Algorismus of “Hauksbók”

An Old Norse text of 1310 on Hindu-Arabic Numeration and Calculation

by

Otto B. Bekken, Agder University College,

Kristiansand, Norway

The Hindu art of Reckoning, as the Arabs called it, became known in Europe in the 12th
century. The texts in Latin later became known as algorisms, from the latinization of the name of
Al-Khwarizmi, a scholar living in Baghdad ca. 825 AD.
In the Nordic countries the algorism in “Hauksbók” from early 14th century is the oldest
reckoning text we know, which uses the Hindu-Arabic numerals. It is written in the Old Norse
language, being one of the few algorisms of that period in the vernacular.
In joint work [8] with Marit Christoffersen from our Nordic Department we have made a
translation with commentaries into modern Norwegian. Some excerpts may be of interest to study
for prospective arithmetic teachers. Today we do not have to argue for the teaching of numeracy in
school, but we will here briefly discuss:

Why study old texts?

When looking at Egyptian papyri or Babylonian tablets, it is easy to get lost in the artistic
features of the signs, but what is really useful mathematically, is to look at the basic principles
behind a number system, and computations in it.
In our schools we teach positional arithmetic, often just factually presented as eternal truths.
If a book says that they have some history, it is often said that it is ”the best" system without any
discussion of historical alternatives. To understand what ”the best" means, you really have
to know what other possibilities there are, and to emphasize differences in the basic principles.
Grouping according to a base, cypherization instead of just repetition of signs, additive,
subtractive, multiplicative or positional features, floating point versus fixed point arithmetic, are all
distinctive principles which in my opinion a teacher should know. To look at how these have
developed historically helps to understand the concepts involved in our system. These aspects are
elaborated more in my [6], especially on computations in different systems. It may also be useful
to see that some of these older systems from a pedagogical point of view may be simpler. They do
not rely so much on our mental capacity. Here, however, we will only look at one particular text.

The Hindu-Arabic numerals

The numerals in “Hauksbók” are called "Arabic" by P.A.Munch [23] , as was quite common
in the l9th century. However, our numerals can be traced back to the Brahmi symbols, and the
Arabic scholars referred to them as Hindu numerals, cf. Al-Khwarizmi [1], Al-Uqlidisi [3] and Ibn
Labban [17]. The historian Al-Masudi (943) says, [14] p.97:

A congress of sages at the command of the Creator Brahma invented the nine figures ...

Earlier, in 662, Severus Sebokt in Syria had said, [25] p.l67:

I will omit all discussion of the science of the Hindus,... discoveries that are
more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians; their valuable
methods of calculation; and their computing that surpasses description. I wish
only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs.
The oldest extant source in Arabic today is Al-Uqlidisi's Al-Hisab al-Hindi written in Damaskus in
953 AD. He introduces his subject, [3] p. 35:

... I have looked into the works of the past arithmeticians versed in the arithmetic
of the Indians, and I have met the experts noted in our age for writing a book on
it or having a good knowledge of it ... . I have also added to it and enriched it; ..

How the Indian numerals first came to Europe, is debated, cf. [27]. The part of the question
which we are interested in here, i.e. the background for the algorisms, is more clear. The most
important mathematician in Baghdad in the 9th century was Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi.
He is wellknown for his book Aljabr w'al Muqabalah, giving us the origin of the word "algebra",
which starts out, [2] p. 3:

That fondness for science, by which God has distinguished the IMAM AL MAMUN ...,
has encouraged me to compose a short work on Calculating by Completion and Reduction,
confining it to what is easiest and most useful in arithmetic, such as men constantly require
in cases of inheritance, legacies, partition, lawsuits, and trade, and in all their dealing
with one another, or where the measuring of lands, the digging of canals, ... .

Al-Khwarizmi also wrote a reckoning text, which was translated into Latin in Toledo ca.
1130, and a version exists today in Cambridge, cf. [12] and [31]. This text starts:

Dixit algorizmi: laudes deo rectori Algorizmi said: Let us speak praises to God our
nostro atque defensori dignas …… guide and defender …..we have decided to set out
decreuimus exponere ac patefacere and reveal the numbering of the Indians by means
de numero indorum per .IX. literas of ix symbols

From this latinization of his name we got the word algorithm, which today means any
computational process.
The real breakthrough in Europe for the common man first came with the Italian (and
German) printed commercial arithmetics of ca. 1500. Swetz [29] gives a good account of this face
of the development. As we know, it took until Simon Stevin's time ca. 1600, before these methods
fully replaced the abacus methods. Two of the most influencial German texts of the 16th century
treating both methods were written by Jacob Köbel and Adam Riese. These were the basis for the
one of the first Danish reckoning text of 1552 by Herman Veigere, also treating both methods, and
giving both "Danish numerals", i.e. Roman, and "figures" by the common man called "ciphers".

