Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
Forces (AQA) SUmmary......................................................................................................................1
Terms used for force systems............................................................................................2
Forces and Motion...........................................................................................................................3
The fundamental forces...............................................................................................................3
Newtons laws of motion......................................................................................................................5
Newtons first law............................................................................................................................5
Superposition of forces......................................................................................................6
Free body diagrams.....................................................................................................................8
Newton's second law......................................................................................................................10
Mass..........................................................................................................................................11
Inertial mass.....................................................................................................................11
Mass and Weight..................................................................................................................13
Free fall............................................................................................................................13
Gravitation Field Strength....................................................................................................13
Statics........................................................................................................................................15
Newton's third law.........................................................................................................................16
Connected Bodies.................................................................................................................18
Friction...........................................................................................................................................19
Friction on an inclined plane...........................................................................................23
Density......................................................................................................................................24
Pressure..........................................................................................................................................24
Pascal's law or Pascal's principle..........................................................................................25
Buoyancy/Upthrust........................................................................................................................26
Archimedes Principle...............................................................................................................26
Hydrometer...........................................................................................................................27
Viscosity....................................................................................................................................28
Stokess Law.........................................................................................................................28
Fluid resistance: Drag...............................................................................................................29
Terminal velocity..................................................................................................................29
Moments.............................................................................................................................................31
Levers...................................................................................................................................31
The principle of moments.....................................................................................................32
Couple.......................................................................................................................................33
Centre of mass/gravity...................................................................................................................34
Conditions for Equilibrium............................................................................................................36
Ladder Problems.......................................................................................................................37
Stability.....................................................................................................................................38
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Interaction
Strong
Current theory
Quantum
chromodynamics
(QCD)
Electromagnetic
Quantum
electrodynamics
(QED)
Weak
Electroweak Theory
Gravitational
General Relativity
(GR)
Mediators
Relative
strength
gluons
1038
photons
1036
W and Z
1025
bosons
gravitons
1
(hypothetical)
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Long-distance Range
behaviour
(m)
1015
1/r2
1 m
e
r
1/r2
W,Z
1018
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Superposition of forces
Forces have to be added vectorially, e.g.
The vector diagram adds the vectors, tail-to-head, the resultant being from the initial point to the
last. The fact that these form a closed polygon indicates that the forces are in equilibrium, i.e. there
is no net force.
D
W
L
T
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Net/Resultant force:
F i=F
This is for a particle; for a rigid body we can have rotation, despite F 0 , and for a non-rigid
body we can have deformation, i.e. change in size/shape, e.g. spring.
We can resolve forces into perpendicular (orthogonal) components - independent of each other,
e.g. resolve the weight (force) into a component down the slope and one normal, i.e. at 90 to it:
NB. Force causes a change in motion, not motion itself.
Excursus
Inertial Frames of Reference:
Consider being on roller skates in an accelerating train: a force seems to act even though, in
absolute terms, there is no force. Similarly, in a lift accelerating upwards we feel as if we are
heavier, i.e. greater gravitational force. Einsteins Principle of Equivalence was used to equate
acceleration and gravity in his general theory of relativity.
An inertial frame of reference is one in which N1 holds (i.e. a non-accelerating frame of reference).
N1 is also known as the law of inertia. If frame A is inertial and frame B is moving with constant
velocity wrt. frame A then B is also an inertial frame of reference.
A rotating frame of reference is non-inertial, e.g. cycling in a circle, shown below. Note how there
does seem to be a resultant moment, yet the cyclist does not topple over this is because it is a
non-inertial frame, so we cannot use the normal Newtonian analysis from this diagram.
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Action-reaction pairs should never be shown (since they act on different bodies).
Several such diagrams may be required (for the different bodies).
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Force is a vector: we resolve in two perpendicular directions: horizontal and vertical; parallel and
perpendicular; radial and tangential.
The normal force is not always equal to the weight.
