1815 Tambora Eruption

1815 TAMBORA ERUPTION, INDONESIA
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is one of the most challenging and controversial topics facing the world today.
Climate models used to study this issue require full consideration of the complexity affecting the
various components of the Earth's climatic system. In order to develop and improve these models, a
better understanding of Earth's components and their interactions is crucial. One of the most important
naturally occurring influences on our climate system is volcanic eruptions. The Tambora volcano (8.25
S, 118.00 E) on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia, erupted on April 10th, 1815, sending a massive
cloud of aerosols into the stratosphere. This was the largest eruption of the past 500 years.
The summer in New England that year also had extreme weather. There was snow every month
of the year, and the poor harvests started a mass migration from the US East Coast across the
Appalachian Mountains to the Midwest. For these reasons, 1816 has come to be known as the year
without a summer. Although the cool summer of 1816 was not universally felt around the globe, large
regions, including North America, Europe, Argentina, India, and China experienced record anomalies.
Even portions of South Africa experienced cool and wet conditions in the growing season, but
Southern Hemisphere climate would not be expected to change much in response to Tambora, due to
the overwhelming oceanic influence. The effects of the 1816 summer on agricultural productivity of
New England did not have much to do with the average temperature, which was low but not
abnormally so, but with a series of killing frosts that reduced the growing season. This, along with a
severe drought, reduced agricultural output to record low levels. In Europe, by contrast, there were
record low temperatures accompanied by above average rainfall and cloudiness, the combination of
which slowed the growth of crops and produced fungus and molds. Thus, food production was
negatively affected in both regions, but by different mechanisms, pointing out the complex relationship
between climate and human impacts.
The Tambora eruption killed more than 90 000 people in the immediate vicinity, 35% of the
people on Sumbawa (48 000 in two years; 10 000 immediately and 38 000 from hunger and disease)
and 44 000 on Lombok 160 km to the east. A more indirect effect of the Tambora eruption has also
been suggested. Because of the bad weather, a typhus epidemic broke out in Ireland, spread to England
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and Scotland, and killed 65 000 people. Bad harvests in India may have contributed to a cholera
epidemic, which spread to Asia and Europe producing the great cholera pandemic of the century. In
addition to historical records, proxy records such as those from tree rings allow us to explore the
hemispheric temperature record. While global cooling followed the eruption, climate had already
begun to cool before 1815. Ice core records from Greenland and Antarctica preserve sulfuric acid
layers from volcanic eruptions, and while all records at both poles show a Tambora layer, they also all
show a layer from an eruption almost as large in 1808 or 1809, still unidentified. Thus, the climate was
probably already cooling from a previous large eruption and several smaller ones also observed
between the two large ones. If tambora had erupted in a warmer climate, the effects would have been
less harsh. While this is true in an absolute sense, in a relative sense they would have been larger and
more easily attributable to the volcano.
Tambora may once have been the highest peak of the East Indies. Sailing eastwards past Bali, it
appeared as high on the horizon, despite being further away, as 3726-mhigh Mount Rinjani on Lombok
island. Stothers (1984) reckoned its height must have exceeded 4300 m. It will never know for certain
because the cone was toppled in April 1815 by the largest eruption of recorded history. The events
resulted in the greatest known death toll attributable to a volcanic eruption (Tanguy et al., 1998), and
the global reach of the climatic consequences of the eruption has been implicated in the The last great
subsistence crisis in the Western World (Post, 1977). The aim of this is to review the events and
consequences of the 1815 eruption and to consider their implications for assessing the impact of future
explosive eruptions on this scale.
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
To study about the responses of climate to volcanic eruptions can help better understand
important radiative and dynamical processes that occur in our atmosphere and that respond to
both natural and anthropogenic forcing.
To understand several studies have summarized the known effects of many large-scale volcanic
eruptions on our atmosphere.
To Studying the In addition, by quantifying the natural fluctuations of gases and other volcanic
materials, we can separate these forcings from anthropogenic fluctuations in the climate record,
helping us to detect and properly attribute anthropogenic influences on climate.
The Tambora Project is a collaboration between disciplinary fields to produce the most
complete and comprehensive study yet undertaken of this major historical event and
communicates to the academic and general community, the full significance of similar disasters
in modern climate and human history.
Objectives of 1815 Tambora eruption:
Large explosive volcanoes, such as that of Mt. Tambora, inject massive amounts of mineral
material and various gases, including sulfur, into the upper atmosphere. Resulting sulfate
aerosols in the stratosphere can have an approximate lifetime of about 1-3 years.
The aerosol cloud produced from the eruption undergoes further chemical (ozone depletion)
and radiative (increased planetary albedo) interactions with the background atmosphere that
can cause noticeable changes in the climate system.
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The scattering of solar radiation to space causes a temporal cooling at the surface, increasing
the planetary albedo. Meanwhile, the absorption of both solar and Earth's radiation at the
stratosphere, heats the layer.
The most explosive known eruption in the historical record, that of Mt. Tambora, still remains
one of the least explored. There is a substantial but unscientific popular and journalistic archive
devoted to The Year Without a Summer in the North-Eastern United States.
Posts study also predates the emergence of climate change as a central scientific and cultural
issue for the global community. It is the intention of this thesis to investigate the current state of
scientific knowledge of the 1815 eruption and to develop a project in which scientific computer
simulations aid journalistic research in order to explain history.
The Tambora Project itself is divided into two main sections: (1) the historical analysis of the
time period pre- and post eruption; and (2) the scientific analysis of the Tambora eruption and
its climatic impacts.
An evaluation of all previous historic, climatic and modeling studies is performed, resulting in
an elaborate methodology of computer simulations aimed specifically to answer the remaining
questions of the eruption and its aftermath.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research is an art of scientific investigation. In other words research is a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. The logic behind taking research
methodology into consideration is that one can have knowledge regarding the method and procedure
adopted for achievements of objective of the project. With the adoption of this others can also evaluate
the results too.
So keeping in view the nature of requirement of the study to collect all the relevant information
regarding the comparison of public sector banks and the private sector banks direct personal interview
method with the help of structured questionnaire was adopted for collection of primary data.
Secondary data has been collected through the various magazines and newspaper and by
surfing on internet and also by visiting the websites of Indian Banking Association.
DATA COLLECTION
Data was collected by using two main methods i.e. primary data and secondary data.
PRIMARY DATA primary data is the data which is used or collected for the first time and it is not
used by anyone in the past. There are number of sources of primary data from which the information
can be collected. We took the following resources for our research.
a) QUESTIONNAIRE This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. Here in our research we set 10 simple questions and requested the respondents to answer
these questions with correct information.
SECONDARY DATA Secondary data is the data which is available in readymade form and which
has already been used by other people for various purposes. The sources of secondary data are
newspaper, internet, websites of IBA, journals and other published documents.
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This project is based on secondary Data.
OVERVIEW
