NDT-ispitivanja SVA PDF

Non-Destructive
Evaluation Methods
Thomas Lthi
Cover image: Anax imperator, micro X-ray tomographic view, Iwan Jerjen, Empa
Version 2013
Copyrights:
The presented images are under copyright of the sources indicated in the respective captions, they may
be used for educational purposes only. Most of them are downloaded from the internet or scanned from
company flyers, some are the due to personnel communications.
Text copyright 2003-2013 Thomas Lthi
The author would like to express his thank to colleagues from Empa's Centre for Non-Destructive Testing
for their support.
PREFACE
Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) or non-destructive testing (NDT) has been defined as comprising those test methods, used to examine or inspect a part, a material or a system without
impairing its future usefulness. The term is generally applied to investigations of material integ rity, excluding medical diagnosis and homeland security, even if for those several methods are
used equally. As the approaches are not exactly the same, it is sometimes helpful to study
those applications and to learn new implementations.
Since 1920, the art of testing without destroying the test object has developed from a laborat ory curiosity to an indispensable tool of production, safety and structural integrity, maintenance
and life-time prediction.
Certain types of flaws are inherently coupled with the manufacturing process and each manufacturing process has its own special flaw types. Furthermore each manufacturing technique
may or may not have its very own flaws. For non-destructive testing of new products a pro found knowledge of the manufacturing process and its connected flaws, therefore, is indispensable.
A second type of characteristic that can be influenced by the manufacturing process is the
material itself, especially due to heat treatment of all kind.
A third type, finally, is connected to the geometry of the component or dimensions of certain
parts (wall or coating thickness) or the correct positioning of internal structures.
The usual flaw type introduced during operation has something to do with mechanical load
(static or dynamic) and/or chemical processes the product was undergoing. The main flaw
types looked upon at in-service inspections, therefore, are cracks or corrosion. Mechanical
damage can also be cavitations, impacts, buckles, etc.
Some mechanical, thermal or chemical induced alterations of the material can be found by nondestructive techniques.
The measuring of dimensions at in-service inspections is also very common, especially in combination with corrosion detection (wall-thinning, etc.). The detection of the position of internal
structures is quite common for aircraft components and it is a unique aid for damage assessment.
Fatigue cracks caused damage to the fuselage of this Boeing 737 (Aloha Airlines flight 243), it
lost one third of its roof while cruising in 24'000 ft, the accident caused the death of a flight
attendant and injury to many passengers (April 1988)
CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Methods Overview.....................................................................................1
1.1.1
Surface, Near-Surface and Volume Inspection.................................................1
1.1.2
Imaging Methods........................................................................................2
1.1.3
Classification Criteria...................................................................................3
Statistical Aspects.....................................................................................3
1.2.1
Flaw Response and Discrimination Criterion....................................................3
1.2.2
Probability of Detection (POD).......................................................................4
1.2.3
Flaw Response and Noise.............................................................................5
1.2.4
Receiver Operation Characteristics (ROC).......................................................6
1.2.1
Risk Considerations.....................................................................................6
Basic Concepts on Data Acquisition and Interpretation.............................7

1.3.1
Signal and Noise.........................................................................................7
1.3.2
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)...............................................................8
1.3.3
Edge Spread Function (ESF) and Line Spread Function (LSF).............................9
1.3.4
Modulation.................................................................................................9
1.3.5
Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem............................................................10
1.3.6
Fourier Transform......................................................................................11
Training, Qualification and Certification of Personnel..............................12

1.4.1
Introduction.............................................................................................12
1.4.2
NDT Levels...............................................................................................12
1.4.3
Experience, Training and Qualification..........................................................13
1.4.4
Vision Requirements..................................................................................14
1.4.5
Certification..............................................................................................14
Human Aspects.......................................................................................15
1.5.1
Influences on Human Reliability...................................................................15
1.5.2
Colour Sensibility of the Human Eye.............................................................16
1.5.3
Colour Vision Deficiency (CVD)....................................................................17
1.5.4
Contrast Sensitivity of the Human Eye..........................................................17
1.5.5
Dark Adaptation........................................................................................18
1.5.6
Visual Perception.......................................................................................19
Standardisation.......................................................................................20
1.6.1
National Standards (Switzerland).................................................................20
1.6.2
European Standards..................................................................................20
1.6.3
International Standards..............................................................................20
1.6.4
US-American Standards.............................................................................20
1.6.5
Japanese Standards...................................................................................20
1.6.6
Standards for Aviation................................................................................21
1.7
Laboratory Accreditation.........................................................................21
1.8
Examination Procedure and Report General Requirements...................21

1.8.1
Examination Procedure...............................................................................21
1.8.2
Examination Report...................................................................................22
1.8.3
Marking...................................................................................................24
VISUAL AND OPTICAL INSPECTION..............................................25

i
2.1
Introduction............................................................................................25
2.2
Equipment...............................................................................................25
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Measuring Equipment and Reference Parts for Comparisons.............................25
2.2.2
Equipment for Direct Visual Techniques........................................................25
2.2.3
Equipment for Remote Visual Techniques......................................................27
2.2.4
Illumination..............................................................................................28
2.2.5
Equipment for Optical Methods....................................................................29
2.2.6
Forensic Equipment...................................................................................30
Testing Procedures for Visual Testing.....................................................30

2.3.1
Standard Procedures..................................................................................30
2.3.2
Automated Optical Mass Inspection (AOI).....................................................31
2.3.3
Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM)..................................................32
2.3.4
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)..........................................................33
2.3.5
Scanning Near Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM).............................................34
Optical Measuring Methods.....................................................................34

2.4.1
General....................................................................................................34
2.4.2
Fringe Projection.......................................................................................34
2.4.3
Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)...........................................35
2.4.4
Laser Shearography...................................................................................36
2.4.5
Moir Interferometry..................................................................................37
Aspects of Quality Assurance..................................................................38

2.5.1
Resolution Targets.....................................................................................38
2.5.2
Viewing Conditions....................................................................................39
2.5.3
Special Vision Requirements.......................................................................39
Procedure and Record.............................................................................39

2.6.1
Procedure.................................................................................................39
2.6.2
Record.....................................................................................................40
Trends, Summary and Conclusions..........................................................40
INFRARED AND THERMAL INSPECTION........................................41

3.1
Introduction............................................................................................41
3.2
Heat Transfer..........................................................................................41
3.3
3.4
ii
2.2.1
3.2.1
Heat Transfer Mechanisms..........................................................................41
3.2.2
Thermal Properties....................................................................................43
3.2.3
Influence of the Atmosphere.......................................................................43
Equipment...............................................................................................43
3.3.1
Heating Equipment....................................................................................43
3.3.2
Performance Parameters of Infrared Instruments...........................................44
3.3.3
Non-Contact Temperature Sensors...............................................................45
3.3.4
Contact Temperature Sensors.....................................................................49
3.3.5
Optical Components...................................................................................49
Thermographic Techniques.....................................................................51
3.4.1
Overview..................................................................................................51
3.4.2
Selective Heating......................................................................................51
3.4.3
Transmission Thermography.......................................................................52
3.4.4
Pulse or Transient Thermography.................................................................53
3.4.5
Flying Spot and Flying Line Technique..........................................................56
3.4.6
Lock-In Thermography...............................................................................56
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.4.7
Pulse Phase Thermography.........................................................................58
3.4.8
Step Heating (Long Pulse)..........................................................................58
3.4.9
Vibro-Thermography..................................................................................59
3.4.10
EddyTherm...............................................................................................59
3.4.11
Thermoelastic Stress Analysis (TSA).............................................................59

3.5.1
Laboratory Blackbody................................................................................60
3.5.2
Targets....................................................................................................60
3.5.3
Thermal Resolution....................................................................................61
3.5.4
Imaging Spatial Resolution.........................................................................61
3.5.5
Measurement Spatial Resolution..................................................................62

3.6.1
Procedure.................................................................................................62
3.6.2
Record.....................................................................................................62
Summary and Conclusions......................................................................62
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION.................................................63

4.1
Introduction............................................................................................63
4.2
Equipment...............................................................................................64
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.2.1
Classification of Testing Products.................................................................64
4.2.2
Chemical Compatibility and Thermal Restrictions............................................64
4.2.3
Penetrants................................................................................................65
4.2.4
Excess Penetrant Removers........................................................................65
4.2.5
Developers...............................................................................................65
4.2.6
Electrostatic Spray Guns.............................................................................66
4.2.7
Black Light Lamps.....................................................................................66
4.2.8
Blue Light Systems....................................................................................66
4.2.9
Flaw Inspection Systems............................................................................67
Testing Procedure...................................................................................69
4.3.1
Precleaning..............................................................................................69
4.3.2
Penetration...............................................................................................69
4.3.3
Excess Penetrant Removal..........................................................................70
4.3.4
Drying.....................................................................................................70
4.3.5
Development............................................................................................70
4.3.6
Inspection................................................................................................70
4.3.7
Retesting.................................................................................................71
4.3.8
Bleed back...............................................................................................71

4.4.1
Chemical Agents.......................................................................................71
4.4.2
Viewing Conditions....................................................................................72
4.4.3
Safety Aspects..........................................................................................72

4.5.1
Procedure.................................................................................................73
4.5.2
Record.....................................................................................................73
Special Techniques and Trends...............................................................73

4.6.1
High Temperature Penetrant Testing............................................................73
4.6.2
Low Temperature Penetrant Testing.............................................................74
4.6.3
Filtered Particle Testing..............................................................................74

iii
4.7
Automated Signal Detection........................................................................75
5.1
Introduction............................................................................................77
5.2
Leak Testing Techniques.........................................................................77
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.2.1
Tightness Requirements.............................................................................77
5.2.2
Restrictions and Safety Factors....................................................................78
Tracer Gas Methods.................................................................................79

5.3.1
Principles of Detection................................................................................79
5.3.2
Pirani Gauges...........................................................................................79
5.3.3
Ionisation Gauges......................................................................................80
5.3.4
Techniques where Tracer Gas in Flowing into the Object..................................80
5.3.5
Techniques where Tracer Gas is Flowing out of the Object...............................81
Pressure Change Methods.......................................................................82

5.4.1
Test Instruments.......................................................................................82
5.4.2
Pressure Decay Technique..........................................................................83
5.4.3
Pressure Rise Technique.............................................................................83
5.4.4
Bell Pressure Change Technique..................................................................83
5.4.5
Flow Measurement Technique......................................................................84
5.4.6
Bubble Emission Technique.........................................................................84
Various Techniques.................................................................................85
5.5.1
Tightness of Piping Systems........................................................................85
5.5.2
Acoustic Techniques...................................................................................86
5.5.3
Air Tightness of Buildings............................................................................86
5.5.4
Radionuclide Leakage Test..........................................................................87

5.6.1
Procedure.................................................................................................88
5.6.2
Record.....................................................................................................88
MAGNETIC INSPECTION...............................................................89
6.1
Introduction............................................................................................89
6.2
Diverted Magnetic Flux............................................................................89
6.3
6.4
iv
Process Acceleration..................................................................................75
4.6.5
LEAK TIGHTNESS INSPECTION.....................................................77
5.3
4.6.4
6.2.1
Magnetic Field Distribution..........................................................................89
6.2.2
Magnetic Properties...................................................................................89
6.2.3
Models for the Diversion by a Slot................................................................90
6.2.4
Model for the Diversion by a Subsurface Cylindrical Hole.................................92
Magnetising Equipment...........................................................................93
6.3.1
Magnetic Field of an Electric Conductor.........................................................93
6.3.2
Magnetic Field of a Coil..............................................................................94
6.3.3
Hand Yokes..............................................................................................95
6.3.4
Prods.......................................................................................................95
6.3.5
Magnetising Mandrels.................................................................................95
6.3.6
Magnetic Benches......................................................................................96
Magnetisation.........................................................................................97
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.4.1
Overview..................................................................................................97
6.4.2
Axial Current Flow.....................................................................................97
6.4.3
Prods; Current Flow...................................................................................98
6.4.4
Induced Current Flow.................................................................................98
6.4.5
Threaded Conductor..................................................................................98
6.4.6
Adjacent Conductor or Cable.......................................................................99
6.4.7
Fixed Installation.......................................................................................99
6.4.8
Portable Electromagnet (Yoke)....................................................................99
6.4.9
Rigid Coil.................................................................................................99
6.4.10
Flexible Coil..............................................................................................99
Detection of the Magnetic Flux..............................................................100

6.5.1
Dry Magnetic Particles..............................................................................100
6.5.2
Wet Magnetic Particles.............................................................................100
6.5.3
Peelable Detection Media..........................................................................101
6.5.4
Induction Coils........................................................................................102
6.5.5
Hall Effect Sensors...................................................................................102
6.5.6
Magneto-Optical Sensors..........................................................................103
Demagnetisation...................................................................................104
6.6.1
Basic Principle.........................................................................................104
6.6.2
Reversing DC Demagnetisation..................................................................104
6.6.3
Demagnetising Tunnels............................................................................104
6.6.4
Yoke Lift Off Technique.............................................................................105
6.6.5
Maurer Demagnetising.............................................................................105
Aspects of Quality Assurance................................................................105

6.7.1
Field Direction and Strength......................................................................105
6.7.2
Quality of the Magnetic Detection Media......................................................106
6.7.3
Viewing Conditions...................................................................................107
6.7.4
Safety Aspects........................................................................................107
Procedure and Record...........................................................................108

6.8.1
Procedure...............................................................................................108
6.8.2
Record...................................................................................................108
Special Applications..............................................................................109
6.9.1
Underfloor Corrosion................................................................................109
6.9.2
Wire Cable and Stay Cable Inspection.........................................................110
6.9.1
Tube and Pipeline Inspection.....................................................................112
6.9.2
Underwater Application.............................................................................113
6.9.3
Evaluation of Barkhausen Noise.................................................................113
High Resolution Magnetometry.............................................................115

6.10.1
TFI, AMR and GMR Sensors.......................................................................115
6.10.2
Fluxgate Magnetometers...........................................................................117
6.10.3
SQUIDs..................................................................................................117
Summary and Conclusions....................................................................118
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION......................................................119

7.1
Introduction..........................................................................................119
7.2
Physical Background.............................................................................119
7.2.1
Current Flow and Ohm Law.......................................................................119
7.2.2
Magnetic Behaviour..................................................................................120
v
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
vi
7.2.3
Induction and Inductance.........................................................................120
7.2.4
Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance....................................................121
7.2.5
Mutual Inductance...................................................................................121
7.2.6
Impedance.............................................................................................122
7.2.7
Depth of Penetration and Current Density...................................................122
7.2.8
Phase Lag...............................................................................................123
Testing Arrangements...........................................................................124
7.3.1
Characteristic Frequency and Effective Permeability......................................124
7.3.2
Complex Impedance Plane and Operating Point............................................124
7.3.3
Encircling Probes.....................................................................................125
7.3.4
Tube Testing with Encircling Probes and Internal Coaxial Probes.....................127
7.3.5
Probe and Through-Transmission Testing of Sheets and Foils.........................128
7.3.6
Rotating Probes.......................................................................................130
Equipment.............................................................................................131
7.4.1
Examination System................................................................................131
7.4.2
Eddy Current Instruments.........................................................................131
7.4.3
High Frequency (HF) Signal Processing.......................................................132
7.4.4
Demodulated Signal Processing.................................................................133
7.4.5
Display...................................................................................................133
7.4.6
Digitisation.............................................................................................133
7.4.7
Probes...................................................................................................133
7.4.8
Mechanised Units.....................................................................................133
7.4.9
Eddy Current Imaging..............................................................................133
7.4.10
Reference Test Pieces...............................................................................134
7.4.11
Instrument and Probe Setting....................................................................134
7.4.12
Display and Output..................................................................................135
Receiving Media....................................................................................135
7.5.1
Coils......................................................................................................135
7.5.2
T-Probes................................................................................................136
7.5.3
GMR Probes............................................................................................137
7.5.4
Probe Arrays...........................................................................................137
7.5.5
Flexible Probe Arrays................................................................................139

7.6.1
Typical Sources of Errors in Measurement...................................................140
7.6.2
Verification of Eddy Current Equipment.......................................................140
7.6.3
Reference Blocks.....................................................................................141

7.7.1
Procedure...............................................................................................143
7.7.2
Record...................................................................................................143
Special and Advanced Techniques.........................................................143

7.8.1
Sorting...................................................................................................143
7.8.2
Measurements in Magnetic Saturation.........................................................144
7.8.3
Multi Frequency Technique........................................................................144
7.8.4
Swept Frequency Technique......................................................................145
7.8.5
Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC).............................................................146
7.8.6
Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC)........................................................................146
7.8.7
Detection of reinforcement bars.................................................................148
7.8.8
Magneto-Optical Imaging (MOI).................................................................149
7.8.9
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)............................................149
7.9
MICROWAVE AND TERAHERTZ INSPECTION...............................151

8.1
Introduction..........................................................................................151
8.2
Physical Principles of Microwaves.........................................................151
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.2.1
General..................................................................................................151
8.2.2
Reflection and Refraction..........................................................................153
8.2.3
Absorption and Dissipation........................................................................155
8.2.4
Standing Waves......................................................................................155
8.2.5
Scattering..............................................................................................155
8.2.6
Homodyne and Heterodyne Demodulation...................................................156
Techniques of Microwave Inspection.....................................................156

8.3.1
Transmission Techniques..........................................................................156
8.3.2
Reflection Techniques...............................................................................157
8.3.3
Standing Wave Techniques.......................................................................159
8.3.4
Scattering Techniques..............................................................................159
Equipment.............................................................................................160
8.4.1
Microwave Circuit Components..................................................................160
8.4.2
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)................................................................161
8.4.3
Terahertz Equipment................................................................................163
Applications..........................................................................................165
8.5.1
Applications of Ground Penetrating Radar....................................................165
8.5.2
Applications of Materials Characterisation and Research................................166
Special and Advanced Methods..............................................................167

8.6.1
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT).............................................167
8.6.2
Near Field Terahertz Scanning...................................................................168
8.6.3
Homeland Security...................................................................................169
8.6.4
Metamaterials.........................................................................................169
MAGNETIC RESONANCE INSPECTION.........................................171

9.1
Introduction..........................................................................................171
9.2
Principles of Magnetic Resonance.........................................................171
9.3
9.4
9.2.1
Application of Magnetic Fields....................................................................171
9.2.2
Magnetic Resonance.................................................................................171
9.2.3
Magnetic Resonance Signal.......................................................................172
9.2.4
Molecular Mobility....................................................................................172
Instruments and Applications...............................................................172

9.3.1
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.....................................................................172
9.3.2
Magnetic Resonance Imaging....................................................................173
Spatial Encoding and Image Contrast....................................................175

9.4.1
Slice Selection.........................................................................................175
9.4.2
Frequency and Phase Encoding..................................................................176
9.4.3
Image Construction.................................................................................176
9.4.4
Other Spatial Location Methods.................................................................177
9.5
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance.........................................................177
9.6

vii
10 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION..........................................................179
10.1
Introduction..........................................................................................179
10.2
Physics of Ultrasound............................................................................180
10.3
10.2.1
Wave Propagation....................................................................................180
10.2.2
Ultrasonic Velocity...................................................................................181
10.2.3
Attenuation of Sound Waves.....................................................................182
10.2.4
Acoustic Waves at Interfaces.....................................................................183
10.2.5
Acoustic Waves at Interlayers....................................................................186
10.2.6
Properties of the Sound Beam...................................................................187
Equipment.............................................................................................190
10.3.1
Instruments............................................................................................190
10.3.2
Cables and Connectors.............................................................................191
10.3.3
Properties of the ultrasonic pulse...............................................................192
10.3.4
Piezoelectric Transducers..........................................................................192
10.3.5
Probes for Contact Testing Technique.........................................................195
10.3.6
Focusing Probes......................................................................................198
10.3.7
Wheel Probes..........................................................................................198
10.3.8
Equipment and Probes for Bubblers and Squirters.........................................199
10.3.9
Equipment and Probes for Immersion Testing..............................................200
10.3.10 Equipment and Probes for Air Coupling.......................................................202

10.3.11 Electromagnetic-acoustic Transducers (EMAT)..............................................202
10.3.12 Magnetostrictive Transducers....................................................................203
10.3.13 Phased Array Transducers.........................................................................204
10.3.14 Capacitive Micro-Machined Ultrasonic Transducers (CMUT).............................207
10.3.15 Laser Ultrasonics.....................................................................................207
10.3.16 Tone Burst Generators.............................................................................208
10.3.17 Impact-Echo Equipment...........................................................................208
10.3.18 Dry-Point-Contact Probes..........................................................................208
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
Ultrasonic Techniques...........................................................................209
10.4.1
Pulse Echo Technique...............................................................................209
10.4.2
Tandem and LLT-Examination....................................................................210
10.4.3
Transmission Technique............................................................................210
10.4.4
Pitch and Catch Technique (Double Probe Technique)....................................211
10.4.5
Guided Waves.........................................................................................212
10.4.6
Image Presentations................................................................................213
Characterisation and Sizing of Discontinuities.......................................216

10.5.1
Techniques for the Classification of Discontinuity Shape................................216
10.5.2
Echo Height Evaluation.............................................................................217
10.5.3
Probe Movement Sizing Techniques............................................................219
10.5.4
Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique................................................219
10.5.5
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT).............................................221

10.6.1
Calibration Blocks and Calibration..............................................................221
10.6.2
Characterisation and Verification of Ultrasonic Examination Equipment............222
10.6.3
Probe and Sound Field Characterisation......................................................222
10.6.4
Sound Field Simulation.............................................................................223

10.7.1
viii
Procedure...............................................................................................223
10.7.2
10.8
10.9
Record...................................................................................................223

10.8.1
Special Mode Conversion Applications.........................................................225
10.8.2
Doppler Applications................................................................................226
10.8.3
Acoustic Microscopy.................................................................................227
10.8.4
Advanced Thickness Measurement.............................................................228
11 ACOUSTIC EMISSION INSPECTION.............................................230

11.1
Introduction..........................................................................................230
11.2
Features and Limits...............................................................................230
11.3
11.2.1
General..................................................................................................230
11.2.2
Definitions..............................................................................................231
11.2.3
Kaiser Effect...........................................................................................231
11.2.4
Felicity Effect..........................................................................................231
Instrumentation....................................................................................232
11.3.1
Acoustic Emission Sensors........................................................................232
11.3.2
Signal Conditioning and Processing............................................................233
11.4
Data Analysis........................................................................................233
11.5
Applications and Derived Techniques....................................................234
11.6
11.5.1
Power Transformer Partial Discharge Localisation.........................................234
11.5.2
Applications for Pressure Vessels...............................................................234
11.5.3
Applications for Structural Integrity Assessment and Health Monitoring...........234
11.5.4
Applications for Wood...............................................................................235
11.5.5
Micro Acoustics in Geophysics....................................................................236
11.5.6
Applications for Process Monitoring............................................................236

11.6.1
Procedure...............................................................................................237
11.6.2
Record...................................................................................................237
11.7
Acousto-Ultrasonics..............................................................................237
11.8
Acoustic Resonance Analysis and Non-Linear Acoustics........................238
11.9
11.8.1
Acoustic Resonance Analysis.....................................................................238
11.8.2
Tap Testing.............................................................................................239
11.8.3
Non-Linear Acoustics................................................................................240
12 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION.....................................................242
12.1
Introduction..........................................................................................242
12.2
Physics of Radiography.........................................................................243
12.3
12.2.1
Attenuation of X-Rays..............................................................................243
12.2.2
Thomson Scattering.................................................................................244
12.2.3
Compton Scattering.................................................................................245
12.2.4
Unsharpness and Spatial Resolution...........................................................246
12.2.5
Contrast.................................................................................................247
12.2.6
Attenuation of Neutrons............................................................................248
Radiation Sources.................................................................................249
ix
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.3.1
Bremsstrahlung and K-Shell Radiation........................................................249
12.3.2
Conventional X-Ray Tubes........................................................................250
12.3.3
Microfocus X-Ray Tubes............................................................................252
12.3.4
High Energy X-Ray Sources.......................................................................253
12.3.5
Flash X-Ray Machines...............................................................................253
12.3.6
Gamma Ray Sources................................................................................254
12.3.7
Neutron Sources......................................................................................256
12.3.8
Synchrotrons..........................................................................................258
Radiation Detection...............................................................................260
12.4.1
X-Ray Film, Film Processing, Film Illuminator...............................................260
12.4.2
Intensifying Screens.................................................................................263
12.4.3
Film Digitisation......................................................................................264
12.4.4
Computed Radiography (CR) with Imaging Plates (IP)...................................265
12.4.5
Scintillators............................................................................................266
12.4.6
Image Intensifying Systems......................................................................268
12.4.7
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Concepts......................................................269
12.4.8
Detector Panels.......................................................................................270
12.4.9
Neutron Detectors...................................................................................272
Radiographic Techniques......................................................................273
12.5.1
Standard Radiographic Techniques.............................................................273
12.5.2
Special Radiographic Techniques without Signal Processing............................273
12.5.3
Film Laminography and Film Tomography...................................................274
Tomographic Techniques.......................................................................275
12.6.1
Computed Laminography..........................................................................275
12.6.2
Computed Tomography (CT).....................................................................276
12.6.3
Beam Hardening Correction.......................................................................278
12.6.4
First Article Inspection, Rapid Prototyping and Reverse Engineering................279
12.6.5
Local Tomography...................................................................................280

12.7.1
Determination of the Focal Spot Size..........................................................280
12.7.2
Controls Related to Film Radiography.........................................................280
12.7.3
Controls Related to Film-Less Radiography..................................................281
12.7.4
Image Quality of Radiographs....................................................................281
12.7.5
Secondary Radiation and Undercut.............................................................281

12.8.1
Procedure...............................................................................................282
12.8.2
Record...................................................................................................282

12.9.1
Compton Backscatter Technique................................................................284
12.9.2
Absorption Edge Scanning.........................................................................285
12.9.3
Phase Contrast Radiography......................................................................286
12.9.4
Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry............................................................287
12.9.5
Electron Radiography and Autoradiography.................................................288
12.9.6
Emission Techniques................................................................................289
12.9.7
X-Ray Flash Technique.............................................................................290
12.9.8
X-Ray Refractometry................................................................................291
12.10 Radiation Protection..............................................................................291

12.10.1 Fundamentals.........................................................................................291
12.10.2 Dose Rates and Limitations.......................................................................292
x
12.10.3 Possibilities of Restrictions against Radiation...............................................294

12.10.4 Shielding of X-Rays..................................................................................295
12.10.5 Shielding of Gamma Rays.........................................................................296
12.10.6 Shielding of Neutrons...............................................................................297
12.11 Summary and Conclusions....................................................................297
13 APPENDIX...................................................................................300
13.1
13.2
13.3
Literature..............................................................................................300
13.1.1
Selected Books........................................................................................300
13.1.2
Selected Journals.....................................................................................301
Web Sites..............................................................................................303
13.2.1
NDT Societies.........................................................................................303
13.2.2
Producers, Service and Trade (extract).......................................................304
13.2.3
Selected Research and Information Sites.....................................................312
EN Standards (related to NDT)..............................................................313
14 DICTIONARY...............................................................................324
INDEX.........................................................................................345
xi
xii
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Methods Overview
Basically the non-destructive testing methods can be classified into six major categories:
Visual-optical;
Penetrating radiation;
Magnetic-electrical;
Mechanical vibration;
Thermal;
Penetrating gas or liquid.
The objective of each method is to provide information about one or several of the following
parameters:
Discontinuities and separations (cracks, voids, inclusions, delaminations etc.) at the surface, connected to the surface or internally;
Structure or malstructure (microstructure, grain size, segregation, misalignment, orientation etc.) dependent on size and location;
Dimensions and metrology (thickness, diameter, gap size, discontinuity size, etc.);
Physical (electrical, magnetic, thermal), mechanical, and surface properties (reflectivity,

conductivity, elastic modulus, sonic velocity, etc.);
Composition and chemical analysis (alloy identification, impurities, elemental distributions, etc.);
Stress and dynamic response (residual stress, crack growth, wear, vibration, etc.);
Signature analysis (image content, frequency spectrum, field configuration, etc.).
The used abbreviations mean AT: acoustic emission testing, ET: eddy current testing, LT: leak
testing, MT: magnetic testing, NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance, PT: penetrant testing, RT:
radiography (includes here techniques with neutron radiation as well), TT: infrared thermography testing, UT: ultrasonic testing, ST: strain testing, VT: visual testing (includes here also
optical methods), WT: microwave testing (non-official abbreviation).
1.1.1
Surface, Near-Surface and Volume Inspection

The different methods may be divided into methods that inspect surfaces only, a surface near
zone, and the volume. The meaning of near-surface is that the method is able to inspect a
volume partially or in full for thin components, but that the penetration depth is limited. Details
have to be taken from the relevant chapters.
Table 1-1: Ranges of detection

Method
Surface
Near-Surface
Volume
AT
ET
LT
not applicable
MT
NMR
backscatter
techniques
PT
RT
1.1.2
Remarks
TT
UT
surface
reflection
surface waves
VT
optical
coherence tomography
WT
surface
reflection
Imaging Methods
Several methods are imaging inherently, either directly visible for the human eye or detectable
with a camera or camera-like system. If the camera itself is a scanning type or an array type is,
if of interest, discussed in the relevant chapters. Other methods can be made imaging using
scanning techniques.
If the latter argument is valid, techniques that use more than one image to get the final
information (e.g. computed tomography) have to be considered as scanning techniques.
Table 1-2: Imaging possibilities of different methods (examples)
Method
Inherently
imaging
AT
ET
magneto-optical imaging
LT
MT
Remarks
acousto-ultrasonics
generally not
applicable
X
X
magnetic particles
NMR
Scanning possible
mostly not
applicable
magnetic field sensors

X
tomography
possible
single sensor
tomography
possible
PT
RT
film, imaging plate,

flat panel
TT
infrared camera, contact temperature sensor
UT
laser vibrometer
VT
SNOM
WT
tomography
possible (?)
1.1.3
Classification Criteria
As for most non-destructive methods exact sizing of flaws is often not easy or impossible at all,
the term indication is widely used.
The detection threshold of the method and/or the technique is a theoretical value and relies on
the technique, the object, and the surrounding conditions; it is the level where no difference
can be found between signal and noise.
Above the reporting or recording level all indications have to be recorded. This level is not
always given, but it is useful to compare the results with later investigations (e.g. crack
growth) or if there is the need to increase the load on the component and therefore new fracture mechanic calculations are necessary.
The acceptance level describes the limit whether a component is acceptable or not.
As it is often not such easy to reject a component if the acceptance level is exceeded, in prac tice also an upper threshold or a discussion limit exists. This can be especially the case if
repairing could induce other unwanted phenomenon (residual stress etc.) or if the time delay
for a substitution is too long. If the acceptance level is exceed at an in-service inspection
potential measures can be reducing the load or reducing the time interval to the next in-service
inspection.
The definition of the criteria is generally not made by the institution that executes the non-de structive evaluation. In practice it can happen that the investigation has to be performed
without any criteria at all, and that the discussion on acceptance begins when the results are
presented.
1.2
Statistical Aspects
1.2.1
Flaw Response and Discrimination Criterion

The response from a NDE system or process may take the form of a signal output (or outputs)
or a direct or indirect image. Acceptable conditions can be differentiated from unacceptable
conditions in the case of an electronic output by:
Threshold discrimination (amplitude, time, etc.);
and in the case of image analysis by:
Pattern recognition (number, frequency, etc.);
Threshold discrimination.
The discrimination can be automated or performed by a human operator.

The definition of recording and acceptance criteria can be different for the same part depending
on the production step and/or the position on the part (depending on the different damage
mechanisms) and/or the detectability of the signal e.g. due to geometrical reasons.
A direct or indirect relationship between an NDE response and a system performance characteristic may be functional under laboratory conditions, but may be impractical in applications
under production or in-service conditions.
Non-destructive evaluation involves the measurement of complex parameters with inherent
variations in both the measurement process and part under test. The output from such a measurement / decision process can be analysed as a problem in conditional probability. The out come can be classified into the four following results:
True positive (TP): a defect exists and is detected;
False positive (FP): no defect exists but one is identified (type II error or false call);
False negative (FN): a defect exists but is not detected (type I error);
True negative (TN): no defect exists and none is detected.
TP and FN outcomes giving the total opportunities for positive calls (= effective number of
defects), FP and TN outcomes giving the total opportunities for false alarms (= effective number of no defects).
The probability of detection (POD), therefore, is defined as
POD=
TP
TP+FN
(1.1)
TP
FN
Change
criterion setting
Change
signal
characteristics
Figure 1-1: For a given signal the POD is influenced by the setting of the criterion and the characteristics of the signal
Similarly, the probability of false alarms (POFA) can be expressed as
FP
(1.2)
FP+TN
The desired results of the application of NDE procedures are defect detection (signal present)
or signal non-detection (signal absent). The basis for detection is that of sensing a signal
response and determining if the signal response is above a predetermined threshold. Both,
sensing and interpretation are relying on the signal and the noise that are subjected to the discrimination media (machine or human operator).
POFA=
1.2.2
Probability of Detection (POD)

The characteristic performance level of a given NDE procedure can be established by subjecting
a number of test samples containing defects (often cracks with different lengths) in a range of
sizes to the procedure. It is only valid for one NDE problem, one material (one material com bination), one NDE technique, and usually one type of NDE equipment with one setting. The
inspectors or the machine can be ordered to classify the readings into given classes. If a defect
is classified too low it is assessed as not detected (FN). If it classified too high, consequently it
is assessed as detected. For single POD determination parts without defects are not necessary,
but the distribution of defects should cover the whole range. The real defect size has to be
measured using other methods.
Figure 1-2: POD plots for four different non-destructive evaluation methods on the same set of
test specimen with cracks (NASA)
1.2.3
Flaw Response and Noise

For a given distribution of the flaw response and the noise, a simple decrease of the
discrimination threshold will indeed increase the POD; however, at the same time it will
increase the POFA as well, as the number of falls calls is also increased. A lower discrimination
threshold will reduce the number of accepted parts with a flaw and, at the same time, will
increase the number of rejected parts due to noise.
Discrimination threshold
Flaw
response
Noise
Type I
error
(FN)
Accept
Type II
error
(FP)
Reject
Figure 1-3: Probability distribution of a noise signal and flaw indication, the chosen distribution
for the explanation is normal, noise and flaw response, however, can show any other distribution type as well
1.2.4
Receiver Operation Characteristics (ROC)

As the POFA rate is not reflected by the POD curve, it has to be recorded and used as a secondary characteristic in proficiency assessment. The receiver operation characteristics method was
developed during World War II to qualify the proficiency of radar operators. Later it was applied
to human perception, medical diagnosis and since the 1980s also in NDE. The method assumes
conditional probability in detection / discrimination and utilises both POD and POFA perform ance as the process performance level and discrimination proficiency of the operator / equip ment are varied.
Data required in the use of the ROC curve method for subset data analysis are obtained from
the specimen set used for POD analysis. Now, however, it is important that parts without any
defects at all are included as well. A wrong classification of a defect now results in FN if classi fied too low and FP if classified too high. Parts without defect classified as defective are also
assessed as FP.
Different effective defect sizes have to be displayed as different curves in the ROC plot, as well
as different instrumentations (material, equipment, sensitivity etc.). The more cruel part of the
game is to alter the working conditions (noise, vibration, temperature etc.) or to let inspectors
do the job when they are less concentrated (tired or immediately after a shift change).
On the other hand it can be shown that specific training and experience of the inspectors will
result in a tendency in the direction of the upper left corner. The same can be done with
machines if they are designed to do automated signal processing and pattern recognition and
are able to be taught.
Sensitivity
1
1.0
0.8
0.8
2
1
Noise
0.6
POD
0.6
0.4
0.5
0
0.4
Reliability
0.2
0.2
0
-4 -3 -2 -1
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
POFA
Figure 1-4: Distributions of noise and flaw signals (standard deviations for all curves = 1) and
corresponding ROC curves (right) for various differences of the mean values of signal and
noise, higher differences increase the reliability of the test, increasing method sensitivity
increases POD as well as POFA
The above given relations do only deal with the probability of finding defects, however, they do
not state the possibility of remaining defects in tested parts. For some applications very low
defect rates are required, key words are ppm-quality or six sigma (6 = 3.4 ppm). In practice
such low defect rates can only be reached by controlling the whole process in combination with
100% testing and statistically they can only become proofed for large numbers.
1.2.1
Risk Considerations
Terms related to risk can be defined as follows:
risk frequency x consequences
(1.3)
risk sensation risk / acceptance
(1.4)
where
acceptance = f(benefit, attitude, experience, willingness ...)
6
(1.5)
and on the other hand:

(1.6)
safety sensation safety x acceptance
(1.7)
Consequences
safety risk-1
Acceptance
Frequency
Figure 1-5: Different risk levels and direction of growing acceptance
In reality the real load onto and the real strength of structures are statistically distributed. The
overlap of the two curves is called the remaining risk; the distance of the two peaks is related
to the safety factor.
The remaining risk can be reduced be enhancing the safety factor or by reducing the width of
the deviations of the probabilities, the latter by:
A change of the design;
A better control of the load situation (e.g. by the use of sensors, etc.);
A better control of the strength situation (e.g. by non-destructive evaluation of the

materials and structures, etc.).
Load
Strength
Remaining
risk
Figure 1-6: Example of the remaining risk as overlap of the load and the strength distribution;
the principle is not restricted to mechanical load
1.3
Basic Concepts on Data Acquisition and Interpretation
1.3.1
Signal and Noise

Noise is in space or time statistically distributed and independent on the origin of the signal.
The relation of signal to noise is called signal-to-noise ratio and abbreviated SNR or S/N
SNR=
P Signal
PNoise
(1.8)
As the power values are often not easily available, the usual way to get the SNR is to determ ine the values of mean and standard deviation. The result is the same.
SNR=
Mean
StdDev
(1.9)
The minimum necessary SNR for a correct evaluation is highly dependent on the application.
The usual way to measure the SNR is to determine the mean value and the standard deviation
over a certain time or a certain area. Multiple measurements, however can differ up to 10%.
Figure 1-7: Artificial images with a nominal signal height of 174 and 76 (8 bit) and a nominal
noise of 0, 5, 10 and 20, no edge effect
Pure increasing the gain, in general, will increase the signal as well as the noise and therefore,
showing no effect onto the SNR.
Independent signal streams or images can be integrated, reducing the noise by the factor of
n.
Figure 1-8: Example of the ISO 21550 target (upper row) with 40% noise and 4 and 16 times
integrated (16 images with individual noise distributions are necessary)
1.3.2
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)

As no system is perfect, there will always be differences in the modulation of the real object
and the measurement; the modulation transfer function is the ratio between those two. For a
lot of systems the MTF can be approximated by
n
MTF=(sinc (x))
(1.10)
where sinc corresponds to the sine cardinal function. Two definitions thereof are in use (and it
is not always clearly stated which one is taken), the one used here is
sinc (x)
sin(x)
x
sinc(0) 1
(1.11)
x must contain the (spatial) frequency and be dimensionless; in the general form x is the ratio
between the effective signal frequency and the sampling frequency.
(sinc (x))n
0.75
1
2
0.5
3
n=4
0.25
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
fSignal / fSampling
Figure 1-9: sinc curves for different ratios fSignal / fSampling
1.3.3
Edge Spread Function (ESF) and Line Spread Function (LSF)

The edge spread function is the resulting profile across a step function after digitisation; the
line spread function is its derivative. The modulation transfer function is the normalised magnitude of the Fourier transform of the latter.
LSF(x)=
d
ESF(x)
dx
ESF
(1.12)
LSF
Figure 1-10: Edge spread function (left) and corresponding line spread function
In addition the term point spread function (PSF) exists.
1.3.4
Modulation
The modulation M describes the unsharpness of a signal. For imaging techniques a usual way to
determine the value is to image line pair targets. Those are periodic patterns with identical
widths of the two lines. For technical applications the pattern is usually formed by bars, for
optical applications, sine patterns are also common.
The modulation is given by
M=
V maxV min
V max+V min
(1.13)
The minimum discernible modulation is about 2 to 5%. It depends on the observer, the illumin ation, and the background noise. The value can depend on the type of screen or the print qual ity as well.
Vmin
Vmax
Figure 1-11: Definition of the modulation M

For electronic signals, the principle remains the same. In all cases the noise level has to be
considered; the remaining modulation can be substantially influenced by the noise level.
Figure 1-12: Modulation of sine patterns with contrast levels of 50% 50% down to 50%
1% (Norman Koren)
1.3.5
Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem

In order to fully reconstruct a band-limited signal, i.e.,one with a zero power spectrum for fre quencies f > B (B = band limit), it must be sampled at a rate f 2B. A signal sampled at fN =
2B is said to be Nyquist sampled and fN is the Nyquist frequency (Harry Nyquist, 1889-1976).
No information is lost if a signal is sampled at this frequency and none additional information is
gained by sampling at a higher frequency.
When digitising pulsed signals (e.g. ultrasound, microwaves or eddy currents etc.), one has to
take into account, that the power spectrum is extended to higher frequencies. A doubled
sampling rate of the nominal or main frequency will not suffice.
10
= 0
= 0.25
= 0.5
Signal
fN
fN / 2
fN / 3
Signal
fN
fN / 2
fN / 3
Figure 1-13: Sampling theorem and aliasing: a signal consisting of black and white is scanned
with an increasing detector size (upper row top: very small detector, bottom large detector).
Depending on the shift (in signal unit lengths) between the centre of the mid pixel and the
centre of the mid detector the outcome is different. At f N the response always show a modulation of 100% (pure black and pure white are present); at f N / 2 the response depends highly on
the relative detector position; at fN / 3 the response cycle corresponds to three signal cycles
the wrong frequency, it is aliased
If the sampling frequency is too low, aliasing may occur; artificial low frequency signals in
repetitive patterns appear, typically visible as moir patterns. In non-repetitive patterns, aliasing appears as jagged diagonal lines - the jaggies. Many digital camera sensors have antialiasing or low-pass filters (the same thing) to reduce response above the Nyquist frequency.
Anti-aliasing filters blur the image slightly; they reduce resolution. Smoothing filters have the
same effect concerning anti-aliasing and blurring.
If a value of fSignal / fSampling = is applied to the sinc function, the result is ~ 0.64. The apparent discrepancy to the above figure comes from the fact, that the sinc function is based on
sine patterns, not on rectangular ones.
1.3.6
Fourier Transform
For continuous signals the generalised Fourier transform F() (Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier,
1768-1830) describes the spectrum of the signal f(t) and vice versa for the inverse Fourier
transform.
F()= f (t)eit dt
(1.14)
f (t)=
1
F()ei t d
2
(1.15)
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) and the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) do the same for
discrete signals, however they are restricted to a length of 2n (2, 4, 8, ...). As the calculation
time needed for such operations is much smaller, they are mostly used.
N1
X(n)= x(k)e
2 in k
N
n = 0, 1, ... N-1
(1.16)
k=0
N1
x(k)=
1
X(n)e
N n=0
2 in k
N
k = 0, 1, ... N-1
(1.17)
FFT operations can be done in more than one dimension. Commercial mathematical programs
like Matlab have such routines included; ImageJ (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/) includes a 2D FFT.
Sometimes signal corrections can be done more effectively in the frequency domain.
11
10 mm
1.6 mm/cycle
Figure 1-14: Computed tomography image of a SiC reinforced CVD SiC sample: spatial domain
image (left) and frequency domain image showing a) the parameters of the reinforcement lattice (30, 60, 90, square, 1.6 mm size and b) a slight disorientation (double indications) of
some reinforcement layers in one of the directions (Empa)
1.4
Training, Qualification and Certification of Personnel
1.4.1
Introduction
It is generally agreed, that NDT personnel needs special training, qualification and certification.
Furthermore it is agreed, that this should be subdivided into three levels with respective know ledge, tasks and responsibilities. To reach qualification, candidates have to pass a theoretical
and practical examination in the respective field. For certification in addition it is necessary to
prove experience and certain visual requirements. The certification is limited in time a can be
renewed only when candidates fulfil certain conditions.
There are basic differences between the European and the US-American concept to reach this.
The American concept (SNT TC-1A) foresees that the employer alone is responsible for the
whole certification process (with some exceptions at level III). Training can be done by the em ployer itself or by a third party of free choice of the employer. The responsibility for the quality
of the qualification stays with the employer in full. The European concept leaves certification to
an independent and non-commercial certification body, which has to be accredited by the national accreditation body (in Switzerland: SAS Swiss Accreditation Service, http://www.sas.ch). Training and qualification sites must be accepted by the certification body according to
a written procedure. The employer has to assure basic training in the specific situation of the
company (materials, products, equipment).
In Switzerland training, qualification and certification of NDT personnel is performed under the
authority of the Swiss Society for Nondestructive Testing (SGZP), http://www.sgzp.ch.
In Europe the national societies are organised in the European Federation for Nondestructive
Testing (EFNDT), http://www.efndt.org. The corresponding worldwide organisation is the International Committee for Nondestructive Testing (ICNDT), http://www.icndt.org.
1.4.2
NDT Levels
European levels are indicated by Arabic, US-American by Roman numbers. The levels 1 and 2
are NDT inspector levels; level 3 is for NDT engineers. The demands and tasks of the different
levels are as follows:
Level 1:
Set up NDT equipment;
Perform the tests;
Record and classify the results of the test in terms of written criteria;
Report the results.
Level 1 certified personnel shall not be responsible for the choice of test method or technique
to be used, nor for the assessment of the results.
Level 2:
12
Select the NDT technique for the test method to be used;
Define the limitations of application of the testing method;
Translate NDT standards and specifications to NDT instructions;
Set up and verify equipment settings;
Perform and supervise tests;
Interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes or specifications;
Prepare written NDT instructions;
Carry out and supervise all tasks at or below level 2;
Provide guidance for personnel at or below level 2;
Report the results of non-destructive tests.
Level 3:
Assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff;
Establish and validate NDT instructions and procedures;
Interpret standards, codes, specifications and procedures;
Designate the particular test methods, procedures and NDT instructions to be used;
Carry out and supervise all tasks at all levels;
Provide guidance for NDT personnel at all levels.
Level 3 personnel have demonstrated the competence to evaluate and interpret results in
terms of existing standards, codes and specifications. The have sufficient practical knowledge of
applicable materials, fabrication and product technology to select NDT methods, establish NDT
techniques and assist in establishing acceptance criteria where none are otherwise available.
They demonstrated a general familiarity with other NDT methods.
Level 3 personnel may, if authorised by the certification body, manage and supervise qualification examinations on its behalf.
1.4.3
Experience, Training and Qualification

The necessary industrial experience for a level 1 or a level 2 certification is one to nine
months , dependent on the method and the level. For level 3 it ranges between twelve and
eighteen months, dependent on general education and way to access the level.
The minimum training requirements are given for all levels. For candidates with a technical dip loma of a college or a university the training hours can be reduced.
The typical training syllabus contains terminology, physical principles, product knowledge and
related capability of the method and derived techniques, equipment, information prior to testing, testing, evaluation and reporting, assessment, quality aspects, environmental and safety
conditions, and developments.
Table 1-3: Minimum training requirements [hours] (EN ISO 9712)
NDT method
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
AT (acoustic emission testing)
40
64
48
ET (eddy current testing)
40
48
48
Pressure method
24
32
32
Tracer gas method
24
40
40
MT (magnetic testing)
16
24
32
PT (penetrant testing)
16
24
24
RT (radiographic testing)
40
80
40
ST (strain gauge testing)
16
24
20
TT (infrared thermographic testing)
40
80
40
UT (ultrasonic testing)
40
80
40
VT (visual testing)
16
24
24
LT (leak testing)
The training ends with a qualification examination, consisting of three parts: general, specific,
and practical. Level 3 personnel has to pass a basic examination that includes the knowledge of
materials science and process technology, the knowledge of the certification system and a gen eral knowledge in at least four methods (level 2 complexity). Furthermore the practical part of
the level 2 examination of the respective method has to be passed.
13
1.4.4
Vision Requirements
Near vision acuity has to be checked once a year. The minimum requirement is the ability of
reading of Jaeger number 1 or Times Roman N 4.5 with at least one eye, either corrected or
uncorrected. Furthermore a sufficient colour vision has to be proved, to allow the candidate to
distinguish and differentiate contrasts between the colours used in the NDT method concerned
as specific by the employer. Typically this can be checked with pseudo isochromatic plates of
Velhagen or Ishihara. They are designed in four ways:
Transformation plates: where a person with normal colour vision sees one figure and a
CVD (colour vision deficiency) person sees another;
Vanishing plates: where a person with normal colour vision sees the figure while a CVD
person will not;
Hidden-digit plates: where a person with normal colour vision does not see a figure while
a CVD person will see the figure;
Diagnostic plates: designed to be seen by normal subjects while CVD person seeing one
number more easily than another.
Figure 1-15: Ishihara test plates (coloured and grey scale processed)
Test like the Farnsworth-Munsell test, where coloured bottoms have to be laid in a certain order
can give more detailed information about the colour vision ability of a person.
Figure 1-16: Farnsworth-Munsell colour vision test D-15 (left) and 100 Hue Test (TU Darmstadt, X-Rite)
1.4.5
Certification
If a candidate has proved all above mentioned requirements, a certification is possible for the
method and certain product or industrial sectors: Product sectors are castings (c), forgings (f),
welded products (w), tubes and pipes, including flat products for the manufacturing of welded
pipes (t), wrought products (wp), and composite materials (p). Industrial sectors combine a
number of product sectors including all or some products or defined materials. Such sectors are
metal manufacturing (M), pre- and in-service testing of equipment, plant and structures (S),
railway maintenance (R) and aerospace (A).
The certificate is valid for five years. After this period a renewal is necessary, that will be granted upon the proof of ongoing practice in the respective field. After another five years a recerti fication, based upon an additional examination, is necessary. For level 3 personnel another possibility is the fulfilling of a structured credit system.
14
1.5
Human Aspects
1.5.1
Influences on Human Reliability

Human reliability in the context of the above discussed is influenced by various factors:
Working conditions like illumination, noise, vibration etc.;
Physiology of the working environment;
Working atmosphere, personal orientation;
Vigilance (permanent watchfulness, caution);
Monotony habituation;
Education, training, experience, information.
Missed critical signals
Identified critical signals
A lot of research was done in this field, not especially in NDE. Some of the results are expected,
others less.
Time
Signal frequency (number per 30 minutes)
Figure 1-17: For a permanent watchfulness the number of missed signal increases with time
(Mackworth, left), the relation between signal frequency and identified signals shows a maximum, a too small frequency lead to reduced caution (Schmidtke, right), many non-relevant
signals, however, will reduce the attention as well (Jerison & Pickett, without figure)
Outward fare
Return fare
Figure 1-18: Monotony and vigilance of engine drivers in the Shinkansen express train TokyoOsaka (high Hz value means high concentration): with the older train 1965, the caution drops
permanently during the journey, after the change to faster trains 1966, the caution keeps
stable along the whole journey, five years later the engine drivers are used to high speed and
the former situation is re-established (Endo-Kogi)
An increase of concentration, and therefore of the results can be supported by:
15
1.5.2
Adapted signal frequency;
Adapted illumination and room climate, background music can have positive effects;
Adapted changes of the personnel;
Short breaks (some minutes every hour);
Double occupation of positions if necessary (four eyes principle);
Education, training, experience;
Information on results (if possible, e.g. if defected samples are added by purpose).
Colour Sensibility of the Human Eye

Three types of cone photoreceptor and a single type of rod photoreceptor are present in the
human retina. The rods are photo receptors that contain the visual pigment rhodopsin. They
are highly sensitive to blue-green light with peak sensitivity around 500 nm wavelength. Cones
contain cone opsins as their visual pigments and, depending on the structure of the opsin
molecule, having a maximum sensitivity to either long wavelengths (red or L-cones), medium
wavelengths (green or M-cones) or short wavelengths (blue or S-cones). Cones of different
wavelength sensitivity are the basis of colour perception in our visual image.
Blue
cone
Rod
Green Red
cone cone
Figure 1-19: Spectral sensitivity of cones and rods (after Dowling 1987)
Under normal conditions, the maximum sensitivity lies at 555 nm a greenish yellow colour
(photopic), while in darkness, it follows the sensitivity of the rods (scotopic). Under dark room
conditions (typically below 20 lx) the maximum is slightly reduced to about 550 nm, but in general it is similar to the photopic behaviour.
16
Figure 1-20: Normalised response of an average human eye to various amounts of ambient
light (1 ftc (foot-candle) = 10.6 lx)
As under normal conditions a typical signal colour must be distinctive against its surroundings
(like red or orange), under dark room conditions it must be chosen according to the sensitivity
of the human eye, namely greenish yellow.
1.5.3
Colour Vision Deficiency (CVD)

Usually all three types of cones in the retina can become perceived, we speak about trichro mats. Dependent on which one cannot or only reduced become perceived (due to missing
photo pigment), there are different possibilities of colour weakness (anomalous trichromasy) or
colour blindness (dichromasy). Most of the cases are due to an abnormal recessive gene on the
X chromosome. The Y chromosome does not contain any colour vision gene at all. Therefore, if
boys inherit the colour-blind gene, then it cannot be overcomed with a second normal colour
vision gene. About 8% of the males and 0.3% of the females are born with a colour deficiency.
The way a male inherits most forms of colour-blindness is from his mother, who inherits the
colour-blind gene from her father or mother.
Protanomaly (1% males, 0.01% females) is referred to as red-weakness (L-cones affected).
Any redness seen in a colour by a normal observer is seen more weakly by the protanomalous
viewer, both in terms of its saturation and its brightness. Red, orange, yellow, yellow-green
and green, appear somewhat shifted in hue towards green, and all appear paler than they do to
the normal observer. Under poor viewing conditions, such as when driving in dazzling sunlight
or in rainy or foggy weather, it is easily possible for protanomalous individuals to mistake a
blinking red traffic light from a blinking yellow or amber one, or to fail to distinguish a green
traffic light from the various "white" lights in store fronts, signs and street lights that line the
streets. Protanopia (1% males, 0.01% females) is the full red-blindness.
The deuteranomalous person (5% males, 0.25% females) is considered green-weak (M-cones
affected). Similar to the protanomalous person, it is poor at discriminating small differences in
hues in the red, orange, yellow, green region of the spectrum. It makes errors in the naming of
hues in this region because they appear somewhat shifted towards red for it. One very import ant difference between the two is that deuteranomalous individuals do not have the "loss of
brightness" problem. Deuteranopia (1% males, 0.01% females) is the full green-blindness.
The last form, tritanomaly and tritanopia (S-cones affected), happens with equal frequency in
males and females (about 0.01%, abnormal gene on the chromosome 7).
Other forms of monochromasy (cone or rod) are rare. Colour deficiency can also be the result
of a cerebral apoplexy. For more detailed information see http://colorvisiontesting.com.
1.5.4
Contrast Sensitivity of the Human Eye

The information of the rods and cones are finally collected in the ganglion cells. The response
function of the ganglion cells on repetitive contrast patterns can be measured using a contrast
image having the spatial frequency on one axis and the contrast on the other one. In this
17
receptive field the contrast is reduced until the ganglion cell just barely responds to the intro duction of such a stimulus into a featureless field.
Figure 1-21: Photopic contrast sensitivity function (Kalloniatis & Luu)

To use such a pattern in a general way, the spatial frequency has to be given in cycles/degree.
It can be demonstrated that in ganglion cells there is an optimal spatial frequency of stimula tion.
Certain diseases/disorders like multiple sclerosis, cataracts, refractive error or amblyopia (lazy
eye) are reducing the contrast sensitivity function.
1.5.5
Dark Adaptation
The eye operates over a large range of light levels. The sensitivity of our eye can be measured
by determining the absolute intensity threshold, that is, the minimum luminance of a test spot
required to generate a visual sensation. This can be measured by placing a subject in a dark
room and increasing the luminance of the test spot until the subject reports its presence. Con sequently, dark adaptation refers to how the eye recovers its sensitivity in the dark following
exposure to bright lights. In 1865 Aubert was the first to estimate the threshold stimulus of the
eye in the dark by measuring the electrical current required to render the glow on a platinum
wire just visible. He found that the sensitivity had increased 35 times after time in the dark and
introduced the term "adaptation".
Dark adaptation forms the basis of the duplicity theory which states that above a certain luminance level, the cone mechanism is involved in mediating vision; photopic vision. Below this
level, the rod mechanism alone provide scotopic (night) vision. The range where two mechanisms are working together is called the mesopic range, as there is not an abrupt transition
between the two mechanisms.
The dark adaptation curve depicts this duplex nature. The first curve reflects the cone mechanism. The sensitivity of the rod pathway improves considerably after 5-10 minutes in the dark
and is reflected by the second part of the dark adaptation curve. One way to demonstrate that
the rod mechanism takes over at low luminance level is to observe the colour of the stimuli.
When the rod mechanism takes over, coloured test spots appear colourless. This duplex nature
of vision will affect the dark adaptation curve in different ways. Dark adaptation is reached by
chemical processes in the retina cells; the process and effect in cones and rods are different.
18
Figure 1-22: Dark adaptation curve (Hecht & Mandelbaum)

Further information on vision in general may be found under http://webvision.med.utah.edu
(medical and very detailed) or http://www.perret-optic.ch.
1.5.6
Visual Perception
Eye movements are integral to visual perception; to understand vision, it is necessary to
understand the role that eye movements play. The work of Alfred Yarbus was very important in
expanding the view of the role of eye movements as externally visible reflections of cognitive
events. In one of Yarbus' classic experiments on eye movements during perception of complex
objects, he monitored the eye movements as people viewed Ilja Repin's painting "The Unexpected Visitor" (1884-88, original: Tretjakov gallery, Moscow).
Figure 1-23: Ilja Repin's The Unexpected Visitor and scan paths for a single observer viewing
the painting under each of the seven instructions (see text)
(A. Yarbus: Eye Movements and Vision, New York, 1967)
Before viewing, the subjects were instructed to perform one of seven tasks:
1) Free examination of the picture,
19
2) Estimate the material circumstances of the family in the picture,

3) Give the ages of the people,
4) Surmise what the family had been doing before the arrival of the "unexpected visitor,"
5) Remember the clothes worn by the people,
6) Remember the position of the people and objects in the room, and
7) Estimate how long the "unexpected visitor" had been away from the family.
The pattern of eye movements and fixations varied dramatically with different instructions to
the subjects.
Yarbus concluded that "... the distribution of the points of fixation on an object, the order in
which the observer's attention moves from one point of fixation to another, the duration of the
fixations, the distinctive cyclic pattern of examination, and so on are determined by the nature
of the object and the problem facing the observer at the moment of perception." The fact that
eye movement patterns are not determined by the stimulus alone, but are dependent on the
task being performed, suggests that eye movements are an integral part of perception and not
simply a mechanism evolved to deal with the 'foveal compromise' (the uneven distribution of
photo receptors across the retina that allows both high resolution and a wide field of view).
1.6
Standardisation
1.6.1
National Standards (Switzerland)

According to the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations Switzerland has to overtake European
Standards to its own national standardisation scheme. The Swiss national standards body is the
Swiss Association for Standardisation (SNV), http://www.snv.ch, among others member of CEN
and ISO. These standards are published in German and French as SN EN. For standards concerning non-destructive testing the technical committee INB/TK 180 is responsible.
Other national standards concerning pressure equipment devices are published by the Swiss
Association for Technical Inspections (SVTI), http://www.svti.ch and those concerning civil engineering by the Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects (SIA), http://www.sia.ch.
1.6.2
European Standards
In Europe the national standards bodies of the EU and EFTA countries are organised in the
European Committee for Standardization (CEN), http://www.cenorm.be. Standards are published in English, French and German, national standards bodies have the right to do their own
translations. Preliminary standards are denominated as prEN, current standards as EN. For
standards concerning non-destructive testing the technical committee TC 138 is responsible.
EN standards are metric.
A list of currently valid EN standards concerning NDT is given in the appendix.
1.6.3
International Standards
Internationally, the national standards bodies are organised in the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), http://www.iso.org. Common standards of ISO and CEN are denominated EN ISO (in CEN countries).
1.6.4
US-American Standards
For NDT purposes there are three main sources of US standards. A general one is ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials, http://www.astm.org, with its Section 03 Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures, Volume 03.03
Nondestructive Testing. The one concerning pressure equipment devices is the ASME International Boiler and Pressure and Vessel Code, especially section V (Nondestructive Examination),
section VIII (Pressure Vessels) and section XI (Rules for Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power
Plant Components). ASME is The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
http://www.asme.org. The third one are the MIL-standards, http://www.mil-standards.com. In
general US standards are in English only and non-metric. With some exceptions, US standards
are used in Europe for products designed for the export to Asia and the American continents
only.
1.6.5
Japanese Standards
The Japanese standards are published by the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC),
http://www.jisc.go.jp.
20
1.6.6
Standards for Aviation

The EASA Certification Specificationsare published by the European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA), an agency of the EU, http://www.easa.eu.int/.
1.7
Laboratory Accreditation
Laboratories can be accredited as testing laboratories according to EN ISO/IEC 17025. The
responsibility for this in Switzerland has the SAS the Swiss Accreditation Service,
http://www.sas.ch, within the State Secretariat of Economic Affairs (SECO). Downloads are
often available in Swiss governmental languages only.
Accreditation means the formal recognition of authority to execute a specific service as
described in the scope of accreditation. Competence is the key to transparency, confidence and
comparability. Competence can be separated in three fields:
Personnel: technical know how, practical experience in the relevant technical field and
continuous education;
Technical infrastructure: decisive criteria, equipment, procedures;
Organisational structure: independence, impartiality, quality management.
Especially the first two points make a substantial difference of such an accreditation in comparison to ISO 9000.
On the European level the national accreditation bodies are organised in the European Co-operation for Accreditation (EA), http://www.european-accreditation.org. They publish several
guidelines among them the EA-4/15: Accreditation for Bodies Performing Non-Destructive Test ing and several others concerning measuring uncertainty, calibration etc.
Only laboratories with a valid accreditation are allowed to use the corresponding logo in their
reports etc. (federal ordinance SR 946.512).
1.8
Examination Procedure and Report General Requirements
1.8.1
Examination Procedure
Examination procedures often are part of an order or of contracts. In complex cases they can
be the result of extensive negotiations between the ordering and the executing party.
A product standard, or a standard describing a specific technique, can serve as a product
examination procedure if it is self-sufficient with respect to the examination. Beneath technical
aspects that are dependent on the examination method, an examination procedure should
cover the following general aspects:
Reference documents (standards, specifications, etc.);
Description of the product to be examined (material, geometry, surface conditions, heat

treatment, manufacturing state, etc.);
Goal and extent of the inspection;
Location of examination and corresponding environmental criteria;
Available support, utilities (scaffold etc.) and resources (electricity, water, pressurised air
etc.);
Details concerning environment (disposal etc.) and safety (electrical, radiation protec tion, etc.);
Description of examination method, technique, sensitivity and sampling;
Required reference blocks, calibration intervals;
Corrective actions in case the intermediate or final check does not conform to the requirements;
Required signal processing and requested documentation of intermediate data;
Registration and acceptance criteria (evaluation and recording levels), extension of test;
Method of recording or marking;
Required cleaning and conservation;
Requested qualification and certification of examination personnel;
Extent of examination report, supplements and corresponding details (language, etc.).
The following details concerning software should be clarified in advance:
21
1.8.2
Software (including version) used;
Deliverable output (original, intermediate and final data), soft or hard;
Formats;
Responsibility for storage and later possibility of play-back.
Examination Report
An examination report should allow a third party to reproduce the tests carried out in full.
Therefore, it shall contain at least the following information; the technical details are further
spedified in the respective chapters:
Unambiguous identification of the examining institution;
Reference to contractual documents and standards;
Location(s) and date(s) of examination;
Clear identification when sub-contracted sampling or performance of tests are included;
Reference to supplements to the report;
Recommendations, if agreed
Complete identification of the object examined, including state;
If sampling was involved, clear indication of its base;
Identification of the methods, techniques and examination equipment used, including ref erence blocks;
Any deviation from the procedure (e.g. restricted access, inadequate surface finish, surface temperature, etc.);
Results of examination and evaluation;
Type of labelling and marking of the test objects;
Name, qualification and signature of the examiner or any other responsible for the examination.
If the organisation is accredited to perform NDT under ISO/IEC 17025 several further require ments may apply.
22
Figure 1-24: Example of the cover sheet of an examination report (Empa)

For NDT reports the operator usually has to sign the respective record.
23
Figure : 1-25: Example of the assessment and the signature part of a record (Empa)
1.8.3
Marking
Sometimes it is necessary to mark the objects permanently. For this reason metallic indentators exist; they are referenced on the examination record with a corresponding rubber mark.
Figure 1-26: Indentator and rubber mark (Empa)
24
VISUAL AND OPTICAL INSPECTION
2.1
Introduction
Visual inspection is used to characterise the surface optically of the parts under test. Principally
some sort of visual inspection has to be performed prior to all other NDT methods; the real
visual testing, however, is a method with its own characterisation.
The inspection of the object in full is usually called general visual testing. In this case the distance between the observer and the object exceeds 600 mm. Typically this includes the surface
finish or coating, distortion or damage, general fit or alignment and identification of missing
parts of the component.
For a local visual testing the distance is usually not exceeding an arm's length.
One can differentiate between direct visual testing, where there is an uninterrupted optical path
from the observer's eye to the object. In opposite, the remote visual testing is characterised by
an interrupted optical path, where the signal is transmitted electronically or the image is stored
in one way or another.
Replica techniques and roughness measurements can be regarded as being a part of this method as well.
Deduced from the expressions radar and sonar, lidar, light detection and ranging, is used for
corresponding measurements.
A basic knowledge of the product and the involved materials and processes often is necessary
to find also indications, which give only hints for possible flaws. This can be geometrical de formations, changes of the colour the surface quality etc.
2.2
Equipment
2.2.1
Measuring Equipment and Reference Parts for Comparisons