Q. If the mass of an object is 2.5 [kg], what is the component of its weight down an inclined slope
of 30? (Use g=9.8 ms-2)
A. 2.5g sin 30 = 12.25=12 [N] (2.s.f.)
Q. If the object moves with constant velocity, what is the frictional force up the slope?
A. Constant velocity means no acceleration, thus no resultant force (N1), so frictional force =12 [N]
Q. What is the normal force?
A. No resultant force perpendicular to the slope so N=2.5g cos 30=21 [N] (2 s.f.)
NB. This is less than the weight.
An astronaut in orbiting shuttle is apparently weightless since he/she has same acceleration. as
shuttle, not because he/she is outside gravitational field.
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dp
F = dt
p
t
For constant mass, if a net external force acts on a body, the rate of change of momentum is:
F = ddtp =
d ( mv )
dv
=m
=m a
dt
dt
N.B. N2 is more general than F=ma since it includes situations involving a change of mass.
N.B. The acceleration is always in the same direction as the resultant force.
N2 enables us to define 1 [N] as the force required to give a mass of 1 [kg] an acceleration of
1 [ms-2].
Q. A trolley of mass 500 [g] travelling at 2 [ms-1] is brought to a stop by a constant frictional force
in 3 [s]. Calculate the frictional force.
A. v=u+at 0=2 + a(3) a=-2/3; F=ma=0.5(-2/3)=-0.33 [N], i.e. 0.33 [N] in the opposite
direction to the velocity.
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The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.
Strictly, F ma so F=kma, but in S.I. units: kg, m/s2, N, k=1 so F=ma
Components obey N2: F =ma F x =ma x , F y =ma y etc.
N.B. ma is not a force itself !
NB. Unlike the ticker-timer trolleys, here the motion is constrained to the 'grooves', so it is more
accurate.
Impulse: This is F dt or <F>t. Units: [Ns]
N2 implies that this must be p.
So: impulse = change in momentum. Both impulse and momentum are vector quantities.
Mass
This is the amount of matter (atoms/molecules) in a substance.
There are three major states or phases of matter: solid, liquid, gas. Solids have the strongest 'bonds'
between their constituent particles (atoms/molecules). Liquids and gases are fluids, being able to
flow.
A gas will always fill a container - it has very weak bonds; its particles move very quickly.
In all three states, the vibration of particles increases with temperature. When at certain critical
temperatures, the substances changes state. These are melting/freezing point and boiling point.
We can distinguish inertial mass from gravitational mass:
Inertial mass
F
. This is a quantitative measure of inertia, the resistance of an object to change its
a
motion. S.I. UNIT: the kilogram (kg)
m=
cf. definition of the Newton: 1 [N] is the net force that gives an acceleration of 1 [ms-2] to a body of
mass 1 kg.
This can be compared with gravitational mass, linked with weight: W=mg.
Weight is the force on a mass due to gravity, so N2: w=mg, where g is the gravitational field
strength, about 9.8 [N kg-1] on the surface of the earth; on the Moon, it is 1.60 [N kg-1] and on
Jupiter 26.0 [N kg-1].
e.g. a 5 [kg] mass weighs 5 x 9.8 = 49 [N] on the Earth's surface. The mass here is gravitational
mass. All experiments (and theory) indicate that gravitational and inertial mass are equivalent.
Thus, since F=ma, W=mg means that g should also be the gravitational acceleration at the surface
of the earth: 9.81 [ms-2] (3 s.f.).
Typical forces: (on earth) weight of apple 1 [N], weight of person 500 [N], rocket engines 1 [MN].
Simple accelerometer: e.g. a mass hanging from the roof of q car, making an angle with the
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a
vertical, tan = , so at 450, a=g.
g
Our experience of weight is actually based on forces that balance it, e.g. bathroom scales:
N=Normal force from scales
(molecular-electromagnetic)
w=weight=mg
Equilibrium:
N=mg
Q. A person of weight 600 [N] stands on bathroom scales in a lift moving up at constant 2 [ms-1].
Draw a free body diagram.
What is the weight shown on scales (the normal force)?
