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ComplexNumbers
Thischapterintroducescomplexnumbers,beginningwithfactoringpolynomials,andproceeding
ontothecomplexplaneandEuler'sidentity.
FactoringaPolynomial
Remember``factoringpolynomials''?Considerthesecondorderpolynomial
Itissecondorderbecausethehighestpowerof is (onlynonnegativeintegerpowersof
areallowedinthiscontext).Thepolynomialisalsomonicbecauseitsleadingcoefficient,the
coefficientof ,is .Bythefundamentaltheoremofalgebra(discussedfurtherin2.4),there
areexactlytworoots(orzeros)ofanysecondorderpolynomial.Theserootsmayberealor
complex(tobedefined).Fornow,let'sassumetheyarebothrealanddenotethemby and .
Thenwehave
and
,andwecanwrite
Thisisthefactoredformofthemonicpolynomial
.(Foranonmonicpolynomial,wemay
simplydivideallcoefficientsbythefirsttomakeitmonic,andthisdoesn'taffectthezeros.)
Multiplyingoutthesymbolicfactoredformgives
Comparingwiththeoriginalpolynomial,wefindwemusthave
Thisisasystemoftwoequationsintwounknowns.Unfortunately,itisanonlinearsystemoftwo
equationsintwounknowns.2.1Nevertheless,becauseitissosmall,theequationsareeasily
solved.Inbeginningalgebra,wedidthembyhand.However,nowadayswecanuseasoftware
toolsuchasMatlaborOctavetosolveverylargesystemsoflinearequations.
Thefactoredformofthissimpleexampleis
TheQuadraticFormula
Thegeneralsecondorder(real)polynomialis
(2.1)
wherethecoefficients
areanyrealnumbers,andweassume
wouldnotbesecondorder.Someexperimentsplotting
sinceotherwiseit
fordifferentvaluesofthecoefficients
leadsonetoguessthatthecurveisalwaysascaledandtranslatedparabola.Thecanonical
parabolacenteredat
isgivenby
(2.2)
(alsoequalto ).Ifwecanfind
intermsof
foranyquadraticpolynomial,thenwecaneasilyfactorthepolynomial.Thisiscalledcompleting
thesquare.MultiplyingouttherighthandsideofEq. (2.2)above,weget
(2.3)
Usingtheseanswers,anysecondorderpolynomial
canberewrittenasa
scaled,translatedparabola
Inthisform,therootsareeasilyfoundbysolving
toget
Thisisthegeneralquadraticformula.Itwasobtainedbysimplealgebraicmanipulationofthe
originalpolynomial.Thereisonlyone``catch.''Whathappenswhen
isnegative?This
introducesthesquarerootofanegativenumberwhichwecouldinsist``doesnotexist.''
Alternatively,wecouldinventcomplexnumberstoaccommodateit.
ComplexRoots
Figure2.1:Anexampleparaboladefinedby
.
Asasimpleexample,let
,and
,i.e.,
AsshowninFig.2.1,thisisaparabolacenteredat
(where
)andreachingupward
topositiveinfinity,nevergoingbelow .Ithasnorealzeros.Ontheotherhand,thequadratic
formulasaysthatthe``roots''aregivenformallyby
.Thesquarerootofany
negativenumber
canbeexpressedas
,sotheonlynewalgebraicobjectis
Let'sgiveitaname:
Then,formally,therootsof
are
,andwecanformallyexpressthepolynomialinterms
ofitsrootsas
Wecanthinkoftheseas``imaginaryroots''inthesensethatsquarerootsofnegativenumbers
don'treallyexist,orwecanextendtheconceptof``roots''toallowforcomplexnumbers,thatis,
numbersoftheform
Itcanbecheckedthatallalgebraicoperationsforrealnumbers2.2applyequallywelltocomplex
numbers.Bothrealnumbersandcomplexnumbersareexamplesofamathematicalfield.2.3
Fieldsareclosedwithrespecttomultiplicationandaddition,andalltherulesofalgebraweusein
manipulatingpolynomialswithrealcoefficients(androots)carryoverunchangedtopolynomials
withcomplexcoefficientsandroots.Infact,therulesofalgebrabecomesimplerforcomplex
numbersbecause,asdiscussedinthenextsection,wecanalwaysfactorpolynomialscompletely
overthefieldofcomplexnumberswhilewecannotdothisoverthereals(aswesawinthe
example
).