Often used measuring devices are check gauges, templates, calliper gauges, and similar.
The surface roughness has not always to be measured, but can become determined be comparing it to reference patters. For machined surfaces this can be the roughness comparator Rugotype. For the definition of the surface quality of steel castings and the surface texture of preci sion steel castings sets of comparators by SCRATA (Steel Castings Research and Trade Association) are available. Similar comparators exist according to BNIF 359 (Bureau de Normalisation
des Industries de la Fonderie).
Figure 2-1: Visual tactile roughness comparators Rugo-Test (left) and SCRATA (Studotech,
SCTI)
2.2.2
Equipment for Direct Visual Techniques

No equipment is necessary for unaided testing. Possible equipment for aided testing are mirrors, lenses, endoscopes or fibre optics. Endoscopes can be differentiated into borescopes,
which contain a rigid part and fibrescopes with a flexible device using fibre optics to transmit
images from the interior or generally inaccessible parts of the object. Typical optics at the tip
look forward (0), lateral (45 or 90), or backwards (110). This is usually done by a prism
(not a mirror). The field of view is dependant on the lens.
The resolution of fibrescopes are limited to the number of single fibres, typical values are 2'000
to 70'000.
25
For long distances or small radii the articulation cables in fibrescopes and videoscopes have to
be replaced by a pressure system.
Figure 2-2: Sketch of a rigid borescope, a fibrescope and a videoscope (from top, Olympus)
Figure 2-3: Borescopes (left) and fibrescope (Volpi)
Figure 2-4: Endoscope's tip with 90 prism (UXR)
26
Figure 2-5: Sketch of an insertion tube (not drawn to scale) (EverestVIT)

2.2.3
Equipment for Remote Visual Techniques

For the acquisition of images all types of cameras can be used, including photo, video or
thermal, either directly or with the aid of videoscopes. The images are viewed on the usual
screens and the common image / film processing software and archiving technique is used.
Special cameras are necessary for underwater use or within other liquids. An automated evaluation only makes sense together with remote equipment.
Figure 2-6: Equipment for remote visual inspection: pipeline crawler (left) and underwater
rover (Inuit, Rovtech)
Remote inspection is also done with UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle), also called drones, using
photo cameras (2D or 3D), video cameras or thermal cameras. Technically the application is for
places where a direct access is complicated or expensive like for power lines, bridges, photovol taic panels and similar.
Figure 2-7: UAV, here equipped with a 3D photo camera (Dercopter)

Wire cables of cableways or mines have periodically to be inspected visually. To be able to
overview the whole circumference mirrors are necessary. The concentration of the inspector,
however, will decrease after short time, so the probability of detection is reduced. Systems
were designed to inspect such cables using several cameras with automated or off-line data
interpretation.
27
Figure 2-8: Equipment for remote visual wire cable inspection with four cameras (Stuttgart
University, IFT)
2.2.4
Illumination
The illumination can be done directly with a lamp at the top of the scope (warm light) or in
combination with a light guide (cold light). The spectral characteristics of a light guide can be
dependant on its length. Elongations are possible, however, for every interface a certain loss is
to accept.
To tune spectral or intensity characteristics, filters are used. Spectroscopic or ultraviolet light
sources are available as well.
For certain applications like the interpretation of tempering colours it is of great importance to
chose the correct colour temperature of the light source. For medical application a halogen
lamp may be sufficient, while for a lot of technical application a xenon lamp is necessary.
Table 2-1: Typical colour temperatures
Light Source
Colour Temperature [K]
Candle
1'500
Sodium discharge lamp
2'000
Halogen lamp
2'700 - 3'200
Soft white
3'000
Cold white
4'000
Moon light
4'100
Xenon lamp
4'500 - 5'000
Horizon daylight
5'000
Daylight noon
5'500
Daylight overcast
6'500 - 7'500
Clear blue poleward sky
15'000 - 27'000
The colour temperature is the Temperature of an ideal black body radiator that radiates light of
comparable hue to that of a light source. It can be shown as Planckian locus in the CIE 1931
chromaticity diagram.
28
Figure 2-9: Colour temperatures on the Planckian locus in the CIE 1931 chromacity diagramm
2.2.5
Equipment for Optical Methods

The usual equipment used for most optical methods consists of illumination sources (usually
lasers), cameras and the necessary tools for the beam treatment (mirrors etc.).
Figure 2-10: Measuring equipment for fringe projection; for reverse engineering (left) and the
famous Kinect motion sensing input device for the Xbox video game (GOM, public domain)
Figure 2-11: Measuring equipment for fringe projection (left), moir interferometer (GOM, Photomechanics)
29
Figure 2-12: Equipment for electronic speckle pattern interferometry: for 3D pulsed ESPI with
three cameras (left) and for small parts (Dantec, Optonor)
Figure 2-13: Equipment for shearography: multi-wavelength sensor with three peripheral laser
diodes (810 to 850 nm) and camera housing for three synchronised cameras allowing to access
all six displacement derivatives simultaneously (left), stationary and mobile applications using
vacuum for contour changing (Empa, Dantec)
2.2.6
Forensic Equipment
For forensic applications special combinations of filters and goggles are in use. They are neces sary to avoid disturbance of the human eye by unwanted reflections. Similar applications and in
combinations with camera systems for NDT use are at least possible.
Figure 2-14: Equipment and application for forensic use (Labino)
2.3
Testing Procedures for Visual Testing
2.3.1
Standard Procedures
For the process evaluation a demonstration test piece has to be used. The indications on it
should be similar to those to be detected on the component to be tested. Surface conditions,
30
reflectivity, contrast conditions, and accessibility should also be near to the component itself.
Usually the technique has to be proved at a location with poor optical accessibility.
For general visual testing a minimum light intensity of 160 lx is necessary, for detailed local in spections, this has to be increased to at least 500 lx.
The success of visual testing is influenced by the light and its colour temperature, dazzling, vibrations and factors that may reduce the concentration of the observer, as these are climate,
noise, duration (fatigue) and ergonomic position.
2.3.2
Automated Optical Mass Inspection (AOI)

For certain applications, mainly the optical inspection in circuit board manufacturing, automated systems are in use. They can be included in-line of the manufacturing process chain
after the different steps (e.g. paste printing, assembling, soldering) or off-line. The images are
usually gathered with several camera directions and the illumination is achieved with a series of
LEDs that allow the most efficient incidence of light. The camera resolution can be as high as
10 m. Dependent on the size of the board and the number of parts, such an inspection can
last up to several minutes. A combination with X-ray systems is possible.
The evaluation is done automatically using neuronal networks; the programming of such a process is very demanding. At first use a lot of false calls will occur and an on-going enhancement
of the procedure is necessary, therefore it is best suited for mass inspection. For certain applic ation fields like telecommunication, automotive or air & space, such inspection systems are
required.
Figure 2-15: AOI unit and some typical defects: missing BGA paste (top left), chip thombstoning (top right), solder bridge (bottom left) and wrong diode polarity (Viscom)
Similar equipment for timber where knots, resin pockets, checks, wanes, blue stains and
dimensional errors can be found automatically are used as well. Various other applications in
mass production exist.
31
Figure 2-16: Automatically detected flaws in timber (Woodeye)

2.3.3
Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM)

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is focusing a laser beam to a certain depth and
reading the reflected photons using a photo detector. Scattered light from other regions is
eliminated by a confocal pinhole. It can be applied to larger structures. Typical lateral and
depth resolutions are below 1 m, depending on the scan area. The investigation depth is limited by the optical penetration. With image processing the acquired scans can be used to con struct a 3D image.
Confocal microscopy is often used in biology, various technical adoptions exist.
(G)
(F)
(B)
(A)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Figure 2-17: Principle of CLSM with laser source (A), source pinhole (illumination aperture, B),
dichroic mirror (beam splitter, C), objective lens (D), focal plane (E), detector pinhole (confocal
aperture, F) and photo detector (G), open designed CLSM (Biomedical Photometrics)
32
Figure 2-18: CLSM Scan of a CD surface, 12 x 12 m (Stuttgart University, IKP)

2.3.4
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) permits non-destructive / non-invasive imaging and it
combines, to a large extent, the advantages from confocal microscopy (in terms of spatial res olution) and high-frequency ultrasound imaging (in terms of penetration depth). OCT fills a
technological niche for probing optically semi-transparent tissue or material.
OCT retains depth information via propagation time of light within the medium. High spatial
resolution in lateral and depth direction is obtained from the coherent properties of optical
waves. Signal contrast can be retrieved from some of the optical parameters.
Light from a low coherence light source ("white light") is split by a beam splitter into two
optical arms. One is terminated by the turbid object and the other by a reference mirror. After
reflection from any point within the object and from the reference mirror, both light portions
are recombined in the same beam splitter and relayed to a detector. An interference signal is
only detectable when the optical paths of both arms match within the coherence length of the
light source. Thus by moving the reference mirror, the stationary object can be scanned in
depth direction.
OCT is not restricted to visible light only, it can be applied within the infrared spectrum as well.
Due to the penetration depth infrared radiation is often more appropriate. In medical applica tions it is used for tissue characterisation, often with an endoscope / catheter. OCT can be used
in combination of spectroscopy and/or polarisation imaging.
Using a 2D sensor array instead of a single sensor parallel optical low-coherence tomography
(pOCT) enables real-time 3D imaging for topographic and tomographic applications.
Figure 2-19: OCT principle (ISIS)
33
Figure 2-20: OCT image of several layers of a roll of adhesive tape (left), comparison of an OCT
image (below) with the one from histology (ISIS, LightLab Imaging)
2.3.5
Scanning Near Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM)

Basically scanning near field optical microscopy (SNOM) means scanning a surface through a
hole smaller than the wavelength of the light (typically < 100 nm). This allows a higher resolu tion. As only a very limited amount of intensity is penetrating through the hole, the method is
slow. Similar methods exist for microwaves and others.
2.4
Optical Measuring Methods
2.4.1
General
Optical measuring methods determine the two or three dimensional surface contour non-invasively, contact free and over larger areas. Dependent on the questions the pure shape or differ ences in the shape, e.g. due to mechanical or thermal stress, are determined. In comparison to
tactile methods, optical methods have several advantages:
Contact-free and therefore also usable for very sensitive surfaces;
Massively parallel as areas can be measured at the same time;
Highly accurate, up to 1% of the wavelength (typically 5 nm);
Flexible, the same or similar equipment can be used to answer several questions;
The methods can be automated for certain applications.
ESPI, also called TV holography or digital holography, and shearography are laser optical full
field measuring techniques. They are based on the laser speckle effect which occurs, if a rough
surface is illuminated by laser light. Several sources have slightly different definitions of the
techniques.
2.4.2
Fringe Projection
Fringe projection is a non-destructive and contact-free method of surface contour determina tion. The surface is illuminated with a fringe pattern which becomes deformed by the contour of
the object. The projected fringes do not need to be in the visible domain, infrared is common
as well. A multi-camera system reads the pattern and a full 3D model of the surface can be
extracted. Fringe projection is a very fast tool for outer surfaces that can be illuminated com pletely. Applications are in quality assurance, reverse engineering (e.g. for design models with
free-form surfaces), rapid prototyping and 3D visualisation. It is also common for medical,
dental and forensic inspections.
A special application is the triangulation by light sectioning method.
34
Figure 2-21: Application of fringe pattern technique at a wind tunnel model of the X38 reusable
launch vehicle (RLV), data acquisition and point cloud model (GOM)
2.4.3
Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)

In ESPI a laser beam is expanded by a lens and illuminates the surface to be measured. The
reflected light is combined with a reference beam which is directly coupled from the laser to the
camera. The camera records a series of speckle images. The comparison of the images shows
the changes in the speckle structure and generates correlation fringes. They result from displacement and deformation of the surface between the recorded images. Software automatically analyses these fringes and calculates quantitative displacement values. Advanced ESPI systems use several laser illumination directions or cameras to generate 3D information about displacement and deformation as well as contour information (3D-ESPI System).
Figure 2-22: Application of 3D ESPI: vibration of a brake disc excited at 5046 Hz, top: in plane
deformation Vx and Vy, below: out of plane deformation Vz and 3D view; the images of the
three cameras are distorted due to perspective and have to be corrected before calculating the
phase images (Dantec)
From this data, strains, stresses, vibration modes, and many more values can be derived.
Material industry uses such a technique to measure Young modulus, Poisson ratio, crack
growth, true strain / true stress functions. High speed measuring systems can also deliver
dynamic material values which are used for crash tests and crash simulation.
35
all other components, which are highly stressed and critical for automotive safety. But also
noise vibration harshness (NVH) questions are solved with pulsed ESPI techniques. A pulsed
laser fires two laser pulses with variable time delay and one to three high speed ESPI cameras
record the images. The measuring result shows the operational deflection which is used to
eliminate sound sources, optimise damping systems, remove brake squeal or judder etc. While
the typical application in NVH is the reduction of noise, ESPI can also be used to optimise the
sound, e.g. in door slam tests. Another advantage of the pulsed ESPI technique is that shock
events can be analysed as well, e.g. to show the propagation and reflection of Rayleigh waves.
Concerning vibrational analysis similar results can be obtained using laser Doppler vibrometers.
2.4.4
Laser Shearography
Laser shearography is an other speckle interferometric technique that is widely used in non-de structive evaluation. However, the optical set-up is slightly modified. Instead of a reference
beam, the image of the object is doubled, laterally sheared and superimposed in the camera. A
speckle pattern is generated which now shows the deformation gradient of the surface being
tested or analysed. Modern phase shifting techniques and fringe unwrapping techniques also
allow the automatic analysis of this information. Because laser shearography measures only the
gradient of the deformation, it is relatively insensitive to rigid body movements. Therefore, this
technique is typically used for defect recognition in a production line or in maintenance.
(A)
(E)
(B)
(D)
(F)
(C)
(G)
Figure 2-23: Schema of laser shearography: (A) laser, (B) beam spreading, (C) object, (D)
beam splitter (here shown a Michelson interferometer (Albert Michelson, 1852-1931, NP 1907),
(E) and (F) mirrors, and (G) camera
During the production process of modern composite materials, many different components are
bonded together. Often, parts of this assembly process are carried out manually. Therefore, it
is of utmost importance for product reliability and quality control to carry out a non-destructive
test at certain steps of the production line. Shearography has proven to be a very capable tool
for all kinds of NDT applications. Aerospace industries use shearography systems to test com posite materials of glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP), carbon fibre reinforced plastics
(CFRP), GLARE (aluminium-fibreglass sandwich), foam and aluminium composites, etc. Fully
automatic inspection systems have been installed for ARIANE 5 inspection as well as for heli copter rotor blade inspection. For maintenance inspection portable shearography inspection
systems have been developed using vacuum or heat load to reveal the defects. In automotive
industries tire testing and dash board inspection are well known applications.
36
Figure 2-24: Applications of laser shearography: delamination in a CFR laminated plate (left),
internal fibre structure with several crossed fibre layers visible (Optonor)
2.4.5
Moir Interferometry
Moir interferometry is a technique to study strains and deformations of structural elements
with very high accuracy. It requires highly stable environment and therefore it is mainly a
laboratory tool.
Moir is the generic term for full field measurement techniques, which utilise the interference
effect between some form of specimen grating and reference grating to magnify the surface
deformations and create a contour map which is related to surface displacement a moir
fringe pattern. The term was first used by weavers of mohair and is not the named after the
French physicist. For relatively large displacements, mechanical moir uses the interference of
lined gratings to achieve sensitivity of measurement of up to 25 m. Optical moir, or more
commonly known as moir interferometry, in which a diffraction grating is illuminated by laser
light, increases the sensitivity to sub-micrometre level, enabling measurement of elastic strains
in engineering materials.
The moir pattern is a full field representation of the relative displacement between the gratings. This property of moir makes it an excellent tool for observing and quantifying the gradients in localised deformation. In practice, a grating is attached on the surface of the test piece.
The grating deforms together with the test piece and when an undeformed (reference) grating
superimposed onto it, a moir pattern depicting the nature and the magnitude of the deformation field is obtained. Each moir fringe represents a line of constant displacement in the direc tion perpendicular to the direction of the reference grating. The displacement value U of a
fringe is
U=Np
(2.1)
where N is the fringe number relative to a known zero displacement and p is the pitch of the
reference grating, that is the perpendicular distance between the lines. The moir effect
described above is termed mechanical moir because the fringes are formed from the mechanical crossing of the two gratings. The mechanical moir effect is limited by the frequency
(inverse of pitch) of the grating employed. The typical upper limit for these types of gratings is
40 lines/mm; above diffraction effects dominate. This means a minimum deformation of 25 m
would be required to generate one fringe. This is quite adequate for large deformations, but in
order to measure small elastic strains much higher grating densities, which would give higher
deformation sensitivities, are required.
Moir interferometry provides higher sensitivity by employing the principles of light interference
and diffraction. The diffraction effect split the incoming light beams into multiple preferred rays
on the grating. When the grating is undeformed, the -1 and +1 diffraction order from the
beams emerge perpendicular to the grating without any interference. When the specimen is
deformed, the -1 and +1 orders will exit the specimen grating warped and interfere with each
other. The result is a moir fringe pattern of the in-plane displacements. The interpretation of
the pattern is identical to that of mechanical moir.
37
Figure 2-25: Moir interferometry shows the deformation of a silicon humidity sensor between
0% and 90% relative humidity (Empa)
2.5
Aspects of Quality Assurance
2.5.1
Resolution Targets
To quantify or qualify the remote equipment, the camera alone or in connection with the other
devices, resolution targets are used. Usually these are optical test charts or line charts. The
resolution is influenced by several properties: horizontal / vertical / angular, field of view, resolution in the centre or at the edge, contrast conditions, involved colours, light intensity and
light colour, static or dynamic observation.
One of the most common used resolution targets is USAF 1951 (positive or negative version).
The positive pattern is recommended for quality control of microscopes and magnifiers. The
negative pattern is ideal for collimators and other illuminated test equipment. Targets with different contrast patterns are available. The ISO PIMA resolution and contrast targets are two
more out of a lot of possibilities. The PIMA resolution pattern (pattern-induced multi-sequence
alignment) offers a simply method in obtaining MTF data. The target principles can be used for
all imaging NDT applications, with or without optical cameras.
Figure 2-26: USAF 1951 resolution target (Edmund)

For contrast and colour resolution, adequate targets, similar to printing, are used.
38
Figure 2-27: Colour target (Kodak)

2.5.2
Viewing Conditions
The local illumination can be measured with an illuminance meter or a luxmeter. Lux is a
derived unit based on lumen (1 lx = 1 lm m-2). This unit takes into account the intensity as perceived by the human eye (380 780 nm).
The colour temperature of the light source and the reflection conditions of the surface have to
be taken into consideration. Certain colours (higher blue content) cannot be interpreted correctly if the colour temperature is too low.
For general visual testing an illuminance of at least 160 lx must be achieved, for local visual
testing one of at least 500 lx.
Figure 2-28: Illuminance meter or luxmeter (Rotronic)

2.5.3
Special Vision Requirements

In addition to the general vision requirements, personnel doing visual testing should fulfil a far
vision acuity of 0.63 according to EN ISO 8596, with at least one eye, either corrected or
uncorrected.
2.6
Procedure and Record
2.6.1
Procedure
The NDT procedure usually has additionally to define the following special technical aspects:
Special surface preparation;
Illumination (type, strength, direction);
Equipment;
Requested resolution;
Necessary cleaning and conservation.
39
2.6.2
Record
The record should contain the following information:
2.7
Description of the equipment used, including serial numbers and firmware version;
Viewing conditions;
Reading of resolution targets;
Applied conservation.
Trends, Summary and Conclusions

Visual testing is a rather simple method. With the necessary knowledge about material, manu facturing process and load, the surface information can lead to the detection of inner defects or
to weak points of a structure. For some materials a near surface inspection is possible. Optical
coherence tomography in the near infrared range is a common methods for medical dia gnostics. It can be assumed that related techniques like spectroscopy and polarised light could
find their way for applications in the field of non-destructive evaluation as well.
A possible trend is the application of 3D methods for imaging. For consumer electronics devices
exist that allow the acquisition and the display of 3D images and films, even without special
goggles. Such devices could also become a trend for visual inspection.
Figure 2-29: 3D lens (Panasonic)

Another future possibility is the use of a light field camera, also called plenoptic camera. The
picture is not taken by a usual sensor, but the light field detector captures the colour, intensity
and vector direction of the incoming rays of light. This allows to refocus the final image and
possibly to change the direction of the projection as well. Since 2012 consumer products are on
the market.
Figure 2-30: Light field camera (Lytro)

Optical methods in general acquire the outer shape. An applied load results in a change of the
surface and the differences can be used to conclude on inner structures. Optical methods are
non-contact and can become designed to be very accurately. Multi-wavelength technique with
its possibilities of the simultaneous access to the different directions is a prospective tool for
the application to dynamic processes.
40
INFRARED AND THERMAL INSPECTION
3.1
Introduction
Sir William Herschel (1738-1822), an astronomer, discovered infrared (IR) in 1800. He built his
own telescopes and was therefore very familiar with lenses and mirrors. Knowing that sunlight
was made up of all the colours of the spectrum, and that it was a source of heat as well, Herschel wanted to find out which colour(s) were responsible for heating objects. He devised an
experiment using a prism, paperboard and thermometers with blackened bulbs where he measured the temperatures of the different colours. Herschel observed an increase in temperature
as he moved the thermometer from violet to red in the rainbow created by sunlight passing
through the prism. He found that the hottest temperature was actually beyond red light. The
radiation causing this heating was not visible; Herschel termed this invisible radiation "calorific
rays". Today, we know it as IR.
In 1880 the bolometer a thermal detector whose electric conductivity changes when heated
by an impinging radiation was invented by Samuel Langley (1834-1906) and later perfected
by Charles Abbot (1872-1973), who used it to sense the thermal radiation of a cow some 400
m away.
IR thermography is a relatively young inspection method. Even if the theoretical basics have
been known for a longer time, the instrumentation became not affordable until the interest for
such systems for security reasons has grown. For the moment only a small number of stand ards dealing with this and every producer defines the specification of its products a bit different. A comparison between the various products , therefore, is not allways easy.
Thermography is widely used in civil engineering; for other fields, however, it also shows prospective possibilities.
3.2
Heat Transfer
3.2.1
Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat may be transferred by different mechanisms, in solids mainly by conduction, in liquids and
gases mainly by convection. Conduction is the propagation of heat energy whenever a temperature difference exists between two solid bodies in contact or among parts of a body. Convec tion involves the mass movement of gas or liquid molecules over large distances. Two solid
bodies will exchange energy by convection if they are in contact with a fluid. Radiation is a process of heat transfer and is characteristic of all matter at temperatures higher than absolute
zero. Radiated energy may be transported over large distances through gases or a vacuum with
no conduction or convection at all.
For conduction the relevant relation is formally corresponding to the second Fick law of diffusion (Adolf Fick, 1829-1901)
T
= T
t
(3.1)
where is the thermal diffusivity. The spectral emission of a blackbody is given by Planck law,
(Max Planck, 1858-1947, NP 1918) where h is the Planck constant (6.63 10-34 J s), k the
Boltzmann constant (1.38 10-23 J K-1, Ludwig Boltzmann, 1844-1906), c the velocity of light
and the wavelength.
K B , T =
2h c 2
5
1
e
hc
kT
(3.2)
The maximum wavelength is simply related to the temperature by the Wien law (Wilhelm Wien,
1864-1928, NP 1911)
max T=2.898103 K m
(3.3)
Components begin to glow in the visible range for temperatures above about 600 C. Most of
the processes that are interesting for non-destructive testing, therefore, happen in a range with
IR radiation only. Aside from a shift towards shorter wavelengths, it should not be forgotten
that a warmer blackbody always emits more than a colder one, at any wavelength.
41
Spectral em ission
200 C
100 C
RT
10
20
30
40
Wavelength [m]
Figure 3-1: Spectral emission of a blackbody at different temperatures; the maximum

wavelengths are 9.7 m at room temperature, 7.8 m at 100 C and 6.1 m at 200 C
The total radiation emitted by a blackbody is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Joseph
Stefan, 1835-1893)
K B T = T 4
(3.4)
where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 10 W m K ).

-8
-2
-4
Kirchhoff law (Gustav Kirchhoff, 1824-1887) gives the relation between a blackbody and a real
component.
=
K , T
K B , T
(3.5)
Figure 3-2: Different thermal emission of metals (top row), ceramics and polymers (bottom
row) in a water stabilisation bath of 45 C with visible convection, range 25 C (blue) to 45 C
(white) (Empa)
A frequently used simplification of real part supposes their surface to be grey, meaning that its
spectral radiation properties do not depend on the wavelength. The second usual simplification
supposes the surface to be diffuse, meaning that its directional radiation properties do not
depend on the emission angle.
For the most common materials, emissivity tables can be found in literature. In general, such
tables present total emissivities, rarely spectral emissivities, and almost never directional
emissivities. The tables often give a good idea of the approximate emissivity values but in
actual temperature measurement conditions the only knowledge of the total emissivity may not
be sufficient.
42
3.2.2
Thermal Properties
The basic thermal properties of materials are the thermal conductivity k, the specific heat capacity C and the density . Thermal conductivity is a material heat transport characteristic
responsible for the attenuation of heat flux especially in the steady state case.
The two dynamic characteristics are the thermal diffusivity and the thermal effusivity e
k
C
(3.6)
e= k C
(3.7)
Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the rate at which heat is diffusing through a material. Generally, materials that have high thermal conductivity have high thermal diffusivity as well and
respond more quickly to changes in their thermal environment.
Especially for comparison reasons to microwave and ultrasonic inspection, it is useful also to
define the thermal impedance
Z=
T 1
Q e
(3.8)
Thermal effusivity is a measure of the ability of a material to increase its temperature as a

response to a given energy input. It is often referred to as thermal inertia and is used in calcu lating a thermal mismatch factor that characterises a thermal contact between two bodies,
where index i corresponds to the incident thermal change to higher temperature, index t to the
transferred one
=
e iet
e iet
Z tZi
Z iZt
(3.9)
= 0 means no thermal mismatch, that is, the interface of two materials is not detected on the
surface; = -1 specifies the case when the second material is a perfect conductor; conversely
= 1 is realised when the second material is a perfect insulator. The thermal mismatch factor
corresponds to the reflection coefficient for microwaves and ultrasonic waves.
3.2.3
Influence of the Atmosphere

As most measurements are done under normal atmospheric conditions, the transmittance of
the atmosphere is of great importance. Most systems are designed to operate in a short
wavelength range of 3 to 5 m or in the long wavelength range of 8 to 13 m. The main reason
is the absorption of carbon dioxide and water.
3.3
Equipment
3.3.1
Heating Equipment
In most cases the object under test must not be in thermal equilibrium, so external heating (or
cooling) is necessary. Dependent on the mechanisms of heat transfer several possibilities exist:
Conduction: by heating or cooling elements in close contact;
Convection: by air or water with a different temperature;
Radiation: by heating elements, photo flashes or lasers.
Under certain circumstances other possibilities, like ultrasonic or inductive heating, are pos sible. Sometimes such techniques have the advantage, that the heating source can not directly
be detected by the thermographic instrument.
43
Table 3-1: Thermal properties at room temperature

(values vary with manufacturing process)
Specific heat
capacity
[J kg-1 K-1]
Thermal
conductivity
[W m-1 K-1]
1'005
0.07
1'000
4'193
0.59
0.14
1'570
1'900
1'200
0.30
0.13
832
0.38
0.17
922
1'600
1'200
0.64
0.52
888
1.28
1.04
1'260
Zirconia
5'100
582
0.65
0.22
1'390
Aluminium
oxide
3'970
765
46
Silicon
carbide
3'160
675
490
Brick (red)
1'700
879
0.76
0.51
1'060
Material
Air
(thin gaps)
Water
GFRP
GFRP II
CFRP
CFRP II
3.3.2
Density
[kg m-3]
1.2
Diffusivity
[10-6 m2 s-1]
58
15.2
230
Effusivity
[W s m-2 K-1]
9.19
11'800
32'300
Glass
2'440
837
0.88
0.43
1'340
Concrete
2'400
837
1.51
0.75
1'740
Aluminium
2'770
875
Steel
7'830
434
Cooper
9'000
406
365
100
36'500
Diamond
3'516
502
660
374
34'100
177
63.9
73
20'700
18.8
14'700
Performance Parameters of Infrared Instruments

For scanners and imagers, one distinction based on instrument performance limitations is that
between qualitative and quantitative thermography. A qualitative thermogram displays the distribution of infrared radiance over the target surface, uncorrected for target, instrument and
media characteristics. A quantitative thermogram displays the distribution of infrared radiosity
over the surface of the target, corrected for target, instrument and media characteristics.
Generally, instruments that include the capability to produce quantitative thermograms are
more costly and require periodic recalibration. Many applications can be solved with qualitative
instruments.
Instruments can be designed point sensing or thermal imaging. Until mid-1990s opto-mechanical scanning with point sensors was common. Today, focal plane arrays have replaced scanning
imagers in most applications.
The main performance characteristics are:
44
Temperature range;
Temperature accuracy (quantitative only);
Temperature repeatability (quantitative only);
Speed of response: the time it takes the instrument output to respond to a step change
in temperature at the target surface; the instrument speed of response is on the order of
s for photo detectors and ms for thermal detectors; there is always a trade-off between
speed of response and temperature sensitivity;
Spectral range;
Frame repetition rate;
Minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRTD): the thermal resolution is usually

improving with higher temperature and should therefore be related to the it;
Total field of view (FOV): horizontal and vertical image size for any given lens in degrees;
Instantaneous field of view (IFOV): the imaging spatial resolution, the size of the smallest picture element that can be imaged; the value is usually given in mrad and should be
related to the corresponding value of the modulation transfer function (MTF);
Instantaneous measurement field of view (IFOVmeas) (quantitative only): the measurement spatial resolution for the minimum target spot size on which an accurate measurement can be made; the value is usually given in mrad and should be related to the corresponding value of the slit response function (SRF);
The noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD), i.e. the amount of noise due to
thermal effects; this value is highly dependent on the detector material and especially on
its cooling (to typically 80 K).
Apparent temperature [%]
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
Slit width [a.u.]

Figure 3-3: Slit response function
3.3.3
Non-Contact Temperature Sensors

Due to additional costs and weight and possible reliability problems, it is attractive to build
detector systems that do not use separate cooling. Such cameras can be classified into two categories, namely: those based on capacitance detections of changes of temperature dependent
dielectric constant of pyroelectric material; and those based on detecting resistance changes in
materials having large temperature coefficients of resistivity, such as vanadium oxide (VO x).
Pyroelectric detectors generate a state of electric polarity in response to a change in temperat ure. A change in detector temperature generates a transient change in the surface charges thus
causing a transient current available for pick-up by the readout unit. Pyroelectric detectors are
sensitive to temperature variations only; their response is independent on the wavelength, so
that an interference filter is added in the optic window to limit spectral sensitivity. This can be
overcome, but the added complexity is a severe drawback. Since mid-1980s it became possible
to design pyroelectric detectors as array detectors made of ferroelectric ceramic thin film such
as lead scandium tantalate or barium strontium titanate (BST). They offer high sensitivity
without need to be cooled.
Figure 3-4: Uncooled microbolometer IR sensors with a typical pitch of 40 m (Ulis)

Recent developments made it possible to manufacture focal plane arrays (FPA) of a microbolometer type that consist purely from silicon and can therefore be produced with methods wellknown from classical microelectronics, so they are low cost. Such detectors are effective in the
45
lower temperature range, but the image and detection quality decreases for higher temperature. To maintain constant temperature of the detector device, they are usually thermoelectric ally stabilised.
Figure 3-5: Comparison of the image of a microbolometer camera (left) and one with a BST
chip for fire fighting purposes (Erhatec)
In photonic detectors the signal is obtained by measuring directly the excitation generated by
the incident photons. Heating of the sensitive surface is unnecessary. Photonic detectors are of
two types: photoemissive and quantum.
For photoemissive detectors, the signal observed expresses the measured electron flow pulled
away from the photo cathode under the effect of both the incident photons and a static polar isation. The signal is amplified in photomultiplier tubes. The spectral sensitivity depends on the
properties of the detector material itself and of the IR transmittance of the envelope. These
detector are point detectors, it is possible to make image converter tubes. The main applications are night vision image intensifiers.
Quantum detectors are solid state detectors in which photon interactions either change con ductivity (photoconductive detectors) or generate voltage (photoelectric or photovoltaic detectors). As photoconductive detectors need an external low noise current, they are less attractive.
Photoelectric detectors act as power generators supplying a signal without need for polarisation.
Such detectors have to be cooled to reduce self-activation of electrons and therefore to reduce
noise. The temperature of background limitation performance (BLIP) is dependent on the
detector material and the wavelength. For this three techniques may be used:
46
Liquid nitrogen (77 K): relatively cheap, if the camera should be movable into all directions, the dewar vessel must be adequately designed and a refilling tank is often necessary;
Thermoelectric cooling with a Peltier element or a cascade of them (down to about 170
K): relatively cheap, limited efficiency (Jean Peltier, 1785-1845);
Gas expansion by the Joule-Thomson effect James Prescott Joule, 1818-1889, Sir William
Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, 1824-1907), using a Stirling cooler (Robert Stirling, 17901878) based on nitrogen or argon (70 K): relatively expensive, limited live of the cooling
element (where the detector is in close contact, usually glued on it).
Figure 3-6: Stirling cooler (EBS)

For a long time taking images with such detectors was only possible using an electromechanical
scanning device together with a single detector, thus resulting in small image formats or slow
frequencies. In the 1970s it became possible to build such detectors as focal plane array (FPA)
as well, obtaining the video signal directly by an on-chip electronics drive. A variety of technologies have emerged.
Schottky-barrier detectors are available in 512 x 512 arrays or larger or as line detectors where
the second direction is acquired by electromechanical scanning. Some of the possible detector
materials have to be cooled to very low temperatures (below 60 K), thus producing potential
problems for silicon technology, as charge storage is difficult at low temperatures.
Detectivity [cm W -1 Hz]
In super lattice detector arrays, alternating layers of different semiconductors of different thickness makes it possible for the wavelength of absorbed radiation to be tuned: photoconduction
occurs in a narrow range of wavelengths. The potential of this technology has been evolving
with the possibility of growing the detecting super lattice layers directly on the silicon containing the readout circuits. Some material combinations can operate at room temperature.
Wavelength [m]
Figure 3-7: Spectral detectivity curves for common photoelectric detector materials (EBS)
Z plane technology has suggested ways to improve IR camera systems by adding processing to
the detection function of the array. Super lattice and Z plane technology with operating temperatures close to 77 K detect in the long wavelength band.
47
Figure 3-8: IR camera systems (FLIR, NEC, Pyroline, Thermoteknix)

Intrinsic photon detectors are arrays of photoconductive or photoelectric detectors. As well as
for super lattice detectors hybrid technology is used because silicon process is a well estab lished fabricating process. Often the basis is a mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detector. It
can be directly used as hybrid together with silicon or with an interlayer buffer of gallium arsenide. Extensions are SPRITE detectors (signal processing in the element) which are widely used.
Such detectors operate at both atmospheric bands at temperatures of 77 K.
Especially for higher speed detectors the temporal response of the detector material is of great
importance.
Table 3-2: Typical properties of often used IR detector materials
Material
Temporal response
Spectral
response [m]
Microbolometer
e.g. V2O5
4 20 ms
8 14
Pyrolelectric
e.g. BST
4 20 ms
8 14
InSb
1 s
2.0 5.5
PbS
30 s 6 ms
1.0 4.5
PbSe
20 80 s
7.5
Si
50 ps 400 ns
0.2 1.0
InSb
50 ns
2.0 5.5
InGaAs
5 ps
0.9 1.7
MCT
3.5 ns
3 14
PbSnSe
3.5 ns
3 12
Type
Photoconductive
Photovoltaic
New developments use quantum well infrared photo detectors (QWIP), typically based on
GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs. QWIPs operate by photo excitation of electrons between ground and first
excited state sub-bands of multi-quantum wells (MQWs) which are artificially fabricated by placing thin layers of two different, high-band gap semiconductor materials alternately. The band
gap discontinuity of two materials creates quantised sub-bands in the potential wells associated
with conduction bands or valence bands. The structure parameters are designed so that the
photo-excited carriers can escape from the potential wells and be collected as photocurrent.
They show the unique property that the band gap can be varied by continuously changing x.
This makes it possible to build multi band detectors that can detect several wavelengths simultaneously. The usual classes are:
48
SWIR short wavelength infrared: 1 3 m;
MWIR medium wavelength infrared: 3 5 m;
LWIR long wavelength infrared: 8 12 m;
VLWIR very long wavelength infrared: > 12 m (typically up to 20 m).
Figure 3-9: Twelve 640 x 512 QWIP focal plane arrays on a 3 inch GaAs wafer (JPL NASA)
3.3.4
Contact Temperature Sensors

Contact temperature sensors include material coatings and thermoelectric devices. Material
coatings are relatively low in cost and simply to apply, but some may have the disadvantage of
providing only qualitative temperature measurements.
Thermochromic liquid crystals, TLC, (cholesteric, chiral nematic or a combination of both) are
substances that can be blended to produce compounds having colour transition ranges at typ ical temperatures of -20 to 250 C. Liquid crystals can be selected to respond in a temperature
range for a particular test and can have a colour response from temperature of 1 to 50 C.
When illuminated with white light while in their colour response range, liquid crystals will scatter the light into its component colours, outside they are generally colourless. The response
time varies from 30 to 100 ms. They are available as coatings (in micro encapsulated form to
protect the chemicals from contamination) or as sheets.
Figure 3-10: Thermochromic liquid crystals, left: colour change after touching the sheet with
the hand, right: reversible temperature display used for various applications (Edmund,
Hallcrest)
Thermally quenched phosphors are organic compounds that emit visible light when excited to
ultraviolet radiation. The brightness of a phosphor is inversely proportional with temperature
over a range from room temperature to about 400 C.
Other coatings are heat sensitive paints, thermochromic compounds and heat-sensitive papers.
Fusible frosts and waxes can also be used to indicate surface temperatures.
Thermoelectric devices are widely used for measuring temperature. Typical devices are thermocouples, thermopiles and thermistors.
3.3.5
Optical Components
Only a small number of materials are suited for the use for optical components designed for IR
radiation. Normal glass or quartz glass is not useful, as its transparency for wavelengths over
2.5 m and 3.5 m, respectively, is only very limited. Such materials are used for lenses as
well as for IR windows like for vacuum applications.
49
Table 3-3: Properties of IR materials

Sapphire
(Al2O3)
CaF2
BaF2
Ge
ZnSe
0.17 - 6.5
0.13 - 13
0.15 - 15
1.8 - 23
0.58 - 22
Index of refraction
1.77
(1 m)
1.40
(4.6 m)
1.42
(9.7 m)
4.1
(10 m)
2.40
(10 m)
Melting Point [C]
2'040
1'360
1'280
942
1'700
Thermal expansion
[10-6 K-1]
5.0 - 6.7
2.4
5.5
9.1
1'400
158
82
692
100
Material
Range [m]
Knoop hardness
[kp mm-1]
With its low index of refraction and high hardness, the colourless sapphire would be a well
suited material for short wavelengths, however, it is not completely water resistant and it is
very expensive.
Calcium fluoride is colourless as well. It can be used only up to about 150 C, as for higher
temperatures it can break very easily and above 500 C it begins to oxidise (CaO). The costs
are about the same as for sapphire.
Barium fluoride is a low prize material that can resist temperatures up to 600 C. Due to its
poor mechanical properties, it is not suited for situations with substantial pressure differences.
Germanium has a high index of refraction, so it will only transmit about 50% of the incident
radiation. Therefore anti reflective coatings (typically 4.7 to 10.7 m) are often used, reducing
the index of refraction by a factor of 1.5 and increasing the transmission to about 90%. In this
case the angle of incidence onto the lens has to be limited to less than 35.
Zinc selenite is a yellowish crystal that is also transparent for visual light to a certain degree.
Due to its high index of refraction it is mainly used with coatings. A disadvantage is the relat ively high prize.
Figure 3-11: Various lenses for IR cameras, easy to recognise, as they are usually not transparent for visual light (Infratec)
Filters can be internally or externally and be designed as cut on or cut off filter, spectral nar rowband IR filter or filters against reflections. The temperature of thin polymer films can only
be determined reliably if the measurement takes place in a very narrow spectral band. Some
systems can be equipped with motor driven filters.
50
Figure 3-12: IR filters (Infratec)
3.4
Thermographic Techniques
3.4.1
Overview
Passive thermography investigates simply the thermal flux of the object under usual conditions.
This can bee the produced temperature by the object (heating, ovens, electric components,
etc.) or the temperature input due to natural sources (sun, wind cooling, etc.).
Active thermography uses additional heating or cooling sources, they can be pulsed, periodic or
continuous.
Qualitative thermography simply uses the signature of the thermal image. Examples are the
detection of thermal leaks or delaminations.
Comparing thermography compares the thermal images (temperature or phase) of two different situations of the same object. The temporal stability of the camera and the surroundings is
important.
Quantitative thermography determines temperature and/or phase absolutely.
3.4.2
Selective Heating
In some cases it is possible to heat parts of components selectively and to determine their pos ition. Examples for that are bad solders or other weak contacts in electric or electronic components, the search for the position of reinforcement bars by inductive heating, the search for
heating tubes, or the determination of zones with higher energy absorption, e.g. while fatigue
testing.
Figure 3-13: Strongly heated electronic contact at arc and electronic devices (viZaar, EBS)
51
Figure 3-14: Thermal images of building investigation applications: source of heat leakages in
shutter housings (left), position of floor heating tube (FLIR)
Figure 3-15: Outlets of cooling channels of a turbine blade, the warm air flow (denoted by
arrows) was simply induced with a hair-dryer (Empa)
3.4.3
Transmission Thermography
If the object can be heated from one side and the resulting surface temperature is measured at
the other side, we can speak about transmission thermography. If the temperature distribution
becomes more or less stable, the images can be averaged and the noise reduced. With such a
procedure no information on the depths of potential differences of heat transfer are gained.
5 cm
Figure 3-16: Thermographic view of a CFRP pressure vessel filled with hot water, left: tap side,
right: bottom side (Empa)
52
25 mm
Figure 3-17: Transmission thermogram of a CFRP plate with artificial delaminations (Empa)
Pulse or Transient Thermography
Pulse thermography is one of the most popular thermal stimulations methods in IR thermo graphy. One reason for this popularity is the quickness of the test relying on a short thermal
stimulation pulse, which duration going from 0.3 ms for high conductivity material (such as
metal parts) to about 4 s for low conductivity specimens (such as plastic and graphite epoxy
laminates). As long as the thermal gradient into the heat flow direction is substantially larger
than into perpendicular directions, the dimension of a flaw is pretty well imaged onto the sur face.
(A)
(B)
Time
3.4.4
(C)
(D)
Figure 3-18: Principle of pulse thermography: (A) sample with thermal barrier, (B) homogeneous pulsed heating of the surface, (C) thermal diffusion, (D) effect of the thermal diffusion
(thermal tailback, example for a thermal mismatch < 0, lateral thermal flow not accounted for)
After a Dirac pulse (Paul Dirac, 1902-1984. NP 1933) a theoretical pulse of a duration zero
with energy input Q the development of the temperature difference dependent on time and
the depth z is
z
Q
T z, t =
e 4 t
C k t
(3.10)
As such a pulse is not possible in reality and the temperature can only be observed at the surface the situation for a semi-indefinite solid and a pulse duration of t p is
T t =
2Q
t
tp C k
T t =
2Q
t tt p
tp C k
for
t tp
for
(3.11)
t > tp
(3.12)
53
Heating pulse from back side

Begin of visible temperature
difference at front side
2 sec
Temperature difference [C]
Figure 3-19: Temporal temperature development after a heating pulse from the back side of a
CFRP plate with an artificial delamination; the image corresponds to a view from below in the
precedent figure; the zone behind the delamination is changing temperature as well but the
contrast is kept for a while (Empa)
100
PVC
GFRP
10
Concrete
1
Copper
0.1
0.01
0.1
SiC
Steel
Al2O3
10
100
Time [s]
Figure 3-20: Temperature development on the surface of various materials after a net energy
impact of 20 kJ m-2 within 0.1 s; the surface temperature of materials with high thermal effusivity is little influenced and due to the high reflectivity, such an impact on metals is very ineffective without coatings
Figure: 3-21: Pulse thermogram of a glued carbon fibre reinforcement strip with an interface
flaw, image height: 50 mm (Empa)
54
Temperature difference [C]
100
Defect
10
Coating
Base material
Base material
Resulting curve
1
0.1
Time [s]
10
100
0.1
Time [s]
10
100
Figure 3-22: Principle of detection of flaws (left) and of coatings (right); after about 3 s the
temperature contrast of a flaw with lower thermal constants is maximum (left), shortly after 1
s the influence of the base material with higher thermal constants becomes visible, after about
4 s the surface temperature follows the line of the base material (right)
For real objects the above equations are not correct, especially at the end of the pulse. An
undisturbed temperature development in a double logarithmic presentation has a slope of -0.5;
the height of the curve is a function of the energy input and the thermal properties of the
material. A local change of the heat flux will result in a temporal or enduring deviation of the
predicted behaviour. Such changes can e.g. be flaws or the presence of a coating. Local
delaminations of the coating are detectable as well. The advantage of this technique is that the
time dependence offers information about the depth of such irregularities.
In a first approximation, the observation time t is a function of square of the depth z and the
loss of contrast C is proportional to the cube of the depth.
t~
z2
(3.13)
1
z3
(3.14)
C~
The detection limits for transient thermography lie at a diameter to depth ratio of about two to
three.
Figure 3-23: Transient thermograms of an artificial delamination with a diameter to depth ratio
of three (left) and eight (Empa)
55
Time
II
Figure 3-24: Development of the maximum radial gradient for carbon fibre bundle parallel to
fibre direction (left), perpendicular to it, the resulting image of a circular delamination behind a
unidirectional carbon fibre reinforcement (Empa)
If the thermal properties are not isotropic, the indications may be distorted. The amount of dis tortion is dependent on time, thus the shape of a resulting image is dependent on depth.
To reduce noise the so called box car technique can be used. Here the same point or the same
area is measured several times under the same conditions and the results are averaged. Heating of the object during this process should be suppressed.
3.4.5
Flying Spot and Flying Line Technique

If the depth of potential flaws is known in advance, e.g. for debonding of coatings, heating and
measurement can be done on the move. The distance between the continuous heating source
and the detecting sensor is dependent on the thermal properties of the material and the velocity of the equipment.
Heating
Detection
Figure 3-25: Principle of flying spot and flying line technique
Figure 3-26: Flying line thermography: artificial delaminations with diameters between 2 and
11 mm above a 30 m zirconia layer on steel, heating with a weld laser, the pulse frequency of
the laser (not a strictly continuous source) results in some artefacts (Empa)
3.4.6
Lock-In Thermography
In opposite to the transient thermography, lock-in thermography uses a modulated heating.
The heat input is form of a sine wave and temperatures are measured in time delays of T/4 of
the exciting period; the absolute positions of these four measurement times are not relevant.
The source of excitation can be optical (light source), acoustical (ultrasonic sonotrode) or
inductive (RF coil).
56
Heat input [a.u.]
S1
S2
S3
S4
Time
Figure 3-27: Principle of lock-in thermography

Between exciting and resulting wave a phase difference exists. To reduce noise usually several
measurements are necessary. The relationship between signal amplitude A and signal phase
is given by
1
=tan
S 1S3
S 2S4
(3.15)
A= (S1S3)2+(S2S 4)2
(3.16)
From the structure of these equations it is obvious that the technique responds only to signal
modulations and that the phase image is independent of local variations of illumination intensity, surface absorption or thermal emission coefficients because such factors are cancelled in
the ratio. The relationship between stimulation frequency and thermal diffusion length , an
estimation of the detection depth, is given by
=
(3.17)
For materials that show a high diffusivity, therefore, short thermal diffusion lengths (typically
below 1 mm) are hard to reach as they need as they need an excitation in the range of hundreds of Hz. On the other hand to reach diffusion lengths in the centimetre range of materials
with low diffusivity needs minutes to hours as averaging is necessary. The diffusion length in an
average soil (assumed diffusivity of 0.35 10 -6 m2 s-1) for a day's cycle is roughly 25 cm, the
one for a year's cycle roughly 4.7 m. The day cycle is technically used for the inspection of
pavements etc.
The thermal contrast C is a complex function
C f=CA f i C f
(3.18)
The values for the amplitude function, as well as for the phase function may be negative or
very small for certain frequencies. According to Seidel et al. (J. Appl. Phys. 75 (9) 1 May 1994
p. 4396) for a point source and a point defect the contrast function can be given as
2
1i k
1
C 2z
e
2z
k
C
z 1i
and with the replacement of Y = z/ follows

G =
1i
(3.19)
Y i k
1
C 2Y 1i
e
(3.20)
3
k
Y
1i
C
z
The amplitude contrast is proportional to the real part, the phase contrast to the imaginary
one. Easy solutions can be found for k = 0 or (C) = 0.
G=
57
0.3
0.2
0.4
Phase
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
Amplitude
-0.3
Phase contrast C [a.u.]
Thermal contrast C [a.u.]
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Y
-0.1
-0.4
-0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Y=z/
-0.2
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Amplitude contrast CA [a.u.]
Figure 3-28: Example of amplitude and phase contrast for a point source and a point defect
with the condition (C) = 0, in the right part Y is given in steps of 0.05
Figure 3-29: Lock-in thermography of an artificial delamination of a diameter to depth ratio of

4, amplitude image (left) showing no signal and phase image (Empa)
3.4.7
Pulse Phase Thermography

Pulse phase thermography combines pulse and lock-in thermography. Like in pulse thermography the component is heated by a pulse. An ideal pulse would generate thermal waves of all
frequencies, real pulses reduce the upper limit. Typical values are 25 Hz for a pulse duration of
10 ms, 2.5 Hz for one of 100 ms.
The surface temperature data are recorded during the whole time of the cooling (or heating).
This data contains the information as if the component would have been heated in a modulated
way with the frequencies zero to the upper limit given by the pulse duration and the camera
speed (with respect to the Nyquist criterion). This information can get extracted by a pointwise
Fourier transform. As in the pulse thermography, noise can be reduced by several passes of the
heating.
3.4.8
Step Heating (Long Pulse)

In most IR radiometric techniques the sample cools after pulse heating. In contrast, the technique of time-resolved infrared radiometry (TRIR) step heating follows the surface temperature
rise as a function of time during the heating pulse. This approach allows identification of subsurface features and determination of thermal properties with the same speed as other thermal
techniques but keeps the required heating power and resulting surface temperature small. This
permits heat source such as microwaves and radio frequency induction heating where high
peak power often is not available.
While thermal non-destructive testing techniques generally concentrate on discontinuity detection and imaging, time resolved IR radiometry with step heating has also been used success fully to determine material parameters such as thermal diffusivity and thickness. This has
allowed obtaining information about material structure such as corrosion, porosity or voids.
58
3.4.9
Vibro-Thermography
The vibro-thermographic non-destructive testing (also called sonic infrared or thermosonic)
entails the mapping of a structure's surface temperature while the structure is subjected to
forced mechanical oscillations. Regions of imperfections convert energy to heat through visco-elastic dissipation, collisions of internal free surfaces in cracks or other mechanisms. Discon tinuities may appear hot when the surface temperature is mapped.
The energy input can be applied continuously or as a burst. Good results are obtained, if the
signal is processed lock-in.
Figure 3-30: Application of burst phase thermography on a turbine blade, ultrasonic energy
input 100 ms, 2000 W, thermal image (left) two seconds after burst, phase image at 0.24 Hz
(www.ndt.net/article/dgzfp01/papers/v27/v27.htm)
3.4.10
EddyTherm
Heating by induction can be used for metallic objects. A small coil is put around the object and
a short AC pulse of typically 100 ms induces eddy currents within the object. Due to the skin
effect the chosen frequency will determine the penetration depth and therefore the volume that
is primarily heated (details see chapter on eddy currents); typical frequencies are between 100
and 500 kHz.
Cracks oriented perpendicular to the direction of the induced current will cause cold spots along
its flanks and hot spots around its tips. However, these spots are situated within the sound
material and this can lead to difficulties for the exact sizing. Cracks of a length of 0.4 mm and a
depth of 0.1 mm were reportedly found.
Figure 3-31: EddyTherm equipment with IR camera, transformer with coil and object (turbine
blade) and thermal image of a crack with cold spots at the flanks and hot spots at the tips
(MTU)
A special advantage of this method is, that cracks under coatings, even under thin conductive
coatings can be found, which is not always possible with eddy currents. It is also possible to
find cracks after grinding the surface that usually closes the crack by smearing it up; with liquid
penentrant testing such cracks are usually not detectable.
3.4.11
Thermoelastic Stress Analysis (TSA)

Thermoelastic stress analysis, also known as stress pattern analysis by thermal emission
(SPATE) can be used usually to monitor applied elastic stress. Under certain conditions the
determination of plastic stress, as well as residual stress is possible.
Under the assumption of adiabatic conditions an applied load will result in a temperature
change of the object; the direction of the temperature change (warming or cooling) is dependent on the applied load.
T=N T T i
(3.21)
59
where NT is known as the thermoelastic constant of the material with T as the coefficient of
thermal expansion, Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure. Due to the different
thermal behaviour, zones of comprehensive and tensile stress can be separated.
NT =
T
Cp
(3.22)
As there is an immediate heat exchange with other parts of the object and the surroundings,
such measurements are usually performed with cyclically applied loads.
Figure 3-32: Thermoelastic stress analysis: stress concentration at crack tip (left) and stress
distributions around holes in a torsion shaft, showing positive (red-yellow) and negative (bluegreen) stress components (Cedip)
3.5
3.5.1
Laboratory Blackbody
This emission of a blackbody, for which physical laws are thoroughly settled, exists inside an
isothermal closed cavity whatever the nature of its walls. The emission of this completely
closed isothermal cavity is impossible to observe, indeed, a small aperture must be made
through a cavity wall. The resulting device is called a laboratory blackbody. Geometrical calculations show that its current emission is very close to that of the ideal blackbody which repres ents both the perfect absorber and the best emitter at local thermal equilibrium. Laboratory
blackbodies are used as calibration source. Blackbodies are often capable to maintain a tem perature difference to a reference surface (differential blackbody).
Figure 3-33: Laboratory blackbody for a typical operation range from 100 C to 1000 C
(Omega)
3.5.2
Targets
In combination with a laboratory blackbody various targets are available. The most common
are the four-bar target and the slit target. They are used to determine the thermal resolution,
the imaging spatial resolution and the measurement spatial resolution. Often they are mounted
on a target wheel.
60
Figure 3-34: Four-bar target (front (source direction) / back (sensor direction)) and target
wheel mounted on a laboratory blackbody (Inframet)
3.5.3
Thermal Resolution
The thermal resolution can be measured using a four-bar target in conjunction with a differential blackbody that can establish one blackbody isothermal temperature for the set of bars and
another blackbody isothermal temperature for the set of conjugate bars. The test should usually be repeated three to four times at different distances or with different target sizes.
W S
T1
T2
Figure 3-35: Four-bar target, T = T2 T1

The procedure can be as follows:
Set up the test pattern such that T exceeds the manufacturers specification for the
MRTD;
Determine the spatial frequency of the target (mrad per the sum of W and S);
Determine the temperature difference and the temperature where the structure can now
longer be dissolved.
Note that the determined value for the minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRTD) is
rather dependent on the operator; statistical methods to determine the probability of resolution
are common.
3.5.4
Imaging Spatial Resolution

The imaging spatial resolution can be determined using a four-bar target. For any system, the
modulation transfer function (MTF) will vary with scan angle and background and will almost
always be dependent upon the direction of the target orientation. The procedure can be as follows:
Set T to at least 10 times the manufacturers specified MRTD;
Select a distance d to simulate the manufacturers specified imaging spatial resolution

calculating the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) by
IFOV=
W
d
(3.23)
Calculate the MTF from the resulting image either in voltage output or in grey scales.
Alternatively the MTF can be determined using an edge target, measuring the edge spread
function (ESF) and calculating the Fourier transform of its derivative. In such a way the target
is much simpler to manufacture and only one distance is needed.
61
3.5.5
Measurement Spatial Resolution

The measurement spatial resolution (instantaneous measurement field of view (IFOVmeas))
can be measured using a variable slit target and a procedure that measures the slit response
function (SRF) of the imaging system. Because there are other errors in the optics and the
100% level of the slit response function is rather slowly, the slit width at which the slit
response function reaches 90% is usually accepted as the measurement spatial resolution. The
procedure is as follows:
Set T to at least 10 times the manufacturer's specified MRTD;
Select a distance and slit width to simulate the manufacturer's specified measurement
spatial resolution;
Open the slit until 90% of Vmax is reached.
3.6
3.6.1
Procedure
The NDT procedure usually has to define the following special technical aspects:
3.6.2
Thermal environment, operating status, etc.;
Surface conditions concerning thermal properties and reflections;
Inspection technique (active, passive, qualitative, comparing, quantitative);
Geometric, thermal and temporal resolution;
Type and arrangement of the examination system;
Thermal range;
Thermal calibration and verification intervals for the camera;
Requirements for signal processing and signal evaluation;
Necessary cleaning.
Record
3.7
Surface and peripheral conditions and special surface treatment (cover paint, etc.);
Description of the equipment used, including serial numbers and firmware version of
instrument and heating devices, etc.;
Identification of the calibration used;
Instrument settings (thermal range, etc.), lenses and filters used.
Summary and Conclusions

In its general application thermography is well suited for the investigation of flat objects with a
relatively simple geometry. Delaminations and debonds can be determined relatively easily,
fast and area-wide. Information on the depth can be gained with time resolving methods. This
information can include the thickness of coatings or, under certain conditions, the thickness of
the object in full as well.
Thermography is less suited for complex geometries. It is not possible to provide full three
dimensional information of flaws and features behind a material composition.
Polymers, wood, concrete and some ceramic materials show slow thermal reactions and are,
therefore, easier to deal with. Metals and some other ceramic materials have high thermal diffusivities and demand for fast detection systems. The surfaces of electric conductors, further more, are usually highly reflective and have to be covered with an adequate layer.
The quantitative determination of materials properties is possible, but in general the method
uses a comparison between different areas on the surface or to given reference samples. A lot
of statements made using thermographic methods do not adequately account for such facts.
The developments made in the last years concerning the detectors are very promising. Future
systems become faster, have larger arrays and need less complicated scanning mechanisms
and cooling. Thus offers more possibilities in spatial and time resolution or increases the
signal/noise ratio.
62
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
4.1
Introduction
Liquid penetrant testing is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by bleed out
of a coloured or fluorescent dye from the flaw.
A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on glazed pottery, whereby the carbon black would settle in surface cracks rendering them visible. Later it
became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel components by the "oil and
whiting" method. In this method, heavy oil commonly available in railway workshops was
diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that locomotive parts such as wheels could be sub merged. After removal and careful cleaning, the surface was then coated with a fine suspension
of chalk in alcohol so that a white surface layer was formed once the alcohol had evaporated.
The object was then vibrated by being struck with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any
surface cracks to seep out and stain the white coating. This method was in use from the latter
part of the 19th century through to approximately 1940, when the magnetic particle method
was introduced and found to be more sensitive for ferromagnetic iron and steels.
Many of the early developments were carried out by Magnaflux in Chicago in association with
the Switzer Bros., Cleveland. More affective penetrating oils containing highly visible (usually
red) dyes were developed to enhance flaw detection capability. This method, known as the vis ible or colour contrast penetrant method, is still used quite extensively today. In 1942, a sys tem of penetrant inspection where fluorescent dyes were added to the liquid penetrant was
introduced.
Liquid penetrant testing can be used for nearly all materials, if they met with the applied chemicals and if there surface is not too porous. It cannot give any result on the depth and only inaccurate information on the volume of a flaw. Generally, the minimum flaw dimensions detectable with this method are a width of 0.5 m and a depth of 50 m. Painting and galvanic layers
have to be removed chemically or mechanically.
An advantage of this method is its simplicity; indications can be shown to third parties without
a lot of explanations. On the other hand, an automation of the assessment is elaborate and
only used for mass production.
The general proceeding is as follows:
Careful mechanical and chemical precleaning and degreasing of the surface, followed by
drying;
Application of the penetrant;
Excess penetrant removal and drying of the surface (if necessary);
Application of the developer;
Inspection;
Post-cleaning and conservation of the surface (if necessary).
Liquid penetrant testing can be summarised being a very simple method, where nearly
everything can be done the wrong way.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Figure 4-1: Principle of liquid penetrant testing: (A) surface breaking crack, (B) application of
the penetrant, (C) excess penetrant removed, (D) application of the developer
63
4.2
Equipment
4.2.1
Classification of Testing Products

Table 4-1: Classification of testing products (EN ISO 3452-2)
Penetrant
Type
Denomination
Excess penetrant remover

Type
Denomination
Developer
Type Denomination
fluorescent
penetrant
water
dry
II
colour contrast
penetrant
lipophilic emulsifier
1 oil-based emulsifier
2 rinsing with running water
water-soluble
III
dual purpose
(fluorescent
colour contrast
penetrant)
solvent (liquid)
class 1: halogenated
class 2: non-halogenated
class 3: special application
water-suspendable
hydrophilic emulsifier
1 optional pre-rinse (water)
2 emulsifier (water-diluted)
3 final rinse (water)
solvent-based (nonaqueous for type I)
solvent-based (nonaqueous for types II

and III)
special application
water and solvent
Sensitivity levels shall be defined separately for penetrant, excess penetrant remover and
developer and for product families.
Sensitivity levels for fluorescent product family are:
(ultra-low);
1 (low);
2 (medium);
3 (high);
4 (ultra-high).
Sensitivity levels for colour contrast family are:
1 (normal);
2 (high).
No sensitivity levels are defined for the dual purpose product family.
4.2.2
Chemical Compatibility and Thermal Restrictions

Chemicals that contain sulphur or halogens are not allowed for austenitic and nickel-based ma terials, neither for titanium alloys. Under service conditions even minor rests may disintegrate
and result in strongly corrosive products. Chemical and physical properties of some non-metallic material can be adversely affected when applying not matching products. Finally, a potential
contamination with deleterious effects of lubricants, fuels or hydraulic liquids may be taken into
consideration. For all parts associated with peroxide rocket fuel, explosive stores, oxygen
equipment or nuclear application, the compatibility of penetrant testing agents shall require
special consideration.
The above specified chemical agents can only be used within a certain temperature range, for
temperatures below 10 C and above 50 C designated product families exist. Too low temperatures lead to freezing or heavily reduced viscosity of the agents, too high temperatures to
their disintegration or rapid volatilisation. Especially in the low temperature range, there is a
danger of water condensing in the discontinuities and on the surface and this water will prevent
the penetrant from entering the discontinuities.
64
4.2.3
Penetrants
Penetrants are either coloured (mostly red, sometimes blue) or fluorescent under black light or
both at the same time. They are oil-based and soluble in water or solvent. Between the three
involved states of aggregation: solid (s), liquid (l) and gaseous (g), there are three surface tensions that define the contact angle :
cos =
sg sl
> 90
gl
sg
(4.1)
gl
(A)
< 90
(B)
(C)
sl
Figure 4-2: Surface tensions (A) and wetting: wetting (B), non-wetting (C)
In addition, the value of the contact angle is dependent on the surface conditions. The wetting
capability of the penetrant to the surface to be investigated, as well as especially also to the
developer must be high. The driving force to fill a void is given by the capillary pressure.
The liquid penetrant will continue to fill the void until an opposing force balances the capillary
pressure. This force is usually the pressure of trapped gas in the void as most flaws are opened
only to one surface of the part.
Viscosity has little effect on the ability of a penetrant material to enter a defect, but it does
have an effect on speed at which the penetrant fills a defect.
For ceramic materials a further possibility is the use of fuchsine as penetrant (fuchsine dye
test). The penetration process may be done the usual way or under low pressure, to allow air
bubbles to leave the flaws.
4.2.4
Excess Penetrant Removers

To remove the penetrant an emulsifier is necessary. It can be directly added to penetrant liquid
itself or applied in an extra step. These post-emulsifiable penetrants are very sensitive. Oilbased lipophilic emulsifiers quickly mix with the oil-based penetrant, so the emulsifying time
becomes critical. In addition, contamination, ageing of the emulsifier and surface conditions
may influence the correct emulsifying time. Water-dilutable hydrophilic emulsifiers, however,
cannot mix and act in layers. Therefore there application time is much less critical.
For excess penetrant removers that are delivered as a concentrate and can be mixed with wa ter by the user, the concentration may be critical to prevent over-washing.
Figure 4-3: Water-air-gun (Ely Chemical)

4.2.5
Developers
The developer is a white contrast medium. It can be applied as dry powder or with a quick drying liquid (spray, dip or wash). After drying the indications become visible in the absorbent de veloper. Flaws containing a larger volume bleed out and lead to enlarged indications. Specialised developers are peelable in order to archive the assessment.
65
4.2.6
Electrostatic Spray Guns

The application of the penetrant, but especially of the developer can be done using an electro static spray gun. Dry as well as wet developers can be applied. Even otherwise not reachable
regions can be covered relatively uniform. Another advantage of this application is that the
developer particles tend to attach the part and do not build a fog cloud. In the tip of the gun,
the particles are charged negatively, the part under test is grounded. Usually the gun is fed
with low voltage direct current that is converted with a built in high voltage generator to 20 kV
to 100 kV. To prevent sparkling, the high voltage should be reduced automatically if the gun tip
is moved too near to the part. Sometimes the part can build Faraday's cages; in this case the
operator should have the possibility to turn off the voltage to allow these regions being reached
as wel.
Figure 4-4: Electrostatic spray gun (Kremlin-Lips)

4.2.7
Black Light Lamps

Dependent on the penetrant the inspection is done at normal (white) light (minimum 500 lx) or
under ultraviolet radiation (minimum 10 W m -2, maximum 20 lx residual illumination). Typical
outputs of the bulb of black light lamps lie at 100 W, so the lamps usually have an active or
passive cooling. They can be portable, stationary (integrated in inspection systems) or designed as rod or magnifying light. Up to date lamps are using gas discharge bulbs on micro
power xenon light (MPXL) technology or LEDs.
Figure 4-5: Black light lamps: (from left) portable, for the integration in systems and as endoscope (Labino, Tiede, Helling)
The suitable range of the wavelength of the ultraviolet radiation lies between 315 and 400 nm,
with a maximum at 365 nm. Portions with shorter wavelength (below 330 nm) may result in
health impairs and portions with longer wavelength have a visual component and increase the
amount of residual light. Therefore, it is necessary to pay special attention to the quality of the
filter glasses.
The same black light lamps are used for magnetic particle inspection.
The requirement of a maximum residual light intensity when using fluorescent media is due to
contrast reasons. But the human eye in darkness is also more sensitive to slightly lower
wavelengths, and the yellowish-green colour of the fluorescent media hits the maximum sensitivity of about 500 nm.
4.2.8
Blue Light Systems

Instead of ultraviolet lamps blue LEDs (typically 450 nm) can be used. Their power consumption is only about 10 % and they can be made mobile in form of a torch as well. Not to be irrit ated by blue reflections, the operator wears dichroic glasses.
66
Figure 4-6: Blue light equipment (Rilem)

4.2.9
Flaw Inspection Systems

For smaller parts the whole process can be done in manual, semi-automatic or full-automatic
penetration inspection systems. Automatic assessment may be done with camera systems; re producible part positioning and stable illumination is necessary. For a full assessment, usually
several, up to twenty cameras are necessary.
Figure 4-7: Manual flaw inspection system (Deutsch)
67
Figure 4-8: Computer controlled full automatic inspection system for a fluorescent, post-emulsifiable (hydrophilic) family with large parts in transportation baskets on their way to the
entrance. Typical throughput is 12 to 20 parts per hour (excluding non-automated inspection
time and post-cleaning), depending on size and weight of parts (Pratt & Whitney)
Figure 4-9: Full automated system for a fluorescent penetration system with the ability of
lowering and lifting the parts (Puchold)
Figure 4-10: Inspection station for automated camera-based assessment (Tiede)
68
4.3
Testing Procedure
Preparation and precleaning
Drying
Water-solvent
penetrant
Water and
solvent
Post-emulsifiable
penetrant
Prerinse
Water
Hydrophilic
emulsifier
Solvent-based
penetrant
Lipophilic
emulsifier
Solvent
Rinse
Control of cleaning
Drying
Wet developer
solvent-based
Dry developer
Wet developer
water-based
Drying
Inspection
Post cleaning and conservation
Figure 4-11: Testing procedure for different techniques and agents
4.3.1
Precleaning
The surfaces to be inspected must be dry and free from any dust, grease, rust, oil, painting,
weld spatter or any other pollution. For the mechanical cleaning of the surface, sand-blasting is
not an adequate solution, as small surface cracks may be closed by the impact of the grains.
Blasting techniques, if at all, with less impact forces are more suited. If necessary a chemical
etching has to follow the blasting process. The chemical cleaning is often done using solvents
that allow a quick drying.
4.3.2
Penetration
Figure 4-12: Beneath submerging and painting, the penetrant can also be applied by spraying
(with or without aerosol) or by a pen (Tiede, MR Chemie, Magnaflux)
Small pieces can be submerged into penetrant bathes, for larger parts the penetrant is applied
locally by spraying or painting. Typical penetration times are between five and sixty minutes.
The penetrant must not run dry (e.g. due to higher part temperature) during this process. For
bathes, where the penetrant agent is used several times, special attention is to be paid to prevent contamination.
69
4.3.3
Excess Penetrant Removal

In the next step, the excess penetrant has to be removed. This is a critical point, as too little
leads to insufficient contrast or marring bleed out, too much removes the penetrant in the
cracks also, at least that much that they are not properly detectable afterwards. If fluorescent
penetrants are used, this step has to be done under black light, at least at a radiation of 3 W
m-2. For coloured penetrants after developing still a weak red background should be visible.
For reasons of economy, most flaw inspection systems use water for this step. Water-soluble
penetrants and emulsified mixtures can be easily removed with a water-air-gun. With adequate
pressure of the compressed air, there is no danger of over washing. Water temperature and air
pressure have to be controlled. The water has to be specially treated before handed over to the
normal waste water canalisation.
The reaction of hydrophilic emulsifiers and the penetrant occurs in layers , while lipophilic emulsifiers very quickly mix with the penetrant, so their application can be time critical.
4.3.4
Drying
Especially if water-soluble penetrants are used, drying is necessary. It has to be made quickly
after excess penetrant removal using
Wiping with a dry, clean, lint-free cloth;
Evaporation at ambient temperature after hot water dip;
Evaporation at elevated temperature (air < 80 C, part < 50 C);
Forced air circulation (if compressed air is used, particular care shall be taken to ensure
that it is free of water and oil).
No drying is necessary if water-based developers are used.