A. 600 [N]
Q. The lift now accelerates upwards at 3ms-2. What is the weight shown on scales?
A. N-mg=ma, so N-600=60(3), so N=780 [N] (using g=10 [N/kg])
Q. The lift now 'falls' because the cable breaks. What is the weight shown on scales?
A. 0 [N] (N-mg=ma=-mg)
This is apparent 'weightlessness'. This effect is used for training astronauts - they 'float' in a plane
that temporarily undergoes near free-fall.
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MassandWeight
Mass is a scalar and is additive: the concept of mass characterizes the quantity of matter in a body.
mass is a measure of inertia whereas weight, a vector, is a measure of force: e.g. a large stone is just
as hard to throw on the moon (F-ma), but easier to lift (F=mg).
Weight depends on location, mass does not.
Weight w=mg
1 [kg] has a weight of 9.8 [N] at the surface of the earth; here, m is the gravitational mass and g is
the gravitational field strength, the force exerted on a unit mass in a particular region. g varies,
increasing the mass of the earth (or moon /star etc.) and decreasing with the distance from the the
object. On the moon, g=1.62 [N kg-1], so a 1 [kg] has a weight of 1.6 [N] at the surface of the moon.
Experiment confirms the gravitational mass to be the same as inertial mass.
N.B. The terms "mass" and "weight" and their units are often used loosely, e.g. a ship of weight
40 000 tonnes.
Q. Explain why a beam balance really measures relative mass rather than weight (unlike a digital
balance) - consider weighing objects using these instruments on the moon.
A. On e.g. the Moon, the beam will still be balanced for equal masses, since the weights are equal
(though 1/6 that of their weight on Earth), whereas a digital/spring balance will show the true
(reduced) weight.
Free fall
Proof that acceleration is independent of mass in free fall:
F=mg=ma a=g , independent of the mass.
The final speed is given from the uniform motion equations by: v 2=2 g h v= 2 g h
Task: Show that this can also be obtained by the Principle of Conservation of Energy.
GravitationFieldStrength
This is defined as the force per unit mass: g =
F
[Nkg-1].
m
At the surface of the earth, g=9.8 [Nkg-1]. Also, gravitational acceleration uses the same symbol but
different units: g=9.8 [ms-2].
Show that these are equivalent:
N2: F=W=ma=mg
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Statics
Here the forces are in equilibrium AND there is no motion (in the rest frame).
The total (net) force is zero.
Use vectors to resolve forces into components.
Q. hanging picture; simplify (model) as two strings holding up the weight (of the picture) at the
centre of gravity of the net.
If the mass of the picture is 500 [g] and the strings are symmetrically placed at an angle of 20
above the horizontal, calculate the tension in each string.
A.
W
0
Resolving vertically: 2Tsin20 =W= 0 .5g T=
0 . 5g
=7 . 2 [ N ] .
2sin20 0
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N.B. The 'normal' upward force of the table on the book is a 'reaction' force to the downward
electromagnetic force of the book on the table. It is NOT a reaction to the weight of the book
(different types of force). The reaction to the weight is an equal and opposite force on the earth:
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Q. A car of mass 1 tonne pulls a trailer of mass 200 kg with constant velocity. If the frictional force
on the trailer is 30 N, calculate a) the tension in the tow-bar, b) the tractive/motive force of the car's
engine if the frictional force on the car is also 30 [N];
A. a) Free body diagram for trailer (only) with N1 and N2:
T-30=0 so T=30 [N]
b) Free body diagram for car (only) with N1 and N2:
F-30-T=0 so F-60=0 so F=60[N]
Q. If the tractive force is now increased to 100 [N], but the frictional forces remain unchanged,
calculate the acceleration of the car.
A. Consider the whole system (car + trailer): 100-60=1200a so a=40/1200=0.033 [ms-2]
For equilibrium:
F =0 ;
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ConnectedBodies
(Connected bodies are not really part of syllabus yet the situation describe below is often used with
light gates and trolleys).