Background to our algorism

In the extensive study of algorisms by Benedict [10] we find as item no. 27 :
XXVII. AN ICELANDIC ALGORISM
A translation of the Carmen de algorismo, written about 1325-1330, by a secretary of the
celebrated Icelander, Haukr Erlendsson. A manuscript in the University Library,
Copenhagen, was transcribed and published with notes, by Prof. Finnur Jónsson.
This algorism contains about 2700 words, and though in a few places it differs from
that version of the Carmen published by Halliwell, it is without doubt a translation
of the same work.

This algorism is mentioned similarly by Smith [25] vol. I p. 240, and Karpinski [19] p. 56.
Both Johannis de Sacrobosco and Petrus Philomena de Dacia, cf. [13], have been mentioned as
sources. These three possible sources are also described by Benedict [10]:

XVII. CARMEN DE ALGORISMO OF ALEXANDER DE VILLA DEI

A Latin algorism written in verse, consisting of 248 lines. It was published by Halliwell
from a manuscript in the British Museum. The large number of manuscript copies to be
found in the libraries of Europe prove that it was widely known and used, but in spite of
its importance it is rarely mentioned in works on the history of mathematics. The algorism
treats of the fundamental operations with integers, the explanations being wholly rhetorical.

XVIII. ALGORISMUS VULGARIS OF JOHN OF SACROBOSCO.

A Latin arithmetic setting forth the new methods of reckoning, which was the most widespread
treatise on the subject during the period 1250-1550. It appeared in Halliwell's Rara Mathematica
under the title Tractatus de arte numerandi. The best edition is that by Curtze from a manuscript in
Munich. The work contains about 4000 words,and treats of the fundamental operations with integers.

XXV. COMMENTUM MAGISTRI PETRI PHILOMENI DE DACIA.

A commentary of about 18000 words on the Algorismus vulgaris of Sacrobosco, transcribed by
Max Curtze and printed with the algorism. In this work are found not only careful and scholarly
explanations of the text of Sacrobosco, and numerous illustrative examples, but also additions to
the algorism especially in the matter of proofs and the subject of series and progression. The
commentary was written in 129?.

The "Icelandic algorism" had been studied earlier by the Norwegian historian P.A. Munch
who in the year 1848 published it with a Danish translation, cf. [22] and [23]. Here P.A. Munch
pointed to the Carmen de Algorismo as a possible source.
This algorism is part of a larger work called Hauksbok, which was published in full
transcription in 1892-1896 by Jónsson [18] and in a facsimile edition of 1960 by Helgason [16].

On “Hauksbók” and Haukr Erlendsson

The book known today as “Hauksbók” consists of three codices of the Arna-Magnæan
manuscripts. Early in the 18th century their compiler, the Icelander Arni Magnusson, described
these as belonging to one single codex with the content given below, cf. [16], p.vi .

While most Old Norse manuscripts only can be dated from their palaeography or orthography,
this collection was given the name “Hauksbók” as early as in the 1630s. Thus “Hauksbók” is
exceptional, in that it can be linked with a particular man, whose life is known to some extent.

Haukr Erlendsson is first mentioned in the year 1294, when he became a Lawman in
Iceland. After this he went to Norway, where he was domiciled for most of his life. In a document
of 1302, Haukr describes himself as Lawman of Oslo. At this time there were probably twelve
Lawmen in Norway, being officials appointed by the King to attend to the administration of justice.
Hauk's home from 1303, however, was in Bergen. From letters of 1311 and 1318 we see
that his jurisdiction as a Lawman had been moved to Gulathing in Western Norway. He visited
Iceland several times, for instance in the years 1306-1308, during which The Algorismus was
written according to the most recent studies by Stefan Karlsson, cf. [8]. Haukr Erlendsson died in
1334, most probably in Bergen.
According to the most recent studies by Kristin Bjarnadóttir (preprint 2001), the translation
of the Algorismus most probably took place in the monastery of Videy near Reykjavik during the
years 1240-1260. The handwriting style of the numerals in the text can be dated before 1270.
The Algorismus
The first appearance of the Hindu-Arabic numerals in “Hauksbók” is on fol. 35 v, which
deals with the calendar. The folios 90r - 93r, 6 1/2 folios, of AM 544 qv. are called “Algorismus”.
Parallel texts are found in three other Icelandic manuscripts of the 14th and 15th centuries. These
treatises are all based on the Carmen de Algorismo, but a concluding section of unknown origin has
been added, cf. Bekken [9]. First we can look at the beginning of “Algorismus”, in our English
translation:

This art is called algorismus. It was first found by Indian men, and created with .x. signs which are written
0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. The first sign means one in the first place, the second .ij. , the third three, and so on, up to
the last which is called cifra.