4.3.5
Development
This is again a critical step as the development layer must be uniform but thin, usually less
than 100 m.
4.3.6
Inspection
The inspection has to be done at one or several certain dwell times after development, for wet
developers the time count begins after drying. Typical times are between ten and thirty
minutes. For recording purposes, pictures can be taken, if necessary, using an ultraviolet filter.
Special developers can be peeled; however, they represent only one moment of the development and do not necessarily give the overall picture. If not automated, the usual way to perform the inspection is to do it by eye; the use of low magnifying glasses (up to three) is al lowed.
The developer shows indications in an enlarged way, especially if the flaw has a larger volume.
Exact sizing therefore is not always possible. Usual differentiations are into number, appearance (single, cumulated), frequency, shape (round, linear or arranged in a line) and size. If siz ing is necessary, the use of a transparent ruler is recommended. For castings reference tables
exist.
70
Figure 4-13: Examples of a crack indications: fluorescent penetrant (left) and coloured penetrant showing clear bleed out (Ardrox, Sofranel)
Figure 4-14: Linear indications in full or intermittent (above) and round (ASNT)
4.3.7
Retesting
If retesting is necessary, the whole process, including the precleaning, has to be redone.
Without a solid cleaning of the surface, that excludes rests of the former penetrant being
present, a change of the penetrant family or even the product is not allowed.
4.3.8
Bleed back
A special inspection technique called bleed back is sometimes applied to parts from aerospace
or medical implants. It is used to get more information about the severity of indications.
The developer is slightly wiped off with a soft brush or a Q-tip dampened with solvent; the
solvent must not flood the surface. After the solvent has evaporated, the surface can be re-inspected immediately; the brightness of the indication, however, is often too low. If a relevant
indication does not reappear, the evaluation is carried on after a redevelopment.
It is to note, that such techniques do not conform to usual standards.
4.4
4.4.1
Chemical Agents
For the producers of chemical agents there are a lot of physical and chemical properties regularly to be checked and to be reported on the product. They can have a relation to reproducibil ity, to sensitivity, or to environmental or safety aspects. Most of them cannot be easily supervised by the user.
For the verification of the sensitivity the reference test block No. 1 EN ISO 3452-3 is used. It
consists of a set of four plates with nickel-chromium layers of different thickness. Cracks are induced by stretching the plates. The sensitivity is defined by the amount of cracks that are
found depending on the thickness of the layer and the product family. This reference test block
is used by producers only.
71
The user has only to control those agents that are in potential re-use or could be contaminated
otherwise. Especially penetrants decompose when heated too much (usually over 70 C) and
the fluorescent brightness is decreasing with enhanced ultraviolet radiation. On one side there
are single properties that have to be controlled like colour contrast or fluorescence of the pen etrant, the concentration of emulgators or wet developers, or a possible fluorescence of the developer due to contamination. On the other side the whole system can be controlled using the
reference test block No. 2 EN ISO 3452-3. It contains from a thin stainless steel plate that is
coated with nickel on one side. With hardness impacts from the other side, cracks fields are
brought in with dimensions between 3 mm and 5.5 mm. Every block, therefore, is unique and
an absolute comparison to others is not possible. The part with the cracks is used to compare
the sensitivity. The block contains additionally four fields with roughness between Ra 2.5 mm to
15 mm. This part helps to compare the excess penetrant removal dependence on the surface
conditions.
Figure 4-15: Reference test block No. 2 EN ISO 3452-3 (Deutsch)

Other reference test blocks for similar purpose exist (ASME, JIS, Navy).
Refractometers are used for to measure the concentration of hydrophilic penetrant removers.
4.4.2
Viewing Conditions
Illuminance and residual illuminance can be measured with a illuminance meter. As the influence of the black light lamp onto this instrument in general is not known, residual illuminance
measurement should be performed outside of the direct ultraviolet radiation. The output of the
bulbs of the black light lamps may decrease rapidly, the radiation level have to be tested at
regular intervals (once per months) using an UV-A radiometer.
Figure 4-16: Refractometer (left) and UV-A radiometer (Ely Chemical , Magwerks)
4.4.3
Safety Aspects
As mentioned above, to avoid hazardous ultraviolet radiation, filters of black light lamps should
be visually inspected before each use. People that work under ultraviolet radiation for longer
time should ware glows. Photochromatic spectacles, however, are not allowed while working at
the inspection site.
Liquid penetrant testing may require the use of toxic, flammable and/or volatile materials. In
such cases, working areas therefore should be adequately ventilated and far from sources of
heat or flames. Extended or repeated contact of the agents with the skin or mucous membranes shall be avoided.
72
4.5
4.5.1
Procedure
The NDT procedure usually has additionally to define the following special technical aspects:
4.5.2
Type and sensitivity of product family;
Special requirements on application temperature and dwell time;
Necessary cleaning and conservation.
Record
Designation of the product family (name; batch);
Type of application (submerge, spray, etc.), temperature and dwell times;
Viewing conditions, type and serial number of the black light lamp;
Figure 4-17: Example of a PT examination record (Empa)
4.6
Special Techniques and Trends
4.6.1
High Temperature Penetrant Testing

For special applications penetrant testing can be applied at temperatures > 50 C. Common
temperatures are 50 ( 5) C or 100 ( 5) C in the medium temperature range or 100 ( 5)
C, 150 ( 5) C and 200 ( 5) C in the high temperature range. Such applications are carried
out for the in-service inspection of hot running machine parts or tubing.
Beneath adequate agents, such testing usually requires a thermostatic cell, gloves and brushes
suitable for the applied temperature and a surface thermometer (contact type) with a 5 C
accuracy.
73
The procedure for qualification can be made with a usual test block or special aluminium panels
containing thermal cracks. The results have to be compared with the ones found at room tem perature (with the same agents). If the several steps cannot be carried out within the thermostatic cell, strict time limitations have to be applied. Special attention has to be paid to a possible drying out of the penetrant.
4.6.2
Low Temperature Penetrant Testing

Similar to high temperature applications low temperature applications are possible as well.
Such applications are carried out for the in-service inspection under low temperature environment conditions or for low temperature machine parts or tubing (chemical plants, etc.).
Within the range of +10 C to -5 C (dependent on the surrounding temperature and
humidity), the main trouble comes from water, either as liquid (moisture), hair-frost or even
ice. To get rid of the water:
Gently warm the surface for several minutes, so as to make water evaporate from dis continuities, and/or;
Use a volatile, water-soluble solvent, such as acetone or isopropyl alcohol, as current de greasers used are hydrocarbon-based and won't help in any way to remove water;
Allow some minutes for evaporation, be sure evaporation does not cool the part's surface
enough to have water condensing on it again .
As the water is generally not completely removed from discontinuities, the penetration time has
to be increased. As the capillary effect is the driving factor, higher viscosity due to low temper atures is not a drawback to penetrant testing; even jellied penetrants may lead to very good
crack detection.
The usually applied developers are sprayed solvent-based (non aqueous wet). The spray cans
shall be kept at 10 C at least to get a good spray, giving a thin, even layer. To prevent dim in dications the solvent shall evaporate within short time. This process may be speeded up with a
gentle flow of warm air (not by an infrared heater).
4.6.3
Filtered Particle Testing

The method itself is old, corresponding patents are dated of the 1950s. Nowadays it could find
a renaissance when testing carbon matrix components for thermal barrier coatings and similar
applications.
Coloured or fluorescent liquid penetrant test techniques can be used on most solid materials.
However, if the materials are porous, the background haze or colouration of the entire surface
by the penetrant reduces the contrast of indications. The surfaces of such materials trap so
much penetrant fluid, that delineation of a discontinuity is no longer possible. For this sort of
test condition the filtered particle test technique is effective.
The technique depends on selective motion of liquid and solid matter. The test fluid consists of
a liquid vehicle that carries solid dyed particle tracers of adequate size and shape in suspension. The fluid is sprayed on a porous material. At a site of a discontinuity, more liquid is absorbed than anywhere else, while the suspended particles are filtered out and deposit on the
part surface. A highly visible indication will appear almost at once.
(B)
(C)
(A)
Figure 4-18: Filtered particles testing on a component with a surface crack: (A) colourless penetrating fluid, (B) random particles at surface, (C) accumulated particles over the crack
The particles can be coloured or fluorescent, the liquid usually is colourless. Special attention
has to be paid to the fact that a part of the liquid remains in the component and could lead to
direct damage or to related reactions (including stress corrosion cracking or induced stress release by cracking).
74
4.6.4
Process Acceleration
The process can become accelerated by bringing the penetrant quicker into flaws and out of
them. On one side this is treated using ultrasonic vibrations. On the other side tests are carried
out to use ferromagnetic penetrants, or penetrants with ferromagnetic particles combined with
the application of magnetic fields.
4.6.5
Automated Signal Detection

Optical signal detection is possible; it makes, however, only sense for large lots of identical
parts. Possible future developments tend to measure other properties, e.g. the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) of penetrants and therefore being able to further automate the recognition. One possible candidate as such a penetrant is nitroxyl.
4.7

Liquid penetrant testing is widely accepted to be a very simple method. Never the less, for nonstandard situations it needs experience and manual skills of the NDT operator. The result is vis ible for a limited time only, and as the process is time consuming, a repetition is rarely taken
into account. So the classification of indications by the operator is often final.
If there are no indications, neither above nor below the registration level, there is no direct
proof that the process was carried out properly.
The problem with automated detection and recognition systems is somehow similar. It is relatively easy to sort out suspicious specimen and lead them to a second, man-operated inspection
station for final decision. The much more complicated part is to proof, that the other specimen
really have no flaws (type I error; false negative), without setting the discriminating level such
small that the false calls increase to large numbers.
Liquid penetrant testing can be widely used; overhead application is possible, as well as endo scopic remote operations. Certain restrictions may be related to weather or climate conditions;
underwater applications or similar tasks are not possible.
75
76
LEAK TIGHTNESS INSPECTION
5.1
Introduction
Leak testing is a form of non-destructive testing used in either pressurised or evacuated systems and components for detection and location of leaks and for measurement of fluid leakage.
The word leak does not refer to the quantity of fluid passing through the hole. A leak may be a
crack, a crevice, a fissure hole, a porosity, a permeable element or any other passageway that,
contrary to what is intended, admits water, air or other fluids or lets fluids escape. If the diameter of the leak is much greater than the leakage path length, it is called an aperture leak,
otherwise a capillary leak. The term leakage rate refers to the flow of fluid through a leak
without regard to physical size of the hole through which flow occurs. Fluid denotes any gas or
liquid that can flow.
Visual leak testing has been performed since mankind had begun to produce object that ought
to be tight. Devices similar to the ones used today came up first in mid-19 th century, when the
spark coil leak tester was invented and 1906, when the Pirani gauge and the thermocouple
gauge were presented. The mass spectrometer was invented 1910, but it was not used for leak
testing until World War II, when the engineers from the Manhattan Project had need for such
testing. The model at this time had a sensitivity of 10 -7 Pa m3 s-1, today's laboratory equipment
is five decades more sensitive.
Coarse leaks may be found by searching for the noise of a gas flow that pours in or out of the
component or using one or more acoustic (ultrasonic, typically 40 kHz) emitters that are
enclosed in the object. A further simple method is the pressure dye test, that is the use of
liquid penetrant equipment, the developer is applied at the opposite wall side, however.
For quantitative information more sensitive techniques must be used. The leakage rate can be
expressed as
qL =
p V
t
(5.1)
The usual units are Pa m3 s-1 or mbar l s -1 (1 : 10). The leakage rate relies on the temperature
and on the type of gas flow (molecular or viscous laminar). Furthermore, leaks can show a very
different behaviour for reverse flow, particularly if elastic or plastic components (springs, diaphragms, gaskets) are part of the boundary wall.
In general it is not possible to measure the total leakage rate of a component or a system and
to determine the location of one or several leaks at the same time. Usually two different techniques have to be used.
5.2
Leak Testing Techniques
5.2.1
Tightness Requirements
Zero leakage rates shall not be specified. The required leak tightness shall be related to the
function of the object under consideration.
Leakage rates in the order of 10-4 Pa m3 s-1 can be acceptable for compressed air cylinders. This
corresponds to a pressure variation of 5'000 Pa in a 10 l volume in 24 hours or 0.5 l loss meas ured at atmospheric pressure.
A leakage rate of 10-10 Pa m3 s-1 is typical for cardiac pacemakers. This corresponds to a loss of
1 cm3 every 30 years, approximately.
The total tightness of a system can be considered in terms of tightness of all components of
that system. To meet requirements the sum of the leakage rate for each component plus the
sum of the leakage rates at each connecting point shall be less than the overall allowable leakage rate of the system.
To take into account factors that are not quantifiable, it may be advised to adopt leak tightness
values lower than this by a factor from three to ten.
77
Table 5-1: Minimum detectable leakage rates under usual industrial conditions of different leak
testing techniques, 1) tracer gas methods, 2) pressure change methods, M: measurement, L:
localisation; under laboratory conditions the respective sensitivity can be 100 to 1'000 times
better
Leakage rate
Pa m3 s-1
Radionuclides
Vacuum test
Bombing
1)
1)
1)
Vacuum box
1)
NH3 detection
1)
Gauge pressure
Sniffing test
1)
1)
Pressure change
2)
Penetration
Flow
2)
Bubble test
2)
Acoustic
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
---M
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----L
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
---M
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----L
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----L
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
---M
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
----L
-----
-----
-----
-----
---M
-----
-----
-----
-----
----L
-----
-----
-----
---M
-----
-----
----L
----L
p < po
p > po
LD
(A)
LD
(C)
(B)
p > po
p > po He
1 - 100 h
p < po
(D1)
(D2)
LD
(D3)
Figure 5-1: Some leak testing techniques: bubble test (A), immersion and liquid application,
local vacuum technique (B), sniffing test (C), bombing test (D1 to D3), LD = leak detector
5.2.2
Restrictions and Safety Factors

The the test fluid shall be compatible with the object materials.
Vacuum tests can be affected by the presence of materials such as porous materials or organic
compounds (plastics, rubber, lubricants, etc.)
Certain tracer gases are not compatible with some materials and problems due to corrosion,
sorption or permeation may occur. For example:
78
Halogen gases (except SF6) are not usable for the testing of nickel alloys and stainless
steels;
Ammonia is not compatible with cooper and cooper alloys;
Helium or hydrogen may present problems with some elastomers / polymers since permeation can be significant.
Possible hazardous properties of test gases shall be taken into account, such as:
Ammonia is a toxic, flammable gas which can be corrosive in the presence of moisture; it
needs an absorption treatment and a subsequent neutralization;
Halogen-containing gases cause significant damage to the upper atmosphere;
Most gases, including inert gases, e.g. helium and nitrogen are asphyxiant.
5.3
Tracer Gas Methods
5.3.1
Principles of Detection
A partial difference of tracer gas is created across the boundary of the object to be tested. The
tracer gas having passed through the leak is revealed by its physical or chemical properties.
Chemical detection is generally based on reactions that cause a local colour change; the object
surface shall be therefore visible in this case.
Detection based on physical properties usually involves a sensor that gives an electrical signal
which varies with the tracer gas pressure. Such detectors can be:
Mass spectrometer, tuned for the specific tracer gas used (generally He-4);
Pirani gauge, for tracer gas with thermal conductivity different from that of the ambient
atmosphere;
Alkali-ion diode (ionisation gauge), for halogen gas and electron capture equipment (e.g.
for SF6);
Photometer with band-pass filter in the frequency range of the tracer gas absorption or
emission.
Figure 5-2: Complete residual gas analyser station (including vacuum pump, left), Pirani gauge
(Inficon)
5.3.2
Pirani Gauges
The Pirani gauge head (Marcello Pirani, 1880-1968) is based around a heated wire placed in a
vacuum system, the electrical resistance of the wire being proportional to its temperature. At
atmospheric pressure, gas molecules collide with the wire and remove heat energy from it
(effectively cooling the wire). As gas molecules are removed (i.e. the system is pumped down)
there are less molecules and therefore less collisions and so the wire heats up and its electrical
resistance increases. A simple circuit utilising the wire detects the change in resistance and
once calibrated can directly correlate the relationship between pressure and resistance. This
effect only works in the pressure region from atmosphere to around 10 -3 mbar. Therefore other
forms of gauge have to be used to measure pressures lower than this.
The range of Pirani gauges is divided into two types: constant current and constant resistance.
The names refer to how the electrical measurement of the wire is controlled. The constant cur rent type has a power supply that gives a constant current all the time to the filament. There fore the filament resistance changes are measured.
The constant resistance type has a power supply that changes the current supplied to keep the
resistance of the filament the same. The constant resistance type has a slightly larger pressure
range but requires more complicated electronics.
79
5.3.3
Ionisation Gauges
Below the operating range of the Pirani gauge, an ionisation gauge is used to measure pres sure. There are a range of gauge heads and filament materials to cover specific pressure
ranges and vacuum requirements in this region.
The ionisation gauge consists of three distinct parts, the filament, the grid and the collector.
The filament is used for the production of electrons by thermionic emission. A positive charge
on the grid attracts the electrons away from the filament; they circulate around the grid
passing through the fine structure many times until eventually they collide with the grid. Gas
molecules inside the grid may collide with circulating electrons. The collision can result in the
gas molecule being ionised. The collector inside the grid is negative charged and attracts these
positive charged ions. Likewise they are repelled away from the positive grid at the same time.
The number of ions collected by the collector is directly proportional to the number of
molecules inside the vacuum system. By this method, measuring the collected ion current gives
a direct reading of the pressure.
The design of the gauge head effects how efficiently electrons are produced, how long they sur vive, and how likely they are to collide with a molecule. Combining these factors together gives
the gauge sensitivity; a high sensitivity means a more efficient operation of the gauge.
There are other factors which determine the lowest pressure that a gauge head can measure.
One of these limiting factors is the X-ray limit. When an electron collides with the grid, there is
a probability of a photo electron being produced. Once generated, there is also a chance that
the photo electron will hit the collector and produce an electron. For the collector, however,
there is no electrical difference between collecting a positive charge or loosing a negative one.
This means that every time an electron is knocked off the collector, the electronics measure it
as receiving a positive ion instead. This effect is very small and depends on the design of the
gauge head. It normally generates a current measured in the pA range. At 10 -10 to 10 -11 mbar,
however, this is the current produced by the gauge head itself. If pressure is plotted against
current, the graph can be seen to tail off as this X-ray current becomes the dominant effect.
The X-ray current therefore limits the lowest pressure that the ionisation gauge can measure.
5.3.4
Techniques where Tracer Gas in Flowing into the Object

Three slightly different vacuum techniques may be used.
Vacuum technique (total): The object, placed in an enclosure (bag or chamber), is evacuated
and connected to the detector. The enclosure is then filled with the tracer gas or a gas mixture
containing it. This technique allows the evaluation of the leakage rate but does not permit precise location of the leak(s).
Figure 5-3: Tire testing (Von der Heyde)

Vacuum technique (partial): Only suspect areas are covered with enclosures filled with tracer
gas.
Vacuum technique (local): The object is evacuated and connected to the detector. Suspect
areas on the external surface are sprayed with tracer gas. Leaks can be localised with this tech nique, but it is not possible to measure the total leakage rate.
80
5.3.5
Techniques where Tracer Gas is Flowing out of the Object

Chemical detection with ammonia: The object is filled with anhydrous ammonia or an ammonia-nitrogen mixture to the specified overpressure. A colour-change developer (generally a
mixture containing a pH indicator, e.g. bromophenol blue), applied to the outside surface, will
reveal and locate leakages.
Vacuum box, using internal tracer gas: Large objects, containing a gas or a gas mixture suit able to be used as tracer gas, are tested by a vacuum box evacuated and connected to a leak
detector, applied on the outer side.
Vacuum box applying the gas on opposite side: Open objects can be tested using partial
enclosures, capable of being evacuated, which are tightly applied to the wall (vacuum box, suc tion cup). Tracer gas is supplied on the opposite surface of the wall by a spray gun (probe jet)
or by cups, filled by the tracer gas.
Pressure technique by accumulation: The object, pressurised with the tracer gas, is placed in
an enclosure. After a specified time, the accumulated tracer gas is measured using a leak
detector connected to the enclosure. The leakage size can then be estimated (or determined if
the enclosure volume and pressure are known).
Sniffing test: The object is pressurised with tracer gas (or a mixture). Leak searching is per formed on the atmospheric side of the object wall, using a sampling probe connected to a leak
detector. This technique detects leakage and locates the leaks (direct probing).
Figure 5-4: Halogen sniffing test equipment (Inficon)

Pressurisation-evacuation test (bombing test, back pressurising test): The sealed object is subjected to a high pressure of tracer gas (bombing), usually helium, in order to force it into the
object, if leakage exists. After the bombing and a flushing to remove absorbed tracer gas from
the outer surfaces, the object is placed in a vacuum chamber, connected to a leak detector for
the detecting of the escaping tracer gas.
Figure 5-5: Sniffing test equipment with one or several probes (Delta)
81
Figure 5-6: Bombing test equipments (VIC, Varian)

Vacuum chamber technique: Small objects, containing a gas suitable to be used as tracer gas
are placed in a chamber. This is subsequently evacuated to a pressure lower than the internal
pressure of the object. The leak detector is connected to the vacuum chamber. The total flow of
tracer gas from the object is measured.
Figure 5-7: Example for the vacuum chamber technique (Inficon)

Instead of a tracer gas, specific radioactive isotopes (typically Kr-85) may be used for special
applications.
5.4
Pressure Change Methods
5.4.1
Test Instruments
The following types of gauges are used:
82
Vacuum gauges suitable for the test pressure range;
Pressure gauges: absolute or differential pressure gauges may be used; when differential
pressure gauges are used, reference pressure variations shall be monitored and taken
into account;
Thermometers: resistance thermometers are generally used for temperature measurements, but other devices may be employed;
Hygrometer: for the measurement of the humidity or the dew point of test gas, capacitive or resistive type instruments may be used;
Flowmeters may of mass or volumetric types, with an integrator device.
Figure 5-8: Flowmeters (VIC)

5.4.2
Pressure Decay Technique

This technique is applicable to test objects or systems that can withstand an internal overpressure without deformation or significant variation of the volume. The internal free volume shall
be known, unless the leakage rate is specified as a rate of pressure fall within the pressure
involved. If the test is carried out under conditions different from those characteristics of nor mal operation (fluids, pressure), this shall be taken into account in the test procedure and in
the test acceptance limits.
The object under test is subjected to a positive differential pressure (either by pressurisation or
by placing it in a vacuum chamber). The pressure source is then isolated and, after a suitable
temperature stabilisation time, the pressure and the temperature reading (dew point readings
if required) is recorded at regular intervals.
Two techniques may be used:
Absolute technique: The indicated pressure is the absolute pressure.
Reference vessel technique: The pressure within the test object is compared to the pressure
inside a reference object. The latter may be a sealed volume located within the test object, of
such geometry that it can assume the temperature of the atmosphere of the object. The reference object shall have a pressure slightly lower than the object and shall be tested for tight ness before and after the test; its temperature shall be recorded.
5.4.3
Pressure Rise Technique

This technique is applicable to components or systems that can withstand vacuum or an
external pressure. It is usually applied to objects that have to be evacuated during normal
operations.
A pressure difference (lower pressure inside the object) is created across the object boundary.
The object is either connected to a vacuum pump system or placed in a pressurised chamber.
After the specified pressure difference is attained, the object is isolated and the internal pres sure shall be recorded at regular time intervals.
The free internal volume of the object shall be accurately assessed. If the volume is unknown,
several measurements of rapid pressure rise, brought about by a measured leakage through a
valve, can be made. The volume can be estimated from the average from the pressure increase
and the total amount of gas fluid admitted.
If the leakage rate is measured as the pressure increase per unit or time, then knowledge of
the enclosed volume is not required.
5.4.4
Bell Pressure Change Technique

This technique is applicable for test objects or systems that can withstand either pressure or
vacuum. It shall be taken into account in the test acceptance limits if the test is carried out
under conditions different from those characteristics of normal operation (operating fluids,
pressure, temperature).
The complete test objects or the section under test is enclosed by a rigid test chamber (bell
chamber). Knowledge of the internal free volume of the test objects is not required; however,
the free volume of the chamber is required to be known. A pressure tracer is connected to the
sealed volume of the chamber. A pressure difference is created between the test object and the
83
chamber, preferably by pressurising / evacuating the volume of the test object. Sufficient time
is allowed for any expansion / contraction of the boundary of the test object to cease.
A special application is the Torrent permeability measurement technique applied to the quality
determination of concrete or possibly to other open-porous materials as well. A small bell is put
onto the zone of interest, it is evacuated and the time to refill the volume in full or to a certain
degree is measured. The air flow is due to open porosity in the surface zone of the material. An
additional evacuated circular zone is avoiding too large influence due to surface roughness of
the inspected region. Water content and ageing of the concrete are influencing the result and
have to be respected.
Figure 5-9: Torrent permeability measurement technique: application to concrete (left),

vacuum system and two chamber vacuum bell (EPFL, Proceq)
5.4.5
Flow Measurement Technique

This technique is applicable to components or systems that can withstand a slight overpressure
or vacuum. Knowledge of the internal free volume is not required. Constant pressure tech niques can be applied to objects that deform under pressure differences, but the volume has to
be maintained constant during the test.
The technique consists of determining the extent of leakage by measuring the flow rate of gas
into or out of the test object. The test can also be carried out measuring the volume of gas
necessary to restore the pressure existing at the start of the test.
If gas is flowing into the object:
The object is connected to a vacuum pump through a line equipped with a flowmeter and
a pressure control system with a precision valve to maintain a constant internal pressure
in the object;
The object is evacuated and placed in a chamber connected with a constant source of
pressure through a flowmeter.
If gas is flowing out of the object:
5.4.6
The object is connected to a constant source of pressure through a flowmeter;
The object is pressurised and then placed in a chamber connected to the open atmo sphere through a flowmeter, atmospheric pressure changes shall be taken into account
(long term tests);
The object is pressurised and then isolated; at the end of the test period a measured
volume of gas is introduced into the object until the pressure existing at the beginning of
the test is restored.
Bubble Emission Technique

This technique involves the establishment of a pressure difference across the object wall and
the observation of bubble formation in a liquid medium located on the low pressure side. The
minimum detectable leakage rate depends on the pressure difference, the gas and the liquid
used for testing.
84
The surface temperature shall not below 5 C and not above 50 C. Direct or indirect visual
examination is possible.
The immersion technique is applicable for the examination of objects that can be completely
immersed in a container of detection liquid, including sealed or temporary sealed ones. A
stream of bubbles originating from any isolated point shall be interpreted as a leakage. Three
variations exist:
Direct pressurisation of the object: the object is pressurised and placed in the selected
detection liquid, the surface after the stabilisation (soak) time is observed for a minimum
period which depends on the test specification;
Use of detection liquid at elevated temperature: the object is sealed close to an atmospheric pressure and placed into a detection liquid at elevated temperature;
Use of vacuum: the sealed object is completely immersed in the detection liquid in a
vacuum chamber with a viewing port.
The liquid application technique is applicable to any object in which a pressure differential can
be created across the boundary to be examined. Instead of an immersion the detection a suit able liquid surfactant is applied by brush, spray or other methods locally. Growing foam from
any isolated point shall be interpreted as a leakage. Again a direct pressurisation of the object
or the use of a vacuum chamber is possible.
5.5
Various Techniques
5.5.1
Tightness of Piping Systems

The tightness of piping systems can have three issues:
Tightness of fresh water provision mainly by public suppliers due to loss, sometimes due
to external contamination as well;
Tightness of waste water piping of private owners with the obligation of repeated inspection;
Tightness of piping systems in context with chemical plants.
The characteristics of the water supply of Zurich and some surrounding communities are an
annual production of 55 mio. m 3 with a daily consumption roughly between 100'000 and
200'000 m3. The length of the piping system is about 1'500 km. Due to different elevations the
pressure is not stable.
Most of the tubing is metallic, near the end-user often made of plastic and storage basins and
corresponding channels are tiled.
Waste water pipes are made of plastic, metals, concrete or masonry. To a certain amount they
are designed to withstand other things than water. This can be chemicals from households
causing corrosion or submerged parts mainly after storms. The main issue for problems is
blocking and the consequential damages.
Inspection and maintenance is mainly done visually or with the use of optical systems. For cer tain applications local, partial or global under- or overpressure with water or air is applied.
85
Figure 5-10: Equipment for optical and pressure change inspection for piping systems (Rausch)
In Switzerland the formulation of guides and the training of personnel is arranged by the Swiss
Water Pollution Control Association (SVA).
5.5.2
Acoustic Techniques
Sometimes leaks can be located with acoustic methods. This can be done by contact, non con tact or even remote. It usually needs some experience for a proper reconnaissance and loca tion, especially if the leak has to be detected trough a shell wall.
In some cases it is possible to introduce temporarily an acoustic emitter into a container. To
avoid noise, the chosen frequency usually is within the ultrasonic range.
Figure 5-11: Equipment for acoustic leak detection (Sonotec)

5.5.3
Air Tightness of Buildings

To find leaks in buildings a system called Blower Door is often used. The room is set to a
depression of usually 50 Pa and the amount of air change per hour is measured. A typical value
that should be reached is 3.5. To locate leaks infrared systems can be used if the temperature
of the inflowing air is significantly colder than the room temperature.
86
Power outlet
Hidden hole
Figure 5-12: Application of Blower Door (left), thermographic image of a room in its normal
state (top) and after applying the depression; the brick stones show different air tightness and
cold air is flowing through the power outlet and a hidden hole (Infitec, Empa)
5.5.4
Radionuclide Leakage Test

Radionuclide leakage tests are only performed if a very low leakage rate is demanded (hermetically sealed devices). A usual way is to perform a bombing test using krypton-85 with a half
live of 10.76 y, typically diluted in gaseous nitrogen as tracer gas. After the bombing the emitted radiation is measured. The fraction due to external adsorbed gas is typically beta-radiation
(electrons) that can be stopped by thin layers of absorbers. The more energetic gamma radiation produced by disintegration of Kr-85 gas molecules contained can then be detected and
counted with suitable scintillation counters.
To keep the Kr-85 gas within the device for some time the charcoal gettering technique is used.
A small amount (mg range) of charcoal is placed in the inside of such devices and adsorbs large
quantities of the radioactive gas for sufficient time to ensure detection after bombing. This is
used for electronic devices or critical safety equipment like air bag initiators, etc.
Figure 5-13: Pressurisation unit (left) and counting unit for radionuclide leakage test (Isovac)
The special advantage and the reason for its very high efficiency of this technique is that the
gas has only to enter the device; its detection is possible through the wall (in opposite to the
normal bombing test). The disadvantage is the necessity of radiation protection measures.
87
5.6
5.6.1
Procedure
The NDT procedure usually has to define the following technical aspects:
5.6.2
Type of leak testing technique;
Special requirements on application, pressure, temperature and time.
Record
For reproducible testing the following is necessary, if applicable:
5.7
Technique used;
Description of apparatus employed (leak detector type, type and concentration or pressure of tracer gas, liquid type, type, volume and tightness of auxiliary enclosures) including statements of measuring range, uncertainty and resolution;
Calibration operations with the parameters and relevant signals, reference conditions;
Test conditions (pressure, temperature, duration);
Descriptions of calculations made.

For leak testing various types of techniques exist, varying on the purpose (leakage rate meas urement or leak localisation), on the sensitivity needed and on the possible arrangement. The
term leak testing, therefore, is not denoting one specific technique, but one goal, namely to get
information on leaks. The applications can vary very widely. For obvious reasons it is mostly
used in connection with pressurised or vacuum systems.
88
MAGNETIC INSPECTION
6.1
Introduction
The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon
barrels were checked for defects by magnetising the barrel and sliding a magnetic compass
along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to locate flaws in the barrels by
monitoring the needle of the compass.
In the early 1920s, William Hoke realised that magnetic particles (coloured metal shavings)
could be used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface
or subsurface flaw in a magnetised material caused the magnetic field to distort and extend
beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine shop. He noticed
that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were being held by a magnetic chuck
while being ground, formed patterns on the face of the parts which corresponded to the cracks
in the surface.
As the detection medium often are magnetic particles, this method is generally known as magnetic particle testing. The physical principle, however, is diverted magnetic flux, and so this expression is clearer and covers all the situations as well, were the detection is done otherwise
than with magnetic particles. The expression magnetic flux leakage (MFL) is usually used only if
the effect is measured with sensors.
Thin-film inductive (TFI), anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR) and giant magnetoresistive
(GMR) sensors are or were used in computer hard drive construction. However, the basic principles can also be used to detect diverted magnetic flux. Giant magnetoresistance was patented
at the end of the 1980s by Peter Grnberg (*1939). The same effect was found independently
by Albert Fert (*1938). For their invention the two were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in
2007.
The method can be used for ferromagnetic materials; as rule of thumb, the material must have
a relative permeability r (dimensionless) of at least 100. In opposite to liquid penetrant testing, it can be applied as well if the part is covered with painting or other solid coatings up to a
thickness of about 50 m. Furthermore, the source of diverted flux needs not to pass the sur face; larger sources can be detected as well if there position is much deeper. With the use of
adequate probes, this method can be automated completely.
6.2
Diverted Magnetic Flux
6.2.1
Magnetic Field Distribution

For all magnetisation techniques it is important if the field is applied with a permanent magnet
or with direct current or, on the other hand, with alternating current. For the two application
types, the formation of the magnetic field within the object can be differ very much.
The main effect to be addressed is the skin effect, i.e. the distribution of the flow of the electric
current, and therefore of the generated magnetic field. For alternating current it is higher near
the surface of the electric and/or magnetic conductor. This effect becomes stronger with
increased frequency of the applied electric field (more details see chapter on eddy current testing).
Figure 6-1: Current and magnetic field distribution for DC (left) and AC (very simplified)
6.2.2
Magnetic Properties
The magnetic induction must reach a sufficient value (minimum 1 T) and, to generate a flux
diversion, the magnetic field must cut the possible flaw. In general, flaws can be found if there
direction has an angle of up to 60 to the optimum field direction. Therefore, a magnetisation
in two perpendicular directions is sufficient to find all possible flaw directions.
89
Figure 6-2: Detectability of flaws

The minimum flaw dimensions for this method are a width of 0.5 m and a depth of 10 m. The
ratio of width to depth to length should be 1 : 10 : 50.
The relation between the magnetic field strength H and the magnetic induction B is given by
B= H
with
=o r
(6.1)
with the permeability and the magnetic field constant o (4 10 V s A m ). Pure iron and
some iron-nickel alloys show the highest value for the relative permeability r of up to 106.
However, this number is not a constant, but depends on the magnetic history. Therefore, the
measurement of the induction is not simple, while the measurement of the magnetic field
strength is relatively simple. Therefore, for ferromagnetic steels a value of 2 to 5 kA m -1, in extreme cases (some cobalt-base alloys) up to 9 kA m -1, are said to be sufficient to reach the
magnetic saturation.
-7
-1
-1
If magnetisation is too high, spurious background indications may appear, which could mask
relevant indications.
Induction B [T]
Saturation
1
Virgin curve
Remanence
Coercivity
-1
-2
-4
-2
Magnetic field strength H [kA m ]

-1
Figure 6-3: Example of the magnetic hysteresis loop and virgin curve with the coercivity and
the remanence (also called retentivity)
For the description of the diversion of the magnetic flux only a few models exist.
6.2.3
Models for the Diversion by a Slot

The equations of Zatsepin and Shcherbinin (Defektoskopiya, 2 (1966) pp. 50-65), modified by
Friedrich Frster (1908-1999) give an approximation for the normal component H z and the
transverse component Hx of the diverted flux of a surface breaking slot with a width w and a
depth d. Hg is the total of the diverted flux generated by the slot, x the transverse distance
(slot at x = 0) and s the lift-off distance (surface at s = 0).
90
Hz
Hx
Lift off s
d
w
Hg
Figure 6-4: Coordinate axes for the equations of Zatsepin and Shcherbinin
x
Hx
1
1
= [tan
Hg
w
d
2
x
1
w
s sd
2
tan
w
d
2
w
s sd
2
(6.2)
w
w
2
2
sd x s
1
2
2
=
ln[
]
2
2
Hg 2
w
2
w
2
x sd x s
2
2
x
Hz
(6.3)
The detailed shape of the transverse component is fairly dependent on the lift off and the slot
depth. For zero opening width, no magnetic flux is diverted. Note that the signal measured by
coils is the first derivative of the respective field component.
Relative field strength H/Hg [%]
If this model is applied to cracks that show a small ratio between width and depth, it becomes
clear that the detectability is governed by the lift off. The detected signal is rapidly decreasing
with increasing distance to the surface and it is soon at noise level. Cracks that are completely
closed show no diverted magnetic flux and are, therefore, not detectable with this method.
120
Hx
80
Hz
s = 0.025
s = 0.025
s = 0.1
40
s = 0.5
0
-40
s = 0.5
s = 0.1
-80
-120
-2
-1
0
Position
2 -2
-1
Position
Figure 6-5: Transverse (left) and normal component of the magnetic field diversion due to a
slot of a width of one unit (-0.5 to 0.5) and a depth of one unit as well, the three curves
denotes the lifts off of 0.025, 0.1 and 0.5 units; very near to the surface the edge effect is
maximum
91
Relative transverse field strength

over crack centre Hx/Hg [%]
100
80
s = 1/4
60
s=1
40
s=5
20
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Crack width (crack depth: one unit)

Figure 6-6: Diverted tangential field strength dependence on crack dimensions and lift off
6.2.4
Model for the Diversion by a Subsurface Cylindrical Hole

A sometimes used approximation for the determination of the resulting field in magnetic flux
leakage is adapted from Bray & Stanley (see appendix). The formulas are given in a slightly dif ferent way.
The magnetic field from a subsurface side drilled hole of permeability i and radius r in a material of permeability m and magnetised with the applied field Ha is given as
Hx
x 2 hs2
2r m
(6.4)
2 xhs
2
=
2r m
Ha x2 hs2 2
(6.5)
Ha
2 2
x hs
Hz
where x is the position of the measuring probe and s its lift off, the distance to the surface, and
with
m=
2 m
m i
[1
m i
m i
r 2 mi 2
]
r
2h
mi
1
(6.6)
Assuming that in most cases m >> i, this term may be simplified to

m2r 2 [1
r 2 1
]
2h
The model fails for a surface groove (h=0).
92
(6.7)
Relative field strength H/Ha [%]
Hz
Lift off s
Hx
h
Radius r
Ha
0.4
Hx
0.2
0.0
-0.2
Hz
-0.4
-20
-10
0
Position
10
20
Figure 6-7: Diverted field of a side drilled hole with radius one, at a depth of three and measured at a lift off of one unit
6.3
Magnetising Equipment
In most cases, the necessary magnetic fields are generated electrically. The use of permanent
magnets is generally limited to special applications where electricity is not easily applicable
(ropes for cable cars, pipelines, etc.).
When magnetisation is generated from time-varying currents, the rms-value is the required
quantity. The use of pulsed or phase-cut currents requires specific measurements.
Table 6-1: Relationship between wave form, mean and rms-value for a peak current I and
alternating current (AC) and various forms of direct current (DC)
Wave form
Symbol
rms
I
Alternating
current
Half wave direct current (HWDC)
I
2
Full wave direct current (FWDC)
2I
I
2
0.826 I
0.840 I
Three phase, halfwave rectified
6.3.1
Mean
Magnetic Field of an Electric Conductor

According to the Biot-Savart law (Jean-Baptiste Biot, 1774-1862, Flix Savart, 1791-1841) an
electric current I in a straight conductor generates in the distance r a circular magnetic field of
H=
I
2r
(6.8)
93
Figure 6-8: Magnetic field of an electric conductor (non-magnetic material, DC)

6.3.2
Magnetic Field of a Coil

In a coil the field portions of the single conductors add and the resulting field of a coil with n
windings and the length is approximately
H
nI
(6.9)
Specially for short coils (compared to the diameter) and at the ends of all coils this formula
leads to considerably too high values, as the field depends additionally on the diameter D of the
coil and the axial distance x from the centre of the coil. On the central axis of the coil, the magnetic field strength therefore is
x
x
nI
2
2
H=
2 x2 D2 2 x2 D2
(6.10)
The values at the centre and at the end of a coil can be found with x = 0 and x = /2, respect ively:
HC=
nI
(6.11)
D
2
and
HE =
nI
(6.12)
D 2
Relative field strength [%]
100
80
Long
coil
60
40
20
Short
coil
0
-3
-2
-1
Position [D]
Figure 6-9: Relation of the real field strength to the one obtained with the simple formula for a
long coil (/D = 5) and a short coil (/D = 1)
94
Figure 6-10: Closed (left) and hinged magnetising coil, flexible coil (MR Chemie, Tiede, Empa)
6.3.3
Hand Yokes
A magnetic yoke consists of one or two coils, positioned in the legs or in the cross brace. The
magnetic field is lead over two, often adjustable poles. As there is no closed magnetic reflux,
the air gap is not negligible any more.
In Europe DC yokes are seldom in use and in accordance with the applicant only. In this case
the yoke is made of massive low carbon steel. AC yokes consist of laminated soft steel sheets
as used for transformers. Cross yokes generating a magnetic field in two directions (longitud inal and transverse) are available as well.
Figure 6-11: Magnetising yokes with adjustable or fix poles, cross yoke (Tiede)
The force needed to pull off of a yoke with the area of one pole A is given by
F=HB A
(6.13)
A minimum of 44 N is recommended.
6.3.4
Prods
If the part itself is used as electric conductor, electrodes are used as prods. The necessary current is typically between 1 kA and 10 kA.
Figure 6-12: Prods and high current generator (MR Chemie, Magnaflux)
6.3.5
Magnetising Mandrels
Mandrels may be used for a magnetisation in two directions at the same time. They consist of
an electric conductor (usually copper) and DC pole made of laminated soft steel sheets. Mandrels are suitable for the inspection of annular or tubular components.
95
Figure 6-13: Magnetising mandrels (Tiede)

6.3.6
Magnetic Benches
The equipment may be integrated in a complete unit, suitable for different magnetisation tech niques at the same time or sequential.
Figure 6-14: Simple magnetic bench (Magwerks)
Figure 6-15: Automatic installation for coaxial parts (2 kg, length 200 mm, 50 mm), two
magnetising directions (threaded conductor 700 A, yoke 10'000 A turns), clock cycle 13.5
seconds, evaluation with eight cameras (Tiede)
96
6.4
Magnetisation
6.4.1
Overview
More than one technique may be necessary to find discontinuities on all test surfaces and in all
directions. Different magnetisation may be applied one after another, also called sequential
magnetisation, or at the same time, called multidirectional magnetisation. In this case at least
one has to be a technique using AC to allow the magnetic field to turn. In general the techniques can be differentiated into current flow techniques and magnetic flow techniques.
Magnetising techniques
Current flow techniques
Magnetic flow techniques

Threading conductor
Axial
Prods
Conductor
Adjacent
Induced
Yoke
Cable (coiled)
Fixed installation
Hand yoke
Rigid
Coil
Flexible
Figure 6-16: Magnetising techniques

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
(I)
Figure 6-17: Magnetising techniques by sketch: current flow: (A) axial, (B) prods, (C) induced;
magnetic flow: (D) threaded conductor, (E) adjacent conductor, (F) adjacent cable, (G) yoke,
(H) fixed installation, (I) rigid or flexible coil
6.4.2
Axial Current Flow

Current passes through the component, which shall be in good electrical contact with the pads.
Care shall be taken to avoid damage to the component at the point of electrical contacts. Pos97
sible hazards include excessive heat, burning and arcing. Certain contact materials, such as
copper or zinc may cause metallurgical damage to the component if arching occurs. Lead contact pads may be used, but only in well ventilated conditions, because they may generate
harmful vapours. Contact areas should be as clean and as large as practicable.
Figure 6-18: Magnetic field of axial current flow with DC (left) and AC, ferromagnetic material;
in the interior of a hollow conductor there is no magnetic field (independently on AC or DC)
The required current I for a component with the perimeter p is given by
I=H p
(6.14)
With items of varying cross section, a single value of current shall be used only when the cur rent values required to magnetise the largest and smallest sections are in a ratio of less than
1.5 : 1. When a single value of current is used, the largest section shall govern the current
value.
The inner surface of hollow pipes or similar objects cannot be tested with this technique as the
magnetic field strength inside is zero.
6.4.3
Prods; Current Flow

Current is passed between hand-held or clamped contact prods, providing an inspection of a
small area of a larger surface. The prods are then moved in a prescribed pattern to cover the
required total area, overlap is necessary. Particular care shall be taken to avoid surface damage
due to burning or contamination of the component by prods. Zinc plated or galvanised prods
shall not be used. Arching or excessive heating shall be regarded as a defect requiring a verdict
on acceptability.
For a prod distance d of up to 200 mm and a not too much curved surface, the rms value is
given by
Irms =2.5H d
to
Irms=3H d
(6.15)
Usually the area with a radius of 25 mm around the prods cannot be tested using this tech nique.
6.4.4
Induced Current Flow

Current is induced in a ring shaped component by making it, in effect the secondary of a trans former. This technique only works with AC and the secondary loop must be closed. The
required induced current Iind for a component with the perimeter p is given by
Iind=Hp
(6.16)
The induced current cannot be easily calculated from the primary current. With items of varying
cross section, a single value of current shall be used only when the current values required to
magnetise the largest and smallest sections are in a ratio of less than 1.5 : 1. When a single
value of current is used, the largest section shall govern the current value.
6.4.5
Threaded Conductor
Current is passed through an insulate bar or flexible cable, placed within the bore of a compon ent or through an aperture. The required current I for a central conductor and for a component
with the perimeter p (inner or outer surface) is given by
I=Hp
98
(6.17)
Figure 6-19: Magnetic field for a threaded conductor (DC)

6.4.6
Adjacent Conductor or Cable

One or more insulated current-carrying cables or bars are lead parallel to the surface of the
component, adjacent to the area to be tested and supported a distance d above it. The return
cable for the electric current shall be arranged to as far removed from the testing zone as possible and, in all cases, this distance shall be greater than 10 d, where 2 d is the width of the
tested area.
The cable shall be moved over the component at intervals of less than 2 d to ensure that the
inspection areas overlap. The rms value of the current flowing in the cable is required to be
Irms =4 d H
(6.18)
When testing radiused corners on cylindrical components or branch joints, the cable may be
wrapped around the surface of the component or the branch and several turns may be bunched
in the form of a closely wrapped coil. In this case d is the distance to the nearest winding and
the necessary current can be divided by the number of turns.
6.4.7
Fixed Installation
The component, or a portion of it, is placed in contact with the poles of an electromagnet of a
magnetic bench.
6.4.8
Portable Electromagnet (Yoke)

The poles of an AC yoke are placed in contact with the component surface. The testing area
shall not be greater than that defined by a circle inscribed between the pole pieces and shall
exclude the area immediately adjacent to the poles. DC electromagnets and permanent magnets may only be used by agreement at the time of enquiry and order.
6.4.9
Rigid Coil
The component is placed within a current-carrying coil. When using rigid coils of a helical form,
the pitch of the helix shall be less than 25% of the coil diameter.
The necessary current depends on the length of the component. For short components, where
the length to diameter ratio is less than 5, it is recommended that magnetic extenders are
used. The current required to achieve the necessary magnetisation is thus reduced.
6.4.10
Flexible Coil
A coil is formed by winding a current-carrying cable tightly around the component. The area to
be tested shall lie between the turns of the coil (in opposite to an adjacent cable coil).
To achieve the required magnetisation using DC or rectified current, the rms value the current
flowing in the cable shall have a minimum value of
Irms=3H T
Y2
4T
(6.19)
Where T is the wall thickness of the component, or its radius if it is in form of a solid bar of cir cular section, and Y is the space between adjacent windings in the coil.
In case of AC, T shall be set to 10 mm.
99
6.5
Detection of the Magnetic Flux

If magnetic particles are used, it is usual to apply the magnetic field for a while, the so called
post-magnetisation time after the particles are applied, allowing a correct orientation of them.
6.5.1
Dry Magnetic Particles

Dry magnetic particles are usually coloured (red, black, grey, yellow or others), sometimes
fluorescent. To achieve good contrast for coloured media, it may be necessary that a thin layer
of contrast aid paint of usually white colour is applied prior to testing. The thickness of this
layer should not exceed 50 m.
Size and shape of the particles are important. Dry magnetic particle products are produced to
include a range of particle sizes from 20 m to about 300 m. Small particles are more sensit ive to the diverted fields from very small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot
be made exclusively of the fine particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discon tinuities and to reduce the powders dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to
surface contamination, such as dirt or moisture and get trapped in surface roughness features
producing a high background level.
Figure 6-20: Coloured dry magnetic particles indicate large crack, note the particles at the
holes (left) (NDT RC)
Long, slender particles tend to align themselves along the lines of magnetic force. However,
they lack the ability to flow freely. Therefore, globular particles are added. The mix of globular
and elongated particles results in a dry powder that flows well and maintains acceptable sensitivity for larger flaws. The use, therefore, makes only sense for rough surfaces and/or larger dis continuities, e.g. for castings.
Dry magnetic particle are necessary for hight temperature applications where a carrier fluid
would evaporate or dissolve.
6.5.2
Wet Magnetic Particles
Figure 6-21: Wet fluorescent magnetic particles (left) and wet coloured particles, the component is partly covered with contrast aid paint (NDT RC, Ely Chemical)
The usual detection media is a suspension of coloured (black or brown) or fluorescent particles
in a carrier fluid.
Fluorescent particles have a ferromagnetic core and are coated with pigments that fluoresce
when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green-yellow are most common;
other fluorescent colours are available as well. Fluorescent media usually give the highest sens100
itivity provided there is an appropriate surface finish, good drainage to maximum indication
contrast and well controlled viewing conditions (as in liquid penetrant testing). Similar to liquid
penetrant testing, a dual use version (coloured and fluorescent) is possible as well, usually hav ing an orange colour.
Figure 6-22: Comparison of different magnetic particle colours; black, daylight fluorescent,
fluorescent (Deutsch)
The particles used in the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry method.
The particles have a typical size of 10 m and smaller and the synthetic iron oxides have
particle diameters around 0.1 m. This very small size is a result of the process used to form
the particles and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out
of suspension. However, due to their slight residual magnetism, the oxide particles are present
mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the individual particles. This
makes it possible to see and measure the concentration of the particles for process control purposes. Wet particles are a mix of long slender and globular particles as well.
Figure 6-23: Various possibilities of delivery forms of magnetic particle: powder, concentrate,
paste and spray (Tiede)
The carrier may contain oil-based or water-based components. Water-based carriers form
quicker indications, are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no
petrochemical fumes and are easier to clean from the part. Water-based solutions are usually
formulated with a corrosion inhibitor and wetting agents. However, oil-based carriers offer
superior corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to
be attacked by these mechanisms.
Wet magnetic particles are delivered as final suspension (in spray cans, etc.) or as liquid or
paste-like concentrate.
6.5.3
Peelable Detection Media

The easiest way to apply peelable detection media is to take a suspension of dry powder in a
solvent that quickly evaporates. After its volatilisation the residual powder pattern can get
picked off using a transparent adhesive tape or similar media.
Figure 6-24: Black iron powder on adhesive tape show crack, machining traces and noise due
to clumped powder, height 20 mm (Empa)
The magnetic rubber technique can be used to examine areas difficult to reach, such as the
threads on the inside diameter of holes, where the moulded plugs can be removed and
101
examined under ideal conditions and magnification if desired. The trade-off, of course, is that
inspection times are much longer.
The technique uses a liquid rubber containing suspended magnetic particles. The rubber compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetised component. Inspections can be
performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained whilst the rubber sets
(active field), or the residual field from magnetisation of the component prior to pouring the
compound. A dam of modelling clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of
interest. The rubber is allowed to set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes and then the rubber
cast is removed from the part. It conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse rep lica of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of discontinuities, which appear as
dark lines on the surface of the moulding. It can be retained as a permanent record of the
inspection.
In its most sensitive application, this detection method is capable of revealing finer cracks than
other magnetic techniques. Even Luders bands, ferritic or austenitic precipitations or heat
affected zones of welds can be replicated. Usually this method is used under laboratory conditions only.
6.5.4
Induction Coils
For the detection of diverted magnetic flux induction coils can be used. They are, however, only
capable to pick up changes of the leaking field. This is of importance if the magnetisation is
done with DC or permanent magnets or the component is investigated while remanent. With an
appropriate bending they may be adapted to different shapes.
There exist two types of coils: a U-bended coil measuring the radial component of the diverted
field, called LD-coil (local default) and a full coil around the part, measuring the axial compon ent, called LMA-coil (loss of metallic area). While a LMA-coil has to be wound for every application, a LD-coil can be opened and closed.
Induction coils are widely used in rope and cable testing. However, dependent on their positioning, they give only partial or none information on the circumferential position of a flaw, they
cannot always differentiate between one or several flaws, and they are not working, if the
device is not or slowly moving (too low or no signal).
(A)
(B)
Figure 6-25: Sensing head for wire rope inspection (A) Hall effect sensors (before sealing), (B)
induction half coil (LD-type, sealed) (Empa)
As soon as sensors are used, and this is valid for all types of them, the user has to decide what
part of the signal he wants to get.
6.5.5
Hall Effect Sensors

An electric current I is passed through the conductor or semiconductor. In a magnetic field, the
Lorentz force on the moving electrons tends to push them to one side of the conductor. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage UH between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall effect (Edwin Hall, 1855-1938).
UH=
102
R H IBn
b
(6.20)
Bn
I
UH
Figure 6-26: Functionality and orientation of Hall effect sensors (NDT RC)
RH is the Hall coefficient of the material and depends on the electric conductivity and therefore
on the temperature. Bn is the component of the magnetic field that is perpendicular to the direct current in the Hall element. It is therefore important, how the element is oriented.
Hall elements cannot only be used within measuring equipment, but designed as arrays for
testing also. The well-known applications are rope and cable testing, pipeline inspection and
testing for underfloor corrosion. Their range is between 10 -6 to 102 T.
6.5.6
Magneto-Optical Sensors
Magneto-optical (MO) sensors are using the Faraday rotation. This effect describes that the
polarisation plane of an electromagnetic wave is turned when transmitted through a transparent medium in a magnetic field. The angle of the rotation depends on the induction B, the
transmitted distance d and the Verdet constant V (mile Verdet, 1824-1866). Typical values
are several 10 rad T-1 m-1.
=V Bd
(6.21)
The Verdet constant itself depends on the media and the wavelength; shorter wavelengths usually lead to increased rotation. A common substance showing this effect is epitaxial grown bis muth and gallium dotted yttrium iron garnet (YIG, Y3Fe5O12) typically in the form of
Y2.5Bi0.5Fe3.8Ga1.2O12 or instead of yttrium with lutetium as Lu 2Bi1Fe4.1Ga0.9O12. Magneto-optical
sensors are useful above 10-4 T.
Figure 6-27: Faraday rotation

Commercially already implemented is the principle in a technique called magneto-optic imaging
for eddy currents. The area that can be inspected may have a length of several cm.
It is, however, also possible to read out a transparent layer positioned within an exciting coil
and to get an image of the distribution of the magnetic field, and therefore more accurate
information than with the averaged value of the whole area by a receiving coil.
Principally it is possible to analyse the amplitude and/or the phase information of the image.
103
6.6
Demagnetisation
6.6.1
Basic Principle
After the performance of the test the parts remain in remanent magnetisation. This is often unwanted and a demagnetisation may be necessary
Not to affect further machining of the part by cuttings clinging to the component;
Not to influence welding processes (especially DC) by arc blow (may causes the weld arc
to wander or filler metal to be repelled from the weld) and by electron beam welding;
To prevent rotating parts from producing inductive fields and interfering with electronic
devices (airspace);
To prevent abrasive particles to cling to bearing or fraying surfaces and increase wear;
To prevent uneven coating (chromium plating).
Figure 6-28: Shearing-blades before and after demagnetising (Maurer)

The simplest thing would be, to heat the component above Curie temperature, this, however, is
rarely practicable. The Curie temperature or Curie point (Pierre Curie, 1859-1906), is the temperature at which a ferromagnetic or a ferrimagnetic material becomes paramagnetic on heating; the effect is reversible. The three effectively used methods are based at the same tech nique of reducing the remanent fraction.
Figure 6-29: Principle of demagnetisation (NDT RC)

6.6.2
Reversing DC Demagnetisation
Most benches have a built-in in automatic counter pole magnetisation. In a first step the part is
magnetised in one direction with a field higher than the previous one. In the following steps,
the direction of the field changes continuously, while the strength is decreasing.
6.6.3
Demagnetising Tunnels
Small parts can be pushed through a high frequency AC coil; the increasing distance, and
therefore the reduced field that constantly change its direction demagnetise the part.
104
Figure 6-30: Hand-held demagnetising device and demagnetising tunnel (Magwerks, Tiede)
6.6.4
Yoke Lift Off Technique

Lifting off an AC yoke from the part has a similar effect as a demagnetising tunnel.
6.6.5
Maurer Demagnetising
The usually used low frequency demagnetising often is not effective as magnetic fields in certain directions are not affected enough. Furthermore the component has to be brought to full
saturation before the cycle can start. Often usual equipment is not build to allow the necessary
high magnetic fields, so pulsed coils are in use.
Figure 6-31: High frequency demagnetisation with antecedent saturation (Maurer)
6.7
6.7.1
Field Direction and Strength

An easy way to find the directions of the magnetic field is done with the Berthold penetrameter.
It consists of a soft iron cylinder that is separated into four 90 segments by non-magnetic foils
(brass). These simulate a crack. The device can be easily rotated and allows the verification of
the field direction; especially it can be used to verify, if angular cracks would be found as well.
For a quantitative measurement of the field strength it is not suited. Similar magnetic quality
indicators exist, partly as crosses, partly as rings or double rings.
105
Figure 6-32: Berthold penetrameter (left), magnetic quality indicators, magnetic field meter
(Tiede, Western Instruments)
Simple field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilise a soft iron vane that will be
deflected by a magnetic field. They show the amount and the direction of the magnetic field,
however, due to the mechanics of the device their range is limited. They are well suited for
measuring the residual magnetic field after demagnetisation.
Figure 6-33: Magnetic field indicators (Western Instruments)

The equipment measuring the field strength usually uses Hall effect sensors. The equipment
has to be calibrated using an appropriate reference magnet each time.
6.7.2
Quality of the Magnetic Detection Media

Producers of magnetic detection media have to test their products concerning manifold characteristics like performance, colour, particle size, temperature resistance, fluorescent coefficient
and fluorescent stability, flash point, corrosion induced by detecting media, viscosity of the car rier fluid, mechanical stability (for use in benches with centrifugal pump), foaming, pH value
and storage stability.
For the end user the necessary controls can be performed very pragmatically. It consists from a
visual colour test of the detection media and contrast aid paint and a regular performance test
of magnetic detection media used repeatedly or mixed form a concentrate. This can be done
using reference test blocks like EN ISO 9934-2 No. 1 (earlier known as MTU No. 3) made from
a permanent magnetic material with a crack containing surface. The cracks are induced by
grinding and stress corrosion. As for liquid penetrant testing, each block is unique and can only
be compared to itself.
A second semi-quantitative method is the use of the reference test block EN ISO 9934-2 No. 2
(earlier known as AFNOR C). This one contains of two steel blocks, separated by an aluminium
foil. Two permanent magnets at each end generate a magnetic field with decreasing strength of
-100 A/m (at -4 cm) to 100 A/m (at 4 cm), indicated by an engraving along the aluminium foil.
For similar purpose the Fluka test block was used, still widely spread.
Another possibility is the ANSI KETOS steel tool ring. It is used together with a threaded conductor and contains up to twelve holes at different distances to the centre. For each combination of current and product (wet or dry, coloured or fluorescent) the indication of a certain hole
number is required.
106
Figure 6-34: EN ISO 9934 -2 reference test blocks No. 1 (left) and No. 2 (Tiede, Srem)
A further check, not foreseen in the European standardisation, can be used to determine the
concentration of the magnetic suspension. The standard process used to perform the check
requires agitating the carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle distribu tion. A sample is then taken in a pear-shaped 100 ml sedimentation tube having a stem graduated to 1.0 ml in 0.05 ml increments for fluorescent particles and graduated to 1.5 ml in 0.1 ml
increments for visible particles. The sample is then demagnetised so that the particles do not
clump together while settling. The sample must then remain undisturbed for a minimum of 60
minutes for a petroleum-based carrier or 30 minutes for a water-based carrier, unless shorter
times have been documented to produce results similar to the longer settling times. The
volume of settled particles is then read. If the particle concentration is out of the acceptable
range, particles or carrier fluid must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with the
requirement.
Figure 6-35: Sedimentation tube (Deutsch)