On April 10, 1815, for the first time in about 5000 years, Tambora erupted. A series of large
explosions began, sending a massive volcanic column into the air. This eruption was the biggest
eruption in recorded history. Tambora is a strato volcano located on the island of Sumbawa in
Indonesia, forming the Sanggar peninsula of the island. The island is part of a very active volcanic arc,
which is part of the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean.
The Build-up
Before the explosion, Tambora stood over 4000 m (13000 ft) high. Starting in 1812, 3 years before the
huge eruption, the volcano started spewing steam and ash, and creating small tremors in the Earth. On
the 5th of April, 1815, after laying quiet for over 5000 years, the first eruption began, lofting a volcanic
column 25 km (15.5 miles) into the sky. This initial eruption was heard over 1000 km away.
The Eruption
On April 10, 1815, a series of eruptions began, culminating to the largest eruption in recorded history.
The eruption lasted several days. It blew a chunk off of the mountain almost a mile wide. The volcanic
column, after flying 40 km into the sky, returned to the ground, creating a huge pyroclastic flow of ash,
pumice, and debris. The pyroclastic flow alone killed more than 10,000 people in its path. The ash that
fell from Tambora travelled as far as 1300 km (800 miles) away.
When the pyroclastic flow reached the ocean, the debris created such a large displacement of water
that tsunamis as high as 5 meters emanated out from the island. These tsunamis caused flooding,
devastation, and death on many of the other Indonesian islands. After the eruption was over, and
estimated 100-150 cubic kilometers of ash and debris were said to have been ejected from the
mountain. Volcanoes are measured by a Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI), on a scale of 1-8. Tambora
had a VEI of 7. Only 4 other volcanoes in the last 10,000 years have had a VEI that high, and Tambora
is the only volcano in recorded history with a VEI of 7.
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The Aftermath
The giant crater left at the top of the volcano 4 miles wide and 3,640 ft. deep, a hole that is still quite
obvious today. The ash that fell from the eruption at Tambora was devastating, killing all the crops and
vegetation, causing more than 80,000 more deaths from famine and disease. This death count is the
largest from any volcano eruption in recorded history. In addition, the amount of sulfur dioxide that
was released into the stratosphere made 1816 the year without a summer.
The Year without a Summer
What?
In 1816, the overall temperature on Earth, specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, lowered so
drastically that it became known as the year without a summer. Weather was disturbed all over, with
problems in Western Europe and the United States, as well as Asia. Monsoon season was affected,
which is thought to also be tied to a cholera epidemic that year. In places like New England and
Canada, frost was recorded in every month of the year, and snow fell in June. This phenomenon is
known as global cooling.
The summer temperatures in 1816 averaged just a few degrees below normal, but as mentioned, it
frosted throughout the summer. The highs were still close to 100 degreed Fahrenheit on some days.
However, the cold spells, especially at night, cause massive crop failure, and, as a result, even more
famine.
Why?
200 million tons of sulfur dioxide was shot up into the stratosphere. The sulfur dioxide prevented much
sunlight from reaching the Earths surface, lowering the overall temperature, and killing crops and
many creatures as a result. This crop failure caused mass famine, which was what caused the death toll
to be so high.
The global changes in temperature did not occur until a year later. This delay was due to the fact that
the stratospheric winds take that long to distribute the sulfur dioxide and volcanic ash all around the
world. Composite volcanoes are made out of numerous layers of rock and lava that have accumulated
after multiple eruptions. The magma usually found in this type of volcano is very viscous and when it
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rises through the chamber, it clogs the volcanic pipe, leading to an accumulation of gases that in turn
results in very explosive eruptions. In 1992 establish four major volcanic formations before the
eruption of 1815 from the stratigraphy on the walls inside the caldera. Two pyroclastic units that
overlay these lava formations are the Black Sands and the Brown Tuff. The Brown Tuff formation
represents the latest volcanic activity (ash fall deposits and pyroclastic surges) dating earlier than 1815.
Using radiocarbon dating, the isotope samples from the lower and upper layers of the formation
suggest sporadic volcanic activity between 5900 to 1210 14C BP, which in calibrated (real) years,
indicates a period of inactivity of at least 1000 years before the catastrophic eruption in 1815. After
200 years of the historical eruption, and increase in seismic activity in 2011 alerted the population of
Indonesia that Tambora was awake again and has been restless ever since.
Tambora's Eruption Chronology (1815)
On April 5, 1815, in the volcanic island of Sumbawa, Indonesia, the first signs of an awakening
Mt. Tambora took place. Loud explosions were heard by the lieutenant-governor Thomas Stamford
Raffles more than eight-hundred miles away at his residence in Java. Alarmed, the British officials
(thinking the explosions where cannons firing in the distance) dispatched the troops and launched
rescue boats. Northeast of Tambora, approximately 240 miles away, the Benares, a British East Indian
Company cruiser reported "a firing of cannon" coming from the south. In the island of Ternate, another
five-hundred miles to the east, the cruiser Teignmouth was sent to explore the same noise. In the
morning of April 6, a veil of ash reached Java, this ash fall continued for several days as it gradually
stopped.
On the night of April 10, 1815, Tambora violently erupted and has been since the biggest and
most explosive volcanic eruption recorded in human history. Eruptions are measured using the
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), which uses a scale of whole numbers from 0 to 8 to rate the
approximate amount of ash, sulfur and dust ejected into the atmosphere. Similar to the Richer Scale
used for earthquakes, the VEI scale increases in factors of ten. The Tambora eruption recorded a VEI
of 7, making it one of the largest and deadliest eruptions in recorded history. Past eruptions can be
measured by using layers of volcanic debris found in ice cores and lake sediments. The chemical
composition of each volcano is different, allowing using the chemical signature of the layers to
distinguish each different eruption from the cores. The explosion and the caldera collapse were strong
enough to thrust plumes up to 43km in altitude and to distribute ash fallout as far as 1300 km away.
The explosion caused the mountain to reduce an estimate of 4,200 feet in height while ejecting some
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25 cubic miles of debris and creating a 6 km wide, 1 km deep caldera. A re-evaluation of the Tambora
ejected, estimated a total of 33 km3 of magma. In addition, the eruption injected an estimated 60Tg of
sulfur into the stratosphere in the first 24 hours and a total of 118 Tg of stratospheric aerosol,
equivalent to six times. Estimate a release of 70 Tg of fluorine (as HF). Fluorine was readily absorbed
by ash particles and by the soil, and fluorine poisoning was likely widespread in livestock and humans.
Pumice rocks fell for the remainder of the night of the 10th while loud explosions were heard
until the evening of the 15th. Ash covered the summit and smoke emissions were still reported as late
as August. Within a week or two of the eruption, the coarser ash particles fell out as a result of rapid
tropospheric mixing and washout. Gas molecules, fine ash particles and aerosols then reached the
stratosphere, where some resided for months or years, carried by winds and meridian currents around
the globe and into all latitudes. As a result of photochemical reactions (ozone-water vapor-sulfur),
secondary aerosols were formed in the atmosphere. The last volcanic aftershock was reported four
years after the explosive eruption.
Tambora caused the highest immediate mortality of any historical eruption with 80,000 deaths. The
village of Tambora was consumed under the vast amount of pumice, Sanggar, a village further away,
was completely destroyed by falling pumice. Lieutenant Raffles conducted a survey to evaluate the
extent of the damage. Around 10,000 people are believed to have died within the first 24 hours from
pyroclastic flows, ash falls and hot gas, all buried under lava. Crops, cattle and inhabitants were wiped.
During the months, thousands died due to respiratory infections and disease from poisoned water,
crops and cattle.
The volcano is better known, however, for its catastrophic impacts on regional and global
climate than for the ground zero impacts from its eruption. Proxy and observational records show a