Stevinus' proof of combining resolving forces see Adams & Allday p.52
A rope/rod of negligible mass [or in a non-gravitational (horizontal) equilibrium situation] may be
considered to transmit undiminished the force of the agent. At equilibrium, the tension in a rope is
equal at both ends and throughout the rope. (The tension at the top of a 'heavy' rope is greater than
that at the bottom).
Q. Two masses are connected by a light, inextensible string over a pulley with negligible friction.
Find an expression for the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the string.
A.
m2 g
; and sub. for a in the first equation:
m1+ m 2
m1 m 2 g
m1+ m2
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Friction
Tribology is the study of friction. Normal and frictional forces are both contact forces, unlike
gravitational force which involves action at-a-distance. These contact forces are electromagnetic
forces acting between the atoms/molecules of the surfaces in contact.
Friction always opposes relative motion (but cannot cause relative motion)
Friction/resistance/drag forces cannot be greater than the forces they oppose
Frictional/resistive forces convert kinetic energy into (waste) heat, i.e. energy is dissipated.
For tyres/wheels, it is the forward friction reaction to the friction backwards (by the engine on the
wheels) that provides the motive force. Although then, there is a sense here that friction causes
motion, it causes no relative motion since tyre and road are stationary as the wheels roll.
Friction is a resistive force. It is a contact force between surfaces for solids, whereas for fluids
(gases/liquids) it is more complicated, depending on complex molecular forces. Friction between
surfaces is due to the microscopic roughness of the surfaces (hence friction is a property of TWO
surfaces - one cannot talk of the friction coefficient for steel but for steel on steel, steel on rubber,
etc.). Surface friction can be reduced by lubrication/lubricants; these liquids keep the surfaces from
making contact yet permit motion, e.g. oil.
For solids:
In problems/questions 'smooth' means 'negligible friction' and 'rough' means friction has to be
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G.F.Farrelly
considered.
Static friction: here there is no relative motion (e.g. wheels, normally).
Friction increases with the applied force up to a maximum: f S s N , limiting friction, where s
is the coefficient of static friction.
The maximum (limiting) frictional force is the force just before it starts to slide.
Q. An object of mass 4 [kg] is just about to slide when a force of 2 [N] is applied horizontally.
Calculate the coefficient of static friction.
A. fs=N so 2=(4g) so =0.05
Q. A force of 1.5 [N] is now applied. What is the frictional force?
A. 1.5 [N] (friction is just sufficient to oppose motion)
For a body just about to slide down an inclined plane, angle
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Q. A 500 N crate is dragged across a floor with a horizontal rope at a constant velocity of 4 m/s.
The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.40. Find the tension in the rope.
A. FR=kN and N=W=500 so FR=0.40 x 500 = 200 [N]
The rope is now angled at 30 above the horizontal. Find the new tension.
Parallel:
T cos 30 - FR = 0
so T cos 30 - 0.40 N = 0
Perp:
T sin 30 + N - 500 = 0
Solve simultaneously (e.g. by substitution): T=188 [N]. NB the normal force here is less than the
weight.
As soon as sliding starts, the frictional force usually decreases.
Stick-slip situations: static and kinetic friction quickly alternate, e.g. violin bow.
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Materials
Steel on Steel
0.74
0.57
Aluminum on Steel
0.61
0.47
Copper on Steel
0.53
0.36
Rubber on Concrete
1.0
0.8
Wood on Wood
0.25-0.5
0.2
Glass on Glass
0.94
0.4
0.14
0.1
0.15
0.06
Ice on Ice
0.1
0.03
Teflon on Teflon
0.04
0.04
0.01
0.003
Rolling friction: Magnitude of frictional force for constant speed with rolling: , where is the
coefficient of rolling friction, ~ around 0.002 for steel wheels on rails; 0.02 for rubber tyres on
concrete, so less friction on trains than lorries.
Q. A tow truck of mass 4 [t] pulls a car of mass 1.5 [t] at a uniform velocity of 340 [km h-1].
The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.7 for both the car and the truck wheels on the road
surface. Calculate the tension in the tow-bar and the tractive force of the truck.
A.