If the suspension is already used, the amount of that what is seen as concentration can consist
of three parts: contamination, primarily coming from inspected components, unaffected magnetic particles and fluorescent material dislodged from the particles by the mixing pump. The
latter only happens with fluorescent particles.
Differences in colour, layering or banding within the settled particles would indicate contamination. Some contamination is to be expected but if the foreign matter exceeds 30% of the
settled solids, the solution should be replaced.
While not technically contamination, this condition should be further evaluated by allowing the
collected sample bath to set for 10 to 12 hours and viewing under ultraviolet light. If a band
that fluoresces brighter than the bulk of particles is evident on top of the settled solids, the
bath contains excessive unattached fluorescent pigments and should be discarded.
For water-based suspensions the pH-value should be measured regularly as too high values (>
9) may lead to skin irritation and for too low values the corrosion inhibition is no longer guaranteed.
6.7.3
Viewing Conditions
See visual testing and liquid penetrant testing, respectively.
6.7.4
Safety Aspects
Safety aspects concerning black light lamps see liquid penetrant testing.
107
Magnetic particle testing may require the use of toxic, flammable and/or volatile materials. In
such cases, working areas therefore should be adequately ventilated and far from sources of
heat or flames. Extended or repeated contact of detecting media and contrast paints with the
skin or mucous membranes shall be avoided.
Figure 6-36: High current generator showing warning signs (Tiede)

Magnetic testing often creates high magnetic fields close to the object under test and the magnetisation equipment. Items sensitive to these fields should be excluded from such areas. Especially people wearing pacemakers are to be warned, corresponding signs shall be attached to
magnetic benches, etc.
6.8
6.8.1
Procedure
6.8.2
Special surface preparation (e.g. degreasing);
Type of magnetic media;
For scanning applications: direction of scanning, size and type of probe, surface speed,
coverage of the probe;
Requirements for magnetisation;
Necessary demagnetisation and conservation.
Record
108
Description of the equipment used, including serial numbers, etc.;
Magnetisation technique, including indicated current values, waveform, tangential field

strengths, contact or pole spacing, coil dimensions, etc.;
Detection media and contrast aid paint if used, including batch numbers;
Viewing conditions;
Demagnetisation and maximum residual field strength after test;
Figure 6-37: Example of a MT examination record (Empa)
6.9
Special Applications
6.9.1
Underfloor Corrosion
Because the magnetic flux leakage method responds to both far side and near side corrosion, it
is necessary to introduce a strong magnetic field into the component wall. The closer this field
becomes to saturation for the component, the more sensitive and repeatable the method
becomes. For typical steels used in bulk liquid storage tank construction this value is generally
between 1.6 and 2 T. In this range any residual magnetism from previous scans or operations
will be eliminated during subsequent scans so that the resulting flux leakage signals remains
relatively constant and repeatable.
Figure 6-38: Testing and test equipment for underfloor and tank corrosion (Silverwing, MFE)
For a given magnetising system the flux density achieved in the component will depend on the
thickness and permeability of the material. So the factor controlling flux density becomes one
109
of plate thickness. There will be an upper thickness limit for each given magnetising system
above which flux density will be too low to give adequate sensitivity to pitting. One advantage
of using an electro-magnet is that the magnetising current can be increased to cater for a wider
range of plate thickness than can be achieved with a given permanent magnet. However, this
will be at the expense of size, weight and often the use of an independent (battery) power sup ply.
The magnetic field is recorded by a set of Hall effect sensors usually arranged perpendicular to
the scanning direction. The two possibilities for the orientation of the sensing elements pick up
either the normal (vertical) or the transverse (horizontal) component. There are advantages
and disadvantages with both these alternatives.
There are two types of noise that will be encountered by the systems. The first is the large
eddy current signal generated by the movement of the magnet over a conducting surface. The
second type of noise is that generated by surface roughness and permeability variations in the
plate material.
Eddy current signals are a function of the velocity of the magnet carriage and in a typical scan
have three stages - a rising signal during acceleration - a steady state (DC) value at scanning
speed - and finally a decreasing value during braking. Eddy current effects tend not to show up
when the normal component of the magnetic field is being used and this means that those sys tems using coils or vertically mounted Hall effect sensors do not need to worry about this noise.
However, horizontally mounted Hall effect sensors do respond well to the eddy current noise so it needs to be eliminated. Since the deceleration during braking is sharper than the accelera tion during start-up and the signals generated are of opposite polarity, it is convenient to elim inate the stopping signal by rectification of all signals and only measuring positive components.
Passing all signals through a high pass filter with a suitable cut-off frequency eliminates the
start up and steady state signals.
The remaining noise will be represented by relatively slow changes of permeability and much
sharper (higher frequency) signals from vibrations in the system due to surface roughness.
Arranging the sensors in differential pairs reduces the first of these, and the second by passing
all signals through a low pass filter with a suitable cut-off frequency.
On the face of it may seem sensible to choose to measure the transverse component of the
field so that eddy current effects are no longer a problem. But it is possible to get the sensor
closer to the surface when mounted horizontally and this gives a sensitivity advantage, especially on coated floors.
Some of the above given aspects on noise and noise reduction are valid for the following
applications as well.
6.9.2
Wire Cable and Stay Cable Inspection

Cables for cable cars and civil engineering structures (mainly bridges) are inspected using per manent magnets or coils. Only the latter are suitable for large cable diameters (up to 200 mm
or more) but have to be wounded with typically up to 150 windings for every single rope and
inspection segment. Detecting coils are used for the general testing, Hall effect sensors if a
closer view is necessary or the coils are not suitable due to slow motion. The possible motion
with Hall effect sensors, however, is much lower. Hall effect sensors are arranged circumferential and give additional information about the position of a wire crack. This method can be used
for imaging. Such techniques are also called magnetic rope testing (MRT).
According to the given formulae, it must be clear, that closed cracks cannot be found by magnetic methods, however, MFL is an excellent technique to find gaping ones.
110
Figure 6-39: Inspection equipment for cable car ropes (left) and bridge tension cables (Empa)
Figure 6-40: Rama IX bridge in Bangkok where all the 68 stay cables were investigated using
MFL (Empa)
111
Figure 6-41: Imaging magnetic flux leak testing: signal of the induction coil (top), signal of the
Hall effect sensors (mid) and enlarged sector (400 800 mm) (Empa)
6.9.1
Tube and Pipeline Inspection

Ferritic pipelines are inspected using permanent magnets, typically of the NdFeB type. The
device inserted into the tube is called pipeline inspection gauge (PIG) and can have a length of
several metres. For gas pipelines the only other possible technique is ultrasonic electromagnetic-acoustic transducer (EMAT) technique. Relevant indications are the wall thickness, buckles or
general flaws. The transfer of the magnetic field onto the tube may be done by either flexible
bristles or firm brushes. For the first possibility, the magnets are farer away from the tube and
the field is lower, for the second one resistance against a displacement becomes stronger. The
pig may be centred by wheels.
(E)
(C)
(D)
(A)
(B)
Figure 6-42: Sketch of a pipeline pig, left: bristle type with (A) cross brace with attached magnets, (B) flexible bristles, right: brush type with (C) magnet, (D) brushes, for both types: (E)
circumferential sensors
The leaking flux is detected by Hall effect sensors, arranged along the circumference. Usually a
second row is used to fill the gaps of the first one. The autonomy of such devices guaranties an
inspection distance of up to 1'000 km.
For ferromagnetic tubes the probes are simpler, but usually the pigs are not self-governed.
Magnetic flux leakage technique is often combined with remote field eddy currents and/or ultrasonic techniques. Magnetic flux leakage is suitable for wall loss measurements and detection of
sharp defects such as pitting and grooving. It is effective for aluminium finned carbon steel
tubes as the field is unaffected by the presence of such fins.
112
Figure 6-43: Pipeline pig (Pipetronix)
Figure 6-44: Magnetic flux leakage probe for air coolers (above) together with ultrasonic probe,
internal rotary inspection type (R/D Tech)
6.9.2
Underwater Application
In opposite to liquid penetrant testing, the detection of diverted magnetic flux is possible
underwater (salt or sweet) or similar surroundings. Of course all equipment has to be suitable
for this usage (water tightness and pressure). Specially adapted wet suspensions exist.
Figure 6-45: Underwater magnetising and inspection equipment and daylight fluorescent indication (Asams, Circle)
6.9.3
Evaluation of Barkhausen Noise

Ferromagnetic materials consist of small magnetic regions resembling individual bar magnets
called domains. Each domain is magnetised along a certain crystallographic easy direction of
magnetisation. Domains are separated from one another by boundaries known as Bloch walls
(Felix Bloch, 1905-1983). AC magnetic fields will cause Bloch walls to move back and forth. In
113
order for a domain wall to move, the domain on one side of the wall has to increase in size
while the one on the opposite side shrinks. The result is a change in the overall magnetisation
of the sample.
If an inductive sensor is placed near the sample while the domain wall moves, the resulting
change in magnetisation will induce an electrical pulse. The first electrical observations of
domain wall motion was made by Heinrich Georg Barkhausen (1881-1956) in 1919. He proved
that the magnetisation process, which is characterised by the hysteresis curve, in fact is not
continuous, but is made up of small, abrupt steps caused when the magnetic domains move
under an applied magnetic field. When the electrical pulses produced by all domain movements
are added together, a noise-like signal called Barkhausen noise is generated.
Barkhausen noise has a power spectrum starting from the magnetising frequency and extending beyond 2 MHz in most materials. It is exponentially damped as a function of distance it has
travelled inside the material. This is primarily due to the eddy current damping experienced by
the propagating electromagnetic fields that Bloch wall movements create. The extent of damping determines the depth from which information can be obtained (measurement depth). The
main factors affecting this depth are:
Frequency range of the Barkhausen noise signal analysed and
Conductivity and permeability of the test material.
Measurement depths for practical applications vary between 0.01 and 1.5 mm.
Two important material characteristics will affect the intensity of the Barkhausen noise signal.
One is the presence and distribution of elastic stresses which will influence the way domains
choose and lock into their easy direction of magnetisation. This phenomenon of elastic properties interacting with domain structure and magnetic properties of material is called a magnetoelastic interaction. As a result of magnetoelastic interaction, in materials with positive magnetic anisotropy (iron, most steels and cobalt), compressive stresses will decrease the intensity
of Barkhausen noise while tensile stresses increase it this fact can be exploited so that by
measuring the intensity of Barkhausen noise the amount of residual stress can be determined.
For materials with negative magnetic anisotropy the effect is contrary. The measurement
defines the direction of principal stresses as well.
The other important material characteristic affecting Barkhausen noise is the micro-structure of
the sample. This effect can be broadly described in terms of hardness: the noise intensity con tinuously decreases in microstructures characterised by increasing hardness. In this way,
Barkhausen noise measurements provide information on the microstructural condition of the
material.
Many common surface treatments such as grinding, shot peening, carburising and induction
hardening involve some modification of both stress and microstructure and can be readily
detected using the method. Various dynamic processes such as creep and fatigue similarly
involve changes in stress and microstructure and can be monitored with Barkhausen noise as
well.
Practical applications of the magnetoelastic Barkhausen noise method can be broadly divided
into three categories:
114
Evaluation of residual stresses;
Evaluation of microstructural changes;
Testing of surface defects, processes and surface treatments that may involve changes in
both stresses and microstructure.
Figure 6-46: Inspection equipment and Barkhausen noise scan of layers with flaws (Stresstech,
IZFP)
6.10
High Resolution Magnetometry

Some applications for the measurement of small magnetic fields are to be found in medical
applications, NDT, physics, especially geophysics and computer hardware (hard drives and
MRAM, magnetic random access memories). Most of such detectors make use of the magnetoresistance effect.
The magnetic remanence method (MRM) is used to find very small ferromagnetic particles (like
150 g iron) in non-ferromagnetic surroundings like such particles in the critical part of aircraft
turbine blades.
Low frequency eddy current (LFEC) is used for larger penetration than it is usual with normal
eddy current instruments.
Thermoelectric method with magnetic readout (TEM) to find segregations, zones with local
overheating due to damaged machining tools or zones with a higher fatigue rate (before the
effective crack initialisation) can be done with high resolution magnetometry.
Determination of the magnetic permeability for austenitic steels (> 1) using a small permanent
magnet and analysing the resulting field.
Figure 6-47: Device for the determination of the magnetic permeability (Stefan Mayer Instruments)
Common for such techniques is that they are also influenced by other sources of local changes
of the magnetic surroundings like earth magnetism or the noise signals given by electric conductors (50 Hz and 16 2/3 Hz from train lines). If compensation is not possible such experiments have to be realised in magnetically shielded rooms.
Normal conducting devices can be used down to the pT range, for the fT range superconducting
devices (SQUIDs) working either at 4 K or up to 77 K are necessary.
6.10.1
TFI, AMR and GMR Sensors

Between 1990 and 1995, disc drives used a read/write technology called thin-film inductive
(TFI). These heads were made of wire-wrapped magnetic cores. Voltage generated from the
disc (a permanent magnet) moved past the wired core. TFI read heads reached their limit
because when magnetic sensitivity was increased, their ability to write decreased.
115
By the mid-1990s, hard drive producers began introducing drives that used AMR heads. An
AMR head uses a TFI head to write. However, the read element is composed of a thin strip of
magnetic material. The essence of AMR heads is their resistance-transducing capability. A
strong signal is generated when the stripe's resistance changes in the presence of a magnetic
field. The disc drive senses and decodes the resistance changes caused by reversing magnetic
polarities. This heightened sensitivity provides a higher signal output per unit of recording track
width on the disc surface. The results: more information can be placed on each disc and fewer
components are necessary.
The effect is most usually seen in magnetic multi-layered structures, where two magnetic layers are closely separated by a thin spacer layer a few nm thick. It is analogous to a polarisation
experiment, where aligned polarisers allow light to pass through, but crossed polarisers do not.
The first magnetic layer allows electrons in only one spin state to pass through easily if the
second magnetic layer is aligned then that spin channel can easily pass through the structure,
and the resistance is low. If the second magnetic layer is misaligned then neither spin channel
can get through the structure easily and the electrical resistance is high. A GMR read film structure is composed of free, pinned and antiferromagnetic layers:
Pinned layer its magnetisation is fixed by the antiferromagnetic layer;
Antiferromagnetic layer; fixes the magnetisation direction behind the pinned layer;
Free layer its magnetisation is free to rotate when it senses the magnetic field.
The operation principle is like the detection of polarised light.

spin up
spin down
spin up
spin down
Figure 6-48: Example for a spin-valve design, various possibilities exist (Leeds University)
The change in magnetisation angle (spin) of the free layer translates into a resistance change
and voltage output - hence the name spin-valve. For reliable and stable device performance,
these thin layers must be of high crystal quality and should have few physical and magnetic
defects. Such devices are used as eddy current sensors as well. Magnetoresistive and GMR
sensors can be applied in the range of 10 -10 to 10-2 T.
Tumanski and Strabowski (Meas. Sc. Technol., 9 (1998) pp. 488-495) developed an automatic
measuring system for mapping of the magnetic field measured by means of magnetoresistive
sensor. Although this system was primarily designed for electrical steel testing, it proved to be
a versatile for magnetic field imaging, e.g. for non-destructive testing of various materials or
for analysing of magnetic field distribution. Because of some similarities with the thermovision
method, the whole system was called magnetovision. The usual used sensors have a probe size
of about one mm2, smaller areas are possible, but the sensitivity decreases. The usefulness of
such a system has been demonstrated for measuring the Villari effect (details see ultrasonic
testing), other applications are possible.
116
Figure 6-49: Magnetovision camera and distribution of the magnetic field of a nickel sample
with a hole in a fatigue test (Wroclaw University)
6.10.2
Fluxgate Magnetometers
For the time being fluxgate magnetometers are used for geophysical prospect ion, to find buried ferromagnetic parts or in aeronautic and space applications with high sensitivity at low frequency.
A fluxgate consists from a magnetically soft core (ferritic glasses) that is magnetised with
sinusoidal AC and a sensing coil. If no external field is present the measured signal shows only
odd harmonics. If an external field is present also even harmonics are present that can be
demodulated using a lock-in technique and analysed. Using three such devices, the resulting
field direction can be analysed. If necessary the gradient of the field can be calculated using
several elements one after the other.
core
magnetising coil
sensing coil
Figure 6-50: Schematic principle of a fluxgate (left), three-axis fluxgate magnetometer with a
diameter of 25 mm and a length of 200 mm (Bartington)
The usual sensors can be used between 20 to 200 Hz and show rather large dimensions; new
developments allow a bandwidth up to 20 kHz with diameters of typically 6 mm and a height of
15 to 20 mm. Those devices can be interesting for certain eddy current applications, especially
if they can be built small enough. Their range is from 10-11 to 10-2 T.
6.10.3
SQUIDs
Superconductive quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) are the most sensitive detectors that
exist. In a superconductive loop one or two very small breaks, so called Josephson junctions
(Brian David Josephson, *1940, NP 1973), are introduced. The small breaks act as barriers the
electrons have to tunnel across. A SQUID acts like a transistor and is able to amplify small
changes in magnetic field into measurable electric current. A SQUID can even do this in the
presence of a large external field (up to 7 T). The changes of the magnetic field may be measured within the superconducting loop itself, or, sometimes more practical, by the aid of an
additional loop, coupled to the superconductive one.
117
If high temperature superconducting materials are used, the cooling may be done by liquid
nitrogen. The SQUID itself often is cooled via a sapphire cold-finger and is not directly put into
the cooling liquid.
Figure 6-51: Unshielded SQUID with sapphire cold-finger (left), Magnetocardiograph (Fino,
Cardiomag Imaging)
The main disadvantages of SQUIDs are their costs and their extreme sensitivity on vibration
and radio frequency noise. They are used for medical applications, e.g. for magnetocardiography (MCG), complementing electrocardiography (ECG). Their range is from 10-14 to 10-6 T.
6.11

Due to its nature of interaction, magnetic testing is restricted to ferromagnetic materials.
The direction of the magnetic field must cut the anomaly. This can be surface-braking or sur face-near, the detection threw thin layers is possible.
Magnetic particle testing is reliable, relatively easy to reproduce, fast and fairly common. Sizing
is possible at the surface only; no information is acquainted about the depth of issues diverting
the magnetic flux. Sharp changes in geometry, e.g. threads, edges or weld seams can also
influence the behaviour of magnetic particles and lead to artefacts. Off-shore applications are
possible.
For components tested in benches the clamping positions cannot be tested during the same
pass, often magnetic particle testing there is not possible at all. Improperly applied prod magnetising can lead to damages.
The common way to detect the diverted magnetic flux are magnetic particles, where the use of
dry powders is seldom in Europe (exception hight temperature applications).
Techniques using sensors are used for specific applications; those are pipes, rods, ropes, floors,
and others. Using such equipment, it is to a certain degree possible to size flaws within the
material; a priori information, however, is necessary in most cases.
Automated evaluation of the results is possible for systems giving an image of the magnetic
particles and especially also for the ones using sensors. For small series, however, the arran ging and debugging of the sensor arrays is to elaborate. So even for automated test equipment
the inspection is still often done manually, that is by the human eye.
For materials characterisation magnetic imaging systems exist. For testing purposes, however,
the resolution is limited, so the method, at least for the time being, has no real high-end
applications.
Due to several reasons a demagnetisation after the process is necessary. A full demagnetisation of geometrically complicated parts, however, can be very demanding.
118
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
7.1
Introduction
Eddy current testing has its origins with Michael Faraday's (1791-1867) discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831 and the experiments of Dominique Arago (1768-1853). 1851 Lon
Foucault (1819-1868) discovered that the force required for the rotation of a cooper disc
becomes greater when it is made with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disc at the
same time becoming heated by the eddy currents induced in the metal. In French eddy current
has the name of its inventor courant de Foucault. However, it was not until World War II that
these effects were put to practical use for testing materials.
By 1950, Friedrich Frster (1908-1999) had developed a precise theory for many basic types of
eddy current arrangements, including both absolute and differential or comparator test systems
and probe or fork coil systems used with thin sheets and extended surfaces. Each test was confirmed by precise solutions of the Maxwell differential equations for the various boundary condi tions involved with coils and test objects, at least for symmetrical cases such as cylindrical
bars, tubes and flat sheets where such mathematical integrations were feasible.
The introduction of sophisticated, stable quantitative test equipment and of practical methods
for analysis of quantitative test signals on the complex impedance plane were by far the most
important factors contributing to the rapid development and acceptance of electromagnetic
induction and eddy current tests during 1950 to 1965.
In the early 1970s Hugo Libby promoted the use of Lissajous figures (Jules Lissajous, 18221880) for eddy current testing of tubes. This became the standard representation form for eddy
current instruments.
In thin materials such as tubing and sheet stock, eddy current can be used to measure the
thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for detecting corrosion damage
and other damage that causes a thinning of the material. The technique is used to make corrosion thinning measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in assemblies such
as heat exchangers. Eddy current testing is also used to measure the thickness of paints and
other coatings.
Eddy current inspection is used in a variety of industries to find defects and make measurements. One of the primary uses of eddy current testing is for defect detection when the nature
of the defect is well understood. In general the technique is used to inspect a relatively small
area and the probe design and test parameters must be established with a good understanding
of the flaw that has to be detected. Since eddy currents tend to concentrate at the surface of a
material, they can only be used to detect surface and near surface defects.
Eddy currents are affected by the electric conductivity and magnetic permeability of materials
as well. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be used to sort materials and to indicate if
a component has seen high temperatures or been heat treated, as the resulting microstructure
changes the conductivity of some materials.
7.2
Physical Background
7.2.1
Current Flow and Ohm Law

The Ohm law (Georg Simon Ohm, 1789-1854) is one of the most important basic laws of electricity. It defines the relationship between the three fundamental electrical quantities voltage U,
current I and resistance R. The reciprocal value of the resistance is the conductance G (unit
Siemens 1 S = 1 -1).
U=R I
or
I=GU
(7.1)
In this form, the values of the resistance and the conductance refer to the overall system. The
resistivity and the electric conductivity are related according to
R=
and
G=
(7.2)
with the length and A the cross section of the conductor.
119
Table 7-1: Electric and magnetic properties of some materials,

TT: transition temperature, index C: Curie, index N: Nel
Material
Aluminium
[ m]
[MS m-1]
r
[-]
0.03 - 0.07
14 - 35
Cementite (Fe3C)
TT
[C]
para
215
Chromium
Type
(RT)
ferri
0.03
37
35
Cobalt
0.9
10
240
1120
Carbon fibre /
Graphite
50
0.02
dia
Copper (IACS)
0.02
58
dia
Lead
0.21
4.8
1.9
0.5
Manganese
Manganese-zinc
ferrite
MnxZn(1-x)O Fe2O3
0.2 - 5 106
Monel 400
NiCu30Fe
0.2 - 5 10-6 600 - 10'000
(antiferro)
ferro
dia
- 173
antiferro
120 - 200
0.55
1.8
Mumetal
Ni81Fe14Mo5
0.6
1.7
100'000 > 250'000
400
ferro
Nickel (pure)
0.08
13
2400
355
ferro
Silver
0.02
63
Steel (ferritic)
0.11
8-9
200 - 2'000
769
Steel (austenitic)
0.7 - 0.9
1.1 - 1.4
1 - 1.3
para
Titanium
0.8 - 1.7
0.6 - 1.3
para
0.11
8.7
para
Tin
20 50
ferri
(ferro)
dia
ferro
The Nel temperature (Louis Nel, 1904-2000) is the analogue to the Curie temperature for
antiferromagnetic materials. Some sources give the electric conductivity compared to the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), 100% IACS corresponds to 58 MS m -1.
7.2.2
Magnetic Behaviour
The possibilities of eddy current testing depend among others on the permeability.
Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field, the relative permeability is slightly
below one and the magnetic susceptibility is below zero, respectively. Their magnetic behaviour
is not dependent on the temperature. Bismuth shows a very strong diamagnetic behaviour.
Paramagnetic materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field, the relative permeability is
above one and the magnetic susceptibility is above zero, respectively. Their magnetic behaviour depends on the temperature, higher temperatures lead to reduced permeability.
Ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials show such behaviour only above a certain
transition temperature; ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic above the Curie temperature, antiferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic above the Nel temperature. The
relative permeability of ferromagnetic materials is much higher than 1.
Ferrimagnetic materials have no conduction electrons and therefore they cannot show any loss
caused by eddy currents. Ferrites are used for the construction of eddy current probes.
7.2.3
Induction and Inductance

The process of generating electrical current in a conductor by placing the conductor in a chan ging magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction or just induction. The Faraday law for a
wire loop is
UL=
120
d m
dt
(7.3)
where UL is the induced voltage and d m/dt the rate of change in magnetic flux. Induction is
measured in unit of Henry [H] (Joseph Henry, 1797-1978) which reflects this dependence on
the rate of change of the magnetic field. One Henry is the amount of inductance that is
required to generate one volt of induced voltage when the current is changing at the rate of
one ampere per second. Note that current is used in the definition rather than magnetic field.
This is because current can be used to generate the magnetic field and is easier to measure
and control than magnetic flux. When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the
flow of electricity it is called inductance, L.
An electrical transformer uses inductance to change the voltage of electricity into a more useful
level. In non-destructive testing, inductance is used to generate eddy currents in the test piece.
It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible for inductance,
it is only present in alternating current (AC) circuits and that high frequency AC will result in
greater inductive reactance since the magnetic field is changing more rapidly.
7.2.4
Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance

The property of self-inductance is
ance is defined as the induction of
wire itself is changing. In the case
current in the circuit itself induces
induced.
a particular form of electromagnetic induction. Self-inducta voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current in the
of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing
a voltage in the same circuit. Therefore, the voltage is self-
The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of inductance;
a coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a coil or wire is usually used to
indicate an inductive component. Increasing the number of turns in a coil n or the rate of
change of magnetic flux increases the amount of induced voltage. Therefore, the Faraday law
must be modified for a coil of wire and becomes the following:
UC=n
dm
(7.4)
dt
In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure magnetic flux. For that
the inductance L is used, it is for a coil with the cross section A C, the length C and a core with
the permeability r
L=
core n2 A C
(7.5)
The induced voltage now becomes

UC=L
dI
dt
(7.6)
Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865) developed a rule
for determining the direction of the induced current in a loop. Basically, Lenz law states that an
induced current has a direction such that its magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic
field that induced the current. Some sources therefore include a negative sign in the above formula to indicate the polarity of the induced current.
The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive reactance X L.
XL = L
with
=2 f
(7.7)
Since inductive reactance reduces the flow of current in a circuit, it appears as an energy loss
just like resistance. However, it is possible to distinguish between resistance and inductive
reactance in a circuit by looking at the timing between the sine waves of the voltage and cur rent. In an AC circuit that contains only resistive components, the voltage and the current will
be in-phase. If inductive reactance is present in the circuit, the phase of the current will be shifted by /2.
7.2.5
Mutual Inductance
When the current in an inductor changes, the varying flux can across any other inductor
nearby, producing induced voltage in both inductors. In eddy current testing, AC is supplied to
the exciting coil. This AC generates an alternating magnetic field which, when placed near a
metal or another electric conductive material, causes current to flow in the metal conductor by
mutual inductance. The current in the conductor will generate a secondary magnetic field,
which induces a current in the receiving coil. This mutual inductance causes a change in the
impedance of the coil. The impedance signals sensed by the receiving coil are the measurements of the test specimen. Hence, the eddy current technique uses the effect of electromagnetic fields and induction to characterise physical properties of the conductive material.
121
Primary magnetic field

Induced magnetic field
Primary coil
Measuring coil
Induced (eddy) current

Figure 7-1: Principle of eddy current testing
Everything that influences the induced current in the material will lead to a changed impedance
signal and therefore to a change of the measured signal. Such influences can be due to mater ial changes, geometrical changes, flaws or inclusions, etc. Flaws like closed delaminations that
have only a minor influence on the induced current will result in only small changes of the sig nal and therefore they are hardly or not at all detectable.
The fraction of total flux from one coil linking another coil is the coefficient of coupling. This
coefficient increases by placing the receiving coil close to the conductive specimen. When surface probes are used, the spacing between the probe and conductor is called lift-off, when
encircling probes are used, then the coupling is called coil fill factor.
7.2.6
Impedance
Electrical impedance Z, is the opposition that a circuit presents to alternating current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may include resistance R, inductive reactance XL and capacitive
reactance XC. The capacitive reactance can be dropped as most of the eddy current probes
have little or no capacitive reactance. The impedance represents the length of the relevant vector in the impedance plane with the axes R and XL
(7.8)
Z= R X L
with the phase angle

1
=tan
XL
R
(7.9)
For a coil with no mutual inductance, the resistance is typically very small in comparison to its
reactance and may be neglected and so the impedance becomes
Zo =L o
(7.10)
Often the impedance is normalised to this value and becomes, written in its complex form
Z RR o
L
=
i
Zo Lo
Lo
(7.11)
For the interpretation of the results, only the resistive effect caused by the test object is of
importance. R Ro is also called the effective resistance.
The values for R and L are depending on the material that generates the mutual inductance. So
beneath the frequency, which usually may be changed, the permeability and electric conductiv ity of the material influences the measured result.
7.2.7
Depth of Penetration and Current Density

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the winding of the coil and flow is limited to the
area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an
excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from the coil. Eddy current density
decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect.
The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the electric conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen. The
penetration depth decreases with increasing frequency, increasing conductivity or increasing
magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about
122
37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration, . The expression
standard denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample; conditions that are rarely achieved in practice. Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one
standard depth of penetration they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of penetration, eddy current density has decreased to 13.5% of the surface density, at three depths
to 5% of the surface density.
=
(7.12)
Figure 7-2: Eddy current depth of penetration (NDT RC)
Standard penetration depth [mm]
1000
Graphite
100
Steel
(austenitic)
10
1
0.1
Steel
(ferritic)
Copper
0.01
0.001
0
0.1
Aluminium
10
100
1000
10000
Frequency [kHz]
Figure 7-3: Standard penetration depths for some materials
7.2.8
Phase Lag
Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain information
about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the shift in time between the eddy
current response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at some distance below the
surface. The generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a diffusion process meaning that
the eddy currents below the surface take a little longer to form than those at the surface.
Therefore, subsurface defects will be detected by the eddy current instrument a little later in
time than surface defects. Both, the signal voltage and current will have this phase shift or
123
phase lag with depth, which is different from the phase angle , the phase angle, the current is
shifted with respect to the voltage.
Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it possible to
estimate the depth of a defect and with proper reference specimens, determine the rough size
of a defect. The signal generated by a flaw depends on both amplitude and phase of the eddy
currents being disrupted. A small surface defect and large internal defect can have a similar
effect on the magnitude of test coil impedance. However, because of the increasing phase lag
with depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the test coil impedance vector.
At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is one rad (57). This means that the eddy
currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration below the surface, lag the surface currents by 57. At two standard depths of penetration they lag the surface currents by two rads.
Therefore, by measuring the phase lag of a signal, the depth of a defect can be estimated.
7.3
Testing Arrangements
7.3.1
Characteristic Frequency and Effective Permeability

To calculate the final situation, the appropriate Maxwell differential equations have to be
solved. To make the results generally valid, Frster introduced a characteristic frequency f c, it is
defined by the argument of the Bessel-function becoming zero. The determination of the characteristic frequency depends on the test arrangement and given for simple cases only. The frequency is normalised to this value in the form of f/fc.
The concept of effective permeability permits considerable simplification of analysis of eddy
current tests. However, this simplification results from use of several assumptions which fit the
ideal mathematical analysis, but which are not generally true for many practical eddy current
test systems.
7.3.2
Complex Impedance Plane and Operating Point

In practice, the operator will know the used frequency and the screen of his instrument will
show a part of the complex impedance plane defined by the resistance and the reactance. The
instrument has to be zeroed and the operating point is initially set to the centre of the screen.
To perform the inspection the knowledge of the correlation of the complex impedance plane
and the operating point is not necessary, however, to understand the correlation, it is.
Normalised reactance
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalised resistance
Figure 7-4: Two possible positions of the screen within the complex impedance plane; the two
curves indicate two different geometries, the operating point moves along one of those lines
with changing frequency and changing material and jumps to another if material is missing
In a first step the orientation of the screen within the complex impedance plane has to be set
using the phase shifter of the instrument. This is usually done lifting of the probe from the sur -
124
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
face or with the aid of artificial dents for tubes. For the lift off effect the operating point moving
to the left is the usual convention.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Figure 7-5: Orienting and scaling of the screen

In a next step the scale of the screen is adjusted using samples with defined characteristics like
grooves or holes. If the frequency is now changed, the operating point will follow the respective
line on the screen.
The advantage of such a procedure is that a change of the position of the operating point can
give information on the nature of its origin change of the geometry or foreign material
involved.
7.3.3
Encircling Probes
Wires, rods or bars can be tested by using encircling probes. Usually the test equipment stays
stationary and the components under test are moving.
Figure 7-6: Fine (left) and hot wire testing with an encircling probe (Prftechnik)
The values of the components of the effective permeability for solid non ferromagnetic bars are
given in tables. With d as diameter the characteristic frequency is given by
f c=
2
d2
(7.13)
The Bessel-function to be solved to get the effective permeability eff in this case would be
125
eff =
2 fc
f
J1
if
fc
if
Jo
fc
(7.14)
1i
In reality, the bar with diameter d will not fill the coil with a diameter D completely; the coil fill
factor then is given by
=
d2
D2
(7.15)
1.0
1.0
0.8
(eff)
f/fc
f/fc
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
(eff)
0.8
0.6
= 1/3
= 2/3
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
=1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Figure 7-7: Complex plane of effective permeability for an encircling probe, position (0,1): f/f c
= 0, position (0,0) f/fc = (left) and complex impedance plane for different probe fill factors
(non-ferromagnetic material)
The complex effective permeability, finally, can be used to calculate the resistance (real axis)
and the reactance (imaginary axis) of the complex impedance plane.
Uimag
Uo
Ureal
Uo
L
=1 r eff
Lo
RR o
Lo
= r eff
(7.16)
(7.17)
In the case of ferromagnetic material, the influence of the relative permeability is dominant.
126
100
f/fc
r = 200
80
60
r = 100
40
r = 50
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
Figure 7-8: Complex impedance plane for different ferromagnetic materials in an encircling
probe with a probe fill factor of 0.5
7.3.4
Tube Testing with Encircling Probes and Internal Coaxial Probes

Tubes can be tested by using encircling probes or internal coaxial probes.
Easy solutions exist only for thin-walled tubes. In this case the effective permeability can be
calculated from
eff =
1
1
eff =
f 2
fc
f
fc
1
fc
(7.18)
(7.19)
Figure 7-9: Testing of boiler and heat exchanger tubes with an internal coaxial probe
(R/D Tech)
127
1.0
1.0
f/fc
Normalised reactactance
f/fc
(eff)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.8
= 1/3
0.6
0.4
= 2/3
0.2
=1
0.0
0.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
(eff)
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Figure 7-10: Complex plane of effective permeability for a thin-walled tube, position (0,1): f/f c
= 0, position (0,0): f/fc = (left) and complex impedance plane for different probe fill factors
(non-ferromagnetic material)
With the wall thickness w and the inner diameter di the characteristic frequency is given by
f c=
2
w di
(7.20)
In this case the maximum value for the imaginary part of the effective permeability and therefore also for the normalised resistance is at f = fc.
Again the probe fill factor has to be taken into account with do the outer and di the inner diameter for encircling probes
=
d 2o
(7.21)
D2
and for internal coaxial probes

=
D2
d 2i
(7.22)
The diagrams for different probe fill factors are looking similar to above.
For an increasing wall thickness and encircling probes, the situation becomes more and more
similar to the situation of bar testing. The relationship between probe fill factor, effective per meability and the axes in the impedance plane are the same as above.
Figure 7-11: Internal coaxial probes (Zetec)

7.3.5
Probe and Through-Transmission Testing of Sheets and Foils

Sheets and foils can be tested using one single probe (reflection mode) or an exciting and a
receiving probe with the component in between (transmission mode). The characteristic fre quency with the thickness of the flat conductor D and the distance of the two probes A is here
128
f c=
1
D A
(7.23)
E
R
Figure 7-12: Arrangement for transmission (left) and probe coil arrangement
Similar to the above mentioned arrangements an efficiency factor for the probe-coil arrangement exists. Furthermore for a probe arrangement (single or dual probe) the term A (distance
between the two coils) makes no sense and has to be replaced by A eff. These two important
factors can be determined experimentally for any existing probe coil arrangement.
Finally the probe lift-off s has to be taken into consideration and the characteristic frequency is
given by
f c=
1
D A eff s
(7.24)
Figure 7-13: Inspection of a brake disc and a weld with a probe coil arrangement (BAM, PND)
The design as well as the structure of the probe itself (shape and configuration) can be optim ised for a specific application.
Figure 7-14: Set of different probes (Hocking, Rohmann)
129
Figure 7-15: Different probe structures (Olympus)

7.3.6
Rotating Probes
Externally rotating probes are used for rods or bolts on continuous basis. The advantage compared to coil probes is the smaller probe volume and therefore the higher sensitivity. The dis advantage is the mechanics with moving parts, combined with the necessity to carry the signals
from this rotating part to a fixed one without producing too much noise. As soon as the shape
is no longer circular, the signal and the sensitivity depend on the angular position of the probe.
Figure 7-16: External rotating probes at hexagonal bolt (Rohmann)

Another rotating probe for use with the reflection methods detects inner surface discontinuities
effectively. The arrangement is e.g. used for inspection of reactor U-shaped heat exchanger
tubes for corrosion and cracks. Such probes are common for the inspection of bore holes of all
types. In combination with a probe pusher puller unit the signal can be displayed as a waterfall
display where one horizontal signal line corresponds to one turn and the vertical deflection to
the position of the probe. The usual rotation speed corresponds to the frequency of the power
supply.
130
Figure 7-17: Rotating probes (Frster, Rohmann)

The probe direction, finally, can be arranged parallel to the rotation axis, thus to increase the
area of simultaneous testing.
7.4
Equipment
7.4.1
Examination System
The instrumentation employs an eddy current instrument, one or several probes and interconnecting cable or cables. This combination, or together with any mechanised equipment and
peripheral units for data storage, etc. form an examination system. Factors to be considered
include:
7.4.2
Type and metallurgical condition of the material;
Shape, dimensions and surface conditions of the component;
Purpose of measurement e.g. detection of cracks or evaluation of thickness, etc.;
Type, position and orientation of the discontinuities to be revealed;
Environment conditions in which the measurement is performed.
Eddy Current Instruments

The choice of the eddy current instrument depends on the purpose of examination. Of particular importance are the adjustable parameters of the instrument, the range of such parameters
and the form of the signal display. In general the user shall be able to vary the value of frequency, gain, balance (unless automatic balance), phase, filters and zero of the display. An
instrument is of specific application when the relationship of the measured quantity and the display is explicitly defined in the range of application. In this case the probe is specific to this
instrument and only some of the above stated parameters may be varied.
Figure 7-18: Eddy current instruments, portable single hand held (left), standard portable type,
version typically used for automated systems for integration into racks (Rohmann, Hocking,
Frster)
The general characteristics are power supply (battery, AC power supply), safety and environmental effects (including warm up time), physical presentation (portable, cased or rack mounted), number and types of plugs and sockets.
The technology can be described as:
131
Digitalisation (wholly analogue, part analogue part digital);
Excitation (single frequency, multi frequency, sweep frequency, pulse);
Channels (single, multi channel);
Settings (manual, remote controlled, stored, pre-set);
Display and output (if any).
Electric characteristics concern the generator unit (source of excitation), input stage character istics, balance, high frequency signal processing, demodulated signal processing, signal display
and digitisation.
Balance
Generator
Probe
HF signal &
demodulation
Input
LF signal
Y
Display
Accessories
Digitisation
Figure 7-19: Functional block diagram of an eddy current instrument
For limited applications as measurement of coating thickness or conductivity various instruments exist, usually they have a numeric output and the set-up possibilities, if any, are very
limited.
Figure 7-20: Eddy current instruments for measurement of coating thickness and conductivity
(Automation, Frster)
7.4.3
High Frequency (HF) Signal Processing

HF filters reduce the signal frequency content which can have an undesirable effect on the result. The filters used before demodulation are referred to as carrier frequency filters (HF filters).
These are usually band path filters which suppress any signal frequencies which do not correspond to the excitation frequency.
Synchronous demodulation extracts the vector component from the HF signal. The polarity of
the demodulation shall be positive which means that a delay of the signal will cause the signal
vector to rotate clockwise. The use of synchronous demodulation to extract the reactive component is called quadrature demodulation, while the one for the extraction of the active (resistive) component is called in phase demodulation. For one single probe position the demodulation will deliver one vector, if the probe is moved over a defect, that vector will continuously
change its characteristics.
Amplitude demodulation extracts the low frequency amplitude from the HF signal.
132
7.4.4
Demodulated Signal Processing

Vector amplification generally consists of two transmission channels of identical design. These
channels amplify the vector components generated by synchronous demodulation. In some
instruments, the components can be amplified with different gains.
The filters used after demodulation are referred to as low frequency filters (LF filters). The
bandwidth and cut-off frequency is chosen to suit the application, e.g. wobble, surface speed,
etc. Usual filters are low-pass, high-pass and band pass filters.
Phase setting permits rotation of the demodulated signal vector on the complex plane display.
7.4.5
Display
Several types of presentation exist. The complex plane display have as axes the resistive and
the reactive component of the demodulated signal. With the elliptical display method the evaluation is based on interpretation of the Lissajous patterns obtained by applying a signal repres entative of the excitation current to one and the signal from the probe to the other axis. The
time synchronous display uses the time as one and one part of the demodulated signal as the
other axis. Further methods are frequency spectrum and the several possibilities of imaging.
7.4.6
Digitisation
Digitisation may be performed either before or after demodulation using an internal clock or an
external encoder. The A/D resolution is the nominal value of the converter input voltage corresponding to one digitisation bit. The number of digitisation bits is an equally useful information
even so it can be directly accessed through the maximum input voltage and the resolution. The
sampling rate is the frequency at which the A/D conversion is made.
7.4.7
Probes
The choice of probe depends on the purpose of examination, details see separate chapter on
receiving media.
7.4.8
Mechanised Units
The units used for mechanised scanning may contain one single axis, e.g. for the testing of bars
or tubes with coils, up to a multi axial robotic manipulator for testing of complex parts. Often
the same or similar equipment can be used for other methods as magnetic flux leakage (MFL)
or ultrasonics.
Figure 7-21: Examples for mechanised equipment (Empa, FAA)

7.4.9
Eddy Current Imaging

As eddy current inspection for various applications is a scanning method, the results can be dis played as images using the image axes as geometrical axes and coding the result (amplitude,
phase, vector length, etc.) by grey scales or colours.
133
Figure 7-22: Carbon fibres reinforced ceramic; visible are the two top layers (left) and artificial
delaminations under a metal coating (Empa, BAM)
If imaging is done with differential probes, one side of a feature will be shown in one (e.g. the
positive) direction, the other side in the opposite one.
Figure 7-23: Patch, stringers, and resin concentration in a CFC panel, left side the uncorrected
image (positive and negative directions of the signals), right side the corrected version (Magdeburg University)
7.4.10
Reference Test Pieces

The application of eddy current examination requires the use of reference test pieces. They
contain known features which can be used to set up the examination system, to make func tional checks, to ensure the capability of the examination and to provide calibration curves.
Normally the reference test piece shall be of the same material and the same finished state as
the product to be tested. The features can take the form of:
Holes or notches with specified dimensions;
Natural or induced defects of known characteristics;
A range of known coating thickness;
A range of known material properties.
The measurable characteristics of the features and the reference test pieces shall not change
significantly with time.
7.4.11
Instrument and Probe Setting

Instrument settings are derived from knowledge of the purpose of the examination and the
product to be tested. Some settings e.g. filtering, phase and sensitivity can be derived from the
use of reference test pieces.
The fixing and guiding of the probe influence the effectiveness of the examination. Changes in
the probe clearance influence the sensitivity. A signal due to the lift-off, or in case of tubes due
134
to a buckle, can be used to dynamically control the sensitivity. Where the examination is mechanised, the speed of the probe over the surface being examined and the scanning path (overlap) shall be maintained throughout the examination.
7.4.12
Display and Output

The usual display corresponds to the complex impedance plane. The orientation of the phase
signal, the 0 direction and the orientation of the rotation system are usually due to conventions. Such is e.g. the lift-off signal goes to left (0 direction) and the orientation is clockwise.
Usual instruments allow a different gain in x- and y-direction, clearly given that the above dis cussed convention is clear. They have usually only one alarm level that can be set, but the
zones where alarm is given can be chosen very differently. Dependent on the task the alarm
level is set to the registration level or to the acceptance level. Advanced settings make only
sense for automated inspection.
Figure 7-24: Examples of possible settings of the alarm regions (red): square, box, circle, sectorial
The output can be in form of a protocol (with or without screen dump of the signal image) or
with failure markings directly onto the sample.
7.5
Receiving Media
7.5.1
Coils
The most common way is the use of an induction coil, usually placed in the centre of the excit ing coil. It is, however, also possible to use one single coil for exciting and receiving.
Absolute probes alone do not compare with the immediate surroundings or with a reference
sample, especially they do not compensate for lift-off effects. They may have an internal or
external possibility to compensate for temperature differences or other sources of noise. Their
main application is the measurement of thickness (wall or layer), permeability and conductivity.
Within a comparative arrangement they can perform comparative measurements with an
external reference. This arrangement is often used for sorting (geometry, heat treatment),
comparing with a sound reference sample. The dimension of the probes must be adequate to
the task.
Differential probes make a direct comparison on the object itself, using two or more coils. Due
to their arrangement, they can measure the difference in given directions only. When moved
over an indication, their signal will be seen as two symmetrical parts. They compensate for a
lot of noise and for lift-off, but they are not able to measure the wall thickness and, therefore,
also not slight changes in it. Dependent on the probe assembly, it is possible to measure the
absolute signal of each part separately and to make the difference electronically. Double differential and multi differential probes also exist. These techniques allow a high-pass filtering independently of the speed of the probes relative to the component.
Figure 7-25: Possible arrangement of a differential probe (left, seen from components side)
and arrangement of a double differential arrangement (example for encircling probes)
135
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Figure 7-26: Probe arrangements: (A) absolute, (B) separated coils for exciting and receiving
used for reflection technique (with phase measurement), (C) differential; both coils over component or one over reference sample, (D) impedance bridge (with phase measurement)
For a lot of applications it makes sense, if the user can produce the probes and the coils him self. This is especially true, if a lot of different geometries have to be tested.
Figure 7-27: Coil winding device with counter for the coil turns, ferrite core, copper wire and
binocular (Alstom)
7.5.2
T-Probes
For T-probes the exciting and the receiving coil are oriented with perpendicular axes. This results in a much less sensitivity on lift-off and input or end effects for tube testing. Such probes
are used for testing of welds and tubes.
For weld inspection such probes are oriented with both coil axes parallel to the surface. It is
possible to find cracks with a length of 5 mm and a depth of 1 mm. The crack must not be filled
with electric conductive material. It can also be found under relatively thick non-conductive or
thin conductive but not ferromagnetic coatings. Furthermore it is possible to inspect welds
between different materials.
136
Figure 7-28: Example of the mechanism of a T-probe in differential mode

(www.ndt.net/article/wcndt00/papers/idn037/idn037.htm)
crack or
debonding
scan direction
absolute
differential
Figure 7-29: Possible arrangements of T-probes for weld inspection

7.5.3
GMR Probes
GMR probes (details see diverted magnetic flux testing) are suited as sensors for eddy current
signals. As mass products they are relatively cheap and can be used as arrays with small pitch
(200 m) and therefore good spatial resolution.
Figure 7-30: GMR crack detecting equipment and ability demonstration of GMR sensors with a
surface scan of a US one cent coin (NASA, Sensors)
7.5.4
Probe Arrays
The roots of probe arrays go back to the mid-1980s when the former BBC (Brown Bovery Ltd.,
Baden) patented an early version of this technique. At this time the idea did not succeed due to
too weak computing power.
137
Figure 7-31: Probe mat about 1985 with 162 sensors (BBC, now Alstom)
The idea has some very important advantages in comparison to conventional systems:
No or less moving parts (in comparison e.g. with surface probes);
Faster and more reproducible scanning, especially for complex shapes;
Better sensitivity due to small examination volume (e.g. in comparison with encircling or
coaxial internal probes);
Excellent adaptability to many geometrical shapes (not all, but most of) with fixed or
flexible arrangement;
Miscellaneous possibilities of combinations (absolute or differential in several directions,

etc.).
Often the coils are arranged in two of more rows and are alternately used as exciters and
receivers. The distance between two pairs must be large enough to prevent magnetic coupling.
Such a technique allows furthermore multiplexing.
t=1
E
R
A1
A2
R
B1
B3
C1
C3
t=4
E
R
E
R
Figure 7-32: Schema of array probes; possible cycle left with dark as exciting (E) and grey as
receiving (R); possible arranged with three rows right, B1 to B3 and C1 to C3 giving two absolute signals in horizontal direction, A1 to C1 and A2 to C1 two absolute signals in vertical direction, differences can be calculated from both pairs
In order to get a uniform signal output (amplitude and phase) of all the channels, they usually
must be normalised using a sample with an adequate calibration defect like a notch.
138
Figure 7-33: Array probes for bars, rods or tubes (left) and plane objects (R/D Tech)
Figure 7-34: Array probes adapted for complex shapes (R/D Tech)
7.5.5
Flexible Probe Arrays

Arrays can also be flexible to be adapted to the surface. If necessary a suitable counter part
has to be used.
Figure 7-35: Flexible array for weld inspection and corresponding C scan (Zetec)
139
Figure 7-36: Flexible array and customisation for complex geometries (Olympus)
7.6
7.6.1
Typical Sources of Errors in Measurement

There is a variety of typical sources of errors in measurement common for most eddy current
techniques. Some of them can be overcome using accessories for adequate probe guidance
(templates, etc.).
(C)
(A)
(F)
(D)
(B)
(G)
(H)
(E)
(I)
(J)
Figure 7-37: Possible sources of errors in measurement: (A) lift-off, (B) tilt effect, (C) influence
of convex or concave surface, (D) edge effect, (E) geometric effect, (F) input effect, (G) end
effect, (H) wobble, (I) coating too thick, (J) base material not thick enough and in addition the
material effect if the electromagnetic properties of the product are not constant
7.6.2
Verification of Eddy Current Equipment

For a consistent and effective eddy current examination it is necessary to verify that the performance of the component parts of the eddy current test system is maintained within acceptance limits. The physical conditions of the reference blocks and reference test pieces shall be
verified to be within acceptable limits before being used to verify the systems or probes. The
measuring system used for verification shall be in a known state of calibration.
There are three levels of verification. Each of it defines the time intervals between verification
and the complexity of the verification. They are: the global functional check, the detailed func tional check and the characterisation.
When the performance of the global functional check is not within the specified limits, then a
decision shall be made concerning the product examined since the previous successful verification. That can be:
If the present registration and acceptance levels were lower than specified: repeat the
inspection for all parts with registered indications (to reduce falls calls);
If the present registration and acceptance levels were higher than specified, repeat all
inspections;
Tolerances and exceptions have to be defined.
Therefore the global check must be easily to perform at high frequency and with little effort.
140
Table 7-2: Verification levels

Level
Global function
check
Object
Stability of sysFrequently
tem performance (hourly, daily)
Stability of selecDetailed function- ted characteristal check and cal- ics of the instruibration
ment, probes and
accessories
Characterisation
7.6.3
Typical time
period
Less frequently
but at least annually and after
repair
Instruments
Responsible
entity
Reference test
pieces
User
Calibrated measuring instruments, reference

test pieces
User
Calibrated laborAll characteristics

Once (on release) atory measuring
of the instruand when reinstruments and
ment, probes and
quired
reference test
accessories
pieces
Manufacturer,
user
Reference Blocks
Reference blocks are used for the characterisation and comparison of probes. The user has to
fabricate its own sets, in order to satisfy the specific needs, especially the geometrical dimen sions. Standard materials are low carbon steel (ferromagnetic), aluminium (high conductivity)
and austenitic steel (low conductivity). The details are given in EN ISO 15548-2.
For surface probes the following characteristics can be determined:
Angular sensitivity (block A1);
Probe position mark (block A1), this mark indicates the position of a flaw relative to the
probe housing;
Edge effect (block A1);
Response to a hole (block A2);
Response to a slot (block A1);
Length of coverage (block A1), this is derived from a map of the probe response to the
slot by taking the maximum width (distance perpendicular to the slot), usually a -6 dB
value for the envelope is taken;
Width of coverage (block A1), this is derived the same way, the measured distance is parallel to the slot Wenv, with Ls as length of the slot the width of coverage is defined as
Wcov=Wenv L s
(7.25)
Minimum slot length for constant probe response (block A5);
Minimum depth of surface breaking slot for constant probe response (block A4);
Lift-off effect (block A1);
Effect of probe clearance on slot response (block A1), the probe has to be balanced before
each scan with a different clearance;
Effective depth of penetration (blocks A3);
Effective depth of detection of sub-surface slot (blocks A1 and A3).
To compare signals from different probes the reference block A6 is used. This block looks sim ilar to A1 but it is standardised in dimensions and material, high conductivity, low conductivity
and non-ferromagnetic, low conductivity and ferromagnetic. The block shall nevertheless be of
the same class as those used for A1 to A5. The transfer signal is the maximum value of the sig nal during a scan perpendicular to the slot.
A ferrite can be used to get a reproducible phase transfer signal. To obtain a signal it is neces sary to have a relative movement probe / ferrite in the preferred orientation of the probe.
141
A1
A3
A2
A4
A5
Figure 7-38: Reference blocks for surface probes

For coaxial probes the following characteristics can be determined:
Probe position mark (block B1 and C1, respectively);
End effect (block B1 and C1, respectively);
Axial symmetry (block B2 and C2, respectively);
Response to a hole (block B1 and C1, respectively);
Minimum slot length for constant probe response (block B3 and C3, respectively);
Eccentricity effect (block B4 and C4, respectively);
Fill effect (block B5 and C5, respectively);
Effective depth of penetration (block B6 and C6, respectively);
Effective depth of detection under ligament (block B7).

B1
C1
B7
B2
C2
360
Figure 7-39: Reference blocks for coaxial probes, in addition: B3 and C3: tube or rod with longitudinal groove, B4 like B2 with increased inner diameter, C4 like C2 with decreased diameter,
B5 like B1, set with increasing inner diameters and constant wall thickness, C5 like C1, set with
decreasing diameters, B6 like B1, set with constant inner diameter and increasing outer diameters, C6 like C1, set with central bores with increasing diameters
For the conductivity measurement special calibration blocks traceable to national standards are
available. Their values are usually given for a frequency of 60 kHz at room temperature.
142
Figure 7-40: Calibration block for conductivity measurement and calibration plates for sheet
thickness gauging (GE Inspection Technologies, ABB)
7.7
7.7.1
Procedure
7.7.2
Scanning plan;
Inspection and characterisation technique and class;
Direction of scanning, size and type of the probe, surface speed, width of coverage of the
probe;
Reference test pieces and verification intervals for the instrument and the probes;
Type and arrangement of the examination system;
Requirements for signal processing and signal evaluation;
Special requirements on application (measurement in magnetic saturation or at elevated

temperature, demagnetisation, etc.).
Record
Description of the equipment used, including serial numbers of instrument and probes,
etc.;
Identification of the reference test pieces used;
Instrument settings (frequency, phase, filters, etc.);
A technical sheet (or equivalent) in cases where the examination procedure allows for a
variation of the method of examination, equipment or set-up.
For important investigations the used reference test pieces have to be stored in conditions that
they may not alter.
7.8
Special and Advanced Techniques
7.8.1
Sorting
Sorting is a process where the eddy current response of two absolute probes put onto two
objects is compared. All characteristics that influence the eddy current response, i.e. electric
conductivity, magnetic permeability and the geometry have to be taken into consideration. To
set appropriate confirmation levels, a determination of parameter settings type of sensor (coil
or probe) and frequency have to be determined. For ferromagnetic materials an antecedent
demagnetisation may be indispensable.
143
Figure 7-41: Sorting equipment with adequate coils can be used for various parts (IBG)
For some applications the choice of the frequency can be crucial.
50 kHz
Al
(eff)
0.8
Cu
Au
Ag
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
5'000 kHz
Pb
0.8
0.4
500 kHz
0.8
Sn
Ni
0.6
Ti
0.4
-Fe
0.2
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(eff)
Figure 7-42: Position of the operating point for different frequencies and various materials
7.8.2
Measurements in Magnetic Saturation

If ferromagnetic materials have to be tested with eddy current it can be of a great advantage, if
the component or parts of it are brought into magnetic saturation with an DC electromagnet. In
this case the relative permeability becomes near to one and the behaviour of the material is
comparable to a paramagnetic material. Demagnetisation may be necessary.
Figure 7-43: Testing with magnetisation unit, SLOFEC system (Prftechnik, TOA)
A non-stationary application of measuring in magnetic saturation is called SLOFEC, saturation
low frequency eddy current, and is used for large areas, like tanks, vessels or pipes, specially
also for duplex steels.
7.8.3
Multi Frequency Technique

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at several different
frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data in some way. It is not even neces -
144
sary to use several coils, as one coil can be operated at several frequencies at the same time.
The instrument, however, must be adequate to the technique.
The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:
Variations in operating frequency;
Variations in electric conductivity and the magnetic permeability of an object or structure, caused by structural changes such as grain structure, work hardening, heat treat ment, etc.;
Changes in lift-off or coil fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces and
eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or denting;
The presence of surface defects such as cracks and subsurface defects such as voids and
non-metallic inclusions;
Dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion or deposition
of metal or sludge;
The presence of supports, walls and brackets or edges.
Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case where interest is
confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in geometry, a differential probe can be
used to eliminate unwanted factors, providing they vary in a gradual manner. For example,
variations in electric conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a differential probe sim ultaneously. However, if unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are affecting the measurements, they can sometimes be negated by mixing signals collected at several frequencies.
An example of where a multi frequency eddy current inspection is used is in heat exchanger
tube inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a collection of tubing that has support
brackets on the outside. When attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the
signal from the mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collected a signal at the frequency
necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a second signal collected at a
lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to the bracket but less sensitive to features in
the tubing), the affects of the bracket can be reduced.
Figure 7-44: Example of signal responses with changing frequency, 13 88 kHz, the colours
are for clarification reasons only (ECT)
7.8.4
Swept Frequency Technique

Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data at a wide range
of frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialised piece of equipment such as an
impedance analyser, which can be configured to automatically make measurements over a
range of frequencies. The swept frequency technique can be implemented with commercial
equipment but it is a difficult and time-consuming measurement. The advantage of a swept frequency measurement is that depth information can be obtained since eddy current depth of
penetration varies as a function of frequency.
Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring the thickness of
conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating between flaws in surface coatings
and flaws in the base metal, differentiating between flaws in various layers of built-up struc ture. An example application is the lap spice of a commercial aircraft. Swept frequency measurements make it possible to tell if cracking was occurring on the outer skin, the inner skin or a
double layer.
A commercial system using this principle is called frequency scanning eddy current technique
(FSECT) and is used to measure the thickness of (electric conductive) MCrAlY coatings on new
and serviced high temperature gas turbine blades, possibly even coated with an additional
thermal barrier coating (TBC). New coatings are homogeneous, due to diffusion and corrosion,
however, they separate in layers with different properties. The system measures the materials
response at about 30 frequencies and compares the data with a layer model.
145
Figure 7-45: FSECT equipment used for coating characterisation on turbine blades (CESI)
Swept frequency technique is also used to find the most effective frequency for sorting pro cesses.
7.8.5
Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC)

Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes when external access is not possible, e.g.
with buried pipelines, is conducted using internal probes. When testing thick-walled ferromag netic metal pipes with conventional internal probes, very low frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel
pipe 10 mm thick) are necessary to achieve the through-penetration of the eddy currents. This
situation produces a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can be
increased by the application of a saturation magnetic field. However, because of the large
volume of metal present, a large saturation unit carrying a heavy direct current may be
required to generate an adequate saturating field.
The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current method, which allows measurable through
penetration of the walls at three times the maximum frequency possible with the conventional
direct field method.
In its basic form, the probe arrangement consists of an exciting coil and a receiver coil kept at
a rigidly fixed separation along the axial direction. The separation between exciting coil and
receiver coil should be about two and a half times the inner diameter of the tube.
The moving magnetic field of the exciter coil induces strong circumferential eddy currents.
They, in turn, produce their own magnetic field which opposes the magnetic field from the
exciter coil. Due to the difference of the two fields, near the exciter coil the resulting field is
dominated by the inner surface while after a certain distance the outer surface is relevant.
(C)
(B)
(A)
Direct coupling
Transition zone
Remote field
Figure 7-46: Schematic showing location of remote field zone in relation to exciter coil (A),
multiple sector receiver coils (B) and pipe wall (C)
So there is a direct coupling zone, a transition zone and a remote field zone.
7.8.6
Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC)

Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating electrical current of
a particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy current technique uses a step func tion voltage to excite the probe, forming a continuum of frequencies. As a result, the electro magnetic response to several different frequencies can be measured with just a single step.
Since the depth of penetration depends on the frequency of excitation, information from a
range of depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the time domain
146
(that is by interpreting the signal strength as a function of time), indications generated by flaws
or other features near the inspection coil will appear first and more distant features will appear
later in time. The eddy current response is influenced by the distance probe-electrical leading
material, by the electrical resistance in the material and by its wall thickness.
VE
Broadband excitation
t
tP
VD
Distance and possibly
frequency dependent signal
Figure 7-47: Principle of pulsed eddy current inspection; the excitation voltage is rectangular,
with a peak duration of typically 0.5 1 seconds
While the driving coil has to be of a certain size, the receiving coil can be small, often it is even
replaced by other sensor types like Hall or GMR sensor. Those can be placed much nearer to
the surface and are therefore more sensitive. Furthermore often not a single sensor but a full
array is used.
To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is usually collected to which all other signals are compared. Flaws, conductivity and dimensional changes
generate a variation of the signal. Displayed is the difference between the reference signal and
the measurement one. The distance of the flaw and other features relative to the probe will
cause the signal to shift in time. Therefore, time gating techniques (like in ultrasonic inspec tion) can be used to gain information about the depth of a feature of interest.
For such a technique one has to take into consideration that the propagation velocity of the
electromagnetic field through the conductive material depends also on the frequency. Dispersion takes place and the pulse change in shape as it progresses through the metal. For the
visualisation of such effects the Wigner-Ville distribution may be used. This giving an image
with the time as one dimension and the frequency as the other, calculating the Fourier transform of the signal at several times. The value of the transform is represented by colours or
grey scales.
147
Figure 7-48: Application of pulsed eddy current for the examination of corrosion of ferritic
tubes and vessels under thermal insulation, called INCOTEST, Insulation Component Test and
for aircraft inspection (Applus RTD, GE MCS)
Figure 7-49: Imaging pulsed eddy current of a laminated sheet package used in aircraft
industry; the two red areas in time gate 2 show areas of corrosion while time gates 3 and 4
show the internal structure. (GE Inspection Technologies)
Figure 7-50: Equipment for sheet thickness and positioning measurement (left) and for thickness measurement of storage tank base with PEC (ABB, Oceaneering)
7.8.7
Detection of reinforcement bars

The technique is also used to detect and analyse reinforcement bars and other metal building
elements in concrete. The information that can be taken off is the location of bars, their concrete coverage and their diameter. The techniques used are inductive or pulsed inductive.
Alternatively also microwaves can applied.
148
Figure 7-51: Eddy current used for analysing reinforcement bars in concrete (Proceq, Hilti)
7.8.8
Magneto-Optical Imaging (MOI)

Magneto-optical imaging uses the effect of Faraday rotation. The eddy currents are not excited
with a coil but with two transformers oriented in orthogonal directions parallel to the surface
and the transparent foil. The second transformer follows the first one with a phase-shift of 90.
Thus resulting in a rotating electric field. It needs some experience to detect and interpret flaws
in the resulting image.
(G)
(E)
(F)
(D)
(C)
(B)
(A)
Figure 7-52: Principle of a magnet-optic imaging device: (A) induction foil with light reflector,
(B) multi directional excitation unit, (C) magnet-optical sensor, (D) polariser, (E) light source,
(F) analyser, (G) camera
Figure 7-53: MOI application at an air plane, the operator is seeing the image in a head-up display (left), crack indications at a rivet, the serpentine like pattern is due to magnetic domains
(PRI)
7.8.9
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)

Alternating current field measurement does not use real eddy currents and it is also related to
the AC potential drop method; AC flows through the parts in one direction only. The presence
of flaws (mainly cracks) will result in a changed current flow direction and therefore in a change
of the resulting magnetic field. With this method the latter is measured. ACFM is of importance
149
in off-shore testing and can be specifically used even if the parts are covered with shells. The
result is the width and the depth of a crack.
Figure 7-54: ACFM probe heads for on-shore and off-shore use (TSC)
7.9