pre-existing cooling trend in the global Northern Hemisphere and tropics at the time the Tambora event
occurred, which the eruption then amplified significantly, causing worldwide damage to crops and
massive civil disruption through famine, disease and refugeeism. This resulted in the death of seventy
to eighty thousand people.
Volcanic Aerosols' Impact on Climate
Volcanoes have always been considered an important natural driver of climate Their emissions
represent a significant source of aerosol contribution to the global troposphere. The main component of
the volcanic ejecta, is the solid matter known as tephra. Tephra however, falls out of the atmosphere in
a matter of hours and days and has no atmospheric impact. Following tephra, the most abundant
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components of the ejecta are the greenhouse gases water vapor (greater than 80%) and carbon dioxide
(around 10%). These, although being very effective climate modifiers, fail in comparison to the
already high background concentrations in the atmosphere and thus have little to no effect. The main
driver of volcanic climate impact is sulfur gas, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) being
the most common species. Chlorine, bromine and fluorine species are also found in the volcanic ejecta
but in very low concentration and their effects are mainly felt in the stratosphere.
Volcanic SO2 released into the atmosphere is rapidly oxidized to form sulfuric acid (sulfate)
aerosol particles and the layers of sulfate can spread globally within a few weeks to months.
Depending on where the volcano is located, the effects will be felt globally or at least on one of the
hemispheres. Sulfate removal is mainly through gravitational sedimentation but the rate is mainly
dependent on the season and the size of the particles. The e-folding time of these aerosols can extend
for more than a year (depending on explosiveness and location of eruption) and affect atmospheric
circulation by effectively backscattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation, which results in
decreasing surface temperatures. Other effects include regional reductions in light intensity and severe
unseasonable weather (cool summers and uncommonly colder winters).
Large explosive eruptions are more likely to inject a considerable amount of gases and aerosols
into the stable stratosphere, where they are rapidly spread globally by stratospheric winds and their
lifetimes are significantly increased, extending the impact to more than just a couple of years. The
thick aerosol sulfur cloud, having an effective radius of about 0.5 m, (wavelength of visible light),
strongly impacts shortwave solar radiation compared to the longwave impact. The aerosols backscatter
and absorb the incoming solar radiation causing a localized warming in the stratosphere and a
noticeable cooling at the surface. Several volcanic eruptions have caused winter warming in the first
(tropical eruptions) or second (mid-latitude eruptions) winters following the eruption. Tropical
eruptions have a localized warming in the tropics, resulting in a strong temperature gradient from high
to low latitudes more noticeable in the winter. The strong temperature gradient strengthens the polar
vortex, leading to stagnant tropospheric circulations in the northern hemisphere and thus winter
warming that resembles the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Furthermore, in
2002 discusses a positive feedback loop initiated by the chemical reactions that result in stratospheric
ozone depletion, which cool and strengthen the vortex, leading to reduced temperatures and thus more
ozone depletion. A positive Arctic Oscillation corresponds to anomalous low pressure over the pole,
and the opposite at mid-latitudes. After large volcanic eruptions, observations confirm a positive phase
of the AO in the first and second winters following the eruptions.
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Volcanic aerosols have the potential to change radiative fluxes in the stratosphere but most
importantly, its chemistry. Chemical changes in the stratosphere by volcanic eruptions affect the
temperature, UV flux and surfaces(heterogeneus reactions) present in the stratosphere that lead to the
production and destruction of ozone. Sulfate aerosols produced by volcanic eruptions can also provide
these surfaces, but it's important to keep in mind that these effect are only important now because of
anthropogenic chlorine in the stratosphere readily available to interact. The Montreal Protocol allowed
the banning of these emissions and hence, only volcanic eruptions occurring during the emissions and
lifetime (decades) of these are likely to display such evident impacts. Anthropogenic
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are not the only ones capable to react and destroy ozone. Volcanic
emitted chlorine has possible direct effects on ozone, but little is known about the amount of chlorine
species after an eruption and its interaction also depends on many different conditions(availability of
water vapor). Observations show the simultaneous appearance of a large El Nino signal with El
Chichon's eruption and a smaller El Nino signal with the Pinatubo eruption, suggesting a relationship.
Nonetheless, further research in oceanography has resulted in only theories. The examination of the
entire record of past El Ninos and volcanic eruptions for the past two centuries shows no significant
correlation.
In the case of Tambora, there was an observed decadal cooling. Volcanic aerosols usually
remain in the stratosphere for less than 2 or 3 years. The radiative effect of volcanoes has been
determined as inter annual in scale in contrast to the observed inter decadal effect on the record.
However, a series of volcanic eruptions could significantly raise the mean optical depth over a longer
period of time and could result theoretically to a decadal scale cooling, supporting our suspicions on
the 1809 volcano influence on the observed cooling.
Climate Impacts and Observations after the Eruption
Data records suggest that the period of 18101819 may have been the coldest decade globally
over the past 500 years. The records show significantly below average temperatures before and after
Tambora's eruption. Proxy tree rings and ice core data have been used to substantiate the effects of
major volcanic eruptions on climate. The unusual cooling trend that took place over the 1809-1819
decade appears to be largely explained by two major volcanic eruptions recorded on ice cores.
The sulfate records from Greenland and Antarctic ice cores confirm that the timing of this event
is 1809, in a tropical location with a major perturbation on both hemispheres for roughly 2 years. In
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addition, the 1809 eruptions sulfur contribution to the atmosphere is roughly half that of Tambora but
larger than that of Krakatoa. This event is not found in historic documentation (such as Lamb, 1970)
but, it is evident in ice core data. Even though the climate system should have largely recovered by
1815, the question remains as to whether there may have lingering effects from the earlier eruption by
the time of the Tambora eruption. Though not rich in historical observation, Tambora is much better
documented than the unrecorded eruption of 1809, was significantly larger, and was principally
responsible for the global thermal deficit of 1815-18.
The unusual extreme weather at mid-latitudes in the 1815-18 period had major socioeconomic
and public health impacts, particularly in terms of poor yield of agricultural production and epidemic
outbreaks of cholera and typhus in South Asia, North America, Europe and the Mediterranean
countries. Europe endured widespread food riots and mass refugeeism, to which governments
responded with regressive authoritarian and protectionist policies. In East Asia, Tibet witnessed
snowfalls in July, and the Southwest provinces suffered their shortest growing season on record,
destroying rice and buckwheat crops. Even the much vaunted granary reserve and famine relief
programs were unable to meet the demand for grains. Peasants were reduced to eating clay, selling
their children in return for food, and growing the cash crop opium (Yang, 2005).
The Tambora eruption altered the political balance of power in South-East Asia, strengthening
the indigenous systems of piracy and slavery against the liberal westernizing influences of the
colonial powers. Beyond ground zero, emissions of dust and sulfur from Tambora disrupted the South
Asian monsoons for three consecutive years, a sustained weather crisis that altered the disease ecology
of the estuarine delta of Bengal, creating conditions for the birth of modern epidemic cholera in 1817,
which spread across the globe in the nineteenth century, killing millions. The winter Asian monsoon
was reported to be uncommonly severe with extreme cold and snow in Japan, China and some of
northeast India. Furthermore, the onset of the summer Indian monsoon was seriously delayed, while
subsequent unseasonal flooding was unprecedented for the region, and accompanied by locally severe