In the algorism of “Hauksbók” we find "finger" for the units, "joint" for the tens and just
"composite" for others. The positional principle is described by:

Each of the signs has its value as a finger, but if the sign is put in the next place, it
signifies .x. times its value. In each new place you put it, its value becomes .x. times
more as it moves to the left compared to the place before. Cifra has no value in itself,
but it makes a place and gives value to the other digits.

We find Old Norse names for the seven branches of reckoning, cf. below, and several of
these are still in use in our schools.

This art consists of seven branches. The first is called addition, the second subtraction, the third duplication,
the fourth mediation, .v. multiplication, .vi. division, .vii. to take the root of, and this branch goes in two
directions. One is to take the root of square numbers. The other is to take the root of eight corned numbers,
those having cubic form.

The Hindu sources never treat duplication and mediation. These were included by Al-
Khwarizmi. Through the translations of his text these were introduced into Europe. They were
retained as separate operations by many writers throughout the 16th century.
Taking roots here means to take square roots and also cube roots. Both processes are
described rhetorically without any numerical examples, and they become quite complicated. We
will here only present the methods given for addition and multiplication, but just before these
methods are presented we find:

From the right you shall subtract, add and take halves, but
from the left you shall double, divide, multiply and take roots.

which we find exactly in this form both in Villa Dei and Sacrobosco's reckoning texts.
After seven short paragraphs describing briefly features like the signs, their significance,
their subdivision, even and odd, ... we find:
Here is told how a number is added to another
If you want to add one number to another, write the greatest number above and put the smallest below equally
far to the right. First you add the digit to the right to the number. If the total number together is a finger, then
write it down in the same place. But if the number becomes composite, write the finger down at the units-
place, and add the joint to the number which is at the next place before. But if it becomes a joint from the
addition at the units-place, write a zero there, and add the joint to the number nearby, if there is any there, or
write it there alone. But if there is a zero there, remove it and put the joint there instead. Next you add the
other digits in the same way.

We should note that addition is confined to only two numbers. According to Benedict [10]
p. 43 this shows influence from the abacists. The description is rhetorical, and in the example
below we have tried carefully to relate each step of the description to the example.

If you want to add 365 to 2674, you should write

2674 ... the greatest number above
2675 ... the smallest equally far to the right

Addition is done from the right, digit by digit, really on a dust board. The digits of the lower
number is added step by step to the upper number which then is gradually erased, and the digits of
the sum appear as below.
2674 ... becomes a finger 9, which is written in
365 the same place instead of the 4
2679 ... becomes a composite number 13. Write the
365 finger 3 instead of 7 and add the joint 1
to 6, which was in the next place before
2739 ... becomes a joint 10. Write a zero instead
365 of 7, and add the joint 1 to 2, which was
the number nearby
3039 ... the final result
365
The next process we want to illustrate here is from

On multiplication (manifolding)
If you want to multiply one number with another, then you write two rows of digits in such a way that the
utmost digit in the number you are multiplying with is placed underneath the first digit in the number above,
but with all the others below to the left of this place. Next you shall think on how much the greatest digit you
want to multiply, lacks to become .x. This many times you shall subtract the smallest number you want to
multiply from it's tens. For you to understand this, multiply .vij. with nine. Nine lacks one to become .x.
Therefore you take one times .vij. from .vij. tens (seventy). What is left is .iij. and .vi. tens. This is .vij. times
nine. In the same way you may try other numbers.
... Multiply the first digit in the correct way with all those below, and write above each digit the manifold it
has, and to the left that which can not be placed above it, at the next place with a correct addition. When this
digit has been multiplied, you move the utmost of those below underneath the next digit, and you multiply
 with it like the one before. If the multiplication gives you a joint,put zero above and the joint to the left. But
if it becomes both finger and joint, write the finger above the digit you multiplied with, and the joint in the
next place. But if it only becomes a finger from the šmultiplication, write it above. If there is a zero in the
upper number, you just pass by it, because the zero gives no manifold. You must be careful to remove the
digits above, when you have multiplied them, and to write the correct finger where it belongs or a zero if that
is more correct. But add what there is left, to what there is at the left. If there is a zero above in the number
you are multiplying with, then remove it if it becomes a finger from the multiplication. If not the zero shall be
left there ... ... If you wonder whether you have multiplied correct, then divide your result with the number
you multiplied with, that is the number below. Then you will obtain the number you had before.