Eddy current testing can be used for all electrically conductive materials, however, applications
to non-metals are seldom. For testing purposes it is widely used for aerospace applications and
in automated processes. Furthermore the technique is common for sorting and measurement of
materials and components properties.
The method is used to detect surface and near surface issues, thin layer, therefore, are possible.
The result is primarily and integral statement on the geometry, the local electrical conductivity
and the local magnetic permeability.
For testing purposes, therefore, the result is often a comparison of the signal from a reference
test piece with known characteristics and the one from the part under test. As the reference
test piece should closely correspond to the sample under test, the variety of tasks in practice is
limited and the method is suited for repeated applications.
Probes can be operated with various frequencies; however, they are very much affected by the
geometry, so users with varying applications will have the tendency to produce their own ones.
New probe types will allow increasing the depth to be inspected with eddy current. The advantages of probe arrays is obvious, better resolution, less moving parts, so they are more and
more applied to automated and semi-automated processes.
Full magnetisation (and demagnetisation) of ferromagnetic parts and structures may be necessary; applications at elevated temperature or off-shore are possible.
Several new approaches deal with new generations of eddy current receivers.
For high-end application a deepened knowledge of the relevance of the complex impedance
plane is necessary.
150
MICROWAVE AND TERAHERTZ INSPECTION
8.1
Introduction
Microwaves or radar (radio detection and ranging) waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation located in the spectrum at frequencies roughly between 300 MHz and 300 GHz, corres ponding to wavelengths in vacuum between 1 m and 1 mm. Major subintervals of the
microwave frequency band are designated with various letters; different sources use different
letters.
Although the general nature of microwaves has been known since the time of James Maxwell
(1831-1879), not until World War II did microwave generators and receivers useful for the
inspection of materials become available. Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) conducted experiments
that proved Maxwell's theories were correct. He began testing these theories by using a highvoltage spark discharge to excite a half-wave dipole antenna and was able to demonstrate
propagation of electromagnetic waves. Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) built on Hertz's work
and began experiments in Italy sending a signal using Morse code. 1909 he was awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics. His announcement of the invention of radio was, however, only a replic ation of the invention of Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), who had it patented as early as 1897. Walter Schottky (1886-1976) was embedded in solid-state physics. His most important contribution to microwaves is the investigation of metal-semiconductor rectifying junctions, 1938,
which is the basis for the gate contact of all MESFETs (metal-semiconductor field effect transistor). By the end of the 1930s Philip Smith (1905-1987) developed a circular chart that shows
the entire universe of complex impedances in one convenient circle.
The first successful radio range-finding experiment occurred in 1924, when the British physicist
Sir Edward Appleton (1892-1965, NP 1947) used radio echoes to determine the height of the
ionosphere. The first practical radar system was produced in 1935 by another British physicist,
Sir Robert Watson-Watt (1892-1973), and by 1939 England had established a chain of radar
stations along its south and east coasts to detect aggressors in the air or on the sea. World War
II saw rapid developments and refinements in the naval and military radar by researchers in
the United States.
The first use of microwaves was for components such as wave guides, attenuators, cavities,
antennas and antenna covers (radomes). The use of microwaves for evaluating material prop erties and discontinuities in other materials began with the evaluation of the concentration of
moisture in dielectric materials, as microwaves of an appropriate wavelength are strongly
absorbed and scattered by water molecules.
Next, the thickness of thin metallic coatings on non-metallic substrates and of dielectric slabs
was measured. This was followed by the determination of voids, delaminations, macro porosity,
inclusions and others in plastic or ceramic materials. Success in these measurements also indicated that microwave technique could give information related to changes in chemical or
molecular structure that affect the dielectric constant and dissipation of energy at microwave
frequencies. Some of the properties measured include polymerisation, oxidation, esterification,
distillation and vulcanisation.
Above 320 GHz the spectral transparency of air is often interrupted, so for radar applications
this range is not interesting and little research was done in this field until recently. For milli metre-wave energies from 100 GHz to 3 THz (3'000 100 m) the common term is terahertz.
Beyond 3 THz and out to 30 m (10 THz) is more or less unclaimed territory, as few if any
components exist.
Various techniques nowadays also used for ultrasonics like phased array technology or synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT) have their origins in radar technology.
8.2
Physical Principles of Microwaves
8.2.1
General
In free space an electromagnetic wave is transverse; that is, the oscillating electric and magnetic field that constitute it are transverse to the propagation direction of the wave. A particu larly simple propagating electromagnetic wave is the linearly polarised, sinusoidal varying,
plane electromagnetic wave.
151
In microwave inspection a homogeneous material can be characterised in term of magnetic

permeability , dielectric permittivity and electric conductivity . In general these quantities
are themselves functions of the frequency. Moreover, the magnetic permeability and the dielec tric permittivity must usually be treated as complex quantities, rather than purely real ones, to
account for certain dissipative effects. However, a wide variety of applications occur in which
both terms can be regarded as mainly real and constant in value. In this case the relations can
be given as
= o r
with
o =
1
o c2
(8.1)
where o is the relative dielectric permittivity (also called relative dielectric constant). For an
electromagnetic wave incident upon a material, one part of the incident wave is transmitted
through the surface and into the material and the other part is reflected. If the reflected wave
is subtracted, in both amplitude and phase from the incident wave, the transmitted wave can
be determined. When the reflected wave is compared, in both amplitude and phase with the
incident wave, information about the surface impedance of the material can be obtained.
Plane electromagnetic waves propagating through a conductive medium ( >> ) show the
same skin effect as discussed for eddy current testing. As the standard depth of penetration
depends on the frequency, the penetration of electromagnetic waves of the given range into
conductive materials is only small. The phase velocity of a plane harmonic conductive electro magnetic wave in a conductive medium can be given as
v= =
(8.2)
with as the angular frequency. Even if the magnetic permeability and the electric conductivity
would not rely on the frequency, the velocity depends highly on it. As a result, a conductive
medium is said to be highly dispersive, because a wave packet, which comprises sinusoidal
components of many different frequencies disperse as it propagates.
The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in a non-conductor is given by the relation
1
(8.3)

This velocity can be expressed relative to the velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, the
ratio being the index of refraction
v=
= =
= r r
v
o o
(8.4)
The intrinsic impedances of free space Zo and of a material Z are given by
Zo =
and
Z=
o
o
=o c
r o
(8.5)
(8.6)
r o
The skin depth of an electromagnetic wave propagating in a weakly conductive medium ( <<
) is given approximately by the relation
(8.7)
In this case, the wavelength is approximately given by
1 2
1

(8.8)
where o is the wavelength in vacuum. This equation is sufficiently accurate for most materials
having electric conductivity low enough for practical microwave inspection involving transmission. The criterion for its validity is that the non-attenuating wavelength, o/, be short compared to the skin depth.
The intrinsic impedance becomes complex and can be approximated as
n 1i
(8.9)
where n is the no-loss intrinsic impedance for the same material. As << , the addi tional terms are negligible and in most practical, low loss cases not needed.
152
Table 8-1: Dielectric constants of some materials

Material
[S m-1]
r [-]
Vacuum
Seawater
Water (distilled)
1 10-4
Water
1 10
Concrete
81.6
81
-3
1 10 1 10
-3
Ferrite
-1
1 10-3
13 16
Calcite
8.2.2
6 12
89
Wood
1 10 1 10
Glass
-9
-13
2.5 7
1 10
-12
Rubber
1 10
-13
Mica
1 10
-15
58
Quartz
1 10
-17
3.8 5
Reflection and Refraction

The laws for reflection and refraction of microwaves at interfaces between media of differing
electromagnetic properties are essentially the same as those for the reflection and refraction of
visible light. The angle of refraction t is determined by the Snell law (Willebrord Snell, 15801626)
sini
sin t
t
i
vi
vt
(8.10)
For linear polarised plane waves incident perpendicularly on an interface separating two dielec tric media, the ratio for reflection, the reflection coefficient R, and transmission coefficient T in
terms of signal amplitude are given by
R=
T=
i t
i t
2 i
i t
(8.11)
(8.12)
If the ratios instead of the amplitude are given in terms of power, the relations are
R P=
TP=
i t2
i t2
4 i t
it 2
(8.13)
(8.14)
Analogue relations exist for the amplitudes of the magnetic fields. These relations are equival ent to those given for the transmission and reflection factor for ultrasonics.
For angles of incident other than zero, the corresponding relations are more complicated are
known as Fresnel equations (Augustin Fresnel, 1788-1827). These relationships are different
for microwaves linearly polarised with the electric vector in the plane of incidence (II) and for
microwaves linearly polarised with the electric vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence
(T). The plane of incidence is determined by the normal to the surface and the incident beam
propagation direction.
153
Angle of incidence
Amplitude coefficients
0.75
TII
0.5
0.25
Brewster angle
RII
-0.25
-0.5
-0.75
-1
0
15
30
45
60
Angle of incidence
75
90
Figure 8-1: Amplitude coefficients R and T of reflection and transmission for t / i = 2

R II=
RT=
T II=
T T=
tan t i
(8.15)
tan t i
sin t i
(8.16)
sin t i
4 sin t cosi
(8.17)
sin 2 tsin 2 i
2 sin t cosi
(8.18)
sin t i
1
Fraction of incident
power reflection
0.8
0.6
r = 1
r = 2
r = 2
r = 1
0.4
Brewster
angle
Brewster
angle
0.2
RII
RII
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90 105
0
10
Angle of incidence
20
30
Figure 8-2: Microwave power reflection coefficients as a function of incident angle and polarisation plane for a reflection from air to a material with r = 2 and back, the critical angle in the
second case becomes 30 (sin-1 )
For parallel polarisation of the reflected wave there is angle, known as Brewster angle B, (Sir
David Brewster, 1781-1868) where the reflected amplitude is zero.
tan B=
t
i
(8.19)
A second angle, the critical angle c, appears only for a situation where the ratio t / i is < 1.
154
sin c=
8.2.3
(8.20)
Absorption and Dissipation

Microwaves are affected during their propagation primarily by the interaction of the electric
field with the dielectric properties of the non-metallic material. Polarisation and conduction are
the cumulative results of the molecular-charge-carrier movement in the non-metallic material.
Polarisation involves the action of bound charges in the form of permanent or induced dipoles.
Conduction refers to whatever small free charge carriers are present.
As a microwave passes through the material, the dipoles oscillate because of the cyclic nature
of the force on them from the electric field. The dipole oscillation alternately stores and dissipate the electric field energy. Conduction currents only dissipates the energy, that is, convert it
to heat.
8.2.4
Standing Waves
Interference situations usually prevail when microwaves are used for non-destructive inspection
because of the wavelengths and velocities involved, the coherent nature of the microwaves
used, the high transparency of most non-metallic materials and the fact that the thickness of
the non-metallic materials are within several wavelengths. The standing wave is generated
when two waves of the same frequency are propagating in opposite directions and interfere
with each other. The result is a formation of a total field with maximum and minimum points
remaining in a fixed or standing position. A simple way to form a standing wave is to transmit a
coherent wave normal to the surface.
Incident
Reflected
Standing
wave
Figure 8-3: Pattern of a standing wave formed by an incident wave and a reflected wave
8.2.5
Scattering
Microwaves reflect from inhomogeneities by a process known as scattering. The scattering is
generally used to describe wave interactions with small particles or inhomogeneities. The term
reflection is generally used to describe wave interactions with surfaces that are large compared
to wavelength. If the surface is not smooth compared to the wavelength of the microwave
used, the reflected wave is not a simple single wave, but is essentially a composite of many
such waves of various relative amplitudes, phases and directions of propagation. This effect is
greatest when the wavelength is comparable to the dimensions of the irregularities.
The Rayleigh approximation is used whenever the diameter of irregularities is roughly one fifth
of the wavelength, the optical approximation is valid for diameters larger than ten times the
wavelength.
4
d 4
=9
Rayleigh region
2
d
4
=1
optical region
d2
(8.21)
(8.22)
155
Figure 8-4: Microwave scattering by metal spheres of various sizes

(W.L. Rollwitz in: Metals Handbook, Vol. 17)
8.2.6
Homodyne and Heterodyne Demodulation

The basic components is a microwave generator that feeds both a transmitting antenna and a
phase-sensitive detector (or comparator). The received signal can be compared in amplitude
and phase with the reference signal taken directly from the microwave generator. The reference signal can be taken to be of the form
V ref =Vo cos t
(8.23)
The received signal is them of the form
V rec=V cos t = Vcoscos t V sin sin t
(8.24)
Because it is the coefficient of the term that varies in phase with the reference signal, the
quantity V cos is referred to as the in phase component and the term V sin is termed the
quadrature component. Standard electronic phase-sensitive detectors are available that can
detect each of these components separately. In this homodyne demodulation the frequency of
the reference and recorded signal are identical. The resulting detector current can also be writ ten in form of
1
I~ VV o 2 V Vo cos
2
(8.25)
In case of a heterodyne detection, the frequency used for demodulation o is lower than the
carrier frequency of the signal. In this case the resulting detector current is given by
I~V V o cos o t
8.3
Techniques of Microwave Inspection
8.3.1
Transmission Techniques
(8.26)
In transmission technique the incident wave is split into a reflected and a refracted or transmitted part at each surface. Only the part that is transmitted twice is measured.
In fixed-frequency continuous-wave transmission technique the frequency of the microwave
generator is constant. It is used either when the band of frequencies required for the desired
interaction is very narrow or when the band of frequencies is so broad that the changes of
material properties with frequency are very small and therefore not especially sensitive to it.
With this technique both signal components can be detected with little mutual interference and
it is therefore used, when the separation of both components is important.
The swept frequency continuous-wave transmission technique provides for a transmission
measurement over a selected range of frequencies. It is used if the resonant frequency shifts
with changes in material properties or the response as a function of frequency over a substan tial bandwidth must be used. Specially designed broadband generators and amplifiers may be
necessary.
When a measurement of the time of transmission is required the simple measurement of the
phase-shift is usually not helpful. In the pulse-modulated transmission technique the
microwave generator is gated on and off and the receiver is usually a peak-value detector.
Thus the receiver output consists of pulses that are delayed at finite time relative to the trans mitted pulse.
156
If transmission technique is used to form lines or images, computed tomography is possible. By

making suitable assumptions, similar algorithms to those used in X-ray CT may be used. One
important difference is that the reconstruction may be performed at multiple frequencies to
yield additional information.
(C)
(A)
(B)
Figure 8-5: Arrangement for transmission technique: (A) microwave generator, (B) phase
detector with reference signal as additional input, in phase and quadrature as output, (C) test
sample
8.3.2
Reflection Techniques
The reflection techniques are of two types: single antenna and dual antenna. For the single-antenna system the incident and reflected waves are both transmitted down the wave guide
between the generator and the antenna. The phase detector is set so that it compares the
phase of the reflected wave with that of the incident wave. This gives two output signals that
are proportional to the in phase and quadrature component of the reflected wave, respectively.
Such a system works well only for normal or near-normal incidence. The dual-antenna reflec tion system operates at any angle of incidence for which there is appreciable reflection.
(A)
(C)
T/R
(B)
(C)
(A)
(B)
Figure 8-6: Arrangement for reflection techniques: single (above) and dual antenna system
with (A) microwave generator, (B) phase detector with reference signal as additional input, in
phase and quadrature as output, (C) test sample
The reflected wave from the surface, in principle has the same information about the bulk
microwave properties of the material as the refracted wave. However it does not contain any
information about the inhomogeneous properties of the material within the sample. There are
further reflections from any internal discontinuities or boundaries, which ultimately add to the
surface-reflected wave when refracted at the surface. In this manner properties beneath the
157
surface are sensed. To get a high reflection from the back wall this may be covered with a layer
of conductive material.
The simplest microwave reflectometer is based on the fixed-frequency continuous-wave reflection technique. Both the in phase and quadrature component of the reflected wave can be
determined, in practice; however, most such techniques have used only the amplitude of the
reflected signal. This technique has two limitations. First, the depth of a flaw and second, the
frequency response of the material cannot be determined.
The usual way of using the reflection technique is the time of flight method with a pulsed system. Every change of the index of refraction along the path of the wave will lead to reflected
signal with an either positive or negative phase component depending on the reflection coeffi cient. The simple time signal is called an A-scan. If imaging systems are used, the gained
information can be plotted with one spatial and one time of flight axis called B-scan or radargram, or with two spatial axes where either the amplitude (C-scan) or the time of flight (Dscan) can be used for colour coding. For a determination of depth information the knowledge of
the wave velocity within the respective materials is necessary. C-scanning in the terahertz
range is also called terahertz pulse imaging (TPI).
When C-scans are generated, the user has the choice of selecting a time gate where the amplitude information is plotted, so the reflection images of several depths can be acquired. However, the depth / time ratio, as well as the absolute amplitude are relying of the path the wave
has already covered. The limitation of pulse modulation is that the pulses required are very
narrow if shallow depths are to be determined.
t
A
B
Figure 8-7: A-, B-, C- and D-scan presentation
158
C/D
Figure 8-8: 3.5 floppy disk: C-scan (left) and B-scan (along the dashed line) showing clearly
the depth positions and the thickness of front and back cover; a closer look to the left part of
the B-scan shows the flange on the front cover, as the wave velocity in the cover material is
lower than in air the signal of the diskette and the back cover are slightly shifted to later times,
the given term optical depth, therefore, is not absolutely correct, it seems to be the time of
flight multiplied with an averaged velocity or the light speed (Rice University)
When the interaction between a material and microwaves is frequency sensitive, a display of
reflection as function of frequency using the swept frequency continuous-wave technique may
be valuable. Because phase-sensitive detection over a wide range of frequencies is difficult,
only the amplitude of the reflected signal is usually used as output. With this technique the
depth of reflectors can be determined. A special application is the identification of specific layers of several closely spaced layers of material. The reflection at even multiplies of one-fourth
wavelength is larger than at odd multiplies. The reflected signal identifies specific frequencies
for which the layer is even or odd integral multiples of the quarter-wavelength. In both frequency and time domain modulation, the nature of the reflector is determined by the strength
of the reflected signal.
Figure 8-9: TPI images of different layers at different depths in an integrated circuit chip
(TeraView)
8.3.3
Standing Wave Techniques

A standing wave is obtained from the constructive interference of two waves of the same fre quency travelling in opposite directions. Moving the receiving antenna in a dual-antenna system
the standing wave can be determined.
8.3.4
Scattering Techniques
A dual-antenna system must be used for scattering measurements. To measure all of the
scattered radiation, the entire sphere around the irradiated object or material should be
scanned and the detected signal graphed as a function of position.
159
8.4
Equipment
8.4.1
Microwave Circuit Components

Solid-state sources, such as gallium arsenide gunn diodes or FETs (field effect transistor)
provide coherent microwave radiation at the lower power levels desired for non-destructive
testing applications. Microwave can be effectively accomplished by rectification (envelope or
video detection) with certain semiconductors using a Schottky barrier diode. Sophisticated
detection schemes involve the use of homodyne or heterodyne down-conversion techniques,
where a modulated microwave signal is mixed with either a microwave of the same frequency
(homodyne) or with a lower frequency local oscillator (heterodyne).
Figure 8-10: Mechanically tuned gunn oscillator (left) and self-biased detector (Millitech,
Cernex)
Attenuators are purely resistive elements that do the opposite of amplifiers, they reduce gain.
There are five common types of attenuators used in microwave circuits, the tee, the pi, the
bridged tee (pretty unusual), the reflection attenuator and the balanced attenuator. The tee, pi
and bridged tee each require two different resistor values, while the reflection and balances
attenuators need only a matched pair of resistors. This allows both the reflection and balanced
topologies to be used as variable attenuators with a single control voltage or control current.
Phase shifters are used to change the transmission phase angle. Phase shifters can be analogue
or digital. Analogue phase shifters provide a continuously variable phase, perhaps controlled by
a voltage. Electrically controlled analogue phase shifters can be realised with varactor diodes
that change capacitance with voltage, or non-linear dielectrics such as barium strontium titan ate, or ferro-electric materials such as yttrium iron garnet. A mechanically-controlled analogue
phase shifter is really just a mechanically lengthened transmission line, often called a trombone
line.
Figure 8-11: Continuously variable attenuator (left), phase shifter with direct reading (ATM)
Filters are in-line components that screen out unwanted frequencies or noise. PIN diodes can
be used as high speed microwave switches, which either prevent or permit the passage of
microwave radiation. Circulators are non-reciprocal ferrite devices with usually three ports.
Energy into port one predominantly exits port two, energy into port two exits port three and
energy into port three exits port one. They are used as antenna interfaces. Energy can be made
to flow from the transmitter (port one) to the antenna (port two) during transmit and from the
antenna (port two) to the receiver (port three) during receive. Circulators have low electrical
losses and can be made to handle huge powers, well into kilowatts. By terminating one port, a
circulator becomes an isolator, which has the property that energy flows in one direction only.
160
Power dividers and couplers are passive microwave components used for distributing or combining microwave signals. A splitter can be used as either a power combiner or a power divider.
A coupler can be used to inject a second signal into a circuit, or as a means to sample a signal
within a circuit. Couplers and splitters are usually three or four-port devices. Polarisers are inline devices that convert linearly polarised microwaves to circularly polarised ones or vice
versa.
Wave guides are metallic transmission lines that are used at microwave frequencies, typically
to interconnect transmitters and receivers (transceivers) with antennas. Bended wave guides
are divided in E-plane and H-plane bends. An easy rule of thumb is that an E-plane bend is
bent the easy way, while an H-plane bend is bent the hard way. Shorts are either variable
or fixed devices that completely reflect the microwave beam at some selected circuit location,
while terminators are devices that absorb microwave radiation partially or totally.
Figure 8-12: Dividers, flexible wave guides (E-plane) and magic tee (ATM, MWE)
The antennas typically used for non-destructive testing consist of small metal horns, with either
circular or rectangular aperture. The gain expressed in dB compared to an isotropic radiator
and operational bandwidth of these horns are determined by the geometry and electrical size of
the horn. Generally an increased frequency results in a smaller horn size to achieve a given
gain. Conical horns offer the advantage of transmitting / receiving circular polarised microwave
beams, as well as linearly polarised beams of any polar orientation. Spiral antennas transmit /
receive circularly polarised beams only. Dielectric lenses can be added to horns to either focus
or collimate microwave beams.
Figure 8-13: Horns and Gaussian optics lens antenna (ATM, Millitech)
A rather good explanation of single elements and relevant formulas can be found in www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia (MWE).
8.4.2
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Most known applications of microwave NDT deal with ground penetrating radar, sometimes also
called surface penetrating radar. However this equipment cannot only be used for ground
investigations, but also for concrete, masonry and similar civil engineering components. GPR
systems usually act in reflection technique with perpendicular or near perpendicular incidence.
Imaging is possible moving the antenna in some pattern and correlating the result with the
position.
161
Table 8-2: Typical values for GPR antennas

Antenna [MHz]
Penetration depth [m]
Weight [kg]
Size [mm]
250
3-4
560 x 560
500
1.5 - 2
400 x 400
1'000
0.5 0.75
200 x 200
2'000
< 0.5
110 x 110
GPR antennas are usually used as shielded, but for certain application also as unshielded
devices. Due to their usage, GPR antennas are built as rugged systems. If small penetration is
necessary, antennas can be hand held; larger types are mounted on hand wagons or on cars.
New developments allow antenna arrays that can cover a certain width and allow easier scanning. In principle phased-array radar systems (details on phased-array see ultrasonic testing),
as they are used for defence and weather survey would also be possible.
Figure 8-14: Examples of portable GPR antennas, unshielded dual antenna system (left), GPR
equipment used for wall inspection (Gisco, Terraplus)
Figure 8-15: Examples of medium sized GPR equipment (left) and GPR antennas used for road
inspection (Era Technology, Empa)
162
Figure 8-16: Rail road application for an array radar antenna (3d Radar)
8.4.3
Terahertz Equipment
The interesting frequency band of a 0.1 to 3 THz is not easily accessible. Electronic sources like
Gunn or Schottky diodes with subsequent frequency multipliers, provide high output levels
(mW range) up to some 100 GHz, yet become inefficient in the sub-millimetre range. Direct
optical sources, like quantum cascade lasers, are usually limited to frequencies > 5 THz, even
when operated at cryogenic temperatures.
Therefore the generation of terahertz radiation is typically a femtosecond laser pulse. The light
pulse is focused onto a photoconductive switch (e.g. low temperature GaAs or radiation-damaged silicon-on-sapphire substrate) containing the dipole antenna. The radiated THz wave corresponds to the first derivative of the photo-induced current; a broadband, narrow electromagnetic pulse therefore needs a short optical pulse. Both pulsed and continuous wave designs
have been realised.
The set-ups of scanning and real-time systems are different.
Figure 8-17: Set-up of a terahertz scanning system (Nikon)
163
Figure 8-18: Set-up of a terahertz real-time system (Nikon)

As the whole technology shows a very dynamic development a lot of companies are not too
eager to present exactly their equipments.
Figure 8-19: All-electronic emitter and detector for millimetre-wave imaging (left) and commercial microwave camera (SynView, Agiltron)
Figure 8-20: Equipment for IC inspection (TeraView)
164
Figure 8-21: Terahertz dual-antenna system (Fraunhofer-Allianz Vision)

A potential method for the generation of electromagnetic waves in the desired frequency range
could in future also use the inverse Doppler effect. A frequency shift inverse to the normal Doppler effect happens for waves that show anomal dispersion, the impact, however, is about
100'000 times stronger than for the normal effect.
8.5
Applications
8.5.1
Applications of Ground Penetrating Radar

Various applications of GPR are reported, among them:
Utility detection and mapping;
Highway, bridge, rail road bed, airport inspection;
Architectural cladding inspection;
Snow/ice thickness measurement;
Detecting minerals, mining;
Detecting unexploded ordnance and mine detection;
Archaeology, fossils, forensic applications.
The usual way to present the results is in form of images. Several modes exist; the designa tions chosen here are originally used in ultrasonic testing. The original unprocessed B-scan data
usually need a lot of experience for interpretation, as all features are mapped in with a hyperbolic distortion.
Concrete
surface
1st rebar layer
Bottom side
Figure 8-22: GPR B-scans: unprocessed image of underground tanks, bridge structure of the
Ponte Cebia 3 bridge at the San Bernardino route, length 85 m (Geosearches, Empa)
If the surface is scanned as area (typically in a meander shape), the date can be processed to
represent the lateral position and the reflection amplitude of certain features (C-scan) or to
map thickness in form of times of flight if the velocity within the material is known (D-scan).
If calibration data are present, materials properties of the penetrated layer can also be determined, if such properties influence the propagation of electromagnetic waves. It lies in the nature
of the subject that probability of detection calculation for mine detection is of high importance.
165
Figure 8-23: GPR C-scan of reinforcement bars in concrete with respective vertical cuts (left),
GPR D-scan of pavement thickness of an airport runway (Geosearches, Geophysical)
Figure 8-24: Conductivity map of a field to determine suitability as a vineyard (left), POD chart
for land mines with diameters of 5 to 50 cm versus range (Geophysical, Era Technology)
8.5.2
Applications of Materials Characterisation and Research

For the time being three main application fields are targeted by microwave and terahertz techniques: composite materials, electronic devices and biomedical applications. The results have
often still preliminary image quality or the applications deal with demonstration parts.
Figure 8-25: Applications of microwaves to composite materials: fibre distribution of injection

moulded short fibre reinforced laminates (left), kissing disbond in a composite panel (Stuttgart
University, NSWC)
Polarised microwaves, e.g., can be used to determine the anisotropy in short fibre reinforced
injection moulded laminates (Diener, L., in Thompson, D.O. and Chimenti D.E. (Edts.): Review
of Progress in QNDE, 14, New York, Plenum Press, 1995, pp. 615).
166
Figure 8-26: Photograph of a kevlar vest hit by a projectile (left) and THz image (230 -320
GHz) of the vest's inside revealing damages in all parts of the sample (SynView)
Figure 8-27: Performance demonstration for the usage of terahertz imaging for the investigation of processes: leaf of a living plant before and after watering (Rice University)
8.6
Special and Advanced Methods
8.6.1
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)

To increase the reliability and with respect to quality assurance, automatic scanning systems
are used together with a high frequency data acquisition system for the complete high-frequency signal. The applied imaging scheme is based on the back propagation of the signals
probe back into the component. The original SAFT radar experience dates from the early
1970es and the first digital implementation of one-dimensional SAFT was demonstrated in
1976. The SAFT is a method of simulating a large focusing probe by digitally processing all the
range / amplitude information obtained from a scan over a discontinuity with an ordinary
unfocussed beam. It has the advantage over a conventionally focusing probe of having a variable focal length.
As the beam is scanned over a discontinuity, a signal is first observed when the discontinuity
intercepts the leading edge of the beam. For a depth d the radius of the footprint r of the signal
is roughly
d
r
4 r 1
(8.27)
On continuing the scan the signal increases in amplitude along the beam axis and then falls to
zero at the trailing edge of the beam. In addition to these amplitude variations the signal path
range also varies; in the case of a normal beam the signal path will be minimum when it lies
along the beam axis. By electronically correcting for these variations in range across the width
of the beam it is possible to mutually superimpose a large number of separate signals from the
discontinuity. This process, which is carried out on the digitised signals using suitable computer
power, greatly improve the signal/noise ratio, since the noise signals will be randomly superimposed, whilst the discontinuity signals will be preferentially superimposed.
167
Time of flight (B-Scan) [a.u.]

Signal strength [a.u.]
Signal strength
Time of flight
Lateral distance [a.u.]

Figure 8-28: SAFT principle, at the effective position the amplitude is largest, whilst the time of
flight is minimal (time of flight signal given as in B-scans), simplified
Figure 8-29: GPR B-scan image of a concrete sample containing a tube and a flaw; unprocessed image (left) and after 3D FFT SAFT (BAM)
Optimum superimposition of the signals will only occur if the corrections for signal path range
are on the true position of the discontinuity. Corrections based upon a false position will result
in the sum of the superimposed signal being very much reduced. The technique is very sensitive to this effect and, therefore, by carrying out a number of summations, based on different
assumed positions of the discontinuity and by recording that at which the maximum superimposed signal amplitude is observed, a very accurate measurement of the position of the discon tinuity is possible. This technique is particularly valuable when used to locate the sources of the
diffraction signals at the tips of a planar discontinuity, since the signals are often very small
and may be lost in the general noise level when using conventional sizing techniques.
8.6.2
Near Field Terahertz Scanning

Some very exciting possibilities are opened if the terahertz scanning is performed in the near
field. The standard procedure is using an aperture or placing the sample in close proximity of
the detector. Spatial resolutions below 10 m are reported, partially using some more
advanced near field techniques.
168
Figure 8-30: Performance demonstration of the gain in spatial resolution for near field scanning
applied to a USAF 1951 resolution target (Rice University)
8.6.3
Homeland Security
Terahertz radiation is also used for homeland security to detect items that cannot be found by
induction coils. For good reason sometimes they are called naked scanners.
Figure 8-31: Terahertz inspection booth and camera (L3, ThruVision)

8.6.4
Metamaterials
Metamaterials were first published by Victor Veselago (*1929) in 1967.
In certain frequency bands metamaterials show properties that do not exist in nature. They
have a negative magnetic permeability and at the same time a negative dielectric permittivity,
resulting in significant effects like a negative index of refraction. They have to be synthesised
artificially.
They are composed of sub-wavelength metallic resonators mounted periodically on dielectrics.
In metamaterials the unit cells can be manipulated and constructed to resonate at various frequencies obtaining unique electromagnetic responses differently from electromagnetic
responses of natural substances that are of a limited range as derived from atoms and
molecules in unit cells.
The most popular unit cell is split ring resonator (SRR), which has two interleaved metallic rings
with two opposite gaps. When the incident magnetic field is perpendicular to the SRR plane,
electric currents are induced along the rings. Simply, each unit cell acts as an LC oscillator and
responses to the external magnetic field at the resonance frequencies.
169
Figure 8-32: Scheme of a split ring resonator and metamaterial (Imperial College)
Metamaterials can be used for terahertz applications like antennas and also in ultrasonics,
where the wavelength is similar.
8.7

For the time being the only widely used application of microwaves in non-destructive evaluation
is ground penetrating radar. Applications using higher frequency ranges are just beginning to
leave the laboratory status.
The use of microwaves is restricted to non-conductive material, conductive materials, however,
can be detected, but not be penetrated or transmitted. Ground penetrating radar is used for
various applications in soil but also in pavements, concrete and masonry. The resolution relies
on the frequency and is in a range of millimetres to centimetres.
For the terahertz technology it will be of an advantage that this technology is also of interest
for medical diagnosis, as this will push the developments on the source and detector side; usually non-destructive evaluation can profit from such tendencies.
Two developments can be of special interest for non-destructive evaluation. One is the possibil ity of spectroscopy, where the wavelength can be tune to values that result in optimum contrast; the second one is the use of the near field imaging increasing the resolution.
The main potential application of metamaterials is the production of focusing lenses. Compared
to optical applications, they wavelength for microwaves is rather large, so that the production
is less complicated.
170
MAGNETIC RESONANCE INSPECTION
9.1
Introduction
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and the tomographic version of it, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is mainly a domain of chemical and physical molecular analysis and for medical
applications. But also some problems in non-destructive evaluation can be solved excellently
using NMR or MRI.
Felix Bloch (1905-1983) and Edward Purcell (1912-1997), both of whom were awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics in 1952, discovered the magnetic resonance phenomenon independently
in 1946. In 1971 Raymond Damadian showed that the nuclear magnetic relaxation times of tissues and tumours differed, thus motivating scientist to consider magnetic resonance for the
detection of disease. He also demonstrated in 1977 MRI of the whole body.
In 1973 MRI was first demonstrated on small test tube samples by Paul Lauterbur (19292007). In 1975 Richard Ernst (*1933) proposed MRI using phase and frequency encoding and
the Fourier transform. This is the basic of current MRI technique. For his achievements in NMR
and MRI he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1991.
In 1977 Sir Peter Mansfield (*1933) developed the echo planar imaging (EPI) technique, that
years later was able to generate images at video rate. In 1993 functional MRI (fMRI) was
developed. This technique allows the function of various regions of the human brain. Lauterbur
and Mansfield were awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine 2003.
In 1999 the first truly portable MRI technology was developed. This makes MRI technology
available for non-destructive applications outside of a designated laboratory.
Kurt Wthrich (*1938) was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry 2002 for his development for
NMR spectroscopy for the determination the 3D structure of biological macromolecules.
9.2
Principles of Magnetic Resonance
9.2.1
Application of Magnetic Fields

Hydrogen atoms (protons) present in water and organic compounds possess properties which
make them behave like tiny magnets. A sample containing protons, original randomly
arranged, will become aligned when placed in a strongly applied magnetic field. The protons
align themselves parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field. According to the Boltzmann statistics, the population of parallel spinning protons is slightly higher than the one of anti-parallel
spinning protons.
There is a difference in energy levels between protons that point parallel or anti-parallel and
this results in a net magnetic charge in one direction. The magnitude of this magnetic charge
depends on the strength of the external magnetic field and the amount of protons in the
sample. This accounts for the need to use very strong magnetic fields and the inherent insensitivity of magnetic resonance imaging - the sample has to contain more than about 5% water
or respective substances to get a signal. Other nuclei also possess magnetic properties (carbon
13, sodium and phosphorus) and can also be measured with magnetic resonance methods.
However, compared to hydrogen protons, the difference in energy levels is much less, which
means that the amount of magnetic resonance signal is also reduced. Magnetic resonance imaging of nuclei other than hydrogen is very difficult.
9.2.2
Magnetic Resonance
In addition to behaving like tiny compasses that align with an externally applied magnetic field,
protons also spin about their axes. This creates a miniature magnetic field around each proton
that creates an associated magnetic moment. When a magnetic field is applied, it causes these
magnetic moments to precess around the direction of the external magnetic field. This movement can be compared to a spinning top as it starts to slow down. The rate, or frequency, at
which the protons precess, is given by the Larmor equation (Joseph Larmor, 1857-1942):
L= Bo
(9.1)
where L is the frequency of precession or Larmor frequency, is the gyromagnetic ratio and Bo
is the strength of the external magnetic field. The gyromagnetic ratio is a constant that is fixed
for the nucleus under investigation. For hydrogen protons, is 42.6 MHz/T. Therefore, at 2 T,
protons precess at 85.2 MHz. The frequency at which the proton will resonate is directly pro 171
portional to the strength of the magnetic field. The Larmor equation is the basis for each NMR
experiment.
9.2.3
Magnetic Resonance Signal

In order to receive the magnetic resonance signal, a pulse of radio-frequency (RF) energy (several 100 to several 1'000 volts) is passed to the sample at the same frequency as the precess ing protons. The RF energy is transmitted to the sample via a coil around or on the sample
under investigation. The RF energy causes the protons at a lower energy level (those parallel to
the magnetic field) to have the same energy level as the anti-parallel protons. The change in
energy levels gives a net magnetisation vector at 90 to the direction of the magnetic field.
The pulse is turned off and a small electrical signal (a few mV) is received via a coil oriented
the same way as the one used to transmit the RF energy. The coil detects an oscillating magnetic field as an induced electric current.
9.2.4
Molecular Mobility
It is also possible to quantify how long it takes for the magnetisation to return to its original
position in the magnet (equilibrium) after the application of a radio-frequency pulse. The time
taken to reach equilibrium (called longitudinal, spin-lattice or T1 relaxation) is affected by the
molecular mobility of the protons in the sample. Protons in fats are relatively 'fixed' in place
and take a short time (about 0.25 seconds) to return to equilibrium, whereas protons in water
molecules are a lot more mobile and take about 2 seconds to recover their magnetisation.
When a sample receives a radio-frequency pulse, the magnetisation is re-directed to 90 from
its original position and the protons precess in phase - they rotate at the same speed relative
to each other. Due to various molecular interactions, the protons quickly start to go out of
phase and this results in a loss of signal. The rate taken for the protons to lose their phase can
be measured with NMR and is termed transverse, spin-spin, or T2 relaxation. Again due to the
different molecular mobility of protons, fat has a short T 2 relaxation rate (about 20 ms) and
water has a long T2 relaxation rate (about 60 ms).
There are many processes which affect the molecular mobility of the protons in a sample, e.g.
freezing and ripening. By measuring the mobility of protons, additional information is gained
which can be used to characterise a sample. In addition, NMR can also non-invasively measure
flow, temperature, diffusion and perfusion either at one time point, or dynamically to monitor a
process.
9.3
Instruments and Applications
9.3.1
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

NMR, especially when used with an open coil, called one-sided access NMR (OSA-NMR) or single
sided access NMR can be successfully applied for:
172
Diagnosis of moisture contents, moisture distribution and porosity in construction materials and geological core samples;
Measurement of density, moisture and bonding agent in wood and chipboard;
Characterisation of polymer and elastomer materials.
(A)
(C)
(B)
(D)
Figure 9-1: OSA-NMR instrument with open coil sensor (left) and applications at rubber
samples (T1 images): (A) the not fully vulcanised sample shows clear heterogeneity, (B) fully
vulcanised sample; (C) effects of ageing in oxidising atmosphere, (D) not aged sample (IZFP)
The usual generated frequencies are in a range of 0.1 to 20 MHz.
Figure 9-2: Single sided access NMR probe for mobile universal surface exploring (NMRMOUSE) (aixNMR)
Figure 9-3: Portable Halbach magnet for measurements of porosity and pore size distributions
of water-saturated drilled geological cores (aixNMR)
The probes can be made small, typically 5 cm by 5 cm with an active field of typically 1 cm 2.
Combining the magnetic field of a single permanent magnet with a dedicated gradient coil system. The depth selection is achieved by retuning the frequency, while lateral resolution is
achieved implementing a pure phase encoding imaging method. The 3D imaging effect is similar to ultrasonics and eddy currents but without moving the sensor, however, this is not yet
MRI.
9.3.2
Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Due to its costs, magnetic resonance imaging is not very much used in non-destructive testing.
However, for both, liquid and solid materials applications, it seems being possible. It has e.g.
been successfully applied to the study of polymer blends and composites, ceramic processing,
catalysts and filters fouling and fuels research. Other fields that can be very well investigated
with MRI deal with flow, viscosity and rheometry. Certain applications can also be done with
OSA-instruments.
173
Figure 9-4: Medical MRI systems: closed type with typically 3 T (left), open type with typically
1 T (Siemens)
For medical applications open and closed systems are in use. Open systems usually have a
smaller field, but for applications other than persons they probably often would fit better. Similar to X-ray tomographic systems, medical systems should be faster and the field exposure to
patients and personnel should be as low as possible. For non-destructive testing both aspects
have much less weight, in contrast, high fields would be preferred as the give a better resolu tion.
Figure 9-5: MRI Instrument used for preclinical research (like in vivo studies on animals) with
up to 15 T (left), open coil with sample inside, portable open MRI instrument for medical
applications (Bruker, Cambridge University, MagnaVu)
Only few instruments are commercially available that could be of good use for specified ques tions related to materials, some of them reach a spatial resolution of 30 m.
174
Figure 9-6: Investigations on polar ice structures (left), lower row left: optical thin section,
right: MRI of the same section, comparison of clean and fouled water filters (Bruker BioSpin,
Cambridge University)
9.4
Spatial Encoding and Image Contrast
9.4.1
Slice Selection
The received signals are from the entire sample, they do not have any spatial information.
Therefore gradients of magnetic field are temporarily created within the external magnetic
field. These gradients are created using gradient coils placed around the sample so that the
magnetic field is manipulated in the three axes (x, y and z). Depending on their function, the
gradient coils are called:
Slice select gradient;
Frequency encode gradient;
Phase encode gradient.
The slice select gradient is used to acquire a magnetic resonance signal from a particular location in the sample and with a particular thickness. The frequency and phase encode gradients
are used to manipulate the in-slice spatial encoding.
The slice selection is done by a linear magnetic field gradient, e.g. 2.0 to 2.2 T, corresponding
to 85.2 to 93.7 MHz (for hydrogen). If a RF pulse of a single frequency would be transmitted to
the sample, the received signal would correspond to a single frequency. However, the signal
received would result in an infinitely thin line. If the RF pulse contains not a single frequency
but a certain bandwidth, the respective slice thickness increases.
There are two ways in which the slice thickness x can be varied:
alter the bandwidth of RF frequencies - the narrower the bandwidth, the thinner the
slice of excited protons;
increase the slope of the magnetic field gradient B'.

x=
B'
(9.2)
If the gradient is increased and the frequency bandwidth is kept the same, the thinner the slice
will become and consequently the less signal received.
There is an electronic limitation on how much the bandwidth can be decreased. There is also a
hardware limitation on the size of the gradient that can be generated. These combined factors
set a limit on how thin a slice can be. The selection of a particular slice thickness for imaging
depends on a number of inter-related factors:
The pixel resolution within the slice - the smaller the pixels (the higher the image resolution),
the less signal received, so slice thickness may be increased to compensate.
The structural heterogeneity of the sample: real samples have a high level of structural heterogeneity in all three axes. Due to signal averaging within a particular voxel in a slice, detail will
be lost as the slice thickness increases.
The molecular mobility of the protons - a high molecular mobility increases the signal, so the
slice thickness can be decreased.
The use of a slice gradient on its own will not result in a magnetic resonance image. In order to
achieve an image, frequency- and phase-encoding gradients have to be used within the slice.
175
9.4.2
Frequency and Phase Encoding

The magnetic field within a slice is increased across the sample. The stronger the magnetic
field, the faster the precession of the protons. In an imaging experiment, the received signal
contains different amplitudes (due to varying water contents in the sample) and different frequencies (due to the magnetic gradients used). The signal containing all this information can be
decomposed into its amplitude and frequency components with a Fourier transform. As the
strength of the applied gradient field is known, the frequency can be related to position and the
final result is an image showing the spatial distribution of water within the sample in one-dimension (1D).
In order to acquire a two-dimensional (2D) image, frequency encoding has to be used in com bination with phase encoding. An additional gradient, at 90 to the frequency encode gradient,
is applied for a short period of time. The stronger the applied phase encode gradient, the
greater the difference in phase between precessing protons. The magnetic resonance signal
received will therefore contain phase and frequency information that can be analysed by the FT
algorithm. By combining phase and frequency encoding gradients, the protons are spatially
labelled within the sample in two dimensions.
However, one single phase encode gradient of a particular magnitude will still only enable the
acquisition of a 1D image. In order to acquire a 2D image, the phase encode gradient has to be
applied in increments of increasing gradient strength. Each increment corresponds to a 1D pro file across the sample in the second dimension. By combining all these one-dimensional profiles, a two-dimensional image is generated.
In order to acquire 3D MRI scans, phase encoding in the 3 rd dimension to label the protons is
used. As with 2D MRI, each phase encode step in the 3 rd dimension corresponds to one image.
The time to acquire 3D MRI scans, therefore, becomes longer, corresponding to the number of
slices in the 3rd dimension. Unlike X-ray computed tomography, there is no short cut using a
spatial multidimensional detector.
9.4.3
Image Construction
A typical time for one phase encode step for an image is 0.5 s, so a 256 x 256 slice will take
128 s.
However the time to acquire an image also depends on the number of signal averages. It is
rare that an adequate signal can be acquired in one scan, so it is normal for several images to
be acquired from the same sample and the images are then averaged.
Figure 9-7: Example of a lemon scanned with MRI, the mid image is the image acquired before
analysis with the FT and it contains the same information as the image to the right (Cambridge
University)
Therefore, when determining the optimum variables for acquiring an MRI image, we are always
making a compromise between the following factors that affect the amount of signal we can
receive:
176
Amount of water in sample the more protons, the higher the signal;
Mobility of protons the more mobile the protons the higher the signal (e.g. water vs.
ice);
Resolution (number of phase encode steps and frequency encode steps) the higher the
resolution the better the image detail, but the longer it takes to acquire an image;
Number of signal averages the more signal averages, the higher the signal/noise ratio,
but the longer the image acquisition time;
The thickness of the selected slice the thicker the slice, the more signal but the image
may lose clarity due to volume averaging.
These are the reasons for why MRI is slow, has limited resolution (typically no less than 100 m
per pixel) and cannot easily be used to image dry materials and/or materials which have a low
molecular mobility.
9.4.4
Other Spatial Location Methods

The raw data in the time domain is also referred to as k-space. The order in which the time
domain data is acquired does not matter, as long as the k-space is scanned so that it provides
sufficient information to become an image after the Fourier transform. There are more rapid
ways of scanning k-space than the frequency / phase encode method described above.
Figure 9-8: Schemas of spiral scanning (left), back projection (mid) and echo-planar imaging
(Cambridge University)
For example, spiral scanning uses a spiral trajectory through k-space to acquire the MRI signal
in about 50 ms. Back projection acquires radial lines across k-space in a similar time to spiral
scanning. However, the disadvantage of spiral scanning and back projection methods is that
they do not adequately sample the points at the edge of k-space. The points at the very edge
of k-space contribute to the fine detail and clarity of the image, so images acquired by spiral
scanning and back projection methods can be blurred compared to the conventional approach.
Echo planar imaging (EPI) is a method commonly used in functional brain studies (fMRI). It
samples k-space in about the same time to acquire one-phase encode step. While EPI is very
fast, it is very demanding on the MRI hardware, particularly the gradient amplifiers that control
the gradient coils. There is a tendency with EPI for the gradient coils to not precisely cover kspace, so again the images can be blurred.
9.5
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), often also called electron spin resonance (ESR), is a
spectroscopic technique which detects species that have unpaired electrons.
EPR is a magnetic resonance technique very similar to NMR. However, instead of measuring the
nuclear transitions, the transitions of unpaired electrons in an applied magnetic field is detected. Like a proton, the electron has spin, which gives it a magnetic property known as a magnetic moment. When an external magnetic field is applied, the paramagnetic electrons can
either orient in a direction parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. This
creates two distinct energy levels for the unpaired electrons allowing to measure them as they
are driven between the two levels.
9.6

NMR and MRI are investigation methods not yet commonly used for non-destructive evaluation.
The applications are reduced to hydrogen atoms concentration or mobility. For simple magnets, the penetration depth is limited.
For MRI for the full use of such a technology a broad knowledge of the physics behind it is
necessary. Most commercial equipment is relying upon medical applications, for others they
have to be translated to the respective technological situation.
Fast systems can be used to control processes where hydrogen is involved.
For the moment is unclear what the influence of the upcoming terahertz technology on the possibilities of MRI will be.
177
178
10
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
10.1
Introduction
Ultrasonic testing is a method to control materials with low or moderate acoustical attenuation
as metals, ceramics or polymers. Inner and outer inhomogeneities may be found. If the time of
flight can be measured, it is also possible to determine velocities or the thickness of objects or
coatings. The usual frequency range lies between 0.5 MHz to 20 MHz.
In 1793 Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) assumed that bats orient themselves with sound that
is not audible, this was proofed 1938 by George Pierce (1872-1956) and Donald Griffin (19152003).
As early as 1826 Jean-Daniel Colladon (1802-1893) and Charles-Franois Sturm (1803-1855)
measured the sonic velocity of water in the lake of Geneva using a submerged bell excited by
gunpowder.
Christian Doppler (1803-1853) published 1841 an article ber das farbige Licht der Doppel sterne und einiger anderen Gestirne des Himmels; his predictions, however, were partly
wrong. 1845 the acoustic Doppler Effect was proofed by Christoph Buys-Ballot (1817-1890) in
an unorthodox experiment with trumpeters positioned on a moving train.
The technically fundamental steps were the following two: Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919, NP 1904)
established 1877 to 1878 with the two volumes of his textbook The Theory of Sound the the ory of wave propagation in solids, while Jacques (1856-1941) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906, NP
1903) found 1880 the reversible piezoelectric effect, approved mathematically 1881 by Gabriel
Lippmann (1845-1921, NP 1908).
One of the main reasons for the development of sonar (sound navigation and ranging) was the
doom of the Titanic in 1912. In the same year Alexander Belm (1880-1952) described the technique of sending sound waves through water and observing the returning echoes to characterise submerged objects and Lewis Richardson filed the first patent in the UK. The first working
system was built by Reginald Fessenden (1866-1932) in the USA in 1914.
Paul Langevin (1872-1946) and Constantin Chilowsky patented 1918 an advanced device called
hydrophone. This inspired early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept
to medical diagnosis. In 1929 and 1935, Sergej Sokolov (1897-1957) studied the use of ultrasonic waves for analysing metallic objects.
Industrial use of ultrasonic testing apparently started quite simultaneously in four countries:
United States, Great Britain, Germany and Japan. In the western world, the key-persons, Floyd
Firestone (1898-1986), Donald Sproule (*1903) and Adolf Trost (*1911) had no knowledge of
each other as they worked strictly in secret. Not even their patent-applications were published.
Sproule and Trost used transmission-technique with separate transmitter- and receiver-probes.
Trost invented the so-called "Trost-Tongs". The two probes were contacted on opposite sides of
a plate, held in same axis by a mechanical device - the tongs - and coupled to both surfaces by
continuously flowing water. Sproule placed the two probes on the same side of the sample. So
he invented double-crystal probes. But it has to be mentioned that he used this combination
also with varying distance from each other. Firestone was the first to realise the reflection-technique. He modified a radar instrument and developed a transmitter with short pulses and an
amplifier with short dead zone.
Shortly after the end of World War II, researchers in Japan began to explore medical diagnostic
capabilities of ultrasound. The first ultrasonic instruments used an A-mode presentation with
blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by a B-mode presentation with a two dimensional, grey scale imaging. Japan's work in ultrasound was relatively unknown in the United
States and Europe until the 1950s. Then researchers presented their findings on the use of
ultrasound to detect gallstones, breast masses and tumours to the international medical community. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardi ovascular investigation.
In the early 1970s, two events occurred which caused a major change. The continued improvement of the technology, in particular its ability to detect small flaws, led to the unsatisfactory
situation that more and more parts had to be rejected, even though the probability of failure
had not changed. However, the discipline of fracture mechanics emerged, which enabled one to
predict whether a crack of a given size would fail under a particular load if a material property,
the fracture toughness, was known. Other laws were developed to predict the rate of growth of
179
cracks under cyclic loading (fatigue). With the advent of these tools, it became possible to
accept structures containing defects if the sizes of those defects were known. This formed the
basis for new philosophy of "fail safe" or "damage tolerant" design. Components having known
defects could continue in service as long as it could be established that those defects would not
grow to a critical, failure producing size.
10.2
Physics of Ultrasound
10.2.1
Wave Propagation
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way the
particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, transverse or shear waves, surface waves and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two
modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing.
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave
propagation. Since compressional and dilatational forces are active in these waves, they are
also called pressure or compressional waves. They are also sometimes called density waves
because their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be generated in
gases and liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by
a series of compression and expansion movements.
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate transverse to the direction of propaga tion. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation and, therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as gases or most liquids. Shear waves are
usually generated in materials using the mode conversion from longitudinal waves.
(A)
propagation, movement
(B)
(C)
propagation
movement
Figure 10-1: Longitudinal (A) and shear (C) wave, (B) unaffected material
Pure longitudinal and shear waves do only exist, if the dimension of the material perpendicular
to the propagation direction is much larger than the wavelength. However, at surfaces and
interfaces this is not the case, so various types of elliptical or complex vibrations of the
particles make other waves possible. Some of these wave modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb
waves are also useful for ultrasonic inspection.
Rayleigh waves travel along the surface of a relative thick solid material penetrating to a depth
of one wavelength. Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface
defects. Since they will follow the surface around curves, they can also be used to inspect areas
where other wave types might have difficulty reaching.
Stoneley waves or leaky Rayleigh waves have their origin from a surface wave that leaks into
the surroundings. For materials testing the expression leaky Rayleigh wave is common, for
geophysics (fluid filled boreholes, seismic profiles, etc.) it is the expression Stoneley wave.
Lamb waves, also known as plate waves, can be propagated only in very thin materials (Horace
Lamb, 1849-1934). They are complex vibrational waves that travel through the entire thickness
of a material. Lamb waves provide a means for inspection of very thin materials. Propagation of
Lamb waves depends on density, elastic and material properties of a component, and they are
influenced by a great deal by selected frequency and material thickness. Lamb waves show
symmetric and antisymmetric modes.
180
Table 10-1: Ultrasonic modes (not complete)

Wave types in and on solids
Particle vibration
Longitudinal
Parallel to wave propagation direction
Transverse (shear)
Perpendicular to wave propagation direction
Surface creeping wave
Parallel to wave propagation direction
Surface Rayleigh wave
Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode
Surface leaky Rayleigh wave
Wave guided along an interface
Plate Lamb wave
Component perpendicular to surface (extensional wave)
Plate Love wave
Parallel to plane layer, perpendicular to

wave direction
Sezawa
Asymmetric mode
Figure 10-2: Antisymmetric (top) and symmetric Lamb wave

10.2.2
Ultrasonic Velocity
For isotropic materials ultrasonic velocities c L (longitudinal) and cT (transverse) have a relation
to the elastic constants Young modulus E, shear modulus G and Poisson ratio .
1
c2L = E
1 12
c2T =
(10.1)
E
1
G
=
2 1
(10.2)
For Rayleigh waves only approximations exist

cR c T
0.861.14
1
(10.3)
Table 10-2: Acoustic constants (room temperature)

Material
cL [m s-1]
cT [m s-1]
Z [106 kg m-2 s-1]
Aluminium
6'320
3'130
17
Copper
4'730
2'300
42
Nickel
5'630
2'960
52
Steel
5'920
3'230
45
PMMA
2'730
1'430
Aluminium oxide
9'000
5'500
Concrete
4'400
2'600
9.2
Water
1'480
1.5
Oil
1'740
1.5
Air
330
0.00033
3.2
32
181
The acoustic impedance Z is defined as

Z= c
(10.4)
Figure 10-3: Dispersion curves of symmetric (S) and antisymmetric (A) Lamb waves in a traction-free aluminium-plate, phase velocities (top) and group velocities (J.L. Rose: Ultrasonic
Waves in Solid Media)
Plate waves exist in many modes and all show dispersion; the velocity depends on the product
of the frequency and the thickness of the plate (f d).
The symmetric and the antisymmetric zero-order modes deserve special attention. They exist
at all frequencies and can usually carry more energy than the higher order ones. They are also
called extensional (S0) and flexural mode (A0).
Phase velocities can only be calculated numerically, the relationship between phase and group
velocities is
cg =
c 2p
c pf d
10.2.3
dcp
(10.5)
d f d
Attenuation of Sound Waves

When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance. In idealised
materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is only reduced by the spreading of the wave
(divergence). All natural materials, however, show an effect which further weakens the sound.
This further weakening results from two basic causes, which are scattering (microscopic reflec tions in direction other than its original direction of propagation) and absorption (conversion of
sound to other forms of energy). The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called
attenuation.
Attenuation of sound within a material itself is often not of intrinsic interest. However, natural
properties and loading conditions can be related to attenuation. Attenuation often serves as a
measurement tool that leads to the formation of theories to explain physical or chemical phenomenon, which decreases the ultrasonic intensity.
182
For scattering three domains are of interest (D dimension of the scattering particle):
Rayleigh domain >> D, attenuation ~ f4;
Stochastic domain D (also called phase scattering), attenuation ~ f2;
Geometric domain << D (also called diffuse scattering), attenuation independent on

frequency.
A decaying plane wave is expressed as

A=A o e
(10.6)
where Ao is the amplitude of the propagating wave at an initial location and A the amplitude
after the wave has travelled a distance x from that initial location. The quantity is the attenu ation coefficient of the wave travelling in the x direction. The common unit is decibels per
metre (dB m-1) and the correspondence to the wave pressure
=
p
20
log o
x
p
(10.7)
Quoted values of attenuation are often given for a single frequency, or an attenuation value
averaged over many frequencies may be given. Also, the value of the attenuation coefficient for
a given material is highly dependent on the way in which the material has been manufactured.
Thus, quoted values of attenuation only give a rough indication of the attenuation and should
not be automatically trusted. Generally, a reliable value of attenuation can only be obtained by
determining the attenuation experimentally for the particular material being used.
The determination of the attenuation dependence on frequency can be of used for a global
characterisation of materials or compounds (grain size, matrix characterisation of composites,
sedimentation, etc.).
10.2.4
Acoustic Waves at Interfaces

If an acoustic wave meets an interface of two materials with different impedances (impedance
mismatch) a part of the energy is reflected while the other part is transmitted. For perpendicu lar incidence the reflection coefficient R and transmission coefficient T in terms of pressure are
defined as
R=
T=
Zt Z i
(10.8)
ZiZt
2 Zt
(10.9)
ZiZt
Zi and Zt are the acoustic impedances for the incident and the transmitting material, respect ively. Clearly, the transmission coefficient is always positive, the reflection coefficient, however,
can be positive or negative. A change of sign corresponds to a phase change of the reflected
wave.
Water
Steel
Steel
Water
I
T
T
I
Figure 10-4: Incident (I), reflected (R), and transmitted (T) waves between water and steel
and vice versa
If the direction of incidence is not perpendicular to the interface, additional mode changes may
appear if transverse waves exist. The corresponding angles are due to Snell law.
sini
sin t
ci
ct
(10.10)
183
Assuming that the velocity of longitudinal waves is higher than for shear waves for all materials
(the corresponding angle wider), the following combinations can happen:
An incident longitudinal wave generates a reflected longitudinal wave, a reflected shear

wave, a refracted longitudinal wave and a refracted shear wave;
An incident shear wave generates a reflected longitudinal wave, a reflected shear wave, a
refracted longitudinal wave and a refracted shear wave;
The refracted and/or reflected shear waves may not exist in the respective material;
the incident angle may be large enough that the reflected longitudinal wave, the refracted longitudinal wave, or the refracted shear wave do not exist, or any combination
thereof;
Additional modes (Rayleigh waves) may also occur.