N1
F1
340
km/h
N2
F2
4t
1.5 t
T
1.5 g
4g
NB. The tension is constant throughout the bar; the truck and car move with the same velocity since
rigidly connected.
Vertically: N 1=1500g=15000[ N ] , N 2=4000g=40000 [ N]
N2 for the truck:
F F 2T =4000 a F F 2T =0 F 0.7 N 2 T =0 F 0.7( 40000)T =0
(1)
N2 for the car: T F 1=1500 a T F 1=0 T 0.7 N 1=0T 0.7 (15000)=0 T =10 500[ N ]
Substituting for T in Error: Reference source not found: F 28 00010500=0 F =38500[ N ]
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W sin 20 = FR
W cos 20 = N
(1)
(2)
200
200
N
b) Constant velocity means equilibrium (N1):
Parallel:
F-FR -W sin 20 =0 (1)
Perp:
W cos 20 = N
(2)
Sub. W=49 [N] and FR = 16.75... [N] in (1) gives F = 34 [N]
(2 s.f.)
FR
200
200
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Density
m
(for a homogeneous material). It depends on the material, not
V
on its shape (cf. resistivity and resistance).
Density may depend on temperature and pressure. The above equation represents average density.
This is mass per unit volume:
Specific gravity or relative density is the ratio of the density to that of water at 4C (1000 [kg/m3]).
NB. 1 [g cm-3 ]= 1000 [kg m-3]
Recall that V(sphere)=4/3 r3
Pressure
F
. It is a scalar quantity.
A
Unit: Pascal: 1 [Pa]=1 [Nm-2]; 1 [bar] = 105 [Pa];
Atmospheric pressure: pa , 1 atmosphere: 1 [atm] = 1.013 x 105 [Pa]=1.013 [bar]=1013 [mbars]
Pressure is defined as p
More force gives more pressure; Less area gives more pressure
Soa small area, e.g. drawing pin/knife/stiletto exerts more pressure than the same force over a
larger area, e.g. slipper, blunt knife, skis, snow shoes, caterpillar tracks.
Demo: girl in stilettos compared with same girl in flat shoes - impression in clay.
Demo: weight on drawing pin above soft wood compared to weight on wood.
e.g. A young woman of 70 kg mass wears flat shoes with a total heel area of 10 cm2 .
a) What is the pressure she exerts in N/cm2 ?
b) She now wears stilettos with a heel area of only 1 cm2. What is the pressure she now exerts in
N/cm2?
Pressure is more generally used for fluids. In a fluid the force acts perpendicularly to any
F
cross-section, so p
A
Pressure (under gravity) increases with depth: p=gh.
Proof:
p= p 2 p 1=
F mg Vg Ahg
=
=
=
= gh
A A
A
A
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Q.
What is the pressure at the bottom of a tube of water of depth 10 [m]?
A.
p=gh=1000x9.81x10=9.81 x 104 , i.e. around 100 kPa, i.e. 1 atm. So air pressure will
support about 10m of water or 76 cm of Hg [Derive this from p=gh].
Pascal'slaworPascal'sprinciple
the pressure exerted anywhere in a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout
the fluid.
i.e. the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the
fluid and the walls of the container.
Liquids are virtually incompressible. Use is made of this in hydraulics in which a small force on a
small area is transmitted to a large area to cause a large force, e.g. car brakes.
Q. If an input force of 12 [N] acts on an area of 0.01 [m2], what is the output
force where the area is is 0.06 [m2] ?
A. pressure is constant throughout (ignoring differences in depth), so
p=12/0.01=1 200 [Pa], so the output force is 1200 x 0.06=72 [N]
F1 F2
(Or simply take the ratios:
)
=
A1 A2
Demo: hydraulic lift
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Buoyancy/Upthrust
Less dense objects will float in/on fluids that are denser, e.g. cork on water, oil on water, hot air in
cold air, helium in air (balloons). A ship floats because its average density is less than that of the sea
water, although the density of the steel is greater than that of the water.