drought in some regions. Across the Himalayas in southwest China, imperial control weakened during
the famines of the Tambora period, spawning ethnic rebellion against the Qing Dynasty, and allowing
the opium trade to flourish in the narco-state of Yunnan. Meanwhile, across the hemispheric divide in
Western Europe, great waves of environmental refugees, driven from their homes by Tamboran
impacts on weather systems, headed east to Russia and west to America, the first major wave of
nineteenth-century transatlantic migration while post-Napoleonic governments lurched to the right,
embracing authoritarian rule.
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Mortality from famine and disease in Europe was also high. In Ireland, for example, up to
100,000 mostly rural inhabitants died of starvation the crop failures of 1816-17, while another 65,000
at least died of famine-friendly typhus. Tamboras social influence extended beyond raw statistics of
death and disease. In the polar north, volcanic winter warming in 1815-18 melted the Arctic icepack,
prompting the first race of nations to the North Pole. The exploits of Kotzebue, Parry, and Franklin
subsequently launched arctic exploration as a defining para-colonial enterprise and cultural fantasy of
the nineteenth century. Finally, the so-called Year Without a Summer in the United States produced the
only recorded instance of zero tree growth, deducible from the missing 1816 ring in the oak trees of the
North-East. Farmers there suffered their shortest ever growing season, interrupted by brutal summer
frosts, and left New England in droves for Ohio and Pennsylvania, while the infant frontier Midwest
seized the moment to secure a position as a major agricultural producer for the nation and the Atlantic
world. Subsequently, when the transatlantic harvest resumed its normal output in 1819, the mid
western economy crashed in the so-called Panic of 1819plunging the United States into its first
major economic depression, which persisted through the early 1820s. This and other documented
evidence suggest a strong relationship between the Tambora eruption and the climatic effects that
unfolded in its aftermath.
Historical and Cultural Impacts
Tambora caused more than just a climatic ruckus, the volcanic eruption is likely involved in a
serious of cultural events mainly triggered by the climatic response of the eruption. Although Tambora
cannot be completely singled out for the sole cause of all the events, the extreme weather provoked in
the Northern Hemisphere by the eruption was significant enough to contribute. For example, in North
America, the year 1816 was characterized by very dim days and an unusually cold summer with
snowfalls and reoccurring frosts. These conditions lasted all summer, decreasing the growing season
and resulting in total crop failure. The unsuccessful crop yield continued for another year after, which
led to a wave of emigration from the Northeast of the United States to establish in Central New York
and the Midwest. Indiana and Illinois, due to the mass of migration became states in 1816 and 1818
respectively. One of the farmers that decided to give up and migrate was Joseph Smith. Him, his wife
and their nine children were renting a farm in Norwich, Vermont where their stay was short of
miserable. Their crops failed for 3 years in a row (1814-1816) that led Joseph to emigrate to Palmyra,
New York. In the spring of 1820, in a grove of trees near Palmyra, Joseph Smith claimed an
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appearance that told him the location where to retrieve The Book of Mormon (near Manchester), which
marked the beginning of the Mormon religion.
In Europe, the similar cold and wet summer conditions inspired several known writers and led
to the creation of significant literary work. The torrential rain and the gloomy weather in Switzerland.
Not too far from Switzerland, Germany was also struggling with failing crops and the dramatic
increase of food prices. As a result, people could not afford to feed their horses, the main mode of
transportation back in the day, thus making traveling too expensive. Coincidentally, a German man
named Karl Drais invented a way to get around without a horse: the early stages of what is today the
bicycle.
Previous Atmospheric Modeling of Tambora Effects on Climate
The importance of the Tambora eruption is discussed in books and journal articles, with more
recent summaries and narrative articles. The above provide chronological narratives of the eruption
followed by weather records, historical events, scientific estimates and some of the available modeling
studies at the time. In their conclusions, these authors all encourage further scientific investigation of
the aerosol effects on climate using state-of-the-art modeling capabilities.
Modeling studies have previously explored current and pre-historic volcanic eruptions and the
different feedbacks tropical volcanic eruptions and high latitude volcanoes have on climate. There are
several modeling studies that include Tambora among their other investigated eruptions. However, less
than a handful devote the simulations to Tambora. More complete modeling studies are available, but
have only examined more recent volcanic eruption.
It explored the winter and summer climatic signal in Europe following major tropical volcanic
eruptions over the last half millennium using high resolution multi-proxy reconstructions of surface
temperature and precipitation (0.5 x 0.5) and 500 hPa geopotential height fields (2.5 x 2.5). The
multi-proxy predictor information for temperature covers from 15002000 while precipitation and 500
hPa geopotential height fields cover 17692000. The authors use superimposed epoch analysis to filter
out non-volcanic features. These regional analyses will be useful in evaluation of model results.
Early modeling studies used proxy data, comparative estimates and then available chemistry
and physical representations of the atmosphere to perform numerical simulations of its impact on
temperature. Recent studies have analyzed more recent and generally well monitored volcanic
eruptions such as Pinatubo (1991) to establish comparative estimates. Although Pinatubo and Krakatoa
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have many similar characteristics to the Tamboras eruption, neither can compare in intensity and
climatic consequences. Therefore, assumptions made in earlier computer simulations need to be
carefully assessed and justified.
The earliest atmospheric simulation of Tamboras eruption was Vupputuri (1992), which used a
coupled one-dimensional radiative-convective-photochemical-diffusion model to simulate the volcanic
forcing of the eruption. The simulation involved a volcanic cloud of estimated height with estimated
optical thickness to calculate temperature changes through time. This determined that global average
surface temperature decreased steadily with a maximum cooling of 1K during the spring of 1816. The
model results also show significant warming of the stratosphere, with a 15 K maximum temperature
increase at 25 km within six months after the date of eruption. It also explored the impact on
stratospheric ozone. However, this model was greatly simplified relative to current capabilities for
studying atmospheric physics and chemistry.
It explored volcanic and solar forcings during the pre-industrial era using a general circulation model.
All simulations were performed using a coarsely gridded (8 x 10) version of the NASA Goddard
Institute for Space Studies (GISS) global climate model containing a mixed layer ocean with fixed heat
transports and a simplified representation of the stratosphere with parameterized ozone
photochemistry. Their results are largely in agreement with available historical and proxy data. In order
to simulate Tambora, the authors approximated emissions from the June 1991 Pinatubo eruption but
shifted the forcing 2 months in advance and increased the aerosol amount in separate calculations
either using the Pintatubo level of emissions or by increasing them by a factor of 2 or 3.
Results are compared with a control run without the volcanic forcing with all runs beginning from
stable initial conditions. Their results show a mean annual average cooling of 0.35C for the lowest
(Pinatubo-size eruption), -0.77C for the factor of 2 eruption case and -1.09C for the factor of 3
assumed eruption case.
Another study that provides partial insight into Tamboras climate impact is. This study
simulated the climate of the last five centuries with the Hamburg coupled atmosphereocean general
circulation model (ECHAM4) run at T42 (approximately 2.8) resolution. Prescribed changes in
tropospheric ozone are approximated but no stratospheric chemistry was included. Only surface
emissions of sulfur are included suggesting that the altitude distribution of emissions was not
considered (only optical depth at the tropopause was included). Their results generally match proxy
data for The Year Without a Summer but fail to reproduce the detailed effects expected following a
large volcanic forcing.
Page 15