T
L
Medium i (Zi)
Medium t (Zt)
L
L
T T
Figure 10-5: Reflected and refracted waves for an incident longitudinal wave, L = L, general
case (all modes exist), Zi > Zt
Angle for transverse waves

10
20
30
33.2
RLT
Reflection factor
0
RLL = RTT
-1
RTL
-2
-3
-4
-5
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
Angle for longitudinal waves

Figure 10-6: Reflection coefficients of steel with a free surface, the respective angle for all longitudinal waves is given below, for shear waves above the graph; transverse waves of an incident angle of 33.2 are totally reflected with a coefficient of -1; incident longitudinal waves of
nearly 90 result in series of transverse waves, as the sound beam will hit the surface over a
long distance
The reflection and the transmission coefficient also depend on the incident angle. For the
simplest case of a free surface (no transmission), the corresponding coefficients can be calculated as follows (first index: incident mode, second index: reflected mode):
184

R TT =R L L =
cT
cL
cT
cL
2
2
sin2 L sin2 T cos 2 T
(10.11)
2
2

4 sin T
R TL =
cT
cL
2
RL T=
cT
cL
(10.12)
sin2 L sin2 T cos2 2 T

cT
cL
sin2 L cos2 T
(10.13)
2
2
For a free surface of steel, the total reflectance angle is 33.2; the presence of air is not changing the situation very much. Especially for corner reflection situations where the portion that
with a mode change is much stronger than the reflection without can result in misinterpretations. Such a situation is for steel an incident transverse angle of about 60. At the first reflection, transverse waves are in total reflectance; at the second, the longitudinal signal is much
larger than the transverse one. If the signal interpretation is made by amplitude comparison,
the sizing will be much too small. Some techniques, like the LLT technique, use such an effect
exclusively.
strong
L
weak
T
T 60
T
Figure 10-7: 60 corner reflection for steel (total reflection for incidence angle 60)
If the reflection and transmission ratio is given in terms of power, then the relations are
R P=
TP=
Z iZt 2
Z iZt 2
4 Zi Zt
2
ZiZt
(10.14)
(10.15)
If the incident wave has such an angle that total reflection for transverse waves is fulfilled,
Rayleigh waves are generated. If the angle fulfils the total reflection criterion for longitudinal
waves the situation is more complicated. A strict interpretation of the Snell law would prohibit
the existence of a longitudinal wave, but as it is the acoustic field consists of the main beam
and side lobes, it can exist anyway. A creeping wave probe generates:
Direct transverse wave;
Direct longitudinal wave, where the refraction angle relies on the relation between transducer size and wavelength (d/);
Creeping wave along the surface with the longitudinal wave velocity and an intensity that
depends also on d/;
Further transverse wave, called a head wave, which probe index is shifted forward again
relying on d/.
For slightly curved surfaces Rayleigh waves will follow the surface, while creeping waves will reenter the full material and form a common ultrasonic beam. A key characteristic of a creeping
wave probe is the large d/ ratio of about 15. It can reach the longitudinal angle of incidence
up to approximately 85 with a high intensity of the creeping wave.
Creeping waves are leaking into the base material; both waves will also leak into air or liquids,
dependent on the base material.
185
liquid
L
L
solid
T (sv)
Figure 10-8: Behaviour of Rayleigh and creeping waves (C .. creeping, H .. head, L .. longitudinal, R .. Rayleigh, T .. transverse)
10.2.5
Acoustic Waves at Interlayers

If the thickness of intermediate layers is small enough the reflected wave at the top is interfering with the one from the bottom for respective wavelengths. The resulting signal can be used
to calculate the interlayer thickness D using
R=
K
1K
with
1 Z1 Z2
2 2D f
K= sin
4 Z2 Z1
v2
(10.16)
Where Z1 corresponds to the surrounding material and Z 2 and v2 to the interlayer material. The
formula is valid for an interlayer between two parts of the same material.
0.3
30
0.2
0.1
20
0
0
10
0.1
D[
mm
]
f [MHz]
0.2
Figure 10-9: Relation between interlayer thickness, frequency and reflection coefficient for
steel vs. 82Au18Ni (Empa)
186
10 MHz
20 MHz
Figure 10-10: C-scan of a gold nickel solder to steel of a thickness of 120 m (SEM, right) with
10 MHz (left) and 20 MHz, flaws are presented in a rather different way due to interferences of
the echoes of the two interfaces (Empa)
10.2.6
Properties of the Sound Beam

An acoustic source is not only emitting sound in one direction, but over a certain range. Due to
the divergence, the diameter of the beam increases with the distance and the pressure per unit
area decreases. The angle of the beam depends on the dimensions of the source and the materials properties.
For sizing reasons, it is important to know the situation within the sound beam. It can be subdivided in the near field or Fresnel-zone and the far field or the Fraunhofer-zone (Joseph von
Fraunhofer, 1787-1826). The length of the near field N can be calculated for circular sources
with a diameter D by
N=
D2
4
(10.17)
or square sources with a side length b by

N=
1.37 b2
4
(10.18)
The width of the beam d where the pressure is not lower than 10% of the centre value at a dis tance s from the source in the far field and for a circular source is given by
d=2.16
s
D
(10.19)
pr
N
ps s-1
Figure 10-11: Sound beam of an acoustic source (simplified, without side lobes)
Due to interferences the pressure distribution in the near field is strongly dependent on the
position, hence sizing is complicated. The pressure p s on the beam axis at a distance s from the
source ps and with pN as the pressure at N is given by
ps=
pN
D2 2
2 sin
s s
2
(10.20)
Where pN denotes the pressure at exactly s = N /4 (the last maximum). For reasons of simplification the pressure at near field length can be taken.
187
Normalised pressure [pN = 2]
-1
-2
0.0
0.5
1.0
Normalised distance [N]
1.5
Spherical wave
Figure 10-12: Acoustic pressure on the central axis

In the far field (after about three N) the pressure can be approximated with a spherical wave
ps=
p N D2
2 4 s
p N N
2 s
(10.21)
In reality beside the pressure fluctuation along the axis there are also such fluctuations perpen dicular to it, resulting in side lobes.
0.1 N
xp
zp
Figure 10-13: Acoustic pressure distribution in the near field of a transducer, plane perpendicular to probe orientation, the fluctuations in depth are as visible as the side lobes of the probe
(Empa)
In practice the pressures are not known, but the echo heights H (corresponding to the maximum amplitude) on the screen of standard ultrasonic equipment can be determined and compared.
p o Ho
=
p H
(10.22)
Echo heights are compared in the unit decibel [dB]. A gain V is needed to bring a second echo
to the same height as a first one
188
V=20log
Ho
(10.23)
The letter V stands for the German word Verstrkung and is part of a system called AVG
(Abstand Verstrkung Fehlergrsse) introduced by Krautkrmer. Besides the abbreviation
DGS (distance gain size) AVG is sometimes also used in English (and French).
The following explanations are valid for the far field only. If the distance to the back wall is
doubled, a gain VB of 6 dB is necessary. Back wall in this context means, a reflector that is larger than the diameter of the sound beam. If this is not the case the sound beam is reflected
only partially and the received sound pressure becomes smaller. For a disc shaped reflector
(DSR) perpendicular to the sound path with a diameter DDSR follows
pDSR =p FBH =p s
D2DSR
4 s
p N DD DSR 2
2
4 s
(10.24)
In this case the necessary gain for a double distance is 12 dB

V DSR =V FBH =20 log
s2
s1
(10.25)
In practice such reflectors are simulated by flat bottom holes (FBH). The manufacturing of
them, however, is not easy and the production of such reference blocks therefore costly. Sometimes also side-drilled holes (SDH) with a diameter D SDH are used. In this case the necessary
gain for a doubled distance is 9 dB and
V SDH=20 log
s2 32
s1
(10.26)
The conversion between the reflected pressure of a SDH and a FBH depends on frequency:
DFBH =
2 2 DSDH s
2
(10.27)
or
DSDH=
D 4FBH 2
2
2 s
(10.28)
The perpendicular incidence onto a FBH is defined by one direction, while for a SDH the possible perpendicular incidents are defined by a plane. For a calibration on a SDH, therefore, the
possible error is smaller.
Spherical shaped reflectors show the same distance dependence as circular ones; however their
relation on frequency is different
p~
DD k
16 s2
(10.29)
where Dk is the diameter of the sphere. Such reflectors can be simulated by holes with spher ical bottom.
189
Gain [dB]
-10
Back wall
-20
SDH
FBH
-30
-40
0
10

Figure 10-14: Necessary gain for different reflectors
For a given beam direction certain regions of an object may be located in the acoustic shadow
due to the geometry of the object or a discontinuity in it.
10.3
Equipment
10.3.1
Instruments
Ultrasonic instruments only contain mainly the electronic parts; frequency and most characteristics of the sound beam are solely determined by the transducer. Instruments include the ana logue-to-digital conversion and are mostly menu driven.
Some differences can be seen at the screens; very bright versions are available, as well as
transreflective ones that are especially suited it the instrument is often used outside in bright
sunlight. For new instruments the screens are usually colour ones, as others are no longer
available.
Some instruments have a special design to be water proof or for the use in explosive surround ings (mining, chemical industry, etc.).
The output of the instrument is a series of voltage pulses in the range of several 100 volts with
a pulse repetition frequency that is usually in the kHz range. The maximum allowable voltage
depends on the frequency of the transducer; for high frequency transducers the excitation
voltage has to be reduced. Furthermore the spike direction should match the design of the
transducer. Some instruments have a built in dialogue function to determine the connected
probe automatically (if the probe is also equipped in such a way).
Figure 10-15: Ultrasonic instruments (GE IT, Staveley)
190
Figure 10-16: Equipments for the measurement of the wall thickness (GE IT, Panametrics-NDT)
Figure 10-17: High frequency (200 MHz) pulser receiver (Panametrics-NDT)

10.3.2
Cables and Connectors

The inside of a cable is made of three major components: the conductor, the dielectric and the
shield / braid. These components are then surrounded by an outer protective jacket. The conductor acts as the positive connection of the cable while the shield acts as the ground. The
dielectric isolates the conductor from the shield.
Most cables have one shielded / braided layer. However, to better prevent electrical interference from the environment, double shielded cables have an additional shielding / braided layer
in contact with the other.
The most common values for coaxial cables are 50 , 75 and 95 . Note that the input
impedance at a particular frequency may be quite different from the characteristic impedance
of the cable due to the impedance of the source and load. In ultrasonics, on transmit the source
is the pulser and the load is the transducer; on receive the source is the transducer and the
load is the receiver. The complex impedance of the pulser and the transducer will reflect some
of the electrical energy at each end of the cable. The amount of reflection is determined by the
length of the cable, the frequency of the RF signal and the electric impedance of the cable and
its termination. The effect of the cable is most practically determined by experimenting with
shorter and longer cables, with cables of different impedance and by placing a 50 feedthrough attenuator at the pulser / receiver jack. Such a feed-through attenuator suppresses the
generation of echoes within the cable due to an impedance mismatch between cable and plug.
191
Figure 10-18: Influence of a change of the cable on frequency distribution (below) and R.F.
representation; note the situations at the arrows (Empa)
As connectors several different types are used: BNC, Microdot, TNC, UHF or Lemo, dependent
on the company; adaptors are available.
10.3.3
Properties of the ultrasonic pulse

The ultrasonic pulse is excited by a short electric pulse and vibrates with its eigenfrequency.
Damping is necessary to reach a good spatial resolution and to allow a high pulse repetition
frequency. Weakly damped transducers have a long pulse with a narrowband spectrum, while
heavily damped transducers have a short pulse with a broadband spectrum, their energy out put, however, is smaller. Their main nominal frequency is given by the manufacturer, the frequency where the amplitude is 3 dB lower than the peak frequency is called cut-off frequency
or frequency limit. The arithmetic mean of upper and lower cut-off frequency is called centre
frequency. The bandwidth is the difference of the upper and the lower cut-off frequency and the
relative bandwidth is its relation to the centre frequency. The wave front is the continuous virtual surface joining all points of a wave that have the same phase. The pulse shape represents
the amplitude of a pulse as a function of time, where the pulse envelope including all the peaks
of amplitude and time.
Figure 10-19: Long, narrowband pulse (left) and short, broadband pulse, the peak maximum
may be positive or negative
10.3.4
Piezoelectric Transducers
Most transducers use a piezoelectric element. When piezoelectric ceramics were introduced,
they soon became the dominant material for transducers due to their properties and their ease
of manufacture into a variety of shapes and sizes. The first piezo-ceramic in general use was
barium titanate and that was followed during the 1960s by lead zirconate titanate (Pb(Zr,Ti)O3,
PZT) compositions, which is now the most commonly employed ceramic for making transducers.
For ferroelectric materials the piezoelectric effect takes place only below the Curie temperature,
for barium titanate it is 110 C, for PZT 320 C.
To compare different piezoelectric materials, it is popular to compare everything to quartz. A
basic conflict is given through the fact that for the maximisation of the transmission other crystal properties are relevant than for the maximisation of the receiving properties. Sometimes it
can be of use to choose one material for the transmitter and another material for the receiver.
192
The choice of the transducer material has also to include a consideration of the load (immersion
medium, wedge or delay line material).
The damping is done by a backing, usually a highly attenuating dense material that is used to
control the vibration of the transducer by absorbing the energy radiation from the back face of
the active element. When the acoustic impedance of the backing matches the acoustic imped ance of the active element, the result will be a heavily damped transducer that displays good
range resolution. If there is a mismatch in acoustic impedance more sound energy will be
reflected forward into the test material.
The eigenfrequency f depends on the thickness d of the transducer crystal and the sound velo city v of the transducer material. Transducers with higher frequency are more complicated to
produce and they are therefore more expensive.
d=
with
v
f
(10.30)
Transducers can be used as transmitter or as sensor alternatively or as both of them intermittently. Probes with only one transducer are also called transceivers.
Figure 10-20: Various piezoelectric crystals (Staveley)

The basic purpose of the transducer wear plate is to protect the transducer element from the
testing environment. For immersion, angle beam and delay line transducers the wear plate has
the additional purpose of an acoustic transformer between the high acoustic impedance of the
active element and the water, the wedge or the delay line all of which are of lower acoustic
impedance. This is accomplished by selecting a matching layer that is wavelengths thick and
of the desired acoustic impedance. The choice of the wear surface thickness is based upon the
idea of superposition that allows waves generated by the active element to be in phase with
the wave reverberating in the matching layer. Not properly designed wear plates result in dis ruptions in the wave front.
Piezo-composite materials usually have a structure called 1-3, where the piezoelectric rods are
embedded in a polymer matrix by a dice-and-fill technique. The ceramic and the resin are
chosen according to the characteristics required for the composite material. The geometry of
the microstructure itself can be adapted. One of the characteristics of a 1-3 structure is that
the percentage of the ceramic can be varied by modifying the size of the rods and their spa cing. The designation simply codes the type of composite: piezoelectric material hits the surface in one direction; the resin does so in three.
The height of the ceramic rods long compared to their lateral dimensions favour their vibra tion according to the thickness mode to the detriment of the radial mode. This results in
improved electro-acoustic efficiency that gives the sensor a high level of sensitivity and a high
signal/noise ratio. In addition, the natural damping of composite materials allows a relative
bandwidth of 60% to 90% to be obtained while retaining a very good level of sensitivity. The
optimum size of the rods, not only their length, depends on frequency.
The mechanical properties of the polymers are used to enable the piezo-composite materials to
be shaped for focused transducers or such that are adapted to the surface.
193
Table 10-3: Various transducer materials, the values for transmission and receiving include
piezoelectric coupling coefficients (approximate values)
Material
Quartz
15.2
Rel.
transm.
efficiency
1.0
Rel. receiv. efficiency
1.0
Pulseecho efficiency
Remarks
1.0
inexpensive,
rugged, not
much used (any
more)
1.5
excellent bandwidth, rugged,

high temperatures possible,
expensive
Lithium niobate
LiNbO3
2.8
HLS, Hydrated
lithium sulphate
(Li2SO4) H2O
11.2
6.9
PZT-4,
Lead zirconate titanate
~ 33
65
0.24
15.3
narrow bandwidth,
inexpensive
PZT-5A,
Lead zirconate titanate
~ 33
70
0.21
14.7
narrow bandwidth,
inexpensive
Cadmium
sulphide
CdS
2.3
Zinc oxide
ZnO
3.3
Barium
titanate
BaTiO3
31.2
8.4
PMN, Lead
metaniobate
PbNb2O6
20.5
PVDF,
polyvinylidene fluoride
32
0.54
1.42
dissolves
in water
4.7
good bandwidth,
20 MHz to GHz,
expensive
very narrow
bandwidth,
inexpensive
good bandwidth
and sensitivity,
expensive
9.3
excellent bandwidth, poor

transmission,
inexpensive
4.1
6.9
2.8 3.7
backing
Casting resin
5.2
backing
Tungsten/epoxy
(200:100)
9.4
backing
Araldite casting
resin
194
Z
[106 kg m-2 s-1]
1.35
/2
Figure 10-21: Schematic representation of 1-3 piezo-composite structure (Imasonic)

10.3.5
Probes for Contact Testing Technique

Normal or straight beam probes either have a hard face cover or are covered with a replaceable
polymer membrane to protect the probes surface. The gap between this membrane and the
transducer is filled with oil. A hard face cover is a wear plate made from a durable and corro sion resistant material in order to withstand the wear caused by use on materials such as steel.
Typical frequencies are between 0.5 MHz and 10 MHz.
Figure 10-22: Ultrasonic fingertip probes with ceramic contact face (left) and normal probes
with replaceable polymer membrane (Empa)
Double transducer probes also exist, where one half is acting as pulser, the other half as
receiver; they are easy to recognise, as they have a dual connector. Both transducers are oriented at a certain roof angle, so they are most effective at a certain depth. Their advantage is
that failure echoes show no interferences with the main bang, therefore echoes near the surface can be sized more exactly and the thickness can be measured more exactly. On consequence of the dual element design is a sharply defined distance amplitude curve. In general a
decrease in the roof angle or an increase in the transducer element size will result in a longer
pseudo-focal distance and increase in useful range.
195
(A)
(B)
Acoustic separation
(C)
Transducer
Backing
Transducer
R
Roof angle
Backing
Transducer
/2
Wear plate
Time delay
Wedge
Figure 10-23: Ultrasonic transducers schematically: (A) normal beam probe, (B) double transducer probe, (C) angle probe
Delay line transducers are single element longitudinal wave transducers used in conjunction
with a replaceable delay line. The delay allows the element to stop vibrating before a return
signal form a reflector can be received. When using a delay line transducer there will be multiple echoes from the end of the delay line and it is important to take this into account. The delay
line may be made of a solid material or designed as a captive water column.
Figure 10-24: Double transducer probe (left) and delay line probe (Empa)
Delay line transducers are especially useful if the attenuation has to be measured or if the
sample under test is at elevated temperature. Some high temperature delay line options are
not intended for continuous contact, they are meant for intermittent contact only.
For special applications the transducers can be designed and excited in a way, that they emit
transverse waves directly (Y-cut crystals). Because shear waves do not propagate in liquids, it
is necessary to use a very viscous couplant when making measurements with these; the
simplest couplant is honey.
Figure 10-25: Ultrasonic manual scanning (RTD)

Angle probes usually consist of a transducer glued onto a PMMA wedge and a damping element.
Often the value for the refractive angle for longitudinal waves is higher than the total reflection,
so only a transverse wave exists in the object. In general the given number on the probe is
valid for steel, for other materials it has to be recalculated. Available from stock are in general
38 (denomination 35), 45, 60, 70 and 77 (denomination 80). Transverse waves originated
196
like that are vertical polarised, as the longitudinal particle vibration direction within the wedge
does not contain a horizontal component.
Angle double transducer probes are mainly used for angular longitudinal waves and for creep
waves.
Figure 10-26: Angle probes: wedge and probes separately (left), variable angle beam transducer, angle double transducer (from below) (Panametrics-NDT, IntelligeNDT)
Contact probes need a couplant for the transfer of the waves from the probe into the object
and back. Different agents can be used, but their type shall be compatible with the materials to
be examined. Examples for liquid couplants are:
Water, possibly containing an agent, i.e. wetting, anti-freeze, corrosion inhibitor;
Contact paste;
Oil;
Grease;
Cellulose paste containing water, etc.
Couplants for transverse waves are high viscosity liquids like honey, molasses or heavy fuel oil.
The characteristic of the coupling media shall remain constant throughout the verification, calibration operations and the examination. It shall be suitable for the temperature range in which
it will be used.
Figure 10-27: Couplants (Sonatest)

After the examination is completed, the couplant shall be removed if its presence is liable to
hinder subsequent operations, inspections, or use of the object.
For some special applications, the couplant can be solid, like metal foils, rubber or low melting
crystals. Especially in the last case, the probe is firmly attached to the sample.
197
Figure 10-28: Equipment for contact testing including a positioning sensor allowing imaging,
here combined with a bubbler (GE IT)
10.3.6
Focusing Probes
For special applications contact probes may also be focused on a point in the material. This is
especially useful for cylindrical or toric interfaces; it may also be used for flat surfaces. Of spe cial importance are the aspherical focusing transducers following the Fermat concept (Pierre de
Fermat, 1601-1665). The definition of a transducer is made by a calculation that defines a surface from which each point is at the same time of flight at the defect. The transducer is dedic ated to one particular set-up taking into account:
Material to inspect;
Expected refracted angle;
Inspection depth or sound path;
Interface geometry.
Often the resulting shape is quite large in comparison to ordinary probes. For some applications
they are also equipped with a soft material wedge to correct for irregularities of the interface.
Figure 10-29: Fermat transducer and its active area (Imasonic)

10.3.7
Wheel Probes
A wheel probe also called roller probe is a device that couples ultrasonic energy to a test
object through the rolling contact area of an oil-filled wire containing one or more radially emit ting transducers. Those are attached to the axle of the wheel. They are applied in pulse echo
and through transmission technique. Since the tire material shows high attenuation they are
mostly used in low frequency applications. Because the construction cannot prevent some
spurious echoes, the achievable signal to noise ratio is worse than that of regular transducers.
The implementation of phased array probes is also possible.
198
Figure 10-30: Wheel probes with single transducer (left) and with phased array transducer
(Unicorn, NDT Solutions)
10.3.8
Equipment and Probes for Bubblers and Squirters

For a lot of applications, mainly if they are automated, the application of the couplant is com bined with the ultrasonic investigation. In this case the couplant is usually water.
Bubblers form a local puddle; therefore the technique is called flow gap coupling. Often the
bubbler equipment can be combined with immersion transducers.
For long distances between the probes and the object, squirters are used. As the sound path
goes along the water jet, the flow has to be laminar, in order to keep the noise as low as possible. Squirters can be used in transmission, reflection and pitch and catch technique.
Figure 10-31: Examples for bubblers: equipments for the test of large horizontal areas (left),
for testing of welds in all positions; and for manual scanning, in both cases several different
probes can be built-in (GE IT, Panametrics-NDT)
Figure 10-32: Examples for squirters without and with water jets (USL, Vogt)
The jet technique uses systems that couple the sound by a waterfall like path by nozzles close
to the test object. A typical application is the inspection of electronic parts.
199
Figure 10-33: Jet transducer for the inspection of electronic parts (Sonoscan)
10.3.9
Equipment and Probes for Immersion Testing

Immersion testing is used if the object can become immersed partly or in full, usually into
water (or sometimes other liquids). The equipment, as far as it is immersed also has to be
water tight. Typical frequencies are in the range between 1 MHz and 100 MHz. Immersion
transducer offer three major advantages over contact transducers:
Uniform coupling reduces sensitivity variations;
Reduction of scan time due to automated scanning;
Focusing of immersion transducers increase sensitivity to small reflectors.
Immersion transducers are available in three different configurations: unfocussed (flat),

spherically (point) focussed and cylindrically (line) focussed. Focusing is achieved by either
adding a lens or by curving the element itself. The latter usually have as active device a metallised foil of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The number on the probes designate the focal dis tance in water F (measured from the face of the transducer); for other materials it has to be
recalculated with dW the water path, dM the material path, cW the sound velocity in water and c M
the sound velocity in material
dW =FdM
cM
cW
(10.31)
Figure 10-34: Immersion technique for round objects with a horizontal transducer (Empa)
Usually the focal distance is normalised to the near field as
FN =
F
N
(10.32)
For unfocussed probes the last maximum occurs at a distance equivalent to the near field (F N =
1). By definition therefore, a transducer cannot be acoustically focused at a distance greater
than its near field. Therefore for distant focus points, probes with (very) large diameters have
to be used.
200
The starting and ending point of the focal zone are located where the on axis pulse-echo signal
amplitude drops to -6 dB relative to the amplitude at the focal point. The length of the focal
zone F is given by
2
F=NF N
2
F
1+ N
2
(10.33)
Figure 10-35: Various focussed immersion probes, mid: line focus, right: polymer probes (Harisonic, Panametrics-NDT, Empa)
Some immersion transducers can be combined with acoustic mirrors, typically 90 to make
them side-looking, e.g. for the inspection of tubes or other limited access applications.
A web based focus calculator can be found under: www.imasonic.com/Industry/IMDesign.php.
Figure 10-36: Acoustic mirrors (Panametrics-NDT)
201
Figure 10-37: Immersion scanner (left) and system for large components, usually operated
with squirters (Panametrics-NDT, USL)
10.3.10 Equipment and Probes for Air Coupling
If the sample under test should or cannot come into contact with any couplant, there is also the
possibility for coupling the ultrasound over air. The coupling efficiency, however, in general is
pretty low, due to low sound velocity and low density of air. Therefore probes have to be built
massively to withstand the necessary large energies. To allow continuous waves usually dual
probe systems are used; for pulse-echo technique burst signals are used. Frequencies generally
are in the range of 20 to 200 kHz for high penetration for foam, rubber, tires, wood, concrete
and natural stone, and from 0.5 to 1 MHz for high resolution for composites and honeycombs.
Figure 10-38: Air coupled arrangements for pitch and catch technique (left) and trough transmission technique (QMI)
The arrangement of the probes can be one- or two-sided using techniques like through transmission, shear waves, plate waves or pseudo pulse echo technique with sound barrier between
pulser and receiver.
A possibility to enhance the coupling is to put the coupling path under higher pressure. An
increase of the pressure by a factor p will increase the back wall echo by a factor p2, as at each
interface, transducer - air and air - specimen, the transmission coefficient is higher. Due to the
hydrodynamic paradox, such a compressed air shoe will float above the specimen (hovercraft
principle). Special attention has to be paid to the noise and turbulences generated by the pressurised air flow.
10.3.11 Electromagnetic-acoustic Transducers (EMAT)
EMATs can be used for the acoustic exciting of electric conductors only, as the sound wave is
generated in the material itself by electrodynamic coupling. An AC coil induces in the object an
eddy current field with a current density J. With an overlaid magnetic field B the Lorentz effect
(Hendrik Lorentz, 1853-1928, NP 1902) with the force F results in
202
(10.34)
F J xB
By selecting the magnetic field, longitudinal or transverse waves can be excited and received,
as well as Lamb and Rayleigh waves, all without the use of a couplant. The special advantage of
EMATs is that as well vertical polarised (shear vertical sv) as well as horizontal polarised
transverse (shear horizontal sh) waves can be selected. The latter is especially of interest for
the inspection of austenitic welds, as due to the dendritic structure the behaviour of sv waves is
not predictable without knowing the exact crystal orientation. In the inference of material prop erties from precise velocity or attenuation measurements, use of EMATs can eliminate errors
associated with couplant variation, particularly in contact measurements.
In opposite to piezoelectric transducers the excitation frequency can be tuned. A design as
phased array probes is possible.
(A)
(B)
(C)
N
S
(D)
(E)
Figure 10-39: Cross-sectional views of possible arrangements for EMATs: (A) spiral coil EMAT
exciting radial polarised shear waves propagating normal to the surface, (B) tangential field
EMAT for exciting longitudinal waves propagating normal to the surface, (C) normal field EMAT
for exciting plane polarised shear waves propagating normal to the surface, (D) meander coil
EMAT for exciting obliquely propagating vertically polarised (SV) waves, Rayleigh waves or
guided plate waves (such as Lamb waves), (E) periodic permanent magnet EMAT for exciting
grazing or obliquely propagating horizontally polarised (SH) or guided SH modes of plate waves
Figure 10-40: Examples of typical EMAT RF coils: spiral, butterfly, meander and meander
focussed, coil dimensions typically 10 to 30 mm (Innerspec)
10.3.12 Magnetostrictive Transducers
Magnetostriction was discovered 1842 by James Joule (1818-1889). He found that an iron
beam produces strains in a magnetic field. These strains are called magnetostriction and the
effect is known as Joule effect. The physical response of a ferromagnetic material is due to the
presence of magnetic moments, and can be understood by considering the material as a collection of domains. When a material is not magnetised, the domains are randomly arranged.
When the material is magnetised, the domains are oriented with their axes approximately parallel to one another. This effect can be optimised by controlling the ordering of the domains
through alloy selection, thermal annealing, cold working, and magnetic field strength.
203
Table 10-4: Properties of magnetostrictive materials (values are dependant on source)

Material
Curie Temperature [C]
Magnetostriction [%]
Fe
770
-0.0014
Ni
360
-0.005
Fe65Ni45 (Permalloy)
440
0.0027
SmFe2
415
-0.234
Fe3O4 (Magnetite)
578
0.006
DyFe2
362
0.065
TbFe2 (Terfenol)
430
0.263
Tb0.3Dy0.7Fe2 (Terfenol-D)
380
0.16 0.24 ( 1)
TbZn
-93
0.45 0.55
TbDyZn
-23
0.5
Giant magnetostriction was discovered 1965. The most popular giant magnetostrictive material
(GMM) at room temperature is Terfenol-D, or simply called GMM, that can show magnetostriction values of up to 1%, dependent on the orientation.
The magnetic field of ferromagnetic materials is dependent on the applied strain due to the
inverse magnetostrictive effect or Villari effect (Emilio Villari, 1836-1904). Therefore, monitoring the magnetic field during a fatigue experiment can be used to determine stress and strain
fields. No external magnetic field needs to be applied, the entire magnetic effect is due solely
to cyclic mechanical loading. The characteristics change qualitatively at the moment of appear ance of deformations.
For ferromagnetic materials magnetostriction can be used to excite and receive sound waves.
This technique is mainly used for guided waves. For wave generation it relies on the Joule
Effect, for wave detection on the Villari Effect. Possible modes for cylindrical objects are longit udinal or torsional, for plates transverse (SH) or Lamb waves, dependent on the orientation of
the transducer relative to the DC bias magnetic field. The waves are generated by an additional
magnetic AC field over several cycles up to a few 100 kHz.
As the excited wave propagates in both directions, a pair of exciters and receivers can be used
for better location of the echoes or use a kind of phased array technique to produce a positive
and negative interference while exciting. For non-insulated parts the possible range can go up
to 100 m. The method can even be used for non-ferromagnetic materials applying a magnetostrictive foil onto the object.
Figure 10-41: Basic principle of magnetostrictive ultrasound (MKC Korea)

10.3.13 Phased Array Transducers
Phased array transducers consist of several single transducers that can be combined electronic ally. This allows designing the sound field with respect to the angle, focus point and point origin
of the field without mechanical motions. A phased array probe consists of a multitude of small
transducer elements being activated at different times during transmission and reception.
204
Figure 10-42: Different ways to use phase array technique: scanning (left), focusing and
deflection; the more left the signal is marked on the line, the latter is the excitement of the
respective element (Imasonic, adapted)
The arrangement of the transducers can be used for:
Electronic scanning or sound beam shifting consists of moving a beam in space by activ ating different active apertures in turn, each one made up of several elements of a
phased array probe, allows the mechanical axis to be replaced electronically;
Electronic or sound beam focusing is based on the use of electronic delays applied during
transmission and reception along each of the channels of the probe; the delays have an
effect similar to that of focusing lens and enable focusing to different depths;
Electronic beam steering or sound beam swivelling uses delay laws for electronic focusing, calculated to give the transmitted beam an angle on incidence which can be varied
simply by modifying the delay law;
Paintbrush scanning excites all elements at the same time and the location and size of a
possible reflector is calculated from the echo structure (often used for tube inspection);
Different techniques can be combined to resolve the desired application.
The probe design therefore can be different, according to the task:
Linear arrays are made of a set of elements aligned along an axis to enable the beam to
be moved, focussed and deflected along a plane;
Annular arrays are made of a set of elements of concentric rings, allow the beam to be
focussed to different depth along an axis, the elements of each ring can be segmented in
form of a daisy type;
Matrix array probes have an active area divided into two dimensions in different elements
in form of a chequerboard or segmented rings (rho-theta probes), to allow the ultrasonic
beam to be driven in 3D by combining electronic focusing and deflection;
Circular array probes made up of a set of elements in a circle to be directed either

towards the interior, or towards the exterior, or along the axis of symmetry of a circle,
combined with a mirror to give the beam the required angle of incidence; the arrangement may be in a full or partial circle;
Dual array probes have separate arrays for transmitting and receiving.
Using an appropriate wedge, phased array probes can also be used to produce transverse
waves within the object.
205
Figure 10-43: Flat and circular shaped linear phase array probes (GE IT)
Figure 10-44: Fermat phased array transducer with segmented annular array (left) and convex
annular array for rotor forged disk inspection from internal bore (Imasonic)
When using a phased array transducer, delay laws are applied to each channel to generate a
beam with a given refraction angle and focal distance. The ultrasonic beam is generated by the
constructive interference of each transducer elements contribution in the desired direction. In
some cases, this interference can also be constructive in other directions. These lobes of
energy emitted outside the electronically driven direction are called grating lobes. These energy
lobes can interact with the part to be inspected in the same way as the main beam, and thus
generate echoes causing interference to the inspection.
For electronic deflection parasitic replications of the main beam caused by spatial undersampling may appear. The angle of the position of such grating lobes in relation to the main
beam is given by
sin k=
k
sin
p
(10.35)
where is the refracted angle of the main beam, k the refracted angle of the grating lobe k (k
= integer), p the inter-element pitch of a linear transducer and the wavelength of the
medium under consideration.
From the above formula, the following general rule can be obtained:
If p /2, then no grating lobe is generated whatever the angle of the main beam;
If p > , then there is always at least one grating lobe generated whatever the angle of
the main beam;
Between these two values, the grating lobes appear progressively according to the angle
of the main beam.
Figure 10-45: No grating lobe for p /2 (left), appearance of a grating lobe (shadow on the
left) for p > even with lower refraction angle of the main beam (Imasonic)
Conventional piezoelectric arrays are usually fabricated using a dice and fill approach; the
piezoelectric material is separated by mechanical dicing and a polymer is infiltrated and cured
206
within the slots. The limits are approximately 100 m for the active element and 50 m for the
slot, resulting in a pitch of 150 m. In order to obtain a well collimated acoustic beam, the ele ment pitch must be less than half of the wavelength. For slow materials (e.g. tissue) the max imum frequency, therefore, is limited.
10.3.14 Capacitive Micro-Machined Ultrasonic Transducers (CMUT)
The idea of producing capacitive ultrasonic transducers is as old as the early piezoelectric
transducers. The necessary electric field, however, is very large (10 6 V cm-1). The possibilities
of micro-machining allow two things: The production can be done using standard silicon integrated circuit technology, making it possible to fabricate large arrays using simple photo-lithography and the dimensions can be made smaller compared to standard piezoelectric arrays,
allowing higher frequencies.
The basic building block of a CMUT is a capacitor cell with a top and bottom electrode and a
membrane, the thickness is typically 1 m or less. A single element in the array consists of
many small capacitor cells connected in parallel. For transmission the membrane is driven in
flexural vibration by the electrostatic force exerted between the membrane electrode and the
back plate; for reception, the membrane vibration excited by the impinging acoustic wave is
converted to electrical signals.
Figure 10-46: CMUT array with six rows with a width of 245 m and a gap of 27 m (CNR)
The resonance frequency of the capacitor is essentially determined by the lateral dimensions,
by the thickness and by the tensile stress in the membrane. The bandwidth is typically above
100% (compared to maximum 80% for piezoelectric transducers), allowing short pulses and a
good depth resolution.
Such technology sounds promising also with respect that arrays of 1'000 x 1'000 elements are
in discussion.
10.3.15 Laser Ultrasonics
An excitation as well as the sensing of acoustic waves in solids can be made by lasers. In both
cases no physical contact is necessary and it can be performed over larger distances and higher
objects surface temperatures (up to 1'200 C are reported).
When exciting, the object is heated for a short time locally, thus implying dilatations and resulting broadband sound waves. This is especially useful for the excitation of plate waves, as using
adequate filter masks the heating pattern can be chosen and tuned so only the desired modes
are resulting. A free heat pulse will result in a lot of different modes with their common disper sion.
If the laser energy is enhanced, the surface temperature will reach the boiling point and some
ablation will result. In this case mainly longitudinal waves in the direction of the laser are
induced. This method is often used for in-line wall thickness measurements. A production speed
up to at least 5 m/s is possible.
For the detection various methods exist; some measure directly the deformation of the surface
due to the ultrasonic wave by the use of interferometres, others use the effect of a change in
the air's refraction by the ultrasonic waves. This method is usually called gas-coupled laser
acoustic detection (GCLAD).
207
10.3.16 Tone Burst Generators

Tone burst generators are used in high power (several kW) ultrasonic applications, like for the
inspection of highly attenuative materials or in combination with inefficient transducers, such as
EMATs. The receiver is often operated by the super heterodyne principle; a signal at variable
frequency is converted to a fixed lower frequency, the intermediate frequency, before detec tion.
Heterodyne receivers mix all of the incoming signals with an internally generated waveform
called the local oscillator and suffer from poor selectivity. The super heterodyne receiver prin ciple overcomes certain limitations of previous receiver designs.
10.3.17 Impact-Echo Equipment
For the inspection of concrete and masonry the input energy of a standard piezoelectric transducer is much too low. In this case the impact is made with a hardened steel ball as impactor,
generating low-frequency stress waves of up to about 100 kHz. For wave speed measurements
a dual transducer set-up is used. The sensing part is usually based on common piezoelectric
technology; the data evaluation corresponds to frequency analysis, especially the number and
distribution of peaks in the spectra. If flaws are present, these patterns are disrupted and
changed, in ways that provide qualitative or quantitative information about the existence and
location of the flaws. If necessary, testing device and computer can communicate wireless.
Figure 10-47: Impact-echo equipment: transducer unit (cylindrical device), steel ball impactors
(in front of the laptop), A/D converter and laptop and dual pistol grip transducer (right) for
wave speed measurements (Impact-Echo)
10.3.18 Dry-Point-Contact Probes
Dry-point-contact probes operate similar to impact-echo systems. Every single element has a
independent spring load allowing to work on uneven surfaces. The activation of the elements
can be done phased array in longitudinal and shear mode. Usual frequencies are between 50
and 100 kHz for concrete and wood testing.
208
Figure 10-48: 6 x 4 dry-point-contact matrix sensor (Acsys)
10.4
Ultrasonic Techniques
10.4.1
Pulse Echo Technique

The pulse echo technique utilises the reflected or diffracted signal from any interface of interest
within the object under examination. This signal is characterised by its amplitude and position
along the time base; the latter related to the distance between the reflector and the probe. The
location of the reflector is determined from the knowledge of its distance, the direction of
sound propagation and the position of the probe. The amplitude is highly dependent on the
reflector (shape, geometry, surface conditions, acoustic impedance, etc.).
In some cases the simple knowledge of the position of the probe and the distance, sometimes
only the presence of an echo satisfy the needs. This is the case when sheets are examined for
delaminations.
In most cases, however, it is recommended that the signal amplitude be measured by comparison with either:
Distance amplitude correction curve (DAC) or a series thereof, obtained by using artificial
reflectors within one or more reference blocks;
Equivalent reflector diagram (distance gain size DGS, AVG);
Echoes from suitable notches;
Echoes from large planar reflectors perpendicular to the acoustic axis (usually back wall
echoes).
Figure 10-49: Ultrasonic reflection and reflector characteristics

In order to obtain further information about the shape and size of reflectors, other techniques
may be used. Such techniques are based e.g. on variations in signal amplitude with movement
of the probe, measurement of sound path, or frequency analysis.
If possible, the refracted angle should be chosen in such a way that the reflected amplitude is
maximised. This often implies that the sound beam has to be reflected at the back wall or other
walls of the object to get the best direction. This is called indirect scanning. A typical applica 209
tion is the examination of welds (lack of fusion at X- or V-type weld seams). The distance an
angular probe has to be moved to cover the full distance is called the skip distance.
indirect
direct
T
T
L
L
skip distance
Figure 10-50: Direct and indirect angle beam testing (left), tandem and LLT examination, the
skip distance or full skip is the distance measured on the surface of the beam index of an angle
probe and the point at which the beam axis impinges on the surface
Figure 10-51: Examination of the continuous electron beam welds of a superconductive component for CERN's Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) detector with immersion phased array ultrasound in pulsed echo technique (Empa)
10.4.2
Tandem and LLT-Examination

Tandem and LLT examination are special pulse echo techniques used for the investigation for
discontinuities perpendicular to the surface, especially for vertical welds. Both examination
techniques use separate transmitter and receiver and in both cases the range that is examined
relies on the position of the probes relative to the weld and relative to each other.
While tandem examination uses shear waves only, LLT-examination uses a mode change from
longitudinal to shear waves at the second reflection. The latter method can be superior for
those angles where the shear-shear reflection coefficient becomes minor.
Further possibilities are using mode conversions and neighbour echoes.
10.4.3
Transmission Technique
Transmission technique is based on measuring the signal attenuation after the passage of an
ultrasonic wave through the examination object. This technique is used:
For flat products (plates or sheets);
Where the shape, dimensions or orientation of possible imperfections are unfavourable

for direct reflection;
In materials with high attenuation;
In thin products.
Transmission can be done with normal or angle beam probe, with one single probe or with a
transmitter and a receiver, with longitudinal or shear waves, with amplitude or time of flight
measurement and in contact (couplant or squirter), in immersion technique or by applying a
wheel probe. For some combinations the use of continuous waves is possible.
The decrease in amplitude of the transmitted signal can be used to indicate the presence of a
discontinuity located in the sound path, or to indicate material attenuation. In addition the pos210
ition of the transmitted signal along the time base of the instrument can be used to indicate
material thickness.
The technique requires that the geometry of the object under examination and access to its
surfaces allow the transmitting and receiving probes to be positioned such that their beam axes
are coincident, either with or without intermediate reflection from a surface of the object.
The technique is particularly sensitive to variations in probe coupling and misangulation due to
surface irregularities, since these coefficients also cause a marked reduction in transmitted sig nal amplitude. To improve the uniformity of coupling immersion or squirter scanning is most
frequently used. Dressing of the surface to improve coupling uniformity can be necessary,
especially for contact scanning.
When using separate transmitting and receiving probes and/or a reflecting object at the opposite side of the object to be examined (mirror), their positions in relation to each other are also
critical. The use of a mirror can be necessary if the reflection coefficient of the object material
against the immersion liquid is minor. Furthermore, this technique is somewhat compensating
for misalignments between the equipment build-up and the object.
(A)
(B)
Acoustic mirror
Figure 10-52: Examples for transmission technique: angle beam contact (left) with one probe
utilising corner reflection, or two probes, double transmission (B) and mirror transmission (A)
in immersion
10.4.4
Pitch and Catch Technique (Double Probe Technique)

Pitch and catch is an ultrasonic examination technique involving the use of two probes. Both of
the probes can be used of transmitter or receiver. Some variations of transmission technique
are done this way. Here the distance between the transmitting and the receiving probe are
defined by the geometry.
Pitch and catch is also a very often applied technique for the examination of plate or surface
waves. In this case the relative position of the receiver is no longer determined by the geometry; the wave can be caught at an arbitrary position. Most possibilities of coupling are pos sible, however, if the boundary conditions along the travel path of the sound wave is identical
to the catching position (air coupling, immersion), the amount of refracted energy of the leaky
waves to the second medium is the same all over and therefore relatively small at the catching
position.
(A)
L
(B)
LL
L
LRL
Figure 10-53: Pitch and catch technique: high amplitude with squirter coupling (A), low amplitude with air coupling (B), LL and LRL signal in focused immersion scanning
The pitch and catch effect also happens to a remarkable amount at immersion technique with
fairly focused probes. Beneath a direct surface echo (LL) a second echo with changed phase can
be observed as the result of a double mode change longitudinal Rayleigh and back. For such
an arrangement this also means, that reflectors directly under the surface cannot become
211
detected properly. Such leaky Rayleigh waves are only possible for certain angles. On the other
hand this mode change is often used for very high frequency ultrasonic microscopes (up to 2
GHz), where only surface effects shall be detected. The measurement or comparison of the
Rayleigh wave velocity results in much more detailed information about the local elastic properties than changes in the acoustic impedance. The region of interest can be as small as < 10 m
and dependent on the experimental conditions the accuracy is 1 to 10%.
Figure 10-54: Arrangement for pitch and catch technique in immersion, the additional (blue)
sensors mounted on the probes are used to measure the angular position (Empa)
10.4.5
Guided Waves
Figure 10-55: Units for the inspection of tubes for corrosion (SwRI, TWI)
Testing with guided waves or also called long range ultrasonic testing (LRUT) is often done in
combination with magnetostrictive or EMAT transducers. It can be applied to plates or construction elements with a circular shape like ropes or pipes. It ranges up to 100 metres and
with a time-of-flight analysis, the position of reflectors can be determined. All elements like distance holders, tube dividers, etc. will also reflect a part of the acoustic energy. The same tech nique is also used for the inspection of rails to detect shelling (head checks).
212
Figure 10-56: LRUT applications for suspension cables for bridges and rails (MKC Korea, Tisec)
10.4.6
Image Presentations
As in microwave testing, there are basically three types of scanning and presentation, derived
thereof are some more. An A-scan presentation is the display of the ultrasonic signal in which
the X-axis represents the time and the Y-axis the amplitude. This is the usual presentation type
on the screen of ultrasonic instruments. For an A-scan presentation the probe is not moving. A
B-scan presentation is an image of the results of an ultrasonic examination showing a cross
section of the test object perpendicular to the scanning surface and parallel to a reference dir ection. The cross section will normally be the plane through which the individual A-scans have
been collected. As one axis represents the time, an object with varying ultrasonic velocities will
be displayed distorted. A C-scan presentation is an image as result of an ultrasonic examination
showing a cross section of the test object parallel to the scanning surface.
1 mm
=
0.7 s
10 mm
Figure 10-57: Example of a B-scan presentation showing a delamination in CFRP plate of 1 mm

thickness, top: entrance echo, mid echo of delamination, bottom: back wall echo, note that
horizontal and vertical scale are not identical (Empa)
Ultrasonic images known from medical examination usually are B-scan type presentations.
Generally they are acquired using an array probe. The usual frequency range is like for materials testing a few MHz.
213
Figure 10-58: Medical application of ultrasound: kidney (left) and foetal spine (Siemens)
Derived from the types above some more kinds of presentation exist. A D-scan presentation is
an image resulting of an ultrasonic examination showing a cross section of the test object perpendicular to the scanning surface and perpendicular to the projection of the beam axis on the
scanning surface. Instead of the amplitude the values represent the times of flight. It will normally be perpendicular to the B-scan. An S-scan or sectorial scan image represents a two-dimensional cross-sectional view derived from a series of A-scans that have been plotted with
respect to time delay and refracted angle. The horizontal axis corresponds to test piece width,
and the vertical axis to depth. The sound beam sweeps through a series of angles to generate
an approximately cone-shaped cross-sectional image.
A P-scan presentation is a projection view of several B- or C-scans. An F-scan presentation is a
modified C-scan; values of a certain feature, e.g. centre frequency are recorded and displayed
instead of the amplitude. A volume-scan presentation is a three-dimensional (spatial) representation of the inspected volume. At each inspection point of the scanning surface a complete
A-scan has to be recorded.
1 mm
Figure 10-59: Example of a C-scan presentation of a NbTi superconductive flat cable co-extruded into aluminium, top: good bonding, mid: poor bonding, bottom: reference flat bottom
holes (Empa)
214
360 = 365 mm
290 mm
Figure 10-60: Example of a D-scan presentation of the wall thickness of a compressed air cylinder in winding off view (Empa)
Figure 10-61: Example of an S-Scan of a block with three SDH (Olympus)
Figure 10-62: Ultrasonic images of an electronic device; C-scan (left) and peak-frequency as Fscan showing some different features (Sonix)
Finally the information of a whole volume can be used to generate three dimensional views. In
medicine surface rendering is an often used tool.
215
Figure 10-63: Ultrasonic surface rendering of a foetal face, 28 weeks (Siemens)

For dispersive waves a possible data presentation is in the form of a Wigner-Ville distribution,
where the frequency is plotted versus time. Several possibilities of calculation for this spectral
analysis exist. The origin is a fully digitised A-scan from which at all times the frequency spec trum is calculated.
Figure 10-64: Frequency vs. time plot of surface waves of a tube (SwRI)
10.5
Characterisation and Sizing of Discontinuities
10.5.1
Techniques for the Classification of Discontinuity Shape

The basic discontinuity types and shapes which possibly may be distinguished are as follows:
Point: spherical or planar;
Elongated: cylindrical or planar;
Large: volumetric, smooth planar or rough planar;
Multiple: spherical or planar.
The echo dynamic pattern of a discontinuity is the change in shape and amplitude of its echo
when an ultrasonic beam is traversed across it. The observed pattern is a function of the shape
and size of the discontinuity, the probe in use and the scanning direction and angle.
The term directional reflectivity is used to describe the variation in echo amplitude from a dis continuity in relation to the angle at which the ultrasonic beam is incident upon it. Discontinuities which show relatively constant echo heights over a wide range of incident angels are said to
have a low directional reflectivity and vice versa. The echo height from a discontinuity depends
upon its size, orientation and surface contour. By measuring the echo height from different dir ections and angles it is possible to obtain information about these characteristics.
For this kind of characterisation some knowledge about possible flaws and their respective position, size and characteristic is necessary.
216
10.5.2
Echo Height Evaluation

Techniques using the echo height as a reference compare the height of the reflected echo with
echoes from known artificial reflectors. Therefore, a real sizing is not possible, but the results
give a good comparison and show a good reproducibility. Usual reference reflectors are the
back wall, flat bottom holes, side-drilled holes, or notches. Three basic techniques exist:
Single reflector technique: a single reference reflector may be used when evaluating
echoes occurring within the same range of sound path distance;
Distance amplitude correction (DAC) technique: the echo heights from a series of
identical reflectors at different sound path lengths in suitable reference blocks are used;
Distance gain size (DGS)-technique, also called AVG-technique: a series of theoretically derived curves relating the sound path length, the equipment gain and the size of a
disc-shaped reflector perpendicular to the beam axis are used.
A DAC reference block shall be either a general purpose block of uniform low attenuation and
specified surface finish, or a block of the same acoustic properties, surface finish, shape and
curvature as the test object.
Unless the test sensitivity is set on a test block which is acoustically representative of the test
object, a transfer correction shall be determined and applied if necessary, when setting the test
sensitivity or measuring the echo height of any discontinuity. The transfer correction is made
up of two parameters: one due to coupling losses at the contact surface and independent of
sound path length and the other due to material attenuation and dependent on sound path
length. Two methods to determine the transfer correction are common: a simple fixed path
length method where compensation is made for coupling loss and for attenuation at the maximum sound path length only; and a comparative method where full compensation is made for
both parameters.
The result is a plot with the time base as one axis and the screen height of the ultrasonic
instrument as the other one. The line corresponds to one type of reference reflector with a cer tain size. For practical reasons the screen height should be used from 20% FSH (full screen
height) to 80% FSH, if necessary the line has to be split with a declaration of the additional
gain.
Each echo can be referenced in position and direction of the probe, time base reading and the
necessary change of the gain in dB to reach the same echo height as the reference graph.
In the general DGS diagram, distance and reflector size are normalised. Therefore, it is inde pendent of probe size and frequency. It shows distance A as multiples of the near filed length
of the probe, reflector size G as multiples of the probe element diameter.
s
N
D
G= f
D
A=
(10.36)
(10.37)
Figure 10-65: Screen of ultrasonic instrument showing a split DAC

From this general DGS diagram specific DGS diagrams, for common types of probes, are
derived for steel which allow the direct reading of equivalent reflector size without calculation.
Specific overlays that can be mounted on the screen or program modules that can be blended
217
into the screen electronically are available. Note that the relationship between the differences
in gain and sound path in the DGS diagram is logarithmic, whereas the corresponding scaling
on the screen is linear.
Figure 10-66: General DGS diagram

The recording gain Vr, at which scanning shall be carried out, is calculated from
V r= V j+ V+Vk +Vt
(10.38)
where:
Vj is the gain setting required to set the echo from a reference reflector to a given refer ence height in the screen;
V is the difference in gain between the DGS curve corresponding to the minimum equivalent disc-shaped reflector (i.e. the recording level), measured at the maximum sound
path length and the reference reflector, measured at its sound path length;
Vk is a correction coefficient when using a concave reference reflector (e.g. using the
calibration block No. 1 or No. 2), this value should be given by the probe producer;
Vt is the transfer correction.
For materials other than steel the specific DGS diagram can be approximately calculated from
the general DGS diagram.
The main differences of the DGS method compared with the DAC method are:
218
DGS can use standard calibration blocks and therefore there is no necessity of producing
separate reference blocks for different flaw sizes;
DGS allows calculating back every echo to a corresponding size of a disc shaped reflector
(bearing in mind to correct for the sound path), the DAC method is applicable for other
reference reflectors also;
Echo height evaluation using the DGS method is only applicable if contouring of the
probe shoe is not required, that means, for convex surfaces with a diameter of the test
object being above ten times the relevant dimensions of the probe, and not for concave
surfaces, unless adequate coupling can be achieved due to very large radii of curvature.
Figure 10-67: Example for a specific DGS diagram for an angle beam probe on steel
10.5.3
Probe Movement Sizing Techniques

The fixed level amplitude technique measures the dimension of a discontinuity over which the
echo is equal to or greater than an agreed amplitude assessment level. The amplitude level
may be related to a DGS curve or may be at some dB level in relation to a DAC curve; usual
numbers are 6, 12 or 20 dB. To make a measurement the beam is scanned over the discontinuity and the probe position and beam range, at which the echo has fallen to the assessment
level, is noted. Application and limitations are as follows:
Measured size depends on the amplitude assessment level;
Technique is simply to apply and gives highly reproducible values;
Technique may be applied to large or small discontinuities but, in the latter case, the
measured length is more closely related to the beam width than to the discontinuity size;
Assessment level must be set equal to or below the amplitude level at which a discontinuity of infinite length is acceptable.
The 6 dB drop from maximum technique the amplitude assessment level is 6 dB below the
maximum echo height observed at any position along the flaw, rather than a constant, predetermined level as used in the previous technique. That means that a scan has to be done twice,
first to find the maximum amplitude and then to find the positions of the drop. This technique
is only applicable if the discontinuity to be measured is at least equal to the 6 dB beam width at
the relevant sound path range and it not reliable for irregular discontinuities. Instead of 6 dB
also values of 12 dB and 20 dB are common. Instead of the maximum echo height of the over all indication also the echo height local to each end of the discontinuity can be taken. This 6 dB
drop tip location technique is superior if echo variations occur.
The drop to noise level technique measures the dimensions of a discontinuity over which the
echo can be observed above the background level. This technique is not very reproducible;
however, it is relatively simple to apply and does not require a particular amplitude level to be
set. It gives a conservative size measurement, especially where other techniques may carry the
risk of undersizing a particular discontinuity.
10.5.4
Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique

The probes used in TOFD are generally angled compressive wave probes having a very wide
beam spread. Since the distance 2 S between them is kept constant, two reference echoes, one
due to the direct transmission between the probes (lateral wave) and the other due to reflection from the back wall, will be obtained in addition to the diffracted echoes. If the source of
219
diffraction lies at an offset of y between the two probes, the depth d of the emitting crack tip
can be calculated from
c t= d 2 +(Sy)2 + d2 +(S+y)2
(10.39)
and in the simplest case, where the discontinuity lies mid-way between the probes
c t=2 d2+S2
(10.40)
where t is the time of flight between the transmitting to the receiving probe via the crack tip. In
this case the time of flight inside the ultrasonic probes has to be subtracted before the calculation of the depth is made. Failure to do so will result in grave errors in the calculated depth.
To avoid the errors that may arrive from probe delay estimations, commonly reference is made
to the lateral wave response, that is the depth of an indication is calculated from the time of
flight difference t between the lateral wave and the diffracted pulse.
d=
1
(t c)2+4 tc S
2
(10.41)
With that much greater sizing accuracies are possible, particularly for larger discontinuities,
than can be obtained using methods based on discontinuity echo amplitude. However, in order
to interpret the TOFD data, it is desirable to display the observed signals as a B-scan. The dis advantage of the technique is that the presence of two single sources may be misleadingly
interpreted as a crack.
2S
T
d1
(A)
(B)
d2
(C)
(D)
mode converted signals
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Figure 10-68: TOFD principle with (A) lateral wave, (B) and (C) crack tip echoes, (D) back wall
echo; diffracted waves (B) and (C) are phase-shifted; these four echoes are followed by mode
converted signals, which usually are not analysable
220
Figure 10-69: TOFD scanner and B-scan data presentation of a weld inspection; lopen: incomplete penetration, lof: lack of fusion, mode converted echoes are caused by shear wave (US
Ultratek, AIS)
10.5.5
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)

For SAFT reconstruction the same algorithms as for microwaves are applied. For ultrasonics,
however, this technique is of less importance, as the focusing of the ultrasonic beam is often
possible.
10.6
10.6.1
Calibration Blocks and Calibration

For the calibration of the ultrasonic equipment two official calibration blocks exist. Both consist
of ferritic steel and must show a defined ultrasonic velocity (longitudinal and transverse) and
low attenuation. Certain characteristics may be adapted. Especially if the thickness of the calib ration block (25 mm for No. 1 EN ISO 2400 and 12.5 mm for No. 2 EN ISO 7963, respectively)
for the intended probe is not appropriate, it may be enlarged. For all other applications, the
user has to define its own calibration block.
Calibration is done before testing, after each pause and after testing and in defined time intervals during the examination. The repetition of the calibration process is necessary due to possible drifts.
100 mm
200 mm
Polymer cylinder 50 mm
3 mm
75 mm
5 mm
Figure 10-70: Calibration block No. 1 (top, EN ISO 2400) and calibration block No. 2 (EN ISO
7963)
221
10.6.2
Characterisation and Verification of Ultrasonic Examination Equipment

The equipment in use has to be checked upon a regular time base. Extended tests have to be
carried out usually once per year or after repair. Daily tests concern physical state, the probe
index and the beam angle, the latter two for angle probes only. Weekly checks concern the lin earity of time base and of equipment gain of the ultrasonic instrument, the sensitivity and sig nal/noise ratio, as well as pulse duration.
The test of the physical state contents a visual inspection of the outside of the ultrasonic instrument, probes, cables and calibration block for physical damage or wear which could influence
the system's current operation or future reliability. In particular the face of the probe has to be
examined upon damage or wear as well as the stability of electrical contacts.
The probe checks are done using a calibration block. The main reason is to guarantee that the
calculated position of the reflector's position corresponds to the real one.
The checks to perform weekly are relatively simple tests as well, also to be carried out by the
operator.
10.6.3
Probe and Sound Field Characterisation

The determination of the probe index and the beam angle can be done separately or combined.
These checks are important, as the characteristic of the probe can change due to usage and to
the roughness of the scanning surface during an examination.
For a combined determination a reference block with at least three and preferably four or more
side-drilled holes is used.
t1
t2
a2
a3
a4
Depth t
a1
t3
x Shortened projection a
Figure 10-71: The slope of the line of shortened projection vs. depth corresponds to the beam
angle, the probe index x to the zero crossing of that line
Similarly a possible skew angle (sidewards) can be determined.
The common way to characterise the complete sound field of ultrasonic probes is the use of
electrodynamic sensors as receivers. Such probes use the EMAT principle, therefore measurements are only possible on solids that are electric conductors. Usual ultrasonic instruments can
be operated with separate transmitting and receiving channels; the signal of such an electrodynamic probe, however, is small and pre amplifying is necessary. Sound field characterisation
can be necessary for high precision localisation of reflectors and it is especially useful for the
determination of the effective behaviour of phased array probes.
222
Figure 10-72: Pre amplifier and electrodynamic sensors; longitudinal with coil axis perpendicular (left) and transverse with coil axis parallel to block surface (Empa)
10.6.4
Sound Field Simulation

As the real form of a sound field, especially for advanced techniques (like phased array) several
software concepts are available to simulate the behaviour of the sound field depending on time
and amplitude and its interaction with a flaw. An often used one is CIVA (www-civa.cea.fr).
On the other hand it is also possible to simulate such effects with photoelastic visualisation sys tems used on glass objects.
Figure 10-73: Example of a photoelastic visualisation system (Ecliptic Scientific)
10.7
10.7.1
Procedure
The NDT procedure usually has to define the following technical aspects:
10.7.2
Examination zones and scanning plan;
Inspection and characterisation technique and class;
Coupling medium;
Examination equipment (probe sizes and wave types, angles, frequencies, focal lengths,
etc.);
Scanning direction, surface speed, overlap, etc.
Characterisation of imperfections, requirements for signal processing and signal evaluation;
Calibration blocks and verification intervals for the instrument and the probes;
Cleaning and conservation.
Record
instrument and probes, etc.;
223
Identification of the calibration blocks used;
Instrument settings (gain, scale, filters, etc.);
Coupling;
Reference and list of incident directions;
Method if interpretation;
A technical sheet (or equivalent) in cases where the examination procedure allows for a
variation of the method of examination, equipment or set-up.
If special calibration blocks were used, they have to be stored in conditions that they may not
alter.
224
Figure 10-74: Example of an UT test record for forged products (Empa)
10.8
10.8.1
Special Mode Conversion Applications

Using longitudinal double transducer probes with several mode conversions and neighbour echo
effects, among them creeping wave generation can be used. Such probes are often found under
their German designation SEL (Sender Empfnger Longitudinal). Usually the two crystals are
oriented parallel, in ADEPT probes they are oriented in a row. Such applications are often used
for the investigation of austenitic welds. The development of such techniques needs detailed
knowledge on the structure of sound fields.
225
Figure 10-75: Equivalent wave propagation

(www.ndt.net/article/pow1297/schmid/schmid.htm)
10.8.2
Doppler Applications
If the ultrasonic velocity is known, the length of the sound path can be determined relatively
easy. If the transmitter and the receiver, or the probe and the reflector have a relative move ment towards each other, a frequency shift is to be observed. This can be used to determine
the relative velocity. For a moving reflector, the relation is given by
f=f o
c o+c
(10.42)
c oc
and
ff o=f 2
c
f
co o
(10.43)
where c is the velocity of the reflector and c o the sound velocity of the coupling media, fo the
original and f the received frequency. Doppler sonography is often used for medical applications
where erythrocytes act as reflectors. The effect is also used for technical applications by adding
air-filled hollow spheres or air bubbles of the right size to the liquid.
226
Figure 10-76: Medical application of ultrasonic Doppler effect for flow measurement in coronary
artery bypass (Siemens)
10.8.3
Acoustic Microscopy
Acoustic microscopy is often compared to optical microscopy as the investigated surface or
near surface region, as well as the achieved resolution are similar. From its principle it is done
with focused probes in immersion technique. Usually one probe in pulse echo arrangement is
used. To reach high resolution the frequency has to be increased up to 2 GHz or more. No clear
limit is agreed on the lower limit, 100 MHz would be a reliable value. All components must be
designed for high frequencies and adequate mechanical stability.
A closer view onto the acoustic lens system shows that there two relevant rays exist: the axial
ray, that is reflected from the surface, and a ray accomplishing the Rayleigh condition
sin R=
co
(10.44)
cR
with co the longitudinal velocity of the coupling medium (usually water) and c R the Rayleigh
wave velocity of the specimen. While all other rays are reflected arbitrarily and possibly do not
hit the transducer, the two mentioned waves are reflected and doing so they interfere.
(A)
(B)
(E)
(D)
(F)
(C)
-z
Figure 10-77: Ray model of an acoustic lens: (A) transducer, (B) acoustic lens, (C) specimen,
(D) Rayleigh ray, (E) arbitrary ray, (F) axial ray
The interference is periodically dependent on the defocusing distance z. With o as wavelength
in the coupling medium the period becomes
z=
o
2 (1cosR )
(10.45)
As the images are often visualised using the video (V) or envelop detected signal, the effect is
called V(z). For the understanding of acoustic microscopy this is fundamental.
227
Figure 10-78: Theoretical V(z) curve for a glass specimen (A. Briggs: Acoustic Microscopy)
Figure 10-79: Examples of acoustic microscopes (Krmer)
Figure 10-80: Examples of acoustic microscopy images of electronic parts, plastic leaded chip
carrier (left) and acoustical and optical image of a plastic quad flat pack (Sonoscan)
10.8.4
Advanced Thickness Measurement

The usual way to determine the thickness is a measurement of the time difference t between
two (or more) consecutive back wall echoes. This can be done measuring peak-to-peak or
flank-to- flank, where the latter one requires that the measuring points are located at the same
relative echo height.
D=
c t
n
with n = 2, 4, ... dependent on the number of echoes.
228
(10.46)
For small thickness the single echoes can no longer became separated clearly, so this method
fails.
A second possibility uses the Fourier transform of the sequence of several back wall echoes.
With f as difference between two consecutive frequency peaks, the thickness is given by
D=
nc
2 f
(10.47)
with n = 1, 2, ... dependent on the number of frequency peaks.
Time domain
Frequency
domain
Figure 10-81: Time and frequency domain spectra of 20 mm steel (left) and 4 mm steel, both
at 1 MHz, time division for both 5 s (zero not within range), frequency division left 0.2 MHz,
right 0.1 MHz; for 20 mm steel both methods are possible, for 4 mm time difference reading is
less accurate than the determination of the frequency peak; note that the main bang (entrance
echo) is excluded from FFT (Empa)
The methods can also be performed for small thickness, down to below of the half of a
wavelength. In this case f corresponds to the value of the first frequency peak, which
becomes, due to interferences higher than the nominal frequency value of the probe. If only a
small number of echoes are present, this method becomes unreliable.
10.9

Due to the nature of wave propagation in solids, ultrasonic examination of structures is generally restricted to applications on rather simple geometries. The a priori information of the ori entation of potential flaws is often an absolute must. As soon as the complexity of the problem
grows, more than basic knowledge and training is necessary.
Most of the characteristics of the sound beam are defined by the probe; for different applica tions, therefore, often different probes are necessary, this is especially valid for testing in
immersion technique. It is almost certain the phased array technology, due to its advantages of
beam access and the reduction of moving parts, will cover a wide range of future applications.
Signal interpretation is usually based on amplitude analysis in comparison to known standard
situations. The declaration in reports, therefore, in most cases is that found indication complies
with a known reference. The possibilities of time of flight diffraction are widely accepted so that
this defect type can also be regarded as covered. Other advanced methods of signal interpreta tion are used mainly under laboratory conditions.
Ultrasonic testing, probably more than all other methods, relies on the qualification of the operator. This begins with an accurate calibration, proceeds with a reliable scanning of the object
and ends with a distinct sizing of the found indications. For standard situations this process
takes place at the object itself and is not supervised by electronic recording. If no indications
were found this can mean that there were none, but it can also mean that they were not found
due to miscellaneous errors during the examination process.
Phased array technology showed large growth in the past years, if CMUT technology will be the
next generation standard is not clear yet.
229
11
ACOUSTIC EMISSION INSPECTION
11.1
Introduction
We use our sense of hearing to detect and interpret audible stimuli from the environment.
Ancient potters used the cracking sound of clay pots as they cooled in the kiln to monitor the
quality of their creations. Through the middle ages and the renaissance period, as metallurgy
began to evolve through the work of alchemists, the "cry" of tin as it was deformed was a wellknown phenomenon reported in classic metallurgical texts. The cry of tin is associated with a
deformation mechanism called twinning. When this cry takes place inside the tin, it releases
audible acoustic energy. Early in the 1900s a similar cry was heard in many other metals
including zinc, cadmium, magnesium, steels, lithium, aluminium, vanadium, strontium,
titanium, cerium, arsenic and osmium.
In the 1930s acoustic emission (AE) was applied to mine timber. A Japanese article describes
an experimental method to detect elastic shock waves during bending of quarter sawn boards
of Japanese cedar, pine and cypress. The vibrations associated with the fracture of a board
were transferred into an electric gramophone through a needle on the board. In the same
period the method was used to study the formation of martensite needles.
Large-scale AEs from fracture in mines have been identified as the rumbling sound that occurs
before an actual cave-in. In the 1940s investigations were performed in mines to determine if
rock bursts could be predicted. Using a microphone and amplification, sub audible noises of
stressed rock as micro seismic signals were detected for predicting the rock movement preceding failure.
In the latter half of the 1900s, acoustic emission developed rapidly as a tool for materials
research and as an efficient non-destructive method for inspecting load-bearing structures and
pressurised fluid containment systems. Procedures and standards have been established for
testing. Equipment has evolved through several generations into sophisticated computer-based
systems. Acoustic emission has augmented our sense of hearing and become an accepted and
important technique for characterizing materials and their behaviour.
AE is related to transient-elastic waves generated by sudden movement in stressed materials.
The classic sources of AE are defect-related deformation processes, such as crack growth and
plastic deformation. Sudden movements at the source generate a stress wave, which radiates
out into the structure and excites a sensitive piezoelectric transducer. As the stress in the
material is raised, many of these emissions are generated. The signals from one or more
sensors are amplified and measured to generate data for display and interpretation.
The source of the AE energy is the elastic stress field in the material. Without stress, there is
no emission. Therefore AE is usually carried out during a controlled loading of the structure.
In the beginning AE was mainly used for the examination of metal structures, it was even
applied to pressure components in nuclear power plants. It was promoted very intensively with
a lot of promises that turned out not to be true. It is therefore not astonishing that the general
acceptance of this method decreased nearly to null. It turned out that materials that show
plastic behaviour are not always very well suited for this method. Today it is successively
applied for the determination of structural integrity of components from materials like fibre
reinforced plastics or concrete. Other applications are related to melting, phase transformation
or cool down cracking.
The disadvantage that crack growth must occur can be overcome with some derived methods
like acousto-ultrasonics or non-linear acoustics. The measured phenomenon, however, are not
identical with those from AE.
11.2
Features and Limits
11.2.1
General
The features of AE are:
230
Allows the real-time detection of sources, depending on the materials properties, up to

several metres distance and therefore allows a 100% monitoring;
As soon as reflections with or without mode change are mixed with the direct echoes of
the sources, the evaluation can become very complex or even impossible;
11.2.2
Subsequent application of load to the same stress level will only identify discontinuities
that are still active; this is a reversible phenomenon known as the Kaiser effect;
Can be applied to monitor structures under operating conditions, given that process noise
is low or otherwise not interfering;
Capable to locate a growing discontinuity under test by the use of remotely installed
sensors and can be therefore used to control the effects of the application of load and
prevent catastrophic failure of structures, given that the functioning and coupling of the
remotely applied sensors can be controlled.
Definitions
For the AE signature the following terms are relevant:
Arrival time (A) is the absolute time when a burst signal first crosses the detection
threshold (D);
Burst signal rise time (B) is the time interval between the first threshold crossing and the
maximum peak amplitude (E) of the burst signal;
Burst signal duration (C) is the interval between the first and the last time the signal
detection threshold was exceeded by a burst signal, a typical values is 100 to 150 s; the
ring down count (F) is the number of times a burst signal crosses the detection
threshold.
Figure 11-1: AE signature, definitions see text

The burst signal energy given by the instrumentation is dependent on the manufacture type and
usually lies between
E=V t dt
11.2.3
and
E= V2 t dt
(11.1)
Kaiser Effect
The Kaiser effect which was first investigated 1950 by Josef Kaiser describes the phenomenon
that a material under load emits acoustic waves only after a primary load level is exceeded.
During reloading these materials behave elastically before the previous maximum load is
reached. If the Kaiser effect is permanent for these materials, little or no AE will be recorded
before the previous maximum stress level is achieved.
11.2.4
Felicity Effect
For certain materials, especially for composites, there is already significant AE at a load level
below the previous maximum applied level. This phenomenon is called the Felicity effect. For
calculations, it is indispensable to know if a certain material shows this effect and, if so, to what
extent. The Felicity ratio between the applied load at which the AE reappears during the next
application of loading and the previous maximum applied load gives some information about
the possibility of failure during the next load.
231
Figure 11-2: Example of the Kaiser effect in a cyclically loaded concrete specimen, thick lines
indicate the AE activity, thin lines the load and the dashed lines the Kaiser effect; the most
right graph corresponds to breaking of the sample (NDT.net)
11.3
Instrumentation
11.3.1
Acoustic Emission Sensors