FundamentalTheoremofAlgebra
Thisisaverypowerfulalgebraictool.2.4Itsaysthatgivenanypolynomial
wecanalwaysrewriteitas
wherethepoints
arethepolynomialroots,andtheymayberealorcomplex.
ComplexBasics
Thissectionintroducesvariousnotationandtermsassociatedwithcomplexnumbers.As
discussedabove,complexnumbersarisebyintroducingthesquarerootof asaprimitivenew
algebraicobjectamongrealnumbersandmanipulatingitsymbolicallyasifitwerearealnumber
itself:
Mathematiciansandphysicistsoftenuse insteadof as
.Theuseof iscommonin
engineeringwhere ismoreoftenusedforelectricalcurrent.
Asmentionedabove,foranynegativenumber
where
,wehave
denotestheabsolutevalueof .Thus,everysquarerootofanegativenumbercanbe
expressedas timesthesquarerootofapositivenumber.
Bydefinition,wehave
andsoon.Thus,thesequence
since
isaperiodicsequencewithperiod ,
.(We'lllearnlaterthatthesequence
isasampledcomplexsinusoid
havingfrequencyequaltoonefourththesamplingrate.)
Everycomplexnumber canbewrittenas
Notethattherealnumbersarethesubsetofthecomplexnumbershavingazeroimaginarypart(
).
Theruleforcomplexmultiplicationfollowsdirectlyfromthedefinitionoftheimaginaryunit :
Insomemathematicstexts,complexnumbers aredefinedasorderedpairsofrealnumbers
,andalgebraicoperationssuchasmultiplicationaredefinedmoreformallyasoperationson
orderedpairs,e.g.,
.However,suchformalitytends
toobscuretheunderlyingsimplicityofcomplexnumbersasastraightforwardextensionofreal
numberstoinclude
.
Itisimportanttorealizethatcomplexnumberscanbetreatedalgebraicallyjustlikerealnumbers.
Thatis,theycanbeadded,subtracted,multiplied,divided,etc.,usingexactlythesamerulesof
algebra(sincebothrealandcomplexnumbersaremathematicalfields).Itisoftenpreferableto
thinkofcomplexnumbersasbeingthetrueandpropersettingforalgebraicoperations,withreal
numbersbeingthelimitedsubsetforwhich
.
TheComplexPlane
Figure2.2:Plottingacomplex
numberasapointinthecomplex
plane.
Wecanplotanycomplexnumber
inaplaneasanorderedpair
,asshownin
Fig.2.2.Acomplexplane(orArganddiagram)isany2Dgraphinwhichthehorizontalaxisisthe
realpartandtheverticalaxisistheimaginarypartofacomplexnumberorfunction.Asan
example,thenumber hascoordinates
inthecomplexplanewhilethenumber has
coordinates
Plotting
.
asthepoint
inthecomplexplanecanbeviewedasaplotinCartesian
orrectilinearcoordinates.Wecanalsoexpresscomplexnumbersintermsofpolarcoordinatesas
anorderedpair
,where isthedistancefromtheorigin
tothenumberbeingplotted,
and istheangleofthenumberrelativetothepositiverealcoordinateaxis(thelinedefinedby
and
).(SeeFig.2.2.)
Usingelementarygeometry,itisquicktoshowthatconversionfromrectangulartopolar
coordinatesisaccomplishedbytheformulas
where
denotesthearctangentof
(theangle inradianswhosetangentis
),takingthequadrantofthevector
intoaccount.Wewilltake intherange
to (althoughwecouldchooseanyintervaloflength
radians,suchas0to
,etc.).
InMatlabandOctave,atan2(y,x)performsthe``quadrantsensitive''arctangentfunction.Onthe
otherhand,atan(y/x),likethemoretraditionalmathematicalnotation
doesnot
``know''thequadrantof
,soitmapstheentirereallinetotheinterval
specificexample,theangleofthevector
theangleof
sametangentas
Theformula
.Asa
(inquadrantI)hasthesametangentas
(inquadrantIII).Similarly,
(quadrantII)yieldsthe
(quadrantIV).
forconvertingrectangularcoordinatestoradius ,followsimmediately
fromthePythagoreantheorem,whilethe
followsfromthedefinitionofthetangent
functionitself.
Similarly,conversionfrompolartorectangularcoordinatesissimply
Thesefollowimmediatelyfromthedefinitionsofcosineandsine,respectively.