Simulate the influence of volcanic activity on climate change in the last few centuries using a
model of intermediate complexity with a horizontal resolution of 4.5 latitude and 6 longitude, but
with only eight vertical levels from the ground to 80 km altitude. The authors supplemented the model
with a stratospheric volcanic aerosol scheme in which instantaneous radiative forcing at the top of the
atmosphere depends linearly on the optical depth and other modules for radiative properties,
convection, precipitation formation, tropospheric sulfate aerosols and water vapor. The model
successfully reproduces the annual mean response of surface air temperature and precipitation to major
eruptions both at a global and regional scale. However, the model shows poor agreement with tropical
and subtropical volcanoes in comparison with how well it matches seasonal distributions during highlatitude eruptions.
That has published analyses of several super volcanoes using their Earth System Model. Their
publications include some well known volcanic eruptions like Pinatubo, Toba and the Unknown super
eruption of 1258 AD. Additional publications on climate response to tropical volcanic eruptions,
ENSO dynamics and aerosol characteristics are available. Although super volcano project has
encompassed a number of volcanic eruptions and has targeted some of the scientific uncertainties,
there is no published modeling study yet on the Tambora eruption and its global climate consequences.
Effects
Mount Tambora's historic eruption in 1815 had global effects. Not only were the earthquakes ignited
by the explosion felt up to 300 miles away, but the ash and magma, or volcanic rock, produced covered
more than 30 cubic miles. The ash ejected by Mount Tambora's eruption reduced the amount of
sunlight that reached Earth's surface and is credited with causing the global cooling effect that led to
the "year without a summer" in 1816.
Miscellaneous
The caldera produced by the 1815 Mount Tambora eruption measures more than 3 miles wide and
more than 3,600 feet deep. In 2004, archaeologists discovered the preserved bodies of two adults
buried in nearly 10 feet of ash in the remnants of a small village on the volcano. The discovery is
similar to one made in the wake of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in the year 79 that
destroyed the city of Pompeii, prompting Mount Tambora's nickname as "the Pompeii of the East."
Page 16
Death
Heavy eruptions of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia are letting up by this day in 1815. The
volcano, which began rumbling on April 5, killed almost 100,000 people directly and indirectly. The
eruption was the largest ever recorded and its effects were noted throughout the world. Tambora is
located on Sumbawa Island, on the eastern end of the Indonesian archipelago. There had been no signs
of volcanic activity there for thousands of years prior to the 1815 eruption.
On April 10, the first of a series of eruptions that month sent ash 20 miles into the atmosphere,
covering the island with ash to a height of 1.5 meters.Five days later, Tambora erupted violently once
again. This time, so much ash was expelled that the sun was not seen for several days. Flaming hot
debris thrown into the surrounding ocean caused explosions of steam. The debris also caused a
moderate-sized tsunami. In all, so much rock and ash was thrown out of Tambora that the height of the
volcano was reduced from 14,000 to 9,000 feet.The worst explosions were heard hundreds of miles
away. The eruptions of Tambora also affected the climate worldwide. Enough ash had been thrown into
the atmosphere that global temperatures were reduced over the next year; it also caused spectacularly
colored sunsets throughout the world. The eruption was blamed for snow and frost in New England
during June and July that summer.
Ten thousand people were killed by the eruptions, most on Sumbawa Island. In subsequent
months, more than 80,000 people died in the surrounding area from starvation due to the resulting crop
failures and disease.
Climate effects of volcanic eruptions
The ozone, greenhouse, and haze effects
There is considerable debate on the role that humans play in changing global climate through both the
burning of fossil fuels and the release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases. Some argue that human
interaction poses less of a threat to our atmosphere than do natural processes, like volcanic eruptions.
This places a great deal of importance on understanding the role of volcanic eruptions in affecting
Page 17