The sensors are normally of the resonant type, where one frequency dominates the response,
typical values are between 50 to 250 kHz. Sensors with different resonant frequencies are
available. The choice of sensor and operating frequency depends upon the purpose of examination, the type, material of structure or component and its surface structure (insulation, painting, coating, surface corrosion, etc.) and the environment (temperature, background noise,
etc.). With such types of sensors little or no information about the real emission frequency
spectrum is achieved, however such sensors are more sensitive and smaller in shape.
The sensor shall be fixed to the test object using an acoustic couplant and a clamping device or
an adhesive bond. In special applications, the sensor is installed on a wave guide. The surface
at the sensor positions shall be cleaned and sufficiently flat to ensure adequate and reprodu cible transmission.
Figure 11-3: Acoustic emission sensors (sizes like ultrasonic probes) and application for leak
testing (Physical Acoustics)
To verify the installations a Hsu-Nielsen source can be used. This device is an aid to simulate
an AE event using the fracture of a brittle graphite lead in a suitable fitting. This test consists of
breaking a 0.5 mm (alternatively 0.3 mm) diameter pencil lead approximately 3 mm ( 0.5
mm) from its tip by pressing it against the surface of the piece. This generates an intense
acoustic signal, quite similar to a natural AE source, detected by the sensors as a strong burst.
The purpose of this test is twofold. First, it ensures that the transducers are in good acoustic
contact with the part being monitored. Generally, the lead breaks should register amplitudes of
at least 80 dBAE. Second, it checks the accuracy of the source location set-up. This last purpose
232
involves indirectly determining the value of the acoustic velocity for the object being monitored.
The AE decibel scale dBAE is a dB scale in voltage where the reference voltage U ref is 1 V
referred to the sensor output
dBAE =20 log
U
Uref
(11.2)
Various sensors for special applications exist, among them sensors that can be directly buried
into concrete, dry contact rolling sensors, wireless sensors, sensors that can withstand higher
temperature (up to 500 C, otherwise wave guides may be used), high radiation, etc.
11.3.2
Signal Conditioning and Processing

The signal conditioning and processing includes the signal transmission, amplification, filtering
and extraction of the AE signal features. The frequency filtering shall be appropriate for the
sensor response. The pre-amplifier converts the signal from the sensor into a suitable low
impedance signal for transmission over long distances, using coaxial cable. Typical pre-amplifier gains are 34 or 40 dB; the cable length between probe and pre-amplifier should not exceed
one metre. The system amplifier provides additional amplification (up to 60 dB), of the signals
and the necessary frequency band filtering for the rejection of noise. The amplification section
normally provides the power supply for the pre-amplifiers.
Figure 11-4: AE amplifiers (Physical Acoustics, Vallen)
11.4
Data Analysis
The data are analysed with the purpose of identifying the AE sources and their grading. The
time of occurrence of the AE and the corresponding load are other important characteristics
which, together with the location, provide relevant and reliable information on AE source significance.
The location depends on the type of application. This can be linear, planar or zonal and in some
cases volumetric. An AE simulator may be used to help locate the position of the AE sources on
the structure.
Examples of evaluation criteria adopted for AE source evaluation are:
AE activity that consistently increases with increasing stimulation or time;
AE during periods of constant stimulus;
Correlation between burst emission and the applied stimulus;
Spatial concentration of AE sources;
Coincidence of AE sources with structurally significant features such as: repairs, welds,
nozzles, etc.
Typical grading are non-relevant, to be checked by conventional non-destructive testing methods or critically active.
233
11.5
Applications and Derived Techniques
11.5.1
Power Transformer Partial Discharge Localisation

Partial discharge is an electrical phenomenon that occurs within a power transformer whenever
the voltage load is sufficient to produce ionisation and partially bridges the insulation between
conductors. Partial discharges are pulse-like in nature and cause mechanical stress waves to
propagate within the transformer. They propagate throughout the surrounding oil and can be
detected at the transformer tank wall. Sensing and evaluation can be done with normal AE
equipment. The method is treated in the IEEE Guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emissions
from Partial Discharges in Oil-Immersed Power Transformers C57.127-2003.
Figure 11-5: Acoustic emission to localise partial discharges in power transformers (QSL,
ERDA)
11.5.2
Applications for Pressure Vessels

AE becomes a method that is widely used on above ground storage tanks and pressure vessels
that consist of or are wrapped with composites (the latter not yet fully confirmed). The applica tion is also possible for metallic pressure vessels, spheres, columns and tanks. Especially in the
US the commercial application to tube trailers and railway tank cars, in Austria the inspection of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) storage tanks are common and accepted by the authorities. For
tanks especially emissions resulting from active corrosion of the floor are monitored, this
method, however, does not yet seem to yield consistent results in all cases.
Figure 11-6: Halon bottle re-certification system on AE basis for fire extinguishers used in air
crafts (left), AE inspection on a tube trailer (Physical Acoustics, FIBA)
11.5.3
Applications for Structural Integrity Assessment and Health Monitoring

Typical applications for structural integrity assessment and health monitoring, besides pressure
vessels of all kind, are helicopters and air crafts (namely the F-15, the F-111 and the VC-10) on
234
ground. In-flight monitoring could be a solution for micro-meteorite impact detection for rockets and space crafts.
Figure 11-7: AE used for the determination of the structural integrity of an agricultural silo
under hydrostatic load (water filling), AE sensors with pre-amplifiers located on a wing (Empa,
Physical Acoustics)
Monitoring of construction like pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipelines (PCCP, water and waste
water pipelines), buildings and parking structures, suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges,
post-tensioned bridges, nuclear structures, water reservoirs, ground anchors and dams is
reported.
11.5.4
Applications for Wood

The acoustic emission investigations for wood products can be classified into five fields: monit oring and control during drying, prediction of deterioration, estimation of strength properties
and fracture analysis.
The use of AE techniques to minimise defects during wood drying has been studied since the
1980s. In early studies, methods were investigated for controlling kiln conditions by monitoring
the AE count rate. The AE parameters used in the majority of studies were time-domain AE
counts, later more sophisticated methods were applied. With that it was possible to distinguish
between AE due to checking (formation of delaminations between wood fibres) and AE due to
water movement.
235
Figure 11-8: AE applied to wood (USDA)

Decayed wood generates AE at a lower stress level in bending than does sound wood. Usually
such decay is due to termites; with appropriate receivers it is also possible to detect termite
activity directly.
11.5.5
Micro Acoustics in Geophysics

Acoustic emission can also be used for the detection and monitoring of possible crack forma tions during construction and operation of geotechnical structures. Such systems can be used in
mining, for monitoring of slopes and slippings, underground disposals or repositories for radio active waste.
Good results are reported for salt rock formations of few hundred metres, where some dozen
sensors are used. The sensors are applied within boreholes with diameters of typically 40 mm
for axial transducers and 100 mm for radial transducers.
~ 50 m
Figure 11-9: Repository for radioactive waste in Gorleben (D), yellow points denote sources of
acoustic activity over a period of about 10 years, red ones sensor positions with lengths of
boreholes up to 30 m (BGR)
11.5.6
Applications for Process Monitoring

Acoustic emission can be also used for process monitoring. In this case the acoustic sources are
not growing cracks but all kind of noise that is produced by the process. Reported applications
are rotating parts of all kind, welding applications (arc and laser) or the use of AE to determine
the chip length in cutting processes. Wrtsil, e.g. monitors the higher frequency (500 kHz)
emissions to detect potential bearing damages, similar to piston seizure, even under the low
frequency rumble of running ship engines. Usually process monitoring involves so-called con tinuous acoustic emission, in contrast to applications described above that are based on distinct
burst-type signals.
236
Figure 11-10: Machine health monitoring (left), cutting tool with attached AE sensor (AE Consulting, ETHZ-IWF)
11.6
11.6.1
Procedure
11.6.2
Examination zones;
On-site situation concerning accessibility, acoustic and thermal background, etc.;
Type of stress (stimulus), method of regulation / control, loading program / sequence;
Temporal coverage of the observation;
Structurally significant features such as repairs, welds, nozzles, etc.;
Source grading and verification criteria.
Record
11.7
instrument and probes, etc.;
Sensor positions, fixing and coupling;
Site operational conditions, background noise level and method of rejection of the interference noise sources;
Results of on-site verification of transducer sensitivity;
Type of analysis carried out;
Spatial concentration of AE sources.
Acousto-Ultrasonics
Acousto-ultrasonics is combination of ultrasonics and AE. The technology consists of sending
low frequency acoustic pulses at a predetermined angle of incidence into a material under
inspection. These acoustic pulses travel through the material and are reflected by the different
interfaces inside the sample. If a discontinuity (delamination, debond, etc.) is present inside
the material, the reflected acoustic energy changes, revealing the presence of the discontinuity.
The technique is less used for the exact localisation of emitting sources rather to get information about the overall characteristics of a certain structure or component. Localisation to a certain amount is possible using e.g. ultrasonic C-scan equipment as receiving part.
In its high-end application acousto-ultrasonics is a highly sophisticated and advanced technique
using digital signal processing and pattern recognition algorithms. As such it is orders of magnitude superior to any other conventional ultrasonic technique, where the human recognizance
capability is much inferior to modern data processing, or where automatic scanning systems
are limited by considering only the amplitude in a small portion (gate) of the ultrasonic signal.
Acousto-ultrasonics considers the entire ultrasonic response, in time as well as in frequency, of
the entirely insonified material.
237
One major task of setting up a fully automated acousto-ultrasonic system consists of the train ing or learning process. Several identical standard specimens are needed for each feature that
the system will have to be able to extract. A number of measurements have to be repeated
several times on each specimen. After many digital feature extraction processes on all the
waveform data, templates are built for each feature. The feature templates are tested by evaluating the same standard specimen and the system is tested for its feature recognition reliabil ity. If the reliability is insufficient, the ultrasonic interrogation system (transducer frequency,
number and location) may have to be altered and the training process will have to be repeated.
After the part is in place, all transducers are brought into contact; the automated test proced ure is executed. Waveform data are being acquired, controlled by the switch matrix and the
acquired waveform data are being processed in the following phases:
Signal enhancement, e.g. increase signal/noise ratio via ensemble averaging, correlation
and linear filtering; transducer compensation via Wiener filtering and domain transform;
Feature extraction, e.g. estimate signal properties that relate to the physics of the
propagation problem such as time of arrival of certain wave modes, localised density
estimates from frequency content, beat-frequency content or specific joint-time-frequency occurrences;
Signal classification, where each feature group is sequentially evaluated against feature
group templates from the learning set and decision about acceptable or not acceptable.
Acousto-ultrasonics is useful for the inspection of components that have repeatable shapes,
that is for
High volume production with 100% inspection requirement;
Short inspection time;
Complex material systems.
Figure 11-11: Acousto-ultrasonic C-scan of a wrapped pressure bottle, additional the RF signals
of a zone with little and with high activity are given (Physical Acoustics)
The method has been used for composites strength prediction, wood internal bond strength
prediction, rocket motor propellant bond-line adhesion, titanium and other adhesive bond
strength prediction, corrosion detection in riveted aluminium plates, tire damage evaluation,
thermal-oxidative damage detection.
11.8
Acoustic Resonance Analysis and Non-Linear Acoustics
11.8.1
Acoustic Resonance Analysis

When a body is taped it vibrates in certain characteristic forms and frequencies (its natural res onances). The non-destructive acoustic material testing uses this effect to determine the properties of the specimen. Material-specific acoustic parameters can be calculated from the resonant frequencies and correlate to quality characteristics. Resonant analysis is a volume-oriented
testing method which includes the whole specimen.
The natural eigenfrequencies of the specimen are stimulated by an impact and the sound recorded by a microphone (air-borne sound) or laser vibrometer (structure-borne sound). A detailed
and reliable classification is done via time signal analysis and frequency analysis by a comparison with trained patterns. A resolution less than 1.3 Hz can be achieved.
238
For electric conductive materials the excitation can be done using EMAT technology. This allows
the choice of the frequency according to the defects to be found. As the sound beam can be
focussed, the spatial resolution is highly defined.
Similar to acousto-ultrasonics this method is promising for the quality control in mass production. Various applications are reported.
Figure 11-12: Acoustic resonance testing for bricks by tapping and EMAT-resonance testing of
the integrity of copper clad aluminium wires (RTE, Resonic)
11.8.2
Tap Testing
The term tap testing is often used for the acoustic resonance analysis of sandwich structures
for disbonds and core damages. Originally with this technique one takes a hand-held mass,
such as a coin or a machined piece of metal, and tap on the surface. A good region without
defects or damages will produce a crisp and solid sound whereas a bad or damaged region
gives a dull sound. The method is simple and cheap, but is also subjective, inaccurate, and
highly affected by the inspector's hearing and background noise.
Over the years, a number of instruments have been developed to move the method from a
subjective to an objective one. These efforts resulted in several instrumented tap test devices
that have proven useful. While some devices measure the acoustic information produced in
response to a physical impact, most instruments use force data produced by an impact.
Figure 11-13: Tap tester and semi-automated inspection cart (ASI)

By systematically tapping an area and recording the force response an image can be produced
representing the surface stiffness of a component. With an image the size, shape and location
of the damage can be assessed more accurately and it also provides an electronic record for
archiving and later reference. The relation between the local surface stiffness k, the mass of the
tap instrument m and the contact time is given by
k=2
m
2
(11.3)
239
Figure 11-14: Tap test image obtained on a B 767 left elevator (ASI)
11.8.3
Non-Linear Acoustics
A similar approach is possible with non-linear acoustics. A structure is acoustically exited using
a sonotrode. The surface is scanned with an air-coupled ultrasonic receiver or a laser vibrometer tuned to higher harmonics of the excitation frequency. Affected (delaminated, debonded)
regions show a higher signal. For some flaw types, not the whole affected region will show an
acoustic effect; for cracks e.g. the tips are well detectable, as they can clap together and gen erate AE.
Figure 11-15: Defect selective overtone imaging of a smart structure, the non-affected regions
show a signal only at excitation frequency of 50 kHz (Stuttgart University, IKP)
240
Sonotrode
Figure 11-16: Crack tip detection in a steel sample, laser vibrometer image projected over
photography of the sample (Stuttgart University, IKP)
11.9

AE is used for the characterisation of structures, mainly from fibre reinforced plastics or con crete and their structural integrity assessment. In certain countries it is also fairly common for
the inspection of metallic pressure vessels and storage tanks. The fact that stress application
for this method is necessary can be of advantage or disadvantage. Crack growth it not necessary in all cases: for pressure vessels no acoustic emission indicates sufficient structural integrity; in metallic pressure vessels one of two signals of a certain magnitude below or at maximum proof load level may already indicate a critical stage. For the practical examination the
comprehension of the Kaiser and the Felicity effect into the interpretation of the results is of
basic importance.
For certain applications, like in-service inspection of CFRP pressure vessels, AE is the only or at
least one of the very few non-destructive examination possibilities.
Under certain, well defined circumstances process monitoring or even process control using AE
is possible; the method is also used in seismic and mining applications, or to find insects (e.g.
termites) in wood or wood-based structures.
For a reliable application of AE the user usually should have access to a data base. In general it
can be assumed that the larger the data base is, the finer the signal allocation can be performed. This may be the reason why some sources claim to be able to inspect certain struc tures, while others doubt that the results are reliable.
Derived techniques, like acousto-ultrasonics or acoustic resonance analysis, are very promising
if applied in combination with automated signal interpretation and pattern recognition. The
exact quantification of such signals, however, seems to be very complex.
241
12
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
12.1
Introduction
As the propagation of electromagnetic waves is not related to the presence of matter, radiography is suited for nearly all materials. In general, the analysed information is the amount of
radiation that penetrated the component under test. The method is suited for examinations of
volumes. The main applications of the classical radiography are in welding, soldering, casting,
as well as for examinations of content and completeness of components.
Non-destructive testing in general was invented in 1895, when Conrad Rntgen (1845-1923)
discovered the X-rays. In German related languages, this type of radiation is named after him
(Rntgenstrahlung). He produced the first medical and technical radiograms and was awarded
1901 the Nobel Prize in physics.
Figure 12-1: Some of the first X-ray images Conrad Rntgen produced: the hand of his wife
Bertha December 22, 1895 (left), the hand of Albert von Klliker January 23, 1896
Influenced by this development, Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) found only short time later, that
also radioactive substances were able to influence films. The research on radioactivity was directed by two of his co-workers, Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and his wife Marie Curie, born
Sklodowska (1867-1934). The three were awarded 1903 the Nobel Prize in physics (in addition
Marie Curie was awarded 1911 the Nobel Prize in chemistry).
The developments of the welding techniques and the need for their control led the basis for the
technical radiography used today. Radioactive isotopes were not common until after World War
II, when neutron treatment in reactors presented the possibility to produce affordable gamma
ray sources. The basic investigation for the synthesis of isotopes has been done by Frdric
Joliot (1900-1958) and his wife Irne Joliot-Curie (1897-1956), awarded the Nobel Prize in
chemistry in 1935.
The studies of Arthur Compton (1892-1962) on X-ray scattering lead to a discovery, nowadays
known as Compton effect. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics 1927. Oskar Klein (18941988) and Yoshio Nishina (1890-1951) derived 1929 the Klein-Nishina cross section for high
energy photon scattering by electrons.
Various new possibilities were added with electronic data processing. The mathematical prin ciple of computed tomography originates from Johann Radon (1887-1956). In the early 1960s
Allan Cormack (1924-1998) expanded the theoretical basics and Godfrey Hounsfield (19192004) built in the early 1970s the first commercial computed tomography system. He called it
computer assisted tomography (CAT) scanner. The two were awarded 1979 the Nobel Prize in
medicine.
Always related to radiography is radiation protection. At the beginning, the dangerous nature of
the new instruments was not known, of course. The first man to die as the result of irradiation
was Clarence Dally. He worked as an assistant of Thomas Edison with X-ray tubes and got
badly burnt by the radiation. The lesions developed to cancer and he died 1904 at the age of
39. After a lot more cases of death, especially among physicians and patients during the Great
War, the first radiation safety standards were established 1928 during an international confer ence on radiology in Stockholm.
242
Hans Geiger (1882-1945) invented 1908 the proportional counter and 1928, together with his
doctoral student, the Geiger-Mller counter.
12.2
Physics of Radiography
12.2.1
Attenuation of X-Rays
Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter is not a simple process in which the
primary X-ray photon changes to some other form of energy and effectively disappears. Attenuation of X-rays is determined by four processes:
Photoelectric absorption of X-rays occurs when the X-ray photon is absorbed resulting in the
ejection of electrons from the inner shells of the atom, resulting in the ionisation of the atom.
Subsequently, the ionised atom returns to the neutral state with the emission of an X-ray char acteristic of the atom. This subsequent emission of lower energy photons is generally absorbed
and does not contribute to (or hinder) the image making process. Photo electron absorption is
the dominant process for X-ray absorption up to energies of about 50 keV.
Compton scattering, also known as incoherent scattering, occurs when the incident X-ray
photon ejects an electron from an atom and is scattered of X-ray photon of lower energy from
the atom. Relativistic energy and momentum are conserved in this process and the scattered
X-ray photon has less energy and therefore greater wavelength than the incident photon.
Compton scattering is important for low atomic number specimens. At energies of 100 keV to
10 MeV the absorption of radiation is mainly due to the Compton effect.
Pair production can occur when the X-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV, when an
electron and positron are created with the annihilation of the X-ray photon. Positrons are very
short lived and disappear with the formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy. Pair produc tion is of particular importance when high-energy photons pass through materials of a high
atomic number.
Under special circumstances two additional phenomena can occur and may need to be considered, but are generally negligible:
Rayleigh scattering, also known as coherent, or classical scattering, occurs when the X-ray
photon interacts with the whole atom so that the photon is scattered with no change in internal
energy to the scattering atom, nor to the X-ray photon. Rayleigh scattering is never more than
a minor contributor to the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs without the loss of
energy and is mainly in the forward direction.
Photo disintegration is the process by which the X-ray photon is captured by the nucleus of the
atom with the ejection of a particle from the nucleus when all the energy of the X-ray is given
to the nucleus. Because of the enormously high energies involved, this process may be neglected for the energies of X-rays used in standard radiography.
According to Beer law (August Beer, 1825-1863) monochromatic radiation with the intensity J
is attenuated over a length x with the linear absorption coefficient
ln
J
= x
Jo
(12.1)
For X-rays showing an energy distribution the absorption coefficient can be calculated only
approximately and has usually to be determined in an experiment. The energetic composition
of an X-ray beam depends furthermore on the matter it has already penetrated, the energy distribution is shifted to higher energies what is called beam hardening. For some applications low
energies have to be filtered out and this effect is used by purpose.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the X-ray beam are most often constructed of
high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass. Also possible is a combination of
lead - tin - aluminium in this order seen from the source side; the following material filters
out the characteristic radiation from the previous one. Filters for medical radiography are usu ally made of aluminium. Gamma rays are at relatively high energy levels at essentially monochromatic radiation; therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is seldom used.
243
1000
100
Overall
10
1
PE
0.1
0.01
0.01
PP
0.1
1
Energy [MeV]
10
Linear attenuation coefficient [cm-1]
Cross section [10-28 m2]
10000
10000
W
1000
Pb
100
Fe
10
Al
1
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
1
Energy [MeV]
10
Figure 12-2: Simplified attenuation curves for aluminium, PE: photoelectric, C: Compton, PP:
pair production (left), linear attenuation coefficients for different metals (for Pb and W including
absorption edges)
Detailed tables can be found under physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData or including detailed information on filtering www-cxro.lbl.gov/optical_constants.
Table 12-1: Half value layers (HVL) of various materials for monochromatic radiation [mm]
Material
Density
[g cm-3]
200 keV
500 keV
1 MeV
2 MeV
Water
1.0
51
63
90
126
Concrete
2.3
25
23
36
62
Aluminium
2.7
22
29
35
54
Steel
7.8
9.5
15
21
Lead
11.4
0.8
3.9
Uranium
18.3
0.3
2.1
4.5
12.5
7.2
When the transmitted photon energy reaches the binding energy of a particular shell of elec trons, there is an abrupt increase in the absorption. The energy at which this sharp change
occurs for K electrons is called the K absorption edge and is used to identify the situation where
kinetic energy of the K electron is zero. Further increase of the photon energy causes the
absorption to decrease almost inversely with the cube of the energy.
12.2.2
Thomson Scattering
Thomson scattering (Joseph John Thomson, 1856-1940, NP 1906) is the elastic scattering of
electromagnetic radiation by a free charged particle, as described by classical electromagnet ism. The angular energy distribution can be expressed as
E'
=[11cos]1
E
(12.2)
with the relation of the photon energy to the electron energy

=
E
me c2
(12.3)
The differential cross section, that is the relation of the quotients between the emitted energy
per time and steradian (P/d) and the incident energy per time and area (P/d) is
(
d
1+cos2
) =r 2e
d T
2
(12.4)
with re as the electron radius. The Thomson cross section is independent on the photon energy
=
244
8 2
29
2
r =6.65 10 m
3 e
(12.5)
400
Relation E'/E
0.8
100 keV
0.6
400 keV
200 keV
0.4
0.2
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
Energy E' [keV]
50 keV
300
400 keV
200 keV
200
100 keV
100
50 keV
0
0
30
Scattering angle
60
90
120
150
180
Scattering angle
Figure 12-3: Angular energy distribution dependence on incident energy according to Thomson
For the low energy range the energy distribution is little affected of the scattering angle, while
for higher energies the backscattered photons show a substantially lower energy than the forward scattered ones.
12.2.3
Compton Scattering
Compton scattering can be of special interest, if the scattered radiation is of importance.
E=h
Figure 12-4: Compton scattering

The cross section due to Thomson is not relativistic and is independent on the energy. The cal culations of Klein and Nishina correct for quantum mechanics and incorporate the electron
recoil.
(
3
2 (1cos)2
d
1
1+cos2
) =r 2e [
](
)(1+
)
d KN
1+(1cos)
2
(1+cos2)[1+(1cos)]
(12.6)
Especially for the lower energy range, there is a substantial amount of backscattered Compton
radiation, while for the higher energy range the radiation is mainly scattered forward. For the
lower energy range, therefore, it is possible and also realised to get use of the effect. For the
higher energy range the scattered radiation is influencing the detector in form of noise.
245
400 keV
200 keV
100 keV
Thomson
50 keV
Incident direction
Figure 12-5: Normalised cross sections for Compton and Thomson scattering for several energies
12.2.4
Unsharpness and Spatial Resolution

Unsharpness U is an image blurring due to a loss of image definition. It is a combination of
geometric unsharpness Ug, inherent unsharpness of the detector U d and movement unsharpness Um due to a movement between source, object and detector during the time the image is
made.
(12.7)
U= Ug Ud Um
The geometric unsharpness is the result of the limited size of the source (focal spot or isotope
size). The relation between the unsharpness, the source size D s and the magnification m is
given by
Ug=DS m1
(12.8)
For a given object being in direct contact to the detector the maximum geometric unsharpness
is given by its total thickness b in radiation direction.
As a rule of thumb the source-to-object distance f is given by
2
for lower quality images, b in mm
f7.5Ds b 3
f15 Ds b
2
3
(12.9)
for higher quality images, b in mm
(12.10)
DS
Object
plane
Radiation
absorption
Ug`
Imaging plane
Ug
Figure 12-6: Influence of the source size on the geometric unsharpness (simplified)
If films are used as detectors, their inherent unsharpness is of inferior impact; it is mainly influenced by the energy of the radiation and the processing conditions. However, as soon as the
detection is subdivided into pixels (all kinds of digital radiography, digitalisation of films), this
can become a limiting factor. A distinct function that is equal in amplitude is only possible if the
Nyquist theorem is maintained. It says that the sampling rate must be twice the resolution.
Often it is easier to calculate the modulation transfer function (MTF) of the involved systems.
The modulation of the focal spot S(f) is given by
246
Sf =sinc Ds f
m1
(12.11)
and the one for the detector D(f) with the size of a detector element D D
D f=sinc DD
(12.12)
1.0
1.0
Modulation
0.8
Overall
0.6
0.8
D
0.6
Overall
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0
Spatial frequency [mm-1]
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
0
Figure 12-7: Modulation for two focal spot sizes (S) 0.2 mm (left) and 1 mm with a detector
size (D) of 0.2 mm and a magnification of 2.5; the negative modulation (right) can be seen as
contrast reversal in some cases; the figure on the right shows clearly, that for larger focal spot
sizes the overall modulation is dominated by the source modulation and magnification is useless
The overall modulation is given by the multiplication of the single modulations. Increased magnification will also increase the detector modulation; however, it will much more decrease the
source modulation. Magnification, therefore, is only useful as long as the overall modulation is
dominated by the detector modulation.
12.2.5
Contrast
Contrast is determined by the attenuation and the energy dependent detector efficiency. As the
detector is often not interchangeable, the contrast can be fine-tuned with the beam energy
used. If pair production is not dominating, lower energies lead to enhanced contrast, but as the
penetration is limited, they also tend to a reduced signal and therefore to a reduced
signal/noise ratio.
For X-ray devices the maximum energy usually can be tuned. For gamma-radiation the limits
are given in a range of possible wall thickness.
247
Figure 12-8: Maximum X-ray voltage as a function of penetrated thickness and material
12.2.6
Attenuation of Neutrons
The attenuation of neutrons is highly different to X-rays. Neutron attenuation is not regularly
dependent on the atomic number. Certain elements, as hydrogen, lithium and boron or some
rare-earth elements, show relatively high attenuation. Therefore, neutrons e.g. are very convenient to determine organic compounds behind metal sealing, like the distribution of oil in an
operating engine. Furthermore, neutron scattering depends on the mass number of the isotope.
Figure 12-9: Comparison of the radiograms of some electronic devices with X-rays (left) and
neutrons, both methods show different details (Fuji)
The disadvantage of neutrons is the possible activation of the samples and all other objects
within the beam path. The decay time depends on the neutron energy and the material, usually
it is about one day. In practice alloys containing cobalt (including nickel based super alloys) are
seldom investigated by neutrons as the decay time is much longer.
248
Figure 12-10: Comparison of the scattering of X-rays and neutrons; the diameters of the circles
correspond to the scattering amplitude (sin = 0) for X-rays and b coh 10 for neutrons; hatching indicates negative scattering amplitude, inc: incoherent (PSI)
Detailed information and further links can be found under www.neutron.anl.gov.
12.3
Radiation Sources
12.3.1
Bremsstrahlung and K-Shell Radiation

X-ray tubes generate X-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons to energies of several
hundred kV with velocities of several hundred km/h and colliding them into a metallic target
material. The abrupt deceleration of the charged particles generates bremsstrahlung photons.
X-radiation with a continuous spectrum of energies is generated, ranging from a few keV to the
maximum of the energy of the electron beam. The target material for industrial tubes is typic ally tungsten with a very high melting point. The inherent filtration of an X-ray tube can be
computed, knowing the amount that an electron is penetrating into the surface of the target
and by the type of vacuum window present.
The bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as they pass
out through typically 50 m of target material. The beam is further attenuated by the aluminium or beryllium vacuum window. The results are an elimination of the low energy photons,
1 keV through 15 keV, and a significant reduction in the portion of the spectrum from 15 keV
through 50 keV. The spectrum from an X-ray tube is further modified by the filtration caused
by the selection of filters used in the set-up.
Beneath bremsstrahlung also characteristic K-shell and L-shell emission radiation is produced in
every X-ray tube. For general non-destructive testing this radiation is not of interest, some
crystallographic methods, stress measurement and phase contrast techniques with X-rays,
however, depend on this effect. The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming
electron can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About
0.1% of the electrons generate K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, an electron of
higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling elec tron shows up in an emitted X-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the
vacated energy state in the outer shell and so on. K-shell emission produces higher-intensity Xrays than bremsstrahlung and the X-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength. The process
for other shells is analogue.
249
Source output [a.u.]
400 kV
1 mA
200 kV
2 mA
200 kV
1 mA
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Energy [keV]
Figure 12-11: Typical unfiltered source output for doubled voltage or doubled current
The energies of the characteristic X-rays generated are only very weakly dependent on the
chemical structure in which the atom is bound, indicating that the non-bonding shells of atoms
are the X-ray source. The resulting characteristic spectrum is superimposed on the continuum.
An atom remains ionised for a very short time (about 10 -14 s) and thus an atom can be
repeatedly ionised by the incident electrons.
12.3.2
Conventional X-Ray Tubes

In an X-ray tube the electrons are discharged at a filament by thermal and field emission. The
filament is heated by a current of several amperes from a low-voltage source, generally a small
transformer. The focusing cup serves to concentrate the stream of electrons onto a small area
of the target, called the focal spot. This stream of electrons constitutes the tube current and is
measured in milliamperes.
The higher the temperature of the filament, the greater is its emission of electrons and the larger is the resulting tube current. The tube current is controlled, therefore, by some device that
regulates the heating current supplied to the filament. This is usually accomplished by a vari able-voltage transformer, which energises the primary of the filament transformer. Other conditions remaining the same, the X-ray output is proportional to the tube current.
Most of the energy applied to the tube is transformed into heat at the focal spot, only a small
portion is transformed into X-rays. The high concentration of heat in a small area imposes a
severe burden on the materials and design of the anode. The high melting point of tungsten
makes it a very suitable material for the target of an X-ray tube. In addition, the efficiency of
the target material in the generation of X-rays is proportional to its atomic number.
Circulation of oil in the interior of the anode is an effective method of carrying away the heat.
Where this method is not employed, the use of copper for the main body of the anode provides
high thermal conductivity and radiating fins on the end of the anode outside the tube transfer
the heat to the surrounding medium. The focal spot should be as small as conditions permit, in
order to secure the sharpest possible definition in the radiographic image. However, the smaller
the focal spot, the less energy it will withstand without damage. To overcome this, tubes are
often equipped with two filaments producing focal spots with different sizes depending on the
power output.
Due to the bevelled target, the effective focal spot is not equal to the radiated field and the
intensity distribution is dependent on the direction. For special purposes this has to taken into
consideration. Typical focal spot sizes are in the millimetre range. Dependent on the purpose,
the tube head can be designed to have a directional or a panoramic emission. For the latter the
target has to be cone shaped.
The high-voltage supply for the acceleration of the electrons consists of a transformer, an autotransformer and, quite frequently, a rectifier.
A transformer makes it possible to change the voltage of an alternating current. The coil con nected to the source of alternating current is called the primary winding, the other the secondary winding. The voltages in the two coils are directly proportional to the number of turns,
assuming 100% efficiency. At the same time, the current in the coils is decreased in the same
proportion as the voltage is increased. A step-up transformer is used to supply the high voltage
to the X-ray tube. An autotransformer is a special type of transformer in which the output
250
voltage is easily varied over a limited range. In an X-ray generator, the autotransformer permits adjustment of the primary voltage applied to the step-up transformer and, hence, of the
high voltage applied to the X-ray tube.
Target
Focusing
cup
Electrons
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Actual
focal spot
Filament
X-rays
Effective
focal spot
Figure 12-12: Schematic view of an X-ray tube and relation between real focal spot area and
effective focal spot
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Figure 12-13: Basic types of X-ray tubes and typical characteristics: (A) unipolar metal ceramic
(up to 225 kV, 3000 W (6000 W), 4 to 11 kg), (B) bipolar metal ceramic (up to 450 kV, 4500
W, 40 to 100 kg), (C) portable metal ceramic (up to 300 kV, 900 W, 2 to 3 kg), (D) unipolar
ceramic (up to 150 kV, 1000 W, 1 to 6 kg) (Comet)
Figure 12-14: Mobile tube head and control unit (left), stationary equipment with transformers,
cooling and control units (GE IT, Yxlon)
The type of the voltage waveform supplied by a high-voltage transformer consists of alternating cycles. Some industrial X-ray tubes are designed for the direct application of this high251
voltage waveform, the X-ray tube then acts as its own rectifier. Such tubes are designed as one
pole tubes. As the current can flow in one direction only, the equipment can only make use of
one half of the cycle (half wave direct current (HWDC)); the efficiency, therefore, is limited. But
such tubes have some other advantages. As the anode serves as earthing it can directly and
efficiently be cooled with water. Due to the compact design it can be built into one single housing, which makes such a tube rather mobile.
Usually, however, the high voltage is supplied to a unit called a rectifier, which converts the
cycles into the unidirectional form (full wave direct current (FWDC)). In this case both poles can
be used and the output is considerably larger. Sometimes a filter circuit is also provided to
smooth the voltage waves, so that essentially constant potential is applied to the X-ray tube.
The newest developments of X-ray tubes are going up to 600 kV.
12.3.3
Microfocus X-Ray Tubes

Microfocus X-ray tubes have a very small focal spot of some micrometres and less. They are
especially designed for low power output (withstand of the target) and can be used for direct
geometric magnification of the radiographic image. The current, therefore is much lower than
for standard X-ray tube; it is typically in the range of 0.1 mA. The standard target is tungsten;
other metals are possible as well, their power intake, however, is lower. For some transmission
target applications also diamond based materials are used.
The interior design of such a tube is similar to an electron microscope. To maintain the possibil ity to substitute parts (filament, target, etc.), it is not sealed. That also means that the vacuum
(typically < 0.1 bar) has to be maintained during all operation using a two-step vacuum system with a backing and a turbo molecular vacuum pump. The cathode is designed with a wellcentred filament and a grid; the grid power supply defines if a current between cathode and
target is flowing or not. The typical lifetime of a filament is 500 to 1000 h.
(B)
(D)
(F)
(H)
(J)
(K)
(L)
(O)
(P)
(A)
(C)
(E)
(G)
(I)
(N)
(P)
(B)
(D)
(F)
(H)
(J)
(M)
Figure 12-15: Schema of microfocus X-ray tubes, direct (above) and transmission type: (A)
high voltage connector, (B) insulator, (C) vacuum pump, (D) grid, (E) filament, (F) anode, (G)
centring coils, (H) shutter target, (I) focusing coil, (J) centring blocking medium, (K) cooling,
(L) target, (M) transmission target, (N) collimator, (O) tube window, (P) X-rays (Viscom)
The reachable focal spot size depends on the system itself, however, also on the experience
and carefulness of the operator. Typical values are a few micrometres (dependent of power
output). As a rule of thumb for tungsten targets the power (in W) corresponds to the diameter
of the focal spot (in m), for diamond cooling this value is three to four times higher.
For the tube head various designs are possible. Some tubes show a standard design with a dir ectional target, some have a rod anode and others have a transmission target. Often the tube
252
head can be changed. Due to the low power output, microfocus X-ray sources can be easily
integrated in shielded cabinets.
Figure 12-16: Microfocus tube with transmission target (left), direct target (mid) and as closed
system built into a cabinet (Viscom, GE IT, Phoenix)
12.3.4
High Energy X-Ray Sources

For high energy applications linear accelerators (linac) and betatrons are used. They also generate bremsstrahlung X-radiation but the difference is in the voltage range and the acceleration
of the electrons. The acceleration voltage is in the MeV range. Their typical penetration is in the
range of 300 mm steel or 1 m concrete.
The betatron may be considered as a high-voltage transformer, in which the secondary consists
of electrons circulating in a doughnut-shaped vacuum tube placed between the poles of an
alternating current electromagnet that forms the primary. The circulating electrons, accelerated
to high speed by the changing magnetic field of the primary, are caused to impinge on a target
within the accelerating tube.
In the linear accelerator, the electrons are accelerated to high velocities by means of a high
frequency electrical wave that travels along the tube through which the electrons travel. Especially linear accelerators, but sometimes also betatrons are also used for the acceleration of
other charged particles (protons, ions, etc.).
Nowadays high energy X-ray sources are predominantly used for medical applications, including
the generation of radio pharmaceutical products. This is possible as X-ray photons with energy
of above 6 to 8 MeV can penetrate up to the atomic nucleus and generate an activation of the
product. Industrial applications include the inspection of very heavy components and in civil
engineering. Accelerators for medical treatment (cancer) can go over 20 MeV.
Figure 12-17: Portable industrial 6 MV betatron (left) and older linac system, note the operator
at the right side (JME)
12.3.5
Flash X-Ray Machines

Large flash X-ray machines are designed to give extremely short (microsecond) and extremely
intense bursts of X-radiation. They are intended for the radiography of objects in rapid motion
or the study of transient events. The high-voltage generators of these units give a very short
pulse of high voltage, commonly obtained by discharging a condenser across the primary of the
high-voltage transformer. The X-ray tubes themselves usually do not have a filament. Rather,
the cathode is so designed that a high electrical field "pulls" electrons from the metal of the
cathode by field emission or cold emission. Momentary electron currents of hundreds or even
253
thousands of amperes - far beyond the capacity of a heated filament - can be obtained by this
process.
Figure 12-18: Flash X-ray: two aluminium 'nose-cones' point towards the centre of an explosive assembly (replaced by a polystyrene foam ball in the photo); these and the heavy steel
barrel-type cassettes, protect the sensitive films from damage. The two box shaped objects in
the field of view are lead X-ray collimators accurately positioned in line with the two X-ray
sources; these and the temporary wooden support structure will be destroyed by the blast from
the charge (left), high voltage flash X-ray source (AWE)
Portable flash X-ray sources with battery power supply are also available. Their main applications are for homeland security (investigation of abandoned luggage, etc.) and veterinary diagnostics. The exposure time is simply defined by the number of excited pulses, each of a duration of typically 50 ns with a frequency of typically ten pulses per second. The usual detector
type is an imaging plate.
Figure 12-19: Portable flash X-ray source with 270 kV (Golden)

12.3.6
Gamma Ray Sources

In contradiction to X-ray machines, which emit a broadband of wavelengths, gamma ray
sources emit one or a few discrete wavelengths. The energies of radiation emitted by a gamma
ray source and their relative intensities depend only on the nature of the emitter. Thus the
radiation quality of a gamma ray source is not variable at the will of the operator.
A term often used in speaking of radioactive sources is specific activity, a measure of the
degree of concentration of a radioactive source, expressed in terms of activity per unit mass. Of
two gamma ray sources of the same material and activity, the one having the greater specific
activity will be the smaller in physical size. Thus, the source of higher specific activity will suffer
less from self-absorption of its own gamma-radiation. In addition, it will give less geometrical
unsharpness in the radiogram or, alternatively, will allow shorter source to film distances and
shorter exposures. For the reason of specific activity, all isotopes used for non-destructive testing are artificial ones, generated in reactors. The specific activity of a radionuclide can be easily
calculated from
254
A spec=
NA
M
with
ln2
T
(12.13)
where is the decay constant, T the half live, NA the Avogadro number and M the atomic
weight. The unit for the activity is Becquerel [Bq] = number of decays per second, in non-destructive testing usually used in terms of GBq or TBq.
Table 12-2: Characteristics of common gamma ray sources; the range is given for steel, copper
and nickel base alloys, the second number (if any) is for aluminium and titanium, the weights
of the shielding are typical values, Yt-169 and Tm-170 are seldom used, Tm-170 also emits a
bremsstrahlung background due to re-absorbed high-energy -particles, Cs-137 is used for calibration, etc. only, Am-241 is used for neutron generators but it also emits gamma rays
Isotope
form
Half
live
T
Spectrum
[keV]
Range
[mm]
Weight of
equipment
[kg]
Cobalt
Co-60
metallic
5.27 y
1'173,
1'333
40 - 200
130 - 300
Caesium
Cs-137
CsCl
30.0 y
661
not
defined
50
Iridium
Ir-192
metallic
73.8 d
341
206 - 612
20 - 100
13 - 22
Selenium
Se-75
metallic
120 d
538
66 - 401
10 - 40
35 - 120
Ytterbium
Yb-169
Yb2O3
32.0 d
782
63 - 308
1 - 15
10 - 70
Thulium
Tm-170
128 d
222
52 - 84
Americium
Am-241
432 y
not
applicable
Element
Specific
activity
[TBq g-1]
41.9
2.57
0.13
Figure 12-20: Two types of source capsules and cable tip (left) and tungsten collimator for the
exposure position, shielding all directions not necessary for the examination (Empa)
The sources usually consist of several pellets kept in a sealed metal capsule. Their typical size
is one to a few millimetres. The sources are kept in massive containers (usually from depleted
uranium) and only put into the radiation position for the duration of the exposure. This movement is done with the aid of a cable, usually manually, sometimes motorised. The advantage of
the manual movement is that the operator can easily count the necessary number of turns of
the crank and recognises immediately a sudden resistance if the movement is not going
smoothly.
For reasons of specific shielding, the containers are usually made from depleted uranium,
covered with stainless steel.
255
Figure 12-21: Source containers for selenium (left), cobalt (right) and all three common isotopes (Nordion, Sentinel)
Figure 12-22: Self-propelled isotope crawlers for pipeline radiography for different pipe diameters, similar models exist with X-ray tubes (JME, Nordion)
The advantages of gamma ray sources are the compactness, the mobility and the independ ence of current supply. The disadvantages are the necessary radiation protection, as the source
cannot be turned off and the fact that the source is decaying if used or not.
12.3.7
Neutron Sources
Several possibilities exist for the generation of neutrons.
Californium Cf-252 shows a spontaneous decay with emission of a neutron. The specific activity, however, is only 0.02 TBq g-1 with a half live of 2.6 y; long exposition is necessary.
Several (,n) or (,n) sources are known, the most used among them is the americium-beryl lium source, where the decay of Am-241 excites Be-9 in such a way that this transforms to C12 under emission of a neutron. This mechanism is often used in equipment designed for the
measurement of humidity, so called Troxler gauges. The measuring technique here is based on
the thermalisation and backscatter of neutrons.
Anion accelerators are more or less mobile. The most known among them are the deuteri um-deuterium source (H-2 (d-n) He-3, 2.5 MeV) and the deuterium-tritium source (H-3 (d,n)
He-4, 14 MeV), which shows a rather low acceleration voltage of about 100 kV and generates a
substantial neutron flux. Another reaction is Be-9 (d,n) B-10, this, however, needs a high acceleration voltage of typically 2.8 MeV. Such devices produce fast neutrons. Without moderation
they show low contrasts and are hard to detect, therefore they are not really suited for ima ging. Moderation can be done with heavy water.
256
Figure 12-23: Troxler gauge (left) and deuterium-tritium neutron tube (Empa, Sodern)
Figure 12-24: Linear accelerator based beryllium neutron generator (Accsys)

Electron linear accelerators above 8 MeV generate photo-neutrons, especially in combination
with beryllium or uranium. The disadvantage is the high X-ray background.
The best choice, however, are reactors (also in sub critical stage) and spallation neutron
sources. Here the energy range of neutrons is often given in terms of thermal (2 to 100 meV,
typically 25 meV) or cold (0.5 to 2 meV). Neutrons of these energies can be obtained by slowing them down to thermal equilibrium in matter at ambient (thermal) or low temperatures
(typically 25 K).
Table 12-3: Some European neutron facilities dealing with neutron radiography / tomography
Organisation
Facility
Energy
Website
AI, Vienna
TRIGA
cold
www.ati.ac.at
ENEA, Rome
TRIGA
cold
www.enea.it
HMI, Berlin
BER-2
cold +
mono energetic
www.hmi.de
IJS, Ljubljana
TRIGA
KFKI, Budapest
WWS
cold
www.kfki.hu
LLB (CEA-CNRS), Paris
ORPHEE
cold
www-llb.cea.fr
LPI, Moscow
RRT
mono energetic
www.icfpm.lpi.ru
PSI, Villigen
SINQ-NEUTRA
SINQ-ICON
thermal
cold
sinq.web.psi.ch
TU Munich
FRM-II
cold + fast
www.frm2.tumuenchen.de
www-rcp.ijs.si
257
Figure 12-25: Target block of the spallation neutron source SINQ (left) and ICON facility (PSI)
Intensity [rel. units]
100
80
Thermal Maxwellian
Cold Source Spectrum
B-10 cross-section
60
40
20
0
1.0E-06
1.0E-03
1.0E+00
Neutron energy [eV]
1.0E+03
Figure 12-26: Interaction of thermal and cold neutrons compared to the cross section of B-10
(PSI)
12.3.8
Synchrotrons
Synchrotrons are very large sources of X-rays. The size of such a facility depends on energy of
the storage ring; typical values are 2.4 GeV with a circumference of roughly 290 m (SLS) and 7
GeV with circumferences of roughly 1'100 m (APS). Their advantage is the very high light
intensity and brilliance.
Figure 12-27: Aerial view of ESRF (left) and SLS during construction process (ESRF, PSI)
A beam line guides the synchrotron light (X-rays), which is generated by the circulating electrons (or positrons), to the experimental stations. Such a beam line consists of several parts:
The source, which is an undulator, a wiggler or a bending magnet. Undulators and wigglers are
called insertion devices, because they are "inserted" into straight sections of the storage ring.
The most popular source in a modern synchrotron light source is the undulator, which is either
composed of an array of permanent magnets or an array of electromagnets. Due to the magnetic forces, the electrons are repeatedly deflected, resulting in electromagnetic radiation.
258
The front end, which contains slits, beam windows and safety components like beam shutter
and beam stopper.
Mirrors, which deflect and focus the X-rays onto the experimental sample. At the same time
they can serve as filters, to cut away the unwanted part of the synchrotron light spectrum. High
precision mirrors, such as copper plates or silicon crystals, which reflect the beam under very
shallow angles (<1) can be dynamically bent to focus the beam.
The monochromator crystal, which selects a single wavelength with high resolution.
The experimental hutch with sample holder and detector equipment, which registers the signals
caused by the interaction of the X-rays with the sample.
Figure 12-28: Examples for a wiggler (left) and an undulator (DELTA, HMI)
Figure 12-29: Examples for a mirror (left) and a monochromator (Swiss Neutronics, Accel)
Table 12-4: Some European synchrotron facilities with radiography / tomography beam lines
(the complete list of European facilities can be found under
www.elettra.trieste.it/projects/roundtable)
Organisation
Facility / Beam Line
Range [keV]
10 - 30
Website
ANKA, Karlsruhe
TopoTomo
BESSY II, Berlin
ID-02
6 - 50
www.bessy.de
DIAMOND, Oxfordshire
I13L
5 - 30
www.diamond.ac.uk
Elettra, Trieste
SYRMEP
8 - 35
www.elettra.trieste.it
ESRF, Grenoble
ID-19
ID-22
HASYLAB, Hamburg
DORIS III / HARWY

DORIS III / BW2
PETRA III / IBL
PETRA III / HEMS
PSI, Villigen
SLS / TOMCAT-2D
6 - 120
7 - 60
16 250
7 24
5 - 50
50 - 150
8 45
www.ankaweb.fzk.de
www.esrf.fr
hasylab.desy.de
sls.web.psi.ch
259
The source and the front end are stationed inside the storage ring tunnel. The other part of the
beam line is usually located in separate experimental hutches, which have lead walls to shield
against the X-rays.
12.4
Radiation Detection
12.4.1
X-Ray Film, Film Processing, Film Illuminator

Modern X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion - gelatine containing a radi ation-sensitive silver compound - and a flexible transparent, blue-tinted base. Usually, the
emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about 10 to 15 m thick. Putting emul sion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of silver compound and increases the speed.
At the same time, the emulsion layers are thin enough so that developing, fixing and drying
can be accomplished in a reasonable time. However, some films for radiography in which the
highest detail visibility is required have emulsion on only one side of the base (single coated).
The grain size of the radiation-sensitive emulsion is from 0.2 to 1.3 m. Larger grains make the
film more sensitive, thus the exposure time can be reduced by a factor of up to 60. Fast films
show more blurring and their contrast resolution is lower.
When X-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver compound in the
emulsion, a dissolution of the silver bromide takes place and forms a latent image. This change
is of such a nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods. However, when the
exposed film is treated with a chemical solution (called a developer); a reaction takes place,
causing the formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatine on
both sides of the base that constitutes the image. Although an image may be formed by light
and other forms of radiation, as well as by gamma rays or X-rays, the properties of the latter
two are of a distinct character and, for this reason, the sensitive emulsion must be different
from those used in other types of photography.
Figure 12-30: Radiation-sensitive layer before (left) and after development, black silver accumulations are clearly visible (Kodak)
Films are characterised by their sensitometric curve. For an exact comparison of such curves
the source type and its range, screens (if any) and processing must by the same. The original
curve is showing the optical density D against the dose K in Gray [Gy]. For practical reasons
instead of the dose often the relative exposure time is compared. Typical values for the dose
are in the range of 1 to 100 mGy. The optical density is the relation of incident L o to transmitted light L.
D=log
Lo
L
(12.14)
Do is the optical density of the unexposed, processed film, due to film base (also called blue
base) and fog density. This value may change with ageing and other processes.
Three characteristic numbers are important: the gradient G of the curve at the levels 2 and 4
above Do and the granularity D at a density level 2 above Do.
G=
dD
d logK
(12.15)
The granularity is measured by scanning of a film with constant diffuse optical density with a
microdensitometer. Both emulsion layers shall be recorded; this means that the focal depth has
to include both layers.
260
D=
1
2
(Di D)
N1 i=1
(12.16)
Figure 12-31: Sensitometric curves of various films (200 kV, Pb, automatic processing),
D2 corresponds to a film system class C1, D8 to C6 (GE IT)
Table 12-5: Film system classes according to EN ISO 11699-1
Min. film gradient Gmin at
Min.
Max. granularity
gradient/noise
D max
(G/D)min
at D - Do = 2
at D - Do = 2
Film system
class
D - Do = 2
D - Do = 4
C1
4.5
7.5
300
0.018
C2
4.3
7.4
230
0.020
C3
4.1
6.8
180
0.023
C4
4.1
6.8
150
0.028
C5
3.8
6.4
120
0.032
C6
3.5
5.0
100
0.039
261
Figure 12-32: X-ray films are available in various forms and formats: as bulk rolls, in various
sizes as darkroom packages (the largest commercial size is 30 x 40 cm) or for direct daylight
use (GE IT)
In the processing procedure, the latent invisible image generated in the film by exposure to Xrays, gamma rays, or light is made visible and permanent. Processing is carried out under subdued light of a colour to which the film is relatively insensitive. The film is first immersed in a
developer solution, which causes the areas exposed to radiation to become dark, the amount of
darkening for a given degree of development depending on the degree of exposure. After
development and a treatment designed to halt the developer reaction abruptly (stop bath in
acetic acid, if included), the film passes into a fixing bath. The function of the fixer is to dissolve
the darkened portions of the sensitive salt. The film is then washed to remove the fixing chemicals and solubilised salts and is finally dried. In most cases processing is done automatically.
Figure 12-33: Schema of the roller transport system of an automated processor with basic
functions (left) and state of the art processor (Kodak, GE IT)
Chemicals used for processing may age and temperatures below 5 C may result in irreversible
damage. For optimal results film and processing chemicals must be adjusted to each other.
Typical processing times are several minutes plus drying, elevated temperatures increase processing speed, however, if they are elevated too much, quality will suffer.
To reduce the silver content in the wash water, new generation processors use a cascade fixing
with two successive fixing tanks replenished on the counter flow principle.
262
Figure 12-34: Film illuminators: common version (left) and with iris diaphragm
(Wilnos)
For the evaluation of films with densities common in non-destructive testing, special viewing
equipment is necessary. Light boxes as used in medicine are usually not sufficient.
For a lot of application films are replaced by other detection systems. But they are still widely
used for on-site inspection and if the film has to accomplish the shape of the object by bending
and cutting.
Figure 12-35: For certain applications films cannot easily be replaced by other detection systems, radiography of a pipeline weld (left), radiogram of a weld with an abnormal high number
of pores due to welding with a wet electrode (GE IT, Empa)
12.4.2
Intensifying Screens
Intensifying screens are used in combination with films. Two basic types exist: metal screens
that filter the radiation and emit Compton electrons when exposed to X- or gamma-radiation
and fluorescent intensifying screens consisting of a coating of phosphors which fluoresces when
exposed to X- or gamma-radiation. For both types the contact between film and screen must
be as tight as possible to avoid or at least reduce lateral effects.
Metal screens are common for the radiographic inspection of metals. They are used as front
and back screen and are made of lead, cooper, steel and tantalum. The useful thickness
depends on the radiation, the thickness and material of the object, the film system class and
the sensitivity level of the investigation. Their intensifying effect is not more than a factor of
five.
Metal screen must be very homogeneous in thickness; any small damage on the surface will
have an influence on the result. To ease the handling thin screens are glued onto a paper strip.
Films that are packed together with disposable screens in vacuum sealed, light-tight bags are
available.
263
Figure 12-36: Demonstration of the importance of the contact between film and screen, good
contact (left), poor contact results in fuzzy image (mid) and efficiency of a fluorometallic screen
(RCF) in comparison to a lead screen (Kodak, GE IT)
Fluorescent or fluorometallic intensifying screens, e.g. cadmium tungstate, are only used if very
long exposure times have to be avoided. Their intensifying efficiency is between 10 and 100;
however, as the light is emitted in any directions, the sharpness quality of the image suffers.
Films used together with such screens must show a high enough spectral sensitivity within the
emitted range of about 425 nm (CdWO4). Due to dark room processing conditions, usual X-ray
films are designed not to be too sensitive for the visual light range.
12.4.3
Film Digitisation
The advantages of a film can become combined with the advantages of a digitally stored image
in terms of the possibilities of digital image processing, contrast and precise spatial measure ments, zoom, integration into reports, copying and forwarding by e-mail, digital storage, etc.
Film digitisers are available that handle optical densities between 0.05 and 4.0 and scan with a
pixel size of 50 m or better with at least 12 bit grey scale resolution.
This technique, of course, is not only applicable on new generated films, but especially also on
older ones, that were exposed at times when no digital radiography was available. One possible
application is the re-examination of earlier films to compare the present damage situation with
an earlier stage (e.g. crack growth) using the same image processing steps. However, one has
to keep in mind that every such operation, nevertheless the high quality of the digitiser, results
in a loss of information.
EN 14096-1 and -2 describe in detail the minimum requirements of such systems, what parameters are needed and how they are to be determined. The used standard reference film is
equal to the one described in ASTM E 1936. The film contains five types of test targets:
264
Converging spatial resolution targets;
Density contrast sensitivity targets;
Stepped density targets;
Spatial linearity targets;
Parallel line pair target.
Figure 12-37: Film digitiser (left), standard reference film EN 14096-1 (GE IT)
12.4.4
Computed Radiography (CR) with Imaging Plates (IP)

A possibility, still similar to film radiography, is the use of imaging plates showing photo stimulated luminescence (PSL). The phenomenon was discovered by Becquerel, but it did not attract
much interest until recently.
Certain substances are known to emit light when irradiated with radiation, UV rays or an electron beam, when heated or mechanically hit or stimulated by chemical reaction in some cases.
Materials of this kind are generally called fluorescent substances. In particular, the substances
which are powders with practical applications are often called phosphors. If the light disappears
instantaneously when the stimulation ceases, then the phenomenon is called fluorescence.
Some of the phosphors, however, continue emitting lights for a while after the stimulation
stops, which is called phosphorescence. Luminescence incorporates both of these light emission
phenomena.
An imaging plate consists of a support coated with an about 5 m thick layer containing
BaFX:Eu2+ (X stands for Br, Cl or I). During the exposure colour centres are formed by the reaction Eu2+ Eu3+. Stimulating the IP with a pulsed red He-Ne laser, the exposed plate emits blu ish purple light of about 400 nm wavelength. The two wavelengths are distant enough to be
separated by a photo multiplier tube scanning the surface of the plate during read out. The
readout velocity is limited by the afterglow to about 4 s/pixel. The IP can be erased by stimu lation with white light. Imaging plates can be re-used up to 1'000 times.
Figure 12-38: Read out of an imaging plate using a red laser and a PMT sensitive to blue light
(left), densitometric curve in comparison to a film (Fuji)
The input energy of the laser could be reduced if the crystals would be columnar. To grow the
standard substances in this way is nearly impossible. A candidate substance for the next generation therefore is CsBr:Eu2+ that shows PSL and can be grown columnar.
The advantages of such a system are that the densitometric behaviour is linear over a wide
range and the dynamics of 104 to 105 in comparison to a film of 102. Furthermore the exposure
time is reduced by a factor of up to 20, due to the linear behaviour it is less critical.
The disadvantages are or can be:
265
IP fading, the intensity of the stored image in the imaging plate will decrease over time;
Laser beam jitter, a lack of smooth movement of the plate laser scanning device, which
results in lines of the image, which consist of a series of steps;
Scanner slippage, the slipping of an IP in a scanner transport system resulting in fluctu ation of intensity of horizontal image lines;
Aliasing, pre-sampled high spatial frequency signals beyond the Nyquist frequency (given
by the pixel distance) reflected back into the image at lower spatial frequencies.
The pixel size of nowadays systems is as low as 12.5 m at IP sizes of maximum 35 to 45 cm,
resulting in maximum image sizes of up to > 30'000 pixels. The spatial resolution corresponds
to normal film. IPs are superb when used on microfocus systems.
Figure 12-39: Mobile image plate read out system with integrated erasing unit (Drr)
The classification of CR systems is similar to the film classification. Instead of the ratio G/ D the
normalised signal/noise ratio (SNR) is taken
G
D
SNR=log(e )
(12.17)
The classification levels are corresponding IP 1 (C1) to IP 6 (C6). The SNR can be determined
by the user.
Figure 12-40: Microfocus imaging plate radiogram of an electronic device (left), detail of the
ball grid array (BGA) with soldering flaws (mid) and detailed wiring structure; all three images
were extracted from the same original image (Empa)
Due to the wide dynamic range, the IP itself cannot be classified. Short exposure can be compensated by a sensitive read-out scan. The classification is usually low (e.g. IP 6). The same
plate could be given more exposure and be scanned with low gain of the electronic system. The
thickness contrast sensitivity will be improved just by selection of these two parameters. The
system can now be classified higher (e.g. IP 1).
12.4.5
Scintillators
A scintillator is a compound that absorbs X-rays and converts the energy to visible light that
can be collected in a photo diode or directly by a highly light sensitive camera. A good scintillator yields many light photons for each incoming X-ray photon; 20 to 50 visible photons out
266
per 1 kV of incoming X-ray energy are typical. Scintillators usually consist of a high-atomic
number material, which has high X-ray absorption and a low-concentration activator that
provides direct band transitions to facilitate visible photon emission. Scintillators may be granular like phosphors or crystalline like caesium iodide. Certain sources make a difference between
scintillators and phosphors.
Lead shielding
Scintillator
Camera
Figure 12-41: Scintillations screen, for light protection covered with a light tight paper in combination with a camera system, an image intensifier is used to mount the equipment but not in
use in this combination (Empa)
Phosphors are materials which glow when exposed to X-rays. For maximum brightness, the
phosphors used in X-ray imaging are made of rare-earth oxysulphides doped with other rareearth elements. The most common are gadolinium, yttrium or lanthanum oxysulphides doped
with terbium, commonly called GOS, Gd2O2S(Tb). These typically emit blue to green light which
is well-matched to film sensitivity. Various grain sizes and chemical mixtures are used to produce a variety of resolution and brightness varieties. In use, these are mixed with a glue binder
and coated on to plastic sheets. These were designed to be pressed against X-ray film to
improve sensitivity but they may also be pressed against arrays of amorphous silicon photo
diodes to make electronic X-ray detectors with sensitivity at least as good as that of film. Tens
of electron volts are needed to produce each visible photon in a phosphor screen and X-ray
absorption is good. Light scatter can be a problem if the layers must be thick to stop higher-energy X-rays. If red light matches better the need of the next element in the detector chain, the
doping can be done with europium instead of terbium. The above mentioned phosphors have a
reaction time of 1 to 3 ms. If a faster reaction is needed 5 to 10 s, the doping may be done
with praseodymium.
For a better combination of resolution and brightness, thallium doted caesium iodide is used.
CsI(Tl) has the useful property that it grows as a dense array of fine needles (10 to 20 m in
diameter) under the proper evaporation conditions. This produces crystals which act as light
pipes for the visible photons generated near the input side of the layer allowing very thick (up
to 1 mm) layers to be used with excellent retention of resolution. Because caesium has a high
atomic number, it is an excellent X-ray absorber so this material makes very efficient use of the
incoming X-rays. About 20 to 25 eV are needed to generate each light photon. When doped
with thallium, CsI emits at about 550 nm, just at the peak of the spectral sensitivity of amorph ous silicon. The combination of CsI and amorphous silicon has the highest efficiency of all
materials in production today.
267
Figure 12-42: Scintillators with rare-earth oxysulphides (left) and columnar caesium iodide
having a more direct and distinct way for the visible photons, the schema shows the use
together with detector panels (Varian)
For certain applications instead of CsI ZnSe(Te) can be used. A combination of both is espe cially promising if CsI is used for the higher energy range and ZsSe for the lower one.
Further scintillator materials are bismuth germanate BiGe3O12 (BGO), that is still too difficult to
make with large areas, the already mentioned cadmium tungstate and plastics, that have low
efficiency in detection low energy X-rays. For medical application, especially for positron emission tomography (PET), the cerium dotted lutetium yttrium oxyorthosilicate LuYSiO5:Ce3+
(LYSO) and lutetium oxyorthosilicate Lu2SiO5:Ce3+ (LSO) are used. In comparison to BGO both
show a shorter decay time, however, there prize is remarkably higher.
It is also possible to use terbium activated luminescent glass fibres. Such scintillating fibre
optic faceplates give rather good results as they can be made thick (up to 20 mm) showing a
good conversion of the X-rays into green light. Only photons that meet the total internal reflec tion angle requirements are then transmitted along the length of the fibre. Adding a mirror
coating to the input side roughly doubles the light output.
12.4.6
Image Intensifying Systems

X-rays cannot be intensified directly, but electrons can become accelerated in an electric field,
gaining energy and therefore lead to an intensified image. An image intensifier does so in
transforming incoming X-rays with a scintillating layer of columnar caesium iodide to light that
hits a photo diode, accelerating the generated electrons in a field of up to 30 kV and forming a
visible image using a phosphor. Over a mirror the phosphor is read out with a shielded camera
system. The mirror and the shielding are necessary to prevent the electronics in the camera
from being irradiated and performing noise. The camera gives a real time image, slight afterglow is possible. The field of view can be chosen within the intensifier by focusing the electrons
or with the optical system of the camera, the latter, however, is not very efficient, as the resolution on the phosphor is limited.
Figure 12-43: Image intensifier (left), false-colour radiogram of a chip with missing bond (Au
20 m) at arrows and detail of welding zone (Thales, Empa)
The disadvantage of image intensifiers is the multiple signal transform (X-rays light elec trons visible light electronic signal) with a loss of information in each step, so the resolution
is limited. Image intensifiers are a good tool for observing moving parts and for optimum posi tioning of objects in the beam (e.g. for latter examination with imaging plates).
268
Especially for a distortion less images with very high spatial resolution micro-channel plates
(MCP) are used. A typical MCP consists of 10 million closely packed channels of a diameter of
10 m in a lead glass plate, combined with an electric field generated along the axis by elec trodes. Each channel acts as an independent, continuous dynode photo multiplier, concentrating the electrons generated by the Compton effect. The reachable gain factor depends on the
length to diameter ratio of the individual channel, usual values are 75:1 or 175:1 that result in
a gain of 106 to 108. A further reason for their usage is to prevent or at least reduce a lateral
influence of a once entered photon to other channels. At higher energies the channel crossing
phenomena becomes important.
Figure 12-44: Schematic construction and operating principle of MCP (left), micrograph of
columnar CsI crystals (length of indication bar 100 m) (Hamamatsu)
12.4.7
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Concepts

The scintillators can be directly coupled to a commercial CCD chip. To shield the chip from the
X-rays that penetrated through the scintillator, a fibre optic plate can be put in between. Such
devices are called FOP (fibre optic plate with X-ray scintillator). The fibres have a diameter of
several m and are bundled parallel to one another. The reachable resolution can be more than
20 Lp/mm, the detector size, however, is limited to the chip size of about maximum 50 mm x
50 mm. It is, however, also possible to use fibre optics to use a commercial CCD chip in com bination with a linear array detector, using a fibre optic adapter, also called fibre optic taper.
Figure 12-45: Fibre optic taper (Bologna University)