Archimedes Principle
When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force
[upthrust] on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
The reason for this is due to the difference in pressure in a fluid between the bottom and top of an
object submerged in the fluid:
Pressure at top= p1=gh1
p= g h
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Hydrometer
A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the relative density (or specific gravity) of liquids;
that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water.
A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with
mercury or lead to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container, often
a graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The
point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted. Hydrometers
usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be read directly.
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Viscosity
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid. A 'viscous fluid' tends to cling to a solid and flow less
readily, e.g. oil, honey. There is a thin boundary layer of near-stationary fluid in contact with the
surface (i.e. moving with the surface). By considering laminar motion between parallel plates it is
clear that there is a continuously increasing shear
strain as the motion continues.
StokessLaw
The viscous (drag) force, F, exerted on sphere, radius r, speed v, with laminar flow (i.e. fairly
slow), moving through a fluid with coefficient of viscosity, , is given by Stokess Law (after
George Gabriel Stokes, Irish): F =6 rv (very difficult to derive - requires Navier-Stokes
equations). Note that this is of the form F=kv. Also, F r and F .
Expt. using glycerol and magnetic ball bearings with light gates or simply time with stopwatch for
equal intervals (assume it reaches terminal velocity a fairly short distance/time after being dropped);
try this for different radii - use Vernier callipers to measure diameter (see my Practical worksheet)
NB. Viscosity decreases with temperature for liquids over a reasonable range
Expt: time taken for small glass bead to sink to bottom of measuring cylinder filled with Radox
(bubble bath)/ washing-up liquid heated to different temperatures (by immersion in beaker of hot
water).
Test whether the viscosity follows an exponential decay law: = 0 exp (bT ) , where b is a
1
constant. Do this by taking logs: ln =ln 0bT , and (cf. supra), v kv 1=kv1
0 bT , so a
plot of time t (=d/v) vs. T should be linear with a negative gradient, if viscosity follows a negative
exponential temperature dependence.
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Terminalvelocity
mg
k
N.B. With air resistance, heavy objects fall more rapidly than light ones !
Air (etc) resistance on a moving body is reduced by streamlining the shape of the body.
N.B. drag reduces both range and max. height for projectile motion
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k / m t
] (using N2 with calculus), a ge ( k / m) t
In fact, v =v t [1e
Acceleration graph
k is greater for a parachute (greater surface area - moves more air out of the way, so more
resistance) than for the human body, thus giving a lower terminal velocity:
The terminal velocity of a skydiver in a belly to earth free-fall position is about 55 [m/s] (195 km/h
or 120 mph). This is reached after about 10 [s].
With a normal parachute, the terminal velocity of a human is about 10 [m/s] (35 km/h or 20 mph).
Animation: http://waowen.screaming.net/revision/force&motion/skydiver.htm
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Moments
The turning effect of a force about an axis through O is the moment of a force. If rotation results, it
is often described as torque.
Units: Nm; N.B. [Nm, NOT Joules because moment is a vector 9cross product) not a scalar like
work].
Convention used: anticlockwise rotation = positive sense of moment.
Perpendicular distance, l, of a line of action of force F from axis is the lever/moment arm.
Moment = force x perpendicular distance of line of action from force.
M=Fl=Fr sin , where r is distance from axis and is the angle between F and r.
can be used, rather than M, depending on whether the term torque or moment is being used.
Work is done by a turning force only when the object rotates. It can be shown that the work done is:
W=.
Levers
Examples: spanners, scissors, wheelbarrows.
These can reduce the force (effort) required by increasing the
distance from the pivot/fulcrum to obtain the same moment.
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Theprincipleofmoments
(UK; the lever principle):
In equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments is equal to the sum of clockwise moments.
0.
If these moments are not equal, there is a resultant moment, thus the system will rotate (if free to do
so).