global climate change. Whatever the source, it is apparent that compositional changes in the earth's
atmosphere generate three principal climatic effects:
The ozone effect:
Intense sunlight in the stratosphere (above 12 km) produces bluish colored ozone (O3) by
naturally breaking down normal oxygen molecules (O2) into two highly reactive oxygen atoms (O).
Each oxygen atom then quickly bonds with an oxygen molecule to form ozone. Ozone absorbs UV
radiation, and in the process ozone is changed back into an oxygen molecule and an oxygen atom. A
balance exists in ozone destruction and production, so that an equilibrium concentration exists in the
stratosphere. This equilibrium has probably existed throughout much of geologic time. Recently,
however, an ozone hole has been detected in the stratosphere over Antarctica, presumably due to the
atmospheric build up of ozone-destroying CFCs by humans. Ozone depletion has resulted in a greater
penetration of ultraviolet radiation on the earth's surface, which is harmful to life on earth because it
damages cellular DNA. The ozone effect does not appear to have a direct influence on global
temperatures.
The greenhouse effect:
Certain gases, called greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide and

water vapor; but also methane, N2O, and CFCs), allow short
wavelength radiation from the sun (UV and visible light) to penetrate through the lower atmosphere to
the earth's surface. These same gases, however, absorb long wavelength radiation (infrared), which is
the energy the earth reradiates back into space. The trapping of this infrared heat energy by these
greenhouse gases results in global warming. Global warming has been evident since the beginning of
the Industrial Revolution. Most scientists attribute global warming to the release of greenhouse gases
through the burning
of fossil fuels.
The haze effect:

Suspended particles, such as dust and ash, can block
sunlight, thus reducing solar radiation and lowering mean glo
The haze effect often generates exceptionally red sunsets due
red wavelengths by submicron-size particles in the stratosphe

Page 18

troposphere.
Examples of global cooling in the aftermath of

historic eruptions:
Observational evidence shows a clear correlation
between historic eruptions and subsequent years of cold climate conditions. Four
well-known historic examples are described below
LAKI (1783) -- The eastern U.S. recorded the lowest-ever winter average
temperature in 1783-84, about 4.8OC below the 225-year average. Europe also
experienced an abnormally severe winter. Benjamin Franklin suggested that
these cold conditions resulted from the blocking out of sunlight by dust and
gases created by the Iceland Laki eruption in 1783. The Laki eruption was the
largest outpouring of basalt lava in historic times. Franklin's hypothesis is
consistent with modern scientific theory, which suggests that large volumes of
SO2 are the main culprit in haze-effect global cooling.
TAMBORA (1815) -- Thirty years later, in 1815, the eruption of Mt. Tambora,
Indonesia, resulted in an extremely cold spring and summer in 1816, which
became known as theyear without a summer. The Tambora eruption is believed
to be the largest of the last ten thousand years. New England and Europe were
hit exceptionally hard. Snowfalls and frost occurred in June, July and August
and all but the hardiest grains were destroyed. Destruction of the corn crop
forced farmers to slaughter their animals. Soup kitchens were opened to feed
the hungry. Sea ice migrated across Atlantic shipping lanes, and alpine glaciers
advanced down mountain slopes to exceptionally low elevations.
KRAKATAU (1883) -- Eruption of the Indonesian volcano Krakatau in August
1883 generated twenty times the volume of tephra released by the 1980
eruption of Mt. St. Helens. Krakatau was the second largest eruption in history,
dwarfed only by the eruption of neighboring Tambora in 1815 (see above). For
months after the Krakatau eruption, the world experienced unseasonably cool
weather, brilliant sunsets, and prolonged twilights due to the spread of aerosols
Page 19