MoreNotationandTerminology
It'salreadybeenmentionedthattherectilinearcoordinatesofacomplexnumber
in
thecomplexplanearecalledtherealpartandimaginarypart,respectively.
Wealsohavespecialnotationandvariousnamesforthepolarcoordinates
number :
ofacomplex
Thecomplexconjugateof isdenoted (or
where,ofcourse,
)andisdefinedby
Ingeneral,youcanalwaysobtainthecomplexconjugateofanyexpressionbysimplyreplacing
with
.Inthecomplexplane,thisisaverticalflipabouttherealaxisi.e.,complexconjugation
replaceseachpointinthecomplexplanebyitsmirrorimageontheothersideofthe axis.
ElementaryRelationships
Fromtheabovedefinitions,onecanquicklyverify
Let'sverifythethirdrelationshipwhichstatesthatacomplexnumbermultipliedbyitsconjugateis
equaltoitsmagnitudesquared:
(2.4)
Euler'sIdentity
Since
isthealgebraicexpressionof intermsofitsrectangularcoordinates,the
correspondingexpressionintermsofitspolarcoordinatesis
Thereisanother,morepowerfulrepresentationof intermsofitspolarcoordinates.Inorderto
defineit,wemustintroduceEuler'sidentity:
(2.5)
AproofofEuler'sidentityisgiveninthenextchapter.Before,theonlyalgebraicrepresentationof
acomplexnumberwehadwas
,whichfundamentallyusesCartesian(rectilinear)
coordinatesinthecomplexplane.Euler'sidentitygivesusanalternativerepresentationinterms
ofpolarcoordinatesinthecomplexplane:
We'llcall
thepolarformofthecomplexnumber ,incontrastwiththerectangularform
.Polarformoftensimplifiesalgebraicmanipulationsofcomplexnumbers,especially
whentheyaremultipliedtogether.Simplerulesofexponentscanoftenbeusedinplaceof
messiertrigonometricidentities.Inthecaseoftwocomplexnumbersbeingmultiplied,wehave
AcorollaryofEuler'sidentityisobtainedbysetting
toget
Thishasbeencalledthe``mostbeautifulformulainmathematics''duetotheextremelysimple
forminwhichthefundamentalconstants
,and0,togetherwiththeelementaryoperations
ofaddition,multiplication,exponentiation,andequality,allappearexactlyonce.
Foranotherexampleofmanipulatingthepolarformofacomplexnumber,let'sagainverify
,aswedidaboveinEq. (2.4),butthistimeusingpolarform:
Asmentionedin2.7,anycomplexexpressioncanbeconjugatedbyreplacing by
whereveritoccurs.Thisimplies
byusingEuler'sidentitytoexpand
,asusedabove.Thesameresultcanbeobtained
into
andnegatingtheimaginarypart
toobtain
thatcosineisanevenfunction(
,whereweusedalsothefact
)whilesineisodd(
Wecannoweasilyaddafourthlinetothatsetofexamples:
).
Thus,
forevery
Euler'sidentitycanbeusedtoderiveformulasforsineandcosineintermsof
Similarly,
,andweobtainthefollowingclassicidentities:
DeMoivre'sTheorem
Asamorecomplicatedexampleofthevalueofthepolarform,we'llproveDeMoivre'stheorem:
Workingthisoutusingsumofangleidentitiesfromtrigonometryislaborious(see3.13for
details).However,usingEuler'sidentity,DeMoivre'stheoremsimply``fallsout'':
Moreover,bythepowerofthemethodusedtoshowtheresult, canbeanyrealnumber,not
justaninteger.
Conclusion
Thischapterhascoveredjustenoughaboutcomplexnumberstoenableustotalkaboutthe
discreteFouriertransform.
ManipulationsofcomplexnumbersinMatlabandOctaveareillustratedinI.1.
Toexplorefurtherthemathematicsofcomplexvariables,seeanytextbooksuchasChurchill[15]
orLePage[37].Topicsnotcoveredhere,butwhichareimportantelsewhereinsignalprocessing,
includeanalyticfunctions,contourintegration,analyticcontinuation,residuecalculus,and
conformalmapping.
Complex_NumberProblems
Seehttp://ccrma.stanford.edu/~jos/mdftp/Complex_Number_Problems.html
NextSection:
ProofofEuler'sIdentity
PreviousSection:
IntroductiontotheDFT
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MathematicsoftheDFT
DetailedderivationoftheDiscreteFourierTransform(DFT)anditsassociatedmathematics,
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