or negative if they are in the opposite direction.
If 1+G(s)H(s) encircles the origin, then G(s)H(s) will enclose the point -1. Since we
are interested in the closed-loop stability, we want to know if there are any
closed-loop poles (zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)) in the right-half plane.
Z is the number of right hand plane poles for the closed loop
system (or zeros of 1+G(s)H(s))
>
>
A feedak otol sste is stale if ad ol if the ue of outeclockwise encirclements of the critical point (-1,0) by the GH polar plot is equal to
the number of poles of GH ith positie eal pats. (Nyquist Stability Criterion
Definition)
Example:
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
Gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the
system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater
changes in system parameters before becoming unstable in closed loop. Phase
margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to make a closed
loop system unstable.
Bode plot is a very useful graphical tool for the analysis and design of linear control systems.
The gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at the point
corresponding to
the feue that gies us a phase of the phase oss oe feue, p).
L(s)
2500
s(s 5)(s
50)
From the provided Bode diagram, find the GM and PM and corresponding frequencies.
Solution:
Fig. 6.14 illustrates PM and GM of a stable and unstable system in Bode diagrams.
Figure 6.14: Phase and Gain margins for stable and unstable systems.
Phase Margin, M
CLOSED LOOP
The change in open-loop gain,
expressed in dB, required at
-180 to make the closed- loop
system unstable. A good range
is
2<GM<5
to 6dB <
The
change (equivalent
in the open-loop
phase shift required at unity
gain to make the closed- loop
unstable. Good range 30 < PM
<
60 degrees.
quantitative
measures of stability.
systems
with
large
changes
parameter
in
before
gain
and
withstand
system
becoming
unstable.
related to root locus, in that
systems with poles farther from
the
imaginary
axis
have