throughout the stratosphere. The brilliant sunsets are typical of atmospheric
haze. The unusual and prolonged sunsets generated considerable contemporary
debate on their origin.They also provided inspiration for artists who dipicted the
vibrant nature of the sunsets in several late 19th-century paintings, two of
which are noted here
The influence of volcanic eruptions on the ozone, greenhouse, and haze effects
Volcanic eruptions can enhance all three of these climate effects to variable degrees. They contribute to
ozone depletion, as well as to both cooling and warming of the earth's atmosphere. The role of volcanic
eruptions on each climate effect is described below.
Influence on the ozone effect:
The halide acid HCl has been shown to be effective in destroying ozone; however, the latest studies
show that most volcanic HCl is confined to the troposphere (below the stratosphere), where it is
washed out by rain. Thus, it never has the opportunity to react with ozone. On the other hand, satellite
data after the 1991 eruptions of Mt.Pinatubo (the Philippines) and Mt. Hudson (Chile) showed a 1520% ozone loss at high latitudes, and a greater than 50% loss over the Antarctic. Thus, it appears that
volcanic eruptions can play a significant role in reducing ozone levels. However, it is an indirect role,
which cannot be directly attributed to volcanic HCl. Eruption-generated particles, or aerosols, appear
to provide surfaces upon which chemical reactions take place. The particles themselves do not
contribute to ozone destruction, but they interact with chlorine- and bromine-bearing compounds from
human-made CFCs. Fortunately, volcanic particles will settle out of the stratosphere in two or three
years, so that the effects of volcanic eruptions on ozone depletion are short lived. Although volcanic
aerosols provide a catalyst for ozone depletion, the real culprits in destroying ozone are humangenerated CFCs. Scientists expect the ozone layer to recover due to restrictions on CFCs and other
ozone-depleting chemicals by the United Nations Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer. However, future volcanic eruptions will cause fluctuations in the recovery process.
Influence on the greenhouse effect:
Volcanic eruptions can enhance global warming by adding CO2 to the atmosphere. However, a far
greater amount of CO2 is contributed to the atmosphere by human activities each year than by volcanic
eruptions. T.M.Gerlach (1991, American Geophysical Union) notes that human-made CO2 exceeds the
estimated global release of CO2 from volcanoes by at least 150 times. The small amount of global
Page 20

warming caused by eruption-generated greenhouse gases is offset by the far greater amount of global
cooling caused by eruption-generated particles in the stratosphere (the haze effect). Greenhouse
warming of the earth has been particularly evident since 1980. Without the cooling influence of such
eruptions as El Chichon (1982) and Mt. Pinatubo (1991), described below, greenhouse warming would
have been more pronounced.
Influence on the haze effect:
Volcanic eruptions enhance the haze effect to a greater extent than the greenhouse effect, and thus they
can lower mean global temperatures. It was thought for many years that the greatest volcanic
contribution of the haze effect was from the suspended ash particles in the upper atmosphere that
would block out solar radiation. However, these ideas changed in the 1982 after the eruption of the
Mexican volcano, El Chichon. Although the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens lowered global
temperatures by 0.1OC, the much smaller eruption of El Chichon lowered global temperatures three to
five times as much. Although the Mt. St. Helens blast emitted a greater amount of ash in the
stratosphere, the El Chichon eruption emitted a much greater volume of sulfur-rich gases (40x more).
It appears that the volume of pyroclastic debris emitted during a blast is not the best criteria to measure
its effects on the atmosphere. The amount of sulfur-rich gases appears to be more important. Sulfur
combines with water vapor in the stratosphere to form dense clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets.
These droplets take several years to settle out and they are capable to decreasing the troposphere
temperatures because they absorb solar radiation and scatter it back to space.
Prior to 1815
Before the 1815 eruption, there are three recorded eruptions dated using the radiocarbon method. All of
three of these eruptions have a relatively unknown magnitude. The three dates of these eruptions were
3910BC, 3050BC, and 740AD. All of them consisted of a central vent eruption, and explosive
eruption, while the first two also had pyroclastic flow. Given these dates of eruption, the three major
dormancy periods prior to 1815 were approximately 860 years, 3790 years, and 1075 years.
Post 1815
Page 21

Mount Tambora is still considered an active volcano today, and since its 1815 eruption there has been
three dates of recorded activity. In both 1819 and 1880 there was an eruption rated a 2 on the volcanic
explosivity index (VEI). The second of these eruptions involved lava flow and lava dome extrusion,
while the first only had a central vent eruption and an explosive eruption. The third and latest eruption
occurred in 1967 which was rated a 0 on the VEI and involved a central vent eruption and lava flow.
Given these dates of eruption, the three major dormancy periods after 1815 were approximately 4
years, 61 years, and 87 years.
Mount Tambora Today

Mount Tambora is still considered active today, and recently in 2011 the alert level was raised to a
level III because of increasing reported activity. Its last eruption was in 1967 and was very small with
a 0 rating on the volcanic explosivity index. Tourists regularly visit Mount Tambora and sometimes
climb it, although the climb is not easy, and requires prior mountain climbing experience and excellent
physical condition and endurance. Since the eruption, the population in the surrounding area has
increasingly grown with Indonesias population reaching 222 million by 2006. An eruption of the
magnitude of 1815 would cause much more devastation due to the increased population, and thus
volcanic activity of all volcanoes, including Mount Tambora, is closely monitored.
TABLE & FIGURE
Page 22