If the lines of action of the forces pass through a single point, there is no resultant moment, thus the
forces are in equilibrium, e.g. a ladder leaning against a wall of negligible friction (so the resultant
force here is the normal force) and standing on a rough surface (so here there is a resultant force due
to the normal vertical force and the frictional force parallel to the ground). The angle of the resultant
force at the ground can be found from this diagram:
It is easier mathematically to take moments about an axis through which several forces act as the
moments of those forces must be zero. Similarly, if there are unknown forces, take moments about
axes through which they act.
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Q. Find d.
A. 6d =2x0.25+5x0.50, so d = 0.50 [m]
Q. Find the force at the fulcrum, N
A. N=6+2+5=13 [N]
Q. If d1=0.1 [m] and d2=0.4 [m], find the forces at the frictionless supports, given that the uniform
beam weighs 500 [N].
N1
d1
N2
G
d2
mg
A.
Couple
Two collinear forces acting in opposite directions may give tension or thrust.
A pair of non-collinear forces equal in size, opposite in direction acting on a body form a couple:
F
d
O
F
G.F.Farrelly
Centre of mass/gravity
This is the mass-weighted average position of particles:
r CM =
mi r i .
mi
dp
;
dt
0 (by N3)
When a body or a collection of particles is acted on by external forces, the centre of mass moves as
though all the mass were concentrated at that point and as if it were acted on by a net force equal
to the sum of the external forces on the system.
It is the point through which any external force will produce translation but no rotation.
Although we often regard the moon as orbiting the earth, with the earth stationary (i.e. using the
earth's frame of reference), in fact the earth and moon move in orbits around their centre of mass
(the barycentre).
int
Centroid areas/volumes are equally distributed about this point (geometric centre): r =
ri
n
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G.F.Farrelly
mi r i
mi
Q. What is the CM if two masses of 2 [kg] and 3 [kg] are placed 4 [cm] and 6 [cm] respectively
from the origin along a line?
A. M x = m i x i 5 x =2(4)+3( 6) x =5.2[cm]
Centre of gravity the point about which weight is equally distributed: r CG =
where W is the magnitude of the weight of each point.
It is the point about which the weight of the body is held to act.
W i ri ,
Wi
If g has the same value throughout the body (i.e. a uniform gravitational field), then the centre of
gravity is identical to the centre of mass. Since this is true for bodies on the surface of the earth, the
terms centre of gravity and centre of mass are usually used interchangeably.
The centre of gravity of a homogeneous body is at its centroid.
At equilibrium, the centre of gravity (CG) is always directly above/below the point of
support/suspension. If supported at several points then it must lie within the area defined by these
points.
To find the CG experimentally: suspend the body and draw a vertical line from point of suspension,
then suspend it from another point. The intersection of the lines is the CG. More realistically,
suspension from several points determines a region in which the CG lies.
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This implies that the forces lines of action meet: concurrent forces
Static equilibrium: rigid body at rest, cf. rigid body in uniform translational motion (without
rotation)
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Q. A point object is acted on by a 6[N] force at 30 to the x-axis, and an 8 [N] force along the
x-axis. What third force is required to maintain equilibrium?
A.
tan 1
3
... )=12.8
( 13.19
3 s.f.
So the required third force is 13.5 [N] at 12.8 below the negative x-direction.
(This is why it is so important to draw a diagram)
Ladder Problems
Here we have to consider the weight of the
ladder (usually at the midpoint - i.e. uniform
ladder), the normal forces at the wall and the
ground, the weight of the person on the ladder
and the frictional force at the ground (and
possible at the wall):
For equilibrium, the forces are in equilibrium
and the moments are in equilibrium.
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Stability
Toppling occurs when the centre of gravity falls outside an objects base; a low centre of gravity
and/or a wide base ensure greater stability. The angle at which the object is about to topple is called
the critical angle.
Neutral equilibrium: the body can be moved to another position: the centre of gravity is at the same
height: there is no resultant moment.
Stable equilibrium: the body returns to its initial position due to the resultant moment as the CG.
moves.
Unstable equilibrium: the body moves away from its initial position rapidly, due to the resultant
moment as the CG. moves
A plumb-line will show true vertical because otherwise there would be a moment which would
move the weight until it is beneath the point of suspension.
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