LITTERATUR:

[1] Al-Khwarizmi: Liber Algorismi de Numero Indorum,

in Latin at Cambridge University, England, cf. [12] and [31].

[2] Al-Khwarizmi: The Algebra of Mohammed ben Musa, edited by Frederic Rosen,
London 1831, Georg Olms Verlag 1986.

[3] Al-Uqlidisi: The Arithmetic of … , edited by A.S. Saidan, Reidel Publ. Co. 1978.

[4] Aryabhata: The Aryabhatiya of …, with notes by Walter E. Clark,

University of Chicago Press 1930.

[5] Aryabhata: The Aryabhata of …, edited by Kripa S. Shukla,

Indian National Science Academy 1976.

[6] Bekken, Otto B.: Matematikk i utvikling, bok I: Tallsystemets røtter, ADH Skrifter 1984.

[7] Bekken, Otto B.: Readings from the Hindu arithmetic and algebra, ADH Skrifter 1984.

[8] Bekken, Otto B. & Christoffersen, Marit: Algorismus i Hauksbok, ADH Skrifter 1986.

[9] Bekken, Otto B.: The Cubus Perfectus of the Algorismus in Hauksbok, ADH Skrifter 1986.

[10] Benedict, Suzan : A Comparative Study of the early Treatises Introducing into Europe
the Hindu Art of Reckoning, Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan 1914.

[11] Brahmagupta & Bhaskara: Algebra with Arithmetic and Mensuration from the Sanscrit of
…, edited by Henry T. Colebrooke, London 1817, Martin Sändig oHG 1973.

[12} Crossley, J.N. & Henry, A.S.: Thus spoke al-Khwarizmi, a translation of the text of
Cambridge University Library Ms. Ii. Vi. 5, Monash University Australia 1988.

[13] Curtze, Maximillianus: Petri Philomeni de Dacia in Algorismum Vulgarem

Johannis de Sacrobosco Commentarius, Copenhagen 1897.

[14] Datta, B. and Singh, A.N.: History of Hindu Mathematics, Asia Publ. House 1962.

[15] Halliwell, James Orchard: Rara Mathematica, London 1841, Georg Olms Verlag 1977.
[16] Helgason, Jon: Manuscripta Islandica, vol. 5 Hauksbok,
The Arna-Magnæan Manuscripts 371 qv, 544 qv and 657 qv, Copenhagen 1960.

[17] Ibn Labban, Kushyar: Principles of Hindu Reckoning,

translated by Martin Levy and Marvin Petruck, University of Wisconsin Press 1965.

[18] Jonsson, Eirikur og Finnur: Hauksbok, Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskrift-Selskab,

Copenhagen 1892 - 1896.

[19] Karpinski, Louis Charles: The History of Arithmetic, Russel & Russel, New York 1965.

[20] Mahaviracarya: The Ganita-Sara-Sangraha of …, translated by M. Rangacarya,

Government of Madras 1912.

[21] Moritz, Robert: On Mathematics, Dover Publ. Co. 1958.

[22] Munch, P.A.: Om Ridderen og Rigsraaden Hr. Hauk Erlendssøns, Islands, Oslo og
Gulathings Lagmand, og om Hans Litterære Virksomhed, Annaler for Nordisk
Oldkyndighet og Historie, Copenhagen 1847, p. 169 - 216.

[23] Munch, P.A.: ALGORISMUS, eller Anviisning til at Kjende og Anvende de Saakaldte
Arabiske Tal, efter Hr. Hauk Erlendssøns Codex Meddeelt og Ledsaget med
Oversættelse af P.A. Munch, Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie,
Copenhagen 1848, p. 353 - 375.

[24] Open University: History of Mathematics AM 289, no. N3, Milton Keynes 1976.

[25] Smith, David Eugene: History of Mathematics, 2 vols., Dover Publ. Co. 1958.

[26] Smith, David Eugene: Rara Arithmetica, Chelsea Publ. Co. 1970.

[27] Smith, D.E. & Karpinski, L.C.: The Hindu-Arabic Numerals, Ginn & Co. Publ. 1911.

[28] Steele, Robert: The Earliest Arithmetics in English, London 1922.

[29] Swetz, Frank J.: Capitalism and Arithmetic, Open Court Publ. Co. 1987.

[30] Villa Dei, Alexander de: Carmen de Algorismo,

cf. Halliwell [15] p. 73 - 83 and Steele [28] p. 72 - 80.

[31] Vogel, Kurt: Mohammed ibn Musa Alchwarizmi's ALGORISMUS,

Das früheste Lehrbuch zum Rechnen mit indischen Ziffern,
Otto Zeller Verlagsbuchhandlung, Aalen 1963.