Explosive Eruptiona with VEI of 5 and Higher: 1500-2011
VOLCANO
LOCATION
DATE
VEI
Tambora
Indonesia
1815
Pinatubo
Philippines
1991
Azul
Chile
1932
Novarupta
United state
1912
Santa Maria
Gautemala
1902
Krakatau
Indonesia
1883
Unknown
Unknown
1809
Laki
Iceland
1783
Long Is
New Guinea
1700
Cerro Hudson
Chile
1991
El Chichon
Maxico
1982
St. Helens
United state
1980
Bezymianny
Rusia
1956
Kharimkotan
Kuril Islands
1933
Cerro Azul
Chile
1932
colima
Maxico
1913
Ksudach
Russia
1907
Tarawera
New zealand
1886
Askja
Iceland
1875
sheveluch
Russia
1854
cosiguina
Nicaragua
1835
Page 23
Galunggung
Indonesia
1822
Katla
Iceland
1755
Tarumai
Japan
1739
Tarumai
Japan
1667
Usu
Japan
1663
St. Helens
United States
1480
1. Volcanic eruptions with volcanic explosive index (VEI) of 5 and higher since 1480. Sources:
Global Volcanism Program, (Robock, 2000) and (Bradley and Jones, 1992).
Volcanogenic Tsunamis
Date of
Volcano Location
Tsunami
1638 BC
79 AD
Santorini, Greece
Vesuvius, Italy
1631
Vesuvius, Italy
Tsunami Cause and Impact

Destruction of the population of Crete
Caldera collapse
Unknown devastation
Worst Vesuvius tsunami
Result of subplinian eruption
1640
1715
1741
1749
1792
Komagatake, Japan
Taal, Philippines
Oshima-Oshima, Japan
Taal, Philippines
Unzen, Japan
Many boats destroyed

Summit collapse from landslide
700 people killed
Base surge-induced tsunami
Volcanic earthquake
1,467 people killed
Base sure-induced tsunami
Landslide from nearby Mt Mayuyama
55m tsunami waves
1815
Tambora, Indonesia
Around 15,000 people killed

Pyroclastic flows entering sea
Page 24

Waves over 10m
1871
1878
1878
1883
1883
1888
Ruang, Indonesia
Yasur, Vanuata
Okmok, Alaska, USA
Augustine, Alaska, USA
Krakatau, Indonesia
Ritter, Papua new Guinea
Over 10,000 people dead

Pyroclastic flow
26m waves
Volcanic earthquake
16m waves
Volcanic earthquake-induced
Volcanic landslide
9m waves
40m waves
36,000 people dead
Volcano collapse and avalanche
15m waves
1902
1913
1928
Pelee, Carribean
Ambrym, Vanuatu
Paluweh, Indonesia
Hundreds killed on shoreline

Pyroclastic flow-induced
Underwater eruption
Volcanic landslide
10m waves
1930
1933
1956
1969
1972, 1974
1979
Stromboli, Italy
Severgin, Kurile Islands
Bezymianny, Russia
Didicas, Philippines
Ritter, Papua New Guinea
Illiwerung, Indonesia
150 people killed

Volcanic earthquake and landslide
2m waves
Volcanic earthquake
10m tsunami waves
Shockwave-induced tsunami
3 people killed
Small tsunamis from subsidence of
volcano
Volcanic landslide
9m waves
1980
St Helens, Washington,
1983
USA
Illiwerung, Indonesia
1986
Nyos, Cameroon
Over 500 people dead

Volcanic landslide
250m waves in Spirit Lake
Submarine eruption
Few deaths
Underwater CO2 eruption
75m tsunami waves
Page 25

1988
1994
1996
1997
2002
2007
Vulcano, Italy
Volcanic landslide
Rabaul, Papua New Guinea
5.5m waves
Pyroclastic flow-induced
Karymsky, Russia
1.2m waves
Phreatomagmatic eruption
Soufriere Hills, Montserrat
30m waves
Volcanic debris slide
Stromboli, Italy
Ritter, Papua New Guinea
3m waves
Landslide-induced tsunami
Eruption-induced landslide
Many homes destroyed
Figure:
Page 26
Figure 1. Image shows the Sanggar Peninsula as taken by the Landsat 7SLC-on on September 13, 2000.
Tambora and its caldera can be observed, located in the center of the image. Source: USG
Page 27
Page 28
Page 29
CONCLUSION
Page 30

Tambora provides a challenging framework since the ability to gather scientific
data at the time was scarce and the amount of available data is limited to historical
documentation and proxy-data analyzed presently. For this reason, several articles and
books on proxy data and historic documentation about Tambora have been published but
only a few of these include modeling results, none of which offer a complete assessment
of Tamboras eruption effect on climate. In order to make the The Tambora Project a
reality, we had to dig deep in historical records, journalistic accounts and scientific
articles to look for evidence of climatic impact after the eruption. From the extensive
literature review performed in this study, we were able to discover overwhelming
evidence from all over the world of the endured weather anomalies in 1816, supporting
reconstructed proxies. Furthermore, the gaps in scientific literature became more apparent
and the realization that no scientific project had devoted state-of-the-art computer
simulations in order to recreate such event, only prevented The Tambora Project from
immediately taking off. As a result, this thesis focused on providing the modeling
framework needed in order to pave the way for the modeling and execution of the project.
We were successfully able to develop a series of proposed runs that aim to clarify
and shed some light to the epochal event that impacted thousands of people globally.
These runs are now currently being configured and built in order to then be executed and
analyzed as results become available. The Tambora Project in itself is of great magnitude,
the multidisciplinary collaboration between the physical sciences and the humanities
however, eases the load and facilitates the dissemination of information not only to
academic audiences, but to the general audiences as well. It is our main goal to
understand this historical event in order to provide important lessons not only for
historians, but scientists and policymakers tasked with responding to the current climate
change and its impact on the global human community.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Page 31
www.climpast.discuss.net
ppg.sagepub.com
climate.cnvsci.rutgers.edu
www.google.co.in
history1800.about.com
www.scientificamerican.com
www.history.com
www.geology.sdsu.edu
www.ideals.illinois.edu
legacy.earlham.eduvalcano.oregonstate.edu
hilo.hawaii.edu
Page 32

1815 Tambora Eruption

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1815 TAMBORA ERUPTION, INDONESIA