As the yield of visible light is limited, one tends to use cameras working on low light levels;
several possibilities exist.
The electron-bombarded charge-coupled device (EBCCD) is a hybrid of an image intensifier and
a CCD camera. In this device, photons are detected by a photo cathode similar to that in an
image intensifier. The released electrons are accelerated across a gap and impact on the rear
side of a back-thinned CCD. These energetic electrons generate multiple charges in the CCD
resulting in a modest gain of a few hundred.
269
Figure 12-46: Principles of EBCCD and EMCCD (Olympus)

An innovative method of amplifying low-light-level signals above the CCD read noise is
employed in electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) technology. By incorporating
on-chip multiplication gain, the EMCCD achieves, in an all solid-state sensor, the single-photon
detection sensitivity typical of intensified or electron-bombarded CCDs at much lower cost and
without compromising the quantum efficiency and resolution characteristics of the conventional
CCD structure.
Further information on CCDs is e.g. given in http://microscopy.fsu.edu (category primer).
12.4.8
Detector Panels
Three common methods to convert incoming X-rays into charge for electronic readout can be
implemented in amorphous silicon. They are the intrinsic, the photoconductor and the scintillator methods (see above). Each method has its performance advantages and disadvantages
and each has certain limitations on its use in practical X-ray imagers. In all three methods, the
charge is accumulated for a frame period before being read out. Gamma cameras, in contrast,
count each X-ray photon as it arrives. That technique is generally not used for X-ray imaging
because the X-ray photon arrival rates are too high to permit counting.
At the intrinsic method arriving X-rays are captured by the amorphous silicon diode (a-Si)
where hole-electron pairs are generated. An applied bias separates the charge to prevent
recombination. Because a charge pair is generated for about each 5 eV of X-ray energy, the
signals are high. Unfortunately, the X-ray absorption of silicon is very low so the photo diode
needs to be 10 to 20 mm thick. Fabricating such devices of amorphous silicon is not feasible.
Intrinsic devices have been made from crystalline silicon but only arrays of one or two lines are
practical and even these are expensive.
Photoconductive materials with higher X-ray absorption than silicon can be coated on an array
of conductive charge collection plates each supplied with a storage capacitor. These also generate hole-electron pairs when X-rays are absorbed but the charge generated must be stored out
of the layer to avoid lateral cross-talk. The applied field (1.5 to 3 kV) not only separates the
charge but directs it towards the collector plate directly below to maintain image sharpness.
Currently, the most used photoconductor in production, amorphous selenium (a-Se), has relatively low X-ray absorption and requires about 50 eV to generate a hole-electron pair. These
restrict both the minimum dose needed and the size of the signal generated. Other materials
with ten times lower energy requirements and higher X-ray absorption are PbI 2, HgI2 and CdTe.
All of them, however, are crystalline and therefore more complicated in deposition.
The purpose of the sensor panel is to accumulate charge generated by the absorption of X-rays
and to provide it row by row during scanning to the charge amplifiers. The charge storage
device is a capacitor in photoconductor imagers or a photo diode in panels used with scintillators. The switch used to permit the charge to flow out can be a single diode, a diode pair or a
thin-film transistor (TFT). All possible combinations of these storage devices can be made to
work but each has a specific set of advantages and disadvantages.
270
Figure 12-47: Intrinsic (left) and photoconductive converter (Varian)

In the array the switch can be a TFT much like the switches used in active-matrix liquid crystal
displays. An important goal in panel design is maximizing the area of the imager that is taken
up by the photo diode (high fill factor) so that a minimum amount of arriving light is wasted.
The signals are carried by thin metal lines. A typical pixel centre-to-centre distance (pitch) is
between 50 and 200 m with a fill factor of 35%. In operation, the photo diodes are reversebiased by an external voltage applied to them all. While the TFT switches are off, charge gener ated by light from the scintillator accumulates on the diodes. When readout is wanted, a row
line is energised to turn on the switches in that row. The charge from all of the photo diodes in
the selected row flows out through all of the data lines simultaneously. In large arrays, this
generates several thousand signals that must all be read at the same time.
Panels with a small pitch are suited for static applications similar to film radiography or computed radiography with a typical exposition time of 0.5 to 2 seconds. Panels with a larger pitch
are used for real-time applications with 25 or 30 images per second. Panels with up to 15
Mpixels are available.
Figure 12-48: Micrograph and schema of an imager array (Varian)

Detector panels are available in lines and in arrays. The maximum flat panel size for the
moment is about 30 cm x 40 cm, resulting in more than 7 million pixels. Even for the best and
most expensive panels not all of the single elements are working (typical 10 to 20 lines at the
beginning). Furthermore, some products show ageing effects when exposed to hard X-radiation. A typical lifetime to 75% luminescence is reached after a dose of 10'000 Sv at 100 kV
and 1.3 Sv/h (corresponding to 1.6 mA @ 0.5 m). The life time depends very much on the used
filter. Panels, therefore, are not really suited for systems that run non-stop and permit no beam
shuttering.
271
Figure 12-49: Flat panel detector (Hamamatsu)

For mechanical protection of the layer a substance with high X-ray transmittance is needed.
Typical materials are amorphous carbon, aluminium or glass. From those three a-C shows by
far the best X-ray transmittance, furthermore it is glass like with no particle causing blemish
defects and it can be polished to a good flatness.
A further possibility is the use of CMOS (complementary metal oxide silicon) detectors. They
usually also use a scintillator, but due their design allows a higher fill factor, resulting in higher
efficiency. Using fibre optics, the electronics can be oriented in a way that it can be shielded to
a certain amount from the X-radiation, resulting in less noise and longer lifetime of the elec tronics, especially at higher energies. A further advantage is that CMOS detectors have less
blooming. In conventional detectors image blooming occurs when individual pixels in the
detector are over-driven by direct radiation. This happens because the pixels deliver their sig nals to the electronic amplifiers along each row and column. When one or more pixels are overdriven the signals from all other pixels in that row and column can be affected causing blooming or streaks in the observed X-ray image. CMOS detectors eliminate this problem because
each pixel is amplified separately and their signals do not affect signals from adjoining pixels.
CMOS can also be used in combination with materials that instead of converting X-rays to light
directly use the electrons like CdTe or CdZnTe. In this case the detector usually has to be
cooled with a Peltier element.
Figure 12-50: CMOS detectors: open array (left) and application of an array digital pipe weld
radiography (iXimaging, cmosXray)
The various technologies are rather young and new developments coming up very frequently.
Some of the concepts will probably disappear after a while being technologically not competitive, too expensive or not rugged enough.
12.4.9
Neutron Detectors
Neutrons itself do not react with most of the standard detector systems for X-rays; various
converters can be applied. For films and IPs two methods exist: a direct method using con verter foils that are exposed together with the film, or a transfer method where such foils are
activated and expose the film or IP later. Converter foils mainly consists from gadolinium, dysprosium or indium and expose the film with the reaction products from the neutron bombardment like gamma or beta radiation or conversion electrons. Neutron sensitive IPs contain gadolinium as neutron absorber. The direct method is faster but has the disadvantage that the
usually also present X-radiation exposes the film or IP as well.
272
Figure 12-51: Film and converter foil (left), scintillator with CCD camera (PSI)
Another possibility is the use of a highly light sensitive camera system, cooled in most cases,
sensing the weak light emission from a neutron sensitive scintillator, containing lithium-6 or
gadolinium as neutron absorber. In this case the noise impact from X-radiation is smaller.
Further possibilities with flat panels and track-edge-foils exist.
12.5
Radiographic Techniques
12.5.1
Standard Radiographic Techniques

Standard radiographic techniques project the shadow image of the object onto a detector like
film, image plate, image intensifier, or flat panel. To reduce geometric unsharpness, with the
exception of microfocus radiography, one will always try to put the object as close to the
detector as possible. This also means that both sides of the object have to be accessible.
For flat features, e.g. cracks, it is important that the beam direction coincides with its orienta tion; a material separation like a crack will be not visible if projected perpendicular to its flanks,
as in this direction no material is missing. This can be especially relevant if lack of fusion at
weld flanks have to be detected with high reliability.
In some cases, typically for tubes, one has the choice to perform single wall or double wall
radiography. Single wall, here, would mean one part of the source detector system is inside the
tube, the other one outside, for double wall both parts are outside of the tube. For the double
wall technique by choice of the radiation direction the object can be projected in such a way,
that the operator can distinguish between parts that are near to the detector or not. A typical
application is the projection of a circular weld in form of an ellipse. Another influence for the
radiography of tubes is the difference in wall thickness that can be examined with the same
exposure. Standards give distinct information onto this point.
An advantage of radiography is that certain information about the part or the location can be
imaged together with the object by the use of lead letters, lead scales, etc.
12.5.2
Special Radiographic Techniques without Signal Processing

Especially for castings the difference in the penetrated wall thickness can be very large, so it
will be not possible to examine the part using on film only. In this case a double film technique
can be applied. Two (or more) films of the same or different speed are put together into the
same cassette and exposed during the same time. The films can be examined single or
together adding their optical density, thus increasing the accessible penetrated thickness.
Mainly used in connection with isotopes as radiographic sources is the panoramic exposure
technique. Several parts are put in a circle around the source and exposed at the same time. It
is even possible to interrupt the exposure to remove certain films and to proceed with the rest.
A further possibility is to adjust the distance of the parts to correct for different wall thickness.
Sometimes it is necessary to have more detailed information about the depths of certain fea tures or to have a three dimensional overview. If simple depth determination is needed a
double film parallax method can be used. Two images of the object are made with a lateral dis placement of the source a. Simply using the theorem of intersecting lines the distance of the
feature (measured from the detector side) d is given by
d=
bt
a+b
(12.18)
273
where b projected distance and t the distance between source and detector.
a
t
d
b
Figure 12-52: Schemas of standard radiography (left), single wall radiography of tubes showing
large differences in penetrated thickness dependent on position, and parallax method
Objects viewed with a normal pair of eyes appear in their true perspective and in their correct
spatial relation to each other, largely because of man's natural stereoscopic vision; each eye
receives a slightly different view and the two images are combined by the mental processes
involved in seeing to give the impression of three dimensions.
Because a single radiographic image does not possess perspective, it cannot give the impression of depth or indicate clearly the relative positions of various parts of the object along the
direction of vision. Stereo radiography requires two radiograms made from two positions of the
X-ray tube, separated by the normal inter-pupillary distance and viewed in a stereoscope. As in
ordinary vision, the brain fuses the two images into one in which the various parts stand out in
striking relief in true perspective and in their correct spatial relation.
The stereoscopic impression is much more distinct if the specimen has a well-defined structure
extending throughout its volume. If such a structure does not exist as, for example, in a flat
plate of homogeneous material, it is necessary to provide such a structure upon one or more
surfaces of the specimen. A widely spaced array of wires mounted on both front and rear surfaces of the specimen will generally suffice, or a similar pattern can be applied in the form of
cross lines of lead paint. In stereoscopic radiography, these added structures not only help to
secure satisfactory register of the two films but also serve as a reference marking for the loca tion of any details shown stereoscopically within the specimen.
The stereoscopic method is not often utilised in industrial radiography, but occasionally it can
be of some value in localizing defects or in visualizing the spatial arrangement of hidden structures.
12.5.3
Film Laminography and Film Tomography

Film laminography is no longer used nowadays and the film is replaced by a detector that
opens together with electronic signal processing much more possibilities. It is, however, a good
tool to understand the basics of the technique. The relative positions between source, object
and film are changed during the exposure in such a way, that only one plane of the object is
projected to the same position on the film during the whole time. All the other information is
daubed and of course influences the image quality also.
Figure 12-53: Schemas of film laminography (left) and film tomography

In the early beginning of tomography a flat part of the patient was projected onto a film band.
The patient then was turned a bit and the film was moved in order to image the next strip. In
the end the physicians were evaluating the film band. As the features are shown in their sinus oidal projection, that kind of image is called a sinogram. Direct film tomography was never
really used, as it performs an unfiltered back projection and the images are of poor intensity
resolution.
274
Figure 12-54: Unfiltered back projection: original image with two dedicated positions (left),
sinogram (showing the two positions) and unfiltered back projection having severe disadvantages in density reproduction
12.6
Tomographic Techniques
12.6.1
Computed Laminography
Computed laminography uses the same principle as film laminography. The advantage is that if
the data is once taken, it can be calculated back to any plane flat or in another shape. The
data can be taken in several ways. A simple method is to rotate the sample on an axis perpen dicular to the X-ray beam. In this case only one axis has to be manipulated, the resulting
image, however, can show some streaky artefacts perpendicular to the rotation axis. Another
method rotates the source and the detector synchronously on both sides of the object. This
leads to fewer artefacts as the signal is daubed into an area and not along a line.
x
Detector plane
y
Image
r"
plane
x
(x,y) = (x',y')
Rotation centre
(xo,yo) = (x'o,y'o)
r'
y'
x'
Figure 12-55: Schema of laminographic methods (Phoenix)
For the case with the single rotation axis the projection can be calculated by
x '=x cos+ysin
(12.19)
y '=x sin +y cos
(12.20)
x' '
r ''
=
x ' r '+y'
For the z direction similar calculations apply.
(12.21)
275
Figure 12-56: Computed laminogram of missing solder joints at a multilayer electronic device
(Empa)
12.6.2
Computed Tomography (CT)

Computed tomography allows calculating the structure of planes within an object. The received
information is the same as if the object would have been cut at the relevant position and radiographed as a slice. For all imaging methods using photons or particles from sources outside the
object the process is basically the same (X-ray, neutrons, microwaves), for magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) it is different.
X-ray tube
Collimator
Detector
1st generation
3rd generation
2nd generation
4th generation
Figure 12-57: Schema of various scanner generations

The object is imaged under a rotating angle onto a one or two dimensional detector. If the
object is too wide or the pixel density is too low, additional movements are necessary to fill the
gaps. From the mathematical principle it is not important if the source and detector or the
object are rotating. Medical scanners do the first, industrial scanner generally the latter, as
object manipulation is often easer to perform. Several different types of scanners exist; two
dimensional scanners are named after their generation:
276
First generation scanners are very slow but have a high spatial resolution due to simple
alignment;
Second generation scanners are used for industrial applications with higher energies and
higher resolution, the gaps between the detectors are necessary for shielding in order to
reduce cross-talk and noise due to Compton scattering;
Third generation scanners are used for medical and industrial applications;
Fourth generation scanners are expensive and have a full circle of detectors, due to their
speed some of them are able to acquire the data for tomographic films (electron beam
instead of tube is rotated) so they are practically only used for medical applications.
The construction of three dimensional scanners in general is third generation.
Figure 12-58: Industrial CT scanners (Empa, BIR)

Beam shutter
and slits
Sample handler
Standard detector
Figure 12-59: Micro CT station at SLS beam line 4S (left) and mountable in-situ mechanical
compression and staining device (IMCSD) (Empa)
Before being back projected, the acquired data have to be deconvolved. This is usually done in
spatial domain (in literature it is often described for frequency domain also, this, however, does
not correspond to reality). For discrete data it can be written as
Y =FX
or
nF
Y i = F jk+1 X k
with j = 1 .. nY
(12.22)
k=1
where X is the projection data, Y the result data and F the filter. Various mathematical filters
exist. Two often used are according to Shepp-Logan to emphasis contrast and RamachandranLakshiminarayanan (for obvious reasons called RamLak) to emphasis sharpness.
f SL =
fRL
2
2
2
(4n 1)
1
4
0
1
2 2
n
(12.23)
for n = 0
for n even, 0
(12.24)
for n odd
277
0.3
0.2
RamLak
0.1
Shepp-Logan
0
-0.1
-0.2
-6
-4
-2
Figure 12-60: Shepp-Logan and RamLak filters, for digital processing only the point values are
used, the lines are for better comparison only
Two main families of reconstruction algorithms have been developed for cone beam X-ray
tomography with circular source trajectories: the generalised filtered back projection method
(Feldkamp, L. et al., J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1 No. 6 (1984) pp. 612) and the 3D Radon transform
inversion (Grangeat P., CAR'85, Springer (1985) pp. 59). Grangeat algorithm provides a density accuracy within 1% for a cone aperture up to 24 while Feldkamp algorithm is reasonable
accurate within 2-3% for cone apertures below 20. On the other hand, along vertical planes;
the 3D back projection has a higher geometrical resolution because it does not filter along this
direction.
Figure 12-61: Tomography examples using good contrast or sharpness: new and used 9 V
alkaline battery (Zn/MnO2, left), neutron tomogram of a nautilus (Empa, PSI)
12.6.3
Beam Hardening Correction

If X-ray sources are used, beam hardening can appear. The reason for this effect is that the
weak part of the radiation is filtered out even at a short thickness by the photoelectric effect,
simulating a higher density at the edges compared to the inner parts of an object. For a given
system, the effect depends on the material, the denser it is, the more accented is the effect at
the edges. Four concepts exist to get rid of this effect:
278
Physical beam hardening filters, e.g. a brass plate of several millimetres within the
source collimator, reduce substantially the fraction of low energy radiation, they, however, also reduce the relevant photon flux;
The water-bag method the designation comes from medical applications uses a wrapping of a similar material around the object, thus pulling the most pregnant part of the
effect into a region which is not of interest, the diameter of the part increases and the
total useful photon flux is reduced as well;
Mathematical beam hardening correction during reconstruction simulating a monochromatic source, usually a 4 th degree polynomial, can be applied to the data; a wedge of the
same material is used to determine the parameters at a given tube voltage, usually the
method can be applied only if the sample consists of one single material;
Dual energy tomography is able to separate the attenuation due to the photoelectric
effect and the Compton effect, and therefore it can also be used for density measuring
techniques.
Beam hardening correction is of special importance if small density differences have to be

detected or for accurate measurements of the geometry.
Figure 12-62: Beam hardening effect on a silicon carbide sample with a diameter of 95 mm,
grey scale plot along the centre line (left), mathematically filtered image (Empa)
12.6.4
First Article Inspection, Rapid Prototyping and Reverse Engineering

First article inspection is used for the geometrical inspection of new products or products with a
changed processing root in casting and extrusion manufacturing. The data acquisition can be
done tactile, optical or with computed tomography, only the latter is able to resolve internal
structures without destroying the object. For computed tomography this step means that a full
3D data set with the required accuracy of the region of interest has to be acquired.
Tomograms
First article
part
Point cloud
CAD model
Comparison
Figure 12-63: First article inspection (Empa)

In a next step a point cloud of the surface information is generated and the amount of data is
reduced substantially. The information of this point cloud is then compared to the CAD data set
of the intended geometry and a deviation report is created. The critical point is the registration
of the two data sets that is to define a common coordinate system (five degrees of freedom)
useful for potential corrections.
Rapid prototyping and reverse engineering use the same steps up to the formation of the point
cloud. The final steps use a lot of brain ware and especially the generation of a CAD model a lot
of time.
279
12.6.5
Local Tomography
To achieve higher local resolution local tomography may be performed. The object is rotated
around the region of interest (ROI) and parts outside of it are suppressed for the reconstruction
(similarly to laminography). The spacing between source and detector needs to be large
enough and severe artefacts may result.
Figure 12-64: Comparison of global (left) and local tomography for a coated ceramic tube with
O.D. of 160 mm and a wall thickness of 5 mm; the global tomography results in a pixel size of
200 m (0.13% O.D.) , where the local tomography allows one of 60 m (0.04% O.D.) (Empa)
12.7
12.7.1
Determination of the Focal Spot Size

For the determination of the focal spot size various possibilities exist. EN 12543-1 to -5 series
describe them as:
Scanning method, using a shielded scintillation counter, is dedicated to those applications

where quantitative values for the intensity distributions and spot sizes are needed, that is
calibration and image processing purposes;
Pinhole camera radiographic method, using a kind of a camera obscura, can be used for
systems up to 500 kV, the applied voltage should not exceed 200 kV;
Slit camera radiographic system, same as above;
Edge method, determining the geometric unsharpness of an edge, as a very simple

method;
A method determining the geometric unsharpness of a tungsten ball using a microdensit ometer, designated for microfocus tubes.
With the exception of microfocus tubes, the focal spot should normally not change in shape.
The determination of the size of radiographic sources can be done by X-ray them according to
EN 12679. This is possible because the hard radiation of the isotope will less expose the film
than the softer radiation from an X-ray tube. The tricky thing is the timing between putting the
isotope in its position and turning the tube on and vice versa at the end of the exposure.
12.7.2
Controls Related to Film Radiography

If films are used the processing conditions have to be controlled on regular basis. This can be
done with films that were pre-exposed with a step wedge. The measured densities then are
compared to the nominal values. The archievability of a processed film can depend on its con tent of residual thiosulphate. This can be monitored comparing a colour reaction of a mixture of
silver nitrate and acetic acid with the exposed film with a colour table delivered by the producer.
280
Figure 12-65: Tools for controlling film development and residual thiosulphate content (GE IT)
Densitometers are used to determine the optical density of radiograms. Densitometers can be
calibrated by the user by setting the measured density values to the values of a certified refer ence film traceable to the national standard; thus reducing the allowed archiving time of such
reference films to five years.
Finally the film viewing equipment has to be checked upon a regular basis to ensure a uniform
illumination of the screen. This is done using an illuminance meter capable to measure such
high values.
12.7.3
Controls Related to Film-Less Radiography

The controls that have to be performed for film-less radiography are similar to the qualifying
issues on film scanners.
Special attention is needed as image intensifiers and flat panels show ageing that will influence
spatial and mainly contrast resolution and also generating dead pixels in flat panels. The
degrading can be different over the whole field of view. Special attention has to be paid if the
configuration of a system can be changed in its position as local magnetic fields (e.g. caused by
massive steel parts) can distort the electron path in image intensifiers or increased scattered
radiation can influence the electronic parts of cameras or flat panels.
12.7.4
Image Quality of Radiographs

The image quality can be directly compared and documented on the radiogram itself. Image
quality indicators (wire type or step/hole type) are put on the object, normally opposite to the
film position to simulate the worst case concerning unsharpness. The designation of the wire or
the hole that is just visible gives an indication on the quality. Image quality indicators (IQI) are
usually made from cooper (for cooper, zinc, tin and its alloys), steel, titanium and aluminium.
The wires have diameters from 3.2 mm (W1) down to 0.05 mm (W19), the holes have the
same diameter as the thickness of the plates, namely from 6.3 mm (H18) down to 0.125 mm
(H1). Wires and holes show an opposite direction in their denomination.
A third type of quality indicators uses duplex wires and is used to determine the image
unsharpness. The wire pairs are arranged with the same respective distance in between. The
wires have diameters from 0.8 mm (1D) down to 0.05 mm (13D) and consist from tungsten
(smallest three) and platinum.
BPK 462-1
W10 FE 25
BPK 462-2 H5 AL
Figure 12-66: Image quality indicator wire type EN 462-1 (left) and step/hole type EN 462-2
12.7.5
Secondary Radiation and Undercut

Secondary or scattered radiation must often be taken into consideration when generating
radiograms. The scattered photons create a loss of contrast and definition. Often secondary
radiation is thought of as radiation striking the film reflected from an object in the immediate
area, such as a wall, or from the table or floor where the part is laying on. Side scatter origin ates from walls or objects from the source side of the film. Control of side scatter can be
281
achieved by placing a collimator at the exit port, thus reducing the diverging radiation surrounding the central beam and collimating the beam as much as possible to the section under
examination. Other possibilities are to move objects away from the film or move the X-ray tube
to the centre of the vault. Collimating is especially useful to reduce the noise if detectors or
subsequent electronic parts as photo multiplier tubes could be affected.
Radiation coming from objects behind the film is called backscatter. Industry codes and standards often require that a lead letter "B" be placed on the back of the film cassette to verify the
control of backscatter. If the letter "B" shows as a fair "ghost" image on the film, the letter has
absorbed the backscatter radiation indicating a significant amount of radiation reaching the
film. Little backscatter is present if the letter B is not visible or as dark ghost (backscattered
radiation from the letter itself). Control of backscatter radiation is achieved by backing the cassette with sheets of lead.
Another condition that must often be controlled when producing a radiogram is called undercut.
Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt thickness changes are likely to suffer from undercut if
controls are not put in place. Undercut appears as lightening of the radiogram in the area of the
thickness transition. This results in a loss of resolution or blurring at the transition area. Undercut occurs mainly due to scattering within the film. At the edges of a part or areas where the
part transitions from thick to thin, the intensity of the radiation reaching the film is much
greater than in the thicker areas of the part. The high level of radiation intensity reaching the
film results in a high level of scattering within the film. It should also be noted that the faster
the film speed, the more undercut that is likely to occur. Masks are used to control undercut.
Sheets of lead cut to fill holes or surround the part and metallic shot and liquid absorbers are
often used as masks.
12.8
12.8.1
Procedure
12.8.2
Examination zones, film or IP position plan;
Radiographic or radioscopic technique and class;
Examination equipment (source and detector type, filters and screens, etc.);
Minimum image quality indicator reading;
Special restrictions due to radiation protection.
Record
For reproducible testing (technical aspects only) the following is necessary, if applicable:
Radiation source, type and size of focal spot and equipment used;
Tube voltage and current or source activity;
Selected film or IP systems, screens, filters and type of processing or type of detector;
Development details or manufacture, serial number and firmware version of IP reader;
Time of exposure or integration time;
Source-to-film or source-to-detector distance, magnification;
Nominal penetrated thickness;
Type and position of image quality indicators;
Reading of image quality indicators and minimum film density or S/N ratio.
Films (if used) are an important part of such an investigation, the responsibility for their stor age should be agreed in advance.
282
Figure 12-67: Example of an RT test record for welds and X-ray source (Empa)
283
Figure 12-68: Example of an RT test record for castings and isotope source (Empa)
12.9
12.9.1
Compton Backscatter Technique

Compton backscatter technique detects the backscattered photons of lower energy X-rays
(Klein-Nishina). Using an adequate collimation system it is possible to gain information about
the depths of the origin of the scattering, the information has to be calculated to an image.
284
Source
Line detector
Collimators
Compton
backscatter
photons
Primary beam
Figure 12-69: Schema of Compton backscatter technique, to generate an image, the equipment has to be moved relative to the object
Figure 12-70: Compton backscatter application at an aircraft wing at Jet Aviation Basel (left)
demonstration panel with various voids (Yxlon)
It is only applicable for materials with low density, as the scattered radiation needs to penet rate back through the surface again. The advantages of this technique are that it is applied
from one side only and that it gives automatically information about the depths of a flaw. It is
primarily used in air plane maintenance.
12.9.2
Absorption Edge Scanning

For certain applications it can be very useful to tune the energy in such a way that certain elements show clear contrasts, hitting their K absorption edge (or other inner shells). Energy tun ing, however, is possible with monochromators only, and due to flux reasons this can usually
only be used on synchrotrons.
285
10.8 keV
11.8 keV
14.5 keV
Os
Au
Os
Au
Au
Figure 12-71: K-edge tomography on bundles of PET filaments ( 20 m) settled with human
foreskin fibroblasts after staining with gold and fixation in OsO4, visible is especially the difference between 10.8 keV (Os L3 edge) and 11.8 keV (Au L3 edge), for 14.5 keV the absorption
for both elements is equal, pixel size 3.5 m (Empa)
12.9.3
Phase Contrast Radiography

For certain applications the amplitude contrast is that small that an examination is not possible.
In such cases sometimes phase contrast radiography can be of help. Like in optical applications, the part of the beam penetrating the object has a phase difference due to slightly
reduced particle velocity in material. Phase contrast radiography can be performed with poly chromatic radiation, the usual applications today, however, are done with monochromatic radiation. Future generations of detectors will allow easier applications with polychromatic radiation.
In an LLL-interferometer the original beam is split. A phase shifter can adjust the phase difference of the two beams to optimum conditions. To reduce the phase shift modulated by the
sample, it is often put into a liquid with similar properties; the reference beam, in this case, is
penetrating the liquid as well. Tomographic applications are possible. The method is limited by
the interferometer crystals.
(E)
(H)
(D)
(G)
(C)
(B)
(F)
(A)
Figure 12-72: Schema of phase contrast radiography: (A) original beam, (B) LLL-interferometer with four mirrors, (C) phase shifter, (D) beam stopper, (E) sample, (F) optional reference sample, (G) beam containing interference information, (H) detector
Figure 12-73: Amplitude and phase contrast radiograms of a mimosa (Elettra)

Differential phase-contrast imaging can be performed on a Talbot-Lau interferometer with a
phase grating as beam splitter and an amplitude grating as analyser. This method can be per286
formed on a non-coherent X-ray tube. The limit is the production of the gratings. With tomo graphic methods it is possible to calculate the absorption coefficient, the refraction index and
the scattering coefficient (dark field) for every location in a 3D space.
Figure 12-74: Perpendicular tomographic views of a carbon fibre reinforced polymer spring.
From left: differential absorption, differential phase and dark field image (Empa)
12.9.4
Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA or DXA, Dual-emission X-ray absorptiometry) is a
technique widely used for medical applications, mostly in the context of calcification of lesions
and osteoporosis. Photons of different energies are attenuated differently by bones and soft tis sue. Originally dual energy absorptiometry was developed using gadolinium 153 (44 and 100
keV peaks) in combination with photon counting. With an X-ray tube there are two possibilities:
with a filter that generates two energy dependent peaks, or by a rotating disc that measure the
absorption for each pixel after the beam has passed first through a known soft tissue equival ent filter and then through a known bone equivalent filter. The precision is given by 1% or less.
Analogous applications for industrial products are conceivable, for radiography as well as for
tomography.
A similar approach is used in some systems for security purposes. The image is scanned with
one X-ray tube (usually 70 kV) and two detectors with different efficiency ranges (e.g. CsI and
ZnSe) and additional filters to reduce to low energy ratio on one of them. This allows a certain
distinction between low, medium and high Z material, or within this context organic, inorganic
and overlapping material. Other systems use two X-ray tubes (usually 70 and 140 kV) in serial
mode.
Dual or multiple energy radiography can also be performed tomographic.
Figure 12-75: DEXA with normal image (left), soft tissue and bone image
(GE Medical)
287
Figure 12-76: Grey scale and colour coded image used for security controls, orange: organic,
blue: inorganic, green: overlapping material (Heimann)
12.9.5
Electron Radiography and Autoradiography

In electron radiography the object itself behaves as a metal screen. The film is exposed to the
generated electrons originating from features within or on the object. A close contact between
sample and film is necessary, so this technique is mainly used for flat objects. To reduce the
exposure of the film of low energy X-rays, the radiation is generally very strongly filtered, using
a copper - aluminium combination (sequence seen from the source side) of typically 5 mm
thickness, each. Electron radiography is a standard procedure to find and compare watermarks.
Cu Al filter
Cassette with
object and film
Figure 12-77: Schema of electron radiography (left) and application on a watermark with bull's
head, cross and curved muzzle (www.kb.nl/kb/resources/frameset_inlichtingen-en.html)
In autoradiography the object is in a first step activated by neutrons and then put into close
contact with a film or an image plate. For biological applications the object can also be activated by radioactive contrast agents. Beneath biology, this technique is often used for art
investigations.
288
Figure 12-78: Rembrandt, Tobit and Anna with the Kid (detail), 1626, Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum: visual image (left) and auto-radiogram, the difference that is recognised best is the
lower left spinning wheel, missing in the visual image
(parallel.park.org/Netherlands/pavilions/culture/rembrandt/invisible)
12.9.6
Emission Techniques
Mainly for medical applications radioisotopes can actively be applied to certain regions of the
body. Known are two techniques: scintigraphy and in its three-dimensional layout single photon
emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET). In both
cases radioisotopes are used as markers in substances like sugars.
Scintigraphy and SPECT need a strong collimation of the detector, 99.99% of the original signal
gets lost. As tracer Tc-99m is often used, where the production and decay chain is:
Slit camera radiographic system, same as above;
Mo-98 + n Mo-99
(reactor)
Mo-99 Tc-99m + -
(T = 66 h)
Tc-99m Tc-99 +
(analysed decay, T = 6 h, 140 keV)
Tc-99 Ru-99 + -
(T = 211'000 y)
The critical step is the continuous production of Mo-99, as only a few reactors world-wide are
enabled for such operation.
Figure 12-79: SPECT equipment for head investigations (South Western University)
For PET a + decay is necessary. The resulting two photons of the annihilation process are
detected more or less simultaneously and lead to a line of response (LOR) when the two measured signals are within about 10 ns. As they are not exactly emitted 180 apart, the line has a
289
certain width. The detectors are arranged in circles. As the number of detected events in much
lower than in conventional CT, the resolution is poorer and reconstruction techniques are more
difficult.
Figure 12-80: Schema of a PET acquisition process (Langner)

If it possible to reduce the resolving time of the detectors to about 500 ps, the line can be
reduced to a chord. Some sources in this case use the depiction tracer concentration imaging in
4D.
Two of the most used radioisotopes are F-18 and Ga-68 with the following production and
decay chains:
O-18 + p F-18 + n
(local cyclotron 15 MeV protons)
F-18 O-18 + +
(analysed decay, T = 110 min, 2 511 keV)
Ge-68 Ga-68 + +
(local Ga-68 generator, T = 271 d)
Ga-68 Zn-68 + +
(analysed decay, T = 68 min, 2 511 keV)
and
The decay products O-18 and Zn-68, respectively, are stable.

As the used substances also show a biological decay, the effective half live is slightly lower.
Theoretically such processes can also be used for the investigation of technical processes.
Figure 12-81: Example of a PET scan

12.9.7
X-Ray Flash Technique

X-ray flash technique makes sense if processes that happen very fast have to be observed. In
most applications this is the case for explosions or related processes like ballistic and impact
290
behaviour of projectiles or air bag operations. For certain basic research like high speed
deformation of materials or shock wave behaviour it can also be of use. The usual equipment
for such experiments is quite unique. A further, not less unique possibility for the X-ray genera tion is the use of plasma implosions.
Figure 12-82: X-ray flash images of a projectile impact (left) and insects as a demonstration of
the capability of the plasma based X-ray flash generation (Fraunhofer EMI, Cornell University)
12.9.8
X-Ray Refractometry
For some applications it is useful not to measure the shadow projection of an object, but to
determine the amount of refracted photons into certain directions. This will rather result in an
overview over the damage situation in certain parts of the object than in detailed information
about single flaws.
Figure 12-83: X-ray refraction equipment with two detector cameras, the vertical one is fed
over a scattering foil, not the object itself (left), example image of the refraction intensity of a
polymer sample before and after fatigue testing (BAM)
12.10
Radiation Protection
12.10.1 Fundamentals
In Switzerland, as in other nations, the fundamentals for radiation protection are determined by
the law. The respective laws and ordinances can be found under chapter 814.5 of the system atic collection (SR) on http://www.admin.ch. The regulations concerning transportation are
under 741.6 and the international regulations under 0.814.5 and 0.741.6, respectively. The
systematic collection is administrated in the Swiss governmental languages.
Basically the Swiss laws and ordinances are in accordance with the recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), http://www.icrp.org. In addition,
Switzerland as member of the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC EURATOM) has to
overtake also their directives. Some further information is available from the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), http://www.iaea.org.
291
For the operation of equipment discharging ionising radiation a permission of the Swiss Federal
Office for Public Health (BAG), http://www.bag.admin.ch is necessary. Technical support is
given by the Swiss National Accidence Insurance Organisation, SUVA Pro, http://www.suva.ch.
12.10.2 Dose Rates and Limitations
Table 12-6: Radiological units, the radiation weighting factor wR for photons and electrons of
any energy is 1, for alpha particles 20, for protons and pions 2, and for neutrons dependent on
the energy between 5 and 20
Designation
Symbol
Unit
Conversion
Activity
Becquerel [Bq]
1 Bq = 1 s-1
Absorbed dose
Gray [Gy]
1 Gy = 1 J kg-1
Equivalent dose
Sievert [Sv]
1 Sv = 1 J kg-1
H = D wR
Effective dose
Sievert
E = H wT
Dose rate
Sievert / hour
The tissue weighting factor wT describes the effect of radiation onto the different organs, for all
all of them they add to 1 (whole body dose).
The allowed additional dose rate for persons that are not exposed to ionising radiation due to
their profession is limited to 1 mSv per year (whole body). This value has to be compared with
the averaged exposition due to natural and technical sources.
Medical diagnosis lead to an accumulation of:
Dental radiogram: 0.01 mSv;
Cranial radiogram: 0.1 mSv;
Abdominal radiogram: 0.5 mSv;
Mammography: 0.7 mSv;
Abdominal tomogram (series): 10 mSv.

Cosmic radiation
Other
(0.35 mSv)
(0.2 mSv)
Terrestric radiation
(0.45 mSv)
Medical applications
(1.2 mSv)
Internal
(0.4 mSv)
Radon in buildings
(3.2 mSv)
Figure 12-84: Averaged dose per year and person in Switzerland, total 5.8 mSv
Persons that are exposed due to their profession may accumulate a maximum additional dose
rate of 20 mSv per year. Such persons are under regular medical supervision and need to wear
a dosimeter when working in controlled areas. Thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD) usually
are read out at regular intervals by a third party (Suva, PSI or others). They consist or LiF, a
substance that is similar to biological tissue and emit light dependent on the achieved dose
when heated above 250 C.
292
Figure 12-85: Types of individual dosimeters: thermoluminescence (TLD) type (left), wand type
and electronic type with acoustic alarm function (Pedos, Melit)
For the measurement of the dose rate several possibilities exist, the lower energy limit and the
range must be selected according to the measuring purpose.
Table 12-7: Types of dose rate measuring instruments (X- and gamma rays)
Lower energy limit
[keV]
Range
6 10
up to 10 Sv/h
Proportional
25
0.1 Sv/h 0.1 Sv/h
Geiger-Mller (GM)
60
0.1 Sv/h 1 Sv/h
50
from 0.01 Sv/h
Type
Ionisation chamber
Tubes
Scintillation counter
Geiger-Mller tube
Ionisation chamber
V
Gas (p < po)

Anode
Counter
Mica
window
Volume
Scintillation counter
PMT
Counter
Visible light
Photocathode
Figure 12-86: Sketch of a Geiger-Mller tube, ionisation chamber and scintillation counter
293
Figure 12-87: Equipment for dose rate measurement and warning, neutron detector (right)
(AEA, Canberra)
There are currently three elements in the system of dose limitation recommended by ICRP,
namely justification, optimisation and dose limitation. Justification means that any proposed
activity that may cause exposure to persons should yield a sufficient benefit to society to justify
the risks incurred by the radiation exposure. This feature is based on the assumption that any
radiation exposure, no matter how small, carries with it a certain level of risk that is proportional to the level of exposure. This hypothesis is known as the linear non-threshold hypothesis
(LNT). An example of an activity that was considered unjustified was the now-discontinued
practice of fitting shoes to people's feet in pedoscopes using X-rays. The exposure resulting
from this activity was considered to be unjustified and the practice was discontinued. The
second element is optimisation, which is also known as the practice of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). This means that the radiation exposures resulting from the practice must
be reduced to the lowest level possible considering the cost of such a reduction in dose. ALARA
is required by nearly all licensing agencies. This feature is also based on the LNT. The third element is dose limitation. This involves setting upper limits on the dose that may be received by
any member of the public from all man-made exposures other than medical exposures. These
limits are imposed by regulatory agencies as discussed above.
12.10.3 Possibilities of Restrictions against Radiation
Basically three concepts are useful to restrict the amount of radiation: distance, time and
shielding.
The local dose rate depends on the square of the distance
J=Jo
r
r 2o
(12.25)
Keeping distance is especially effective for small absolute distances; e.g. using a gripper
instead of the hand directly. But also the step from 5 m to 7 m reduces the radiation by a
factor of two.
Time has a linear effect on the dose. It would help to hurry when being within a dangerous
zone, however, the danger to do mistakes then is often much more dangerous. The method
that helps more is think first act later.
It makes a clear difference if the dose rate is calculated for the direct beam or for scattered
radiation. Simple disc calculators are available to determine the relation between source parameters, distance and time. For scattered radiation the relevant distance is always also that one
to the source.
Two calculation examples: in both cases the work is done outside of a radiation room and in
both cases one can assume, that the additional dose due to this work will be the only one for
this week. If it is clear that persons are not permanently in the area of danger (outside of build ings) the maximum dose is 0.1 mSv per week; while if this is not the case (usually inside buildings) the dose is reduced to 0.02 mSv per week. The minimum time has always be set to one
hour.
In the first case the source is iridium 192 with an activity of 3.0 TBq. Absolute collimation is difficult, so the unshielded primary beam can leak. The exposure of all films takes 90 minutes.
The controlled zone will have a distance from the source of 76 m (!) in direction of the primary
beam and 16 m in all others.
294
In the second case a 150 kV X-ray tube is used within a building. It can be placed in such a
way, that it points to the ground. The total current time is 5 mA for 25 minutes. Note: min imum time is one hour, the radius of the zone within buildings has to be multiplied by 5. The
controlled zone in this case has a radius of 18 m. Therefore, such work is usually done outside
working hours.
The controlled zone has to be supervised by two trained operators for the whole radiation time.
It has to be pointed out, that this zone is not only relevant in horizontal direction, but also in
the vertical one. This has to be accounted for especially on construction sites (workers on other
levels, cranes, etc.).
Shielding, finally, can be done very effectively, however, it uses some technical effort and is
usually not easy applicable for mobile missions.
Figure 12-88: Examples for warning signs for radiation protection, general sign (left), designation of a radiation location and information tag for the transport on radioactive substances
(SUVA)
12.10.4 Shielding of X-Rays
The dimensions of a shielding are usually expressed in the number half value layers n2 or tenth
value layers n10 that reduces the radiation intensity to the half or to a tenth, respectively.
J=
Jo
2
n2
or
J=
Jo
n10
10
with
n2 = 3.3 n10
(12.26)
The respective layer thickness is dependent on the photon energy. Usually the values are given
for the tube voltage and for lead. Conversion tables are used to calculate the half value layers
for other materials, also dependent on the tube voltage.
300
3.5
Lead equivalent [mm]
Lead half value layer [mm]
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
Gypsum
250
200
Solid brick
150
Concrete
100
Steel Barite
concrete
50
0
0
0
100
200
300
400
Tube voltage [kV]
500
100
200
300
400
500
Tube voltage [kV]
Figure 12-89: Half value layer for lead for varying tube voltage (left) and equivalent thickness
for construction materials, reading example: for a tube voltage of 300 kV, the half value layer
for concrete would roughly be 120 mm
It makes a clear difference if the shielding is against the primary beam or against scattered
radiation. If the source is not clearly fixed and cannot only radiate into one predefined direction
(e.g. computed tomography scanners), the shielding layout of the whole installation has to be
done considering the primary beam. The scattering factor f also depends on the tube voltage
between 0.1% at 50 kV and 0.4% at 300 kV. For the primary beam the factor is 1.
295
Finally the efficiency of the tube, also dependent on the tube voltage, has to be included in
form of the X-ray constant hx. Such the dose rate and the dose can be calculated from
J=
I hx f
r2 F
and
H=
I t hx f
r2 F
(12.27)
where r is the distance, I the current of the tube and F is the relation between the unshielded
and the shielded dose rate.
Well approximated values for the X-ray constant for copper filtered tubes are given by
hx =
U
X
(12.28)
X-ray constant [mSv m2 h-1 mA-1]
where U is the maximum tube voltage in kV and X is a constant of 50 for full wave rectified and
75 for direct current voltage supply. This rule of thumbs gives a value in mSv m 2 h-1 mA-1.
Tubes with beryllium filtering (especially tubes for structural analysis like residual stress measurement) have rather higher X-ray constants. Further details can be taken from DIN 54113-3
(in German).
4000
3000
2000
Full wave
1000
Direct current
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Tube voltage [kV]

Figure 12-90: Calculated X-ray constant dependence on tube voltage, measured points with
0.5 mm copper filtering
Due to scattering and build-up effects simple calculations often give only approximations and
have to be confirmed by measurements.
12.10.5 Shielding of Gamma Rays
For gamma rays scattering is assumed to be constant at 4.5%. The equivalent dose rate h 10
[mSv m2 h-1 GBq-1] corresponds to a dose rate at a depth of 10 mm in biological tissue. The
values for any isotope can be found in the federal ordinance Strahlenschutzverordnung, SR
814.501, appendix 3, column 6.
With A as the activity of the source the dose rate and dose are given by
J=
296
A h10 f
r2 F
and
H=
A t h10 f
r2 F
(12.29)
Table 12-8: Equivalent dose rate in mSv m2 h-1 GBq-1 and half value layers in mm for common
isotope sources, *) thulium 170 also emits two high energy -particles that can be partly reabsorbed in the pellet, so a continuous background bremsstrahlung with a maximum of 0.9
MeV and a mean of 0.16 MeV is emitted; the relative intensity of this background and therefore
all HVL depend on the physical size of the source and the given values are indicative only, **)
americium 241 is usually used in americium-beryllium neutron sources, the given values represent the gamma fraction only
Isotope
h10
Uranium
Lead
Steel
Concrete
Water
Co-60
0.366
12
20
61
135
Cs-137
0.092
15
49
94
Ir-192
0.131
13
41
58
Se-75
0.064
0.45
1.4
7.4
29
51
Yb-169
0.061
0.3
0.6
10
20.5
Tm-170 *)
0.001
0.15
0.3
1.8
5.7
12.1
Am-241 **)
0.019
0.1
0.2
1.2
3.9
8.2
12.10.6 Shielding of Neutrons

The shielding of neutrons is best done with materials containing hydrogen; the following table,
therefore, gives a magnitude only.
Table 12-9: Tenth value layer (TVL) of neutrons in cm
Water
Paraffin
Direct neutrons
1st TVL
15
25
following TVLs
10
16
13
Scattered neutrons
12.11
Concrete
Barite concrete
Steel
Lead
47
37

Radiography is probably the most complete non-destructive evaluation method. It is non-contacting, it can be applied to basically all materials and it does not rely on the outer shape or on
the surface quality.
The attraction of radiography may be based on the fact that in most cases the results are given
in form of an image with a content that is more or less understandable to the public. As most
people have seen (medical) radiographs before, they feel immediately familiar with the
method. A second reason for the popularity may be that radiography has been an imaging
method since the discovery of X-rays (in opposite e.g. to ultrasonics or eddy current).
The unbeatable advantage of radiography is not, as a lot of people would say, that with a film
they have something in hand, as the film can get lost, destroyed and will lose quality due to
ageing anyway; the real advantage is that an IQI can simultaneously be imaged onto the film
or the electronic image allowing an immediate control of the quality of the exposure.
For the time being for welds film radiography is still the only technique fulfilling the requested
resolution. In the next future imaging plates and flat panels with a similar quality will come to
market and then the question if film or film-less will have to be answered differently. The
answer will mainly rely on costs, time and reliability. For the moments it seems that the latter
could be very dominant, as long term experiences with imaging plates and flat panels under
industrial conditions are still missing. The first generation of flat panels had the severe drawback that their lifetime turned out to be very limited.
The use of computed tomography outside of the laboratory and for special purposes only is in
progress. Increased computer power makes it possible to have such devices directly in the pro duction line. The missing part for the moment are areal detectors that can handle higher X-ray
energies over long time and with an acceptable signal/noise ratio, where the noise is mainly
generated by scattered radiation. Another approach could be to live with the scattered radiation
297
and to find ways to eliminate their influence mathematically. The use of hybrid arrays with
detectors that are sensitive to different energy ranges could be one step in this direction.
In the microfocus domain the main steps for the moment are probably reached. The technique
is well established, mainly in electronics manufacturing.
In the research field the possibilities of synchrotron radiation and powerful neutron sources just
opened a wide range of applications. Probably the reachable resolution is less attractive than
the possibilities of in-situ altering the object and studying resulting effects real-time in 3D and
tuning the energy of the radiation to a range with maximum contrast.
The overall disadvantage of radiography, the inherit connection to radiation protection, will be
unchanged and an issue to live with.
298
299
13
APPENDIX
13.1
Literature
13.1.1
Selected Books
Bauer, N.: Guideline for Industrial Image Processing, Fraunhofer-Allianz Vision, ISBN
3816762964, ISSN 16181565 , electronically: http://www.vision.fraunhofer.de (further booklets in German only)
Birolini, A.: Zuverlssigkeit von Gerten und Systemen, Springer 1997, ISBN 4540609970,
Reliability Engineering Theory and Practice, Springer, 2004, ISBN 354040287X (English version is more complete)
Blitz, J. and Simpson, G.: Ultrasonic Methods of Non-Destructive Testing, Chapman & Hall,
1996, ISBN 0412604701
Blumich, B.: NMR Imaging of Materials, Oxford, 2000, ISBN 9780198506836 or 019850683X
Bray, D.E. and Stanley, R.K.: Nondestructive Evaluation A Tool in Design, Manufacturing and
Service, CRC Press, 1996, ISBN 0849326559
Cartz, L.: Nondestructive Testing, ASM, 1995, ISBN 0871705176
Charlesworth, J.P. and Temple, J.A.G.: Engineering Applications of Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight
Diffraction, Research Studies Press, 2001, ISBN 0863802397
Cheecke, J.D.N.: Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves, CRC Press, 2002, ISBN
0849310300
Deutsch, V., Morgner, W., Vogt, M.: Magnetpulver-Rissprfung Grundlagen und Praxis, Castell, 2012, ISBN 9783934255517
Deutsch, V. and co-authors: NDT compact and understandable, 13 information booklets, Castell (also available in German)
Fowler, K.A., Hutchkiss, F.H.C., Yamartino, T.V., Nelligan, T.: Important Characteristics of
Sound Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers, Web Version 2012, electronically: http://www.olympusims.com/en/knowledge
Hellier, C.: Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0070281211, also
available as CD-ROM
Jol, H.M.: Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications, Elsevier, 2008, ISBN
0444533486
Kak, A.C. and Slaney, M.: Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging, Society of Industrial
and
Applied
Mathematics,
2001,
ISBN
089871494X,
electronically:
http://www.slaney.org/pct
Klyuev, V.V. and Zusman, G.V.: Nondestructive Testing and Diagnostics, RSNTTD and Metrix
Instrument Co., 2004
Kolobrodov, V.G.
352740130X
and
Schuster,
N.:
Infrarotthermographie,
Wiley-VCH,
1999,
ISBN
Langenberg, K.-H., Markelin, R., Mayer, K.: Theoretische Grundlagen der zerstrungsfreien
Materialprfung mit Ultraschall, Oldenbourg, 2009, ISBN 9783486588811
Lthi, Th.: Essais Non Destructives, in: Degallaix, S. and Ilschner B. (Edts.): Trait des Matriaux Vol. 2, Caractrisation Exprimentale des Matriaux I: Proprits physiques, thermiques et
mcanicques, PPUR, 2007, ISBN 9782880745677, pp. 353 - 391
Maldague, X.P.V.: Theory and Practice of Infrared Technology for Nondestructive Testing,
Wiley, 2001, ISBN 0471181900
Mittleman, D.: Sensing with Terahertz Radiation, Springer, 2003, ISBN 3540431101
Natterer, F.; Wbbeling, F.: Mathematical Methods in Image Reconstruction, SIAM, 2001, ISBN
0898714729
Neumann, E. et al.: Ultraschallprfung von austenitischen Plattierungen, Mischnhten und austenitischen Schweissnhten, Expertverlag, 1995, ISBN 316910785, partly electronically in English: http://www.ndt.net/publicat/bibliog/expert.htm
Olympus: Introduction to Phasd Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications, Olympus, 2007 ISBN
0973593342, electronically: http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/books/
300
Olympus: Advances in Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications, Olympus, 2007, ISBN
0973593342, electronically: http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/books/
Olympus: Phased Array Testing: Basic Theory for Industrial Applications, Olympus, 2010, electronically: http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/books/
Pastorino, M.: Microwave Imaging, Wiley, 2010, ISBN 9780470278000
Rastogi, P.K. (Ed): Optical Measurement Techniques and Applications, Artech House, 1997,
ISBN 0890065160
Rastogi, P.K. and Inaudi, D. (Eds): Trends in Optical Nondestructive Testing, Elsevier, 2000,
ISBN 0080430201
Richter, H.U.: Chronik der Zerstrungsfreien Prfung, DGZfP, 1999, ISBN 3871559423
Rose, J.L.: Ultrasonic Waves in Solid Media, Cambridge, 1999, ISBN 0521640431
Sansalone, M.J. and Streett, W.B.: Impact-Echo: Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete and
Masonry, Bullbrier, 1997, ISBN 0961261064
Setter, N. (Ed.): Piezoelectric Materials in Devices, EPFL, 2002, ISBN 2970034603
Shull, P.J.: Nondestructive Evaluation Theory, Techniques and Applications, Dekker, 2002,
ISBN 0824788729, CD-ROM 0824743164
Stadthaus, M. et al.: Theoretical Principles of Liquid Penetrant Testing, DVS, 1999, ISBN
3871559431
Stroppe, H. and
9783934255494
Schiebold,
K.:
Wirbelstrom-Materialprfung,
Castell,
2011,
ISBN
Vlaardingerbroek, M.T. and den Boer, J.A.: Magnetic Resonance Imaging Theory and Practice,
Springer, 2003, ISBN 3540436812
Wenzel, H.: Health Monitoring of Bridges, Wiley, 2009, ISBN 9780470031755
Nondestructive Testing Handbook; 3rd Edition, Vol. 1 Leak Testing, ASNT, 1998, ISBN
1571170715, CD-ROM 1571170383 (errata available from http://www.asnt.org)
ibid.: Vol. 2 Liquid Penetrant Testing, ASNT, 1999, ISBN 1571170286, CD-ROM 1571170391
(errata available from http://www.asnt.org)
ibid.: Vol. 3 Infrared and Thermal Testing, ASNT, 2001, ISBN 1571170448, CD-ROM
1571170812
ibid.: Vol. 4 Radiographic Testing, ASNT, 2002, ISBN 1571170456, CD-ROM 1571170987
ibid.: Vol. 5 Electromagnetic Testing, ASNT, 2004, ISBN 1571170464 (incl. CD-ROM) (errata
available from http://www.asnt.org)
ibid.: Vol. 6 Acoustic Emission Testing, ASNT, 2005, ISBN 1571171061, CD-ROM 1561171371
ibid.: Vol. 7 Ultrasonic Testing, ASNT, 2007, ISBN 1571171054, CD-ROM 151171634 (errata
(2) available from http://www.asnt.org)
ibid.: Vol. 8 Magnetic Testing, ASNT, 2008, ISBN 0931403030, CD-ROM 9781571171634
ibid.: Vol. 9 Visual Testing, ASNT, 2010, ISBN 9781571171863, CD-ROM 9781571171863
ibid.: Vol. 10 NDT Overview, ASNT, 2012, ISBN 9781571171870, CD-ROM 9781571172341
Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation (QNDE), proceedings of the
annual conferences, abstracts partially electronically under
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/qnde/qnde.html
Further sources see also the web sites of the NDT societies and http://www.ndt.net.
13.1.2
Selected Journals
Contrles Essais Mesures, quarterly, http://www.sogicommunication.com, ISSN 1637-4657
Insight, irregular, The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing, BINDT, http://www.bindt.org, ISSN 1354-2575 (ISI-Rating: SCIE)
Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, quarterly, Kluwer, http://www.wkap.nl, ISSN 0195-9298
(ISI-Rating: SCI)
301
Journal of Testing and Evaluation, bimonthly, ASTM International, http://www.astm.org, ISSN

0090-3973 (ISI-Rating: SCI)
Materialprfung, monthly, Hanser, http://www.hanser.de, ISSN 0025-5300 (ISI-Rating: SCIE)
Materials Evaluation, monthly, American Society for
http://www.asnt.org, ISSN 0025-5327 (ISI-Rating: SCIE)
Nondestructive
Testing,
ASNT,
NDT & E International, bimonthly, Elsevier, http://www.elsevier.nl, ISSN 0963-8695 (ISI-Rating: SCI)
Research in Nondestructive Evaluation, quarterly, Springer, http://www.springer-ny.com or
http://www.asnt.org, ISSN 0934-9847 (ISI-Rating: SCI)
Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing (English translation of ), monthly,
Maik Nauka, http://www.maik.rssi.ru, ISSN 1061-8309 (ISI-Rating: SCIE)
Technical Acoustics, completely electronically under http://webcenter.ru/~eeaa/ejta/, ISSN
0869-4583
The e-Journal of Nondestructive Testing & Ultrasonics, monthly, completely electronically under
http://www.ndt.net, ISSN 1435-4934
Ultrasonics, monthly, Elsevier, http://www.elsevier.nl, ISSN 0041-624X, (ISI-Rating: SCI)
ZfP-Zeitung, quarterly, German, Austrian and Swiss Society for Nondestructive Testing, DGZfP,
GfZP, SGZP, http://www.dgzfp.de, ISSN 1616-069X
302
13.2
Web Sites
13.2.1
NDT Societies
www.efndt.org
EFNDT - European Federation for Nondestructive Testing
www.icndt.org
ICNDT - International Committee for Non Destructive Testing
www.abende.org.br
ABENDE - Associao Brasileira de Ensiaos No Destrutivos
www.aend.org
AEND - Asociacin Espaola de Ensayos No Destructivos
www.aindt.com.au
AINDT - Australian Institute for Non Destructive Testing
www.aipnd.it
AIPnD - Associazione Italiana Prove non Distruttive
www.aroend.ro
ARoENd - Asociatia Romana de Examinari Nedistructive
www.asnt.org
ASNT - American Society for Nondestructive Testing
www.bant.be
BANT - Belgian Association for Non Destructive Testing
www.bindt.org
BINDT - The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing
nntdd.hit.bg
BGSNDT - Bulgarian Society for Nondestructive Testing
www.chsndt.com
CHSNDT - Chinese Society for Nondestructive Testing
www.cinde.ca
CINDE - Canadian Institute for Nondestructive Evaluation
www.cndt.cz
CNDT - esk spolenost pro nedestruktivn testovn
www.cofrend.com
COFREND - Confdration Franaise pour les essais non-destructifs
www.hdkbr.hr
CrSNDT - Hrvatsko drutvo za kontrolu bez razaranja
www.dgzfp.de
DGZfP - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr zerstrungsfreie Prfung
www.ndtsweden.com
FOP - Freningen fr Ofrstrande Provning
www.hsnt.gr
HSNT -
www.isnt.org.in
ISNT - Indian Society for Non-Destructive Testing
wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jsndi
JSNDI - Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection
www.kint.nl
KINT - Nederlandse Vereniging voor Kwaliteitstoezicht, Inspectie en

Niet-destructieve Techniek
www.lnbd.lt
LNBD Lietuvos neardomj bandym ir technins diagnostikos

draugija
www.marovisz.hu
MAROVISZ - Magyar Roncsolsmentes Vizsglati Szvetsg
www.ndt.no
Norsk Forening for Ikke-destruktiv Prving
www.ndta.org.nz
NZNDTA New Zealand Non Destructive Testing Association
www.oegfzp.at
GfZP - sterreichische Gesellschaft fr zerstrungsfreie Prfung
www.ptbnidt.pl
PTBNIDT - Polskie Towarzystwo Bada Nieniszczcych i Diagnostyki

Technicznej
www.rsnttd.ru
RSNTTD -

www.saint.org.za
SAINT - South African Institute for Non-Destructive Testing
www.sgzp.ch
SGZP - Schweizerische Gesellschaft fr zerstrungsfreie Prfung
www.ssndt.sk
SSNDT - Slovenskej spolonosti pre nedetruktvne testovanie
www.turkndt.org
Turk NDT - Trk Tahribatsz Muayene Cemiyeti
www.usndt.com.ua
USNDT -

303
13.2.2
Producers, Service and Trade (extract)

www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
RT
TT
UT
VT
3d-radar.com
3d-shape.com
accsys.com
acousticideas.com
acsys.ru
aeconsulting.com
aerospace.chemetall.com
agiltron.com
aibotix.com
aig-imaging.com
airmar.com
airstar1.com
X
X
ais4ndt.com
aixnmr.com
ajat.fi
aos-fiber.com
applusrtd.com
asams.co.uk
as-e.com
atmmicrowave.com
asi-nde.com
automation.de
X
X
X
awe.co.uk
bartington.com
b-r.ch
X
X
balteau.com
bossanovatech.com
breuckmann.com
bruker.com
buck-mhe.ch
canberra.com
cbs-cbt.com
X
X
cernex.com
circlesafe.com
304
cmosxray.com
collimatedholes.com
comet-xray.com
corestar-corp.com
betontest.de
centurionndt.com
WT
www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
RT
TT
UT
creaform3d.com
X
dakotaultrasonics.com
danfysik.com
dantecdynamics.com
dectris.com
delta-engineering.de
X
X
dercopter.de
diffu-therm.de
digiray.com
digitalwavecorp.com
X
X
ditom.com
dpix.com
dr-hillger.de
duerr-ndt.de
eddy-current.com
edevis.com
edmundoptics.com
electrophysics.com
elektrophysik.com
elp-gmbh.de
elva-1.com
envirocoustics.gr
X
X
era.co.uk
erda.org
X
X
etrema-usa.com
feinfocus.com
fibatech.com
X
X
fischundpartner.ch
flir.com
foerstergroup.de
X
X
fpw-prueftechnik.de
fujifilm.eu
ge-mcs.com
WT
cyberlogic.org
deltatest.de
VT
X
X
geophysical.biz
geophysical.com
georadar.com
geoscan-research.co.uk
geosearches.com
geotest.ch
X
X
305
www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
RT
TT
UT
VT
geozondas.com
giscogeo.com
goldenengineering.com
gom.com
g-p-r.com
grecon.de
grindosonic.com
guided-ultrasonics.com
hallcrest.com
hamamatsu.com
heinetech.com
heliotis.ch
helling-ndt.de
hirsch-prueftechnik.de
hkg-ndt.de
ibgndt.de
icm.be
imasonic.com
imce.cit.be
impact-echo.com
inficon.com
infratec.de
innerspec.com
innotest.ch
X
X
innovative-test.com
interflux.de
intopsys.com
intron.ru
X
X
inuktun.com
ircon.com
isovac.com
isravision.com
jme.co.uk
jsrultrasonics.som
X
kappa.de
kd-flux-technic.de
keyence.de
kodak.com
X
X
kaisersystems.com
karldeutsch.de
hitachimed.com
306
WT
X
X
www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
RT
TT
UT
konicaminolta.com
VT
X
kontrolltechnik.com
ksi-germany.com
labek.at
labino.com
landrex.com.tw
laser-ndt.com
law-ndt.de
lazzero.com
lecktesten.de
lecoeur-electronique.com
lixi.com
logosimaging.com
lytro.com
mac-ndt.com
magnaflux.com
magwerks.com
X
X
matec.com
maurermagnetic.ch
mcmeister.com
mdc-vacuum
mds.nordion.com
melit.ch
metritec.de
mfescan.com
micro-epsilon.de
microphotonics.com
microtec.eu
microwaveeng.com
midas-ndt.co.uk
millitech.com
mistrasgroup.com
X
X
mkckorea.com
mr-chemie.de
X
X
mtinstruments.com
ndtautomation.com
ndtsolutions.com
ndtsystems.com
ndttech.com
neo.no
nordinkraft.com
WT
X
X
307
www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
nuctech.com
RT
TT
UT
oerlikon.com
olympus-ims.com
optonor.no
X
X
peakndt.com
pecscan.ca
pedos.ch
penetradar.com
perkinelmer.com
phoenixisl.co.uk
phoenix-x-ray.com
phynix.com
picometrix.com
piezo.com
piezotechnologies.com
pigsunlimited.com
plantintegrity.com
polytec.com
pontax.de
positronsystems.com
ppic.com
proceq.ch
X
X
procon-x-ray.de
proscan.de
pruftechnik.com
puchold.de
pva-analyticalsystems.com
qmi-inc.com
qnetworld.com
qwip.com
radiabeam.com
ramayes.com
rauschtv.com
rayscan.eu
res-eng.com
resonic.com
X
X
richard-wolf.com
ril-chemie.de
ritecinc.com
308
WT
nuson.nl
pacndt.com
VT
X
X
X
X
www.
AT
rohmann.de
rte.de
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
RT
TT
UT
VT
X
X
sbir.com
scanmaster-irt.com
scana-msc.com
schicktech.com
scopes.com
sds-systemtechnik.com
sensimainsp.com
sensoft.ca
sentinelndt.com
silverwinguk.com
slx-inc.com
smithsdetection.com
snakeeye.com
socomate.com
sodern.com
sofranel.com
sofratest.com
X
X
sonaspection.com
sonatest-plc.com
sonatest.com
X
X
sonoscan.com
sonotec.de
sonotronndt.com
sonovation.com
sontec.ch
X
X
spectroline.com
srem.fr
stefan-mayer.com
steinbichler.de
step-sensor.de
stressphotonics.com
stresstech.fi
X
X
studenroth.com
swissneutronics.ch
synview.de
tckglobal.com
technologydesign.com
sonix.com
soundprint.com
WT
X
X
X
309
www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
NMR
PT
RT
TT
tecnar.com
UT
VT
tecscan.ca
teraview.com
terraplus.com
testex-ndt.com
thalesgroup.com
thermalwave.com
thermosensorik.de
tiede.de
tisec.com
tmelectronics.com
tqc.co.uk
trak.com
transmetra.ch
troxlerlabs.com
thruvision.com
tscinspectionsystems.com
twi.co.uk
ulis-ir.com
ultrangroup.com
ultrasonic-sciences.co.uk
unicorn-automation.co.uk
usultratek.com
utex.com
X
X
vacom.de
vacuuminst.com
vallen.de
varian.com
varianinc.com
X
X
vermon.fr
vidisco.com
viscom.com
vizaar.com
X
X
vjt.com
vogt-ndt.de
volpi.ch
von-der-heyde-gmbh.de
vsonomatic.com
X
X
X
wavelineinc.com
wazau.de
uxr.com
310
WT
X
X
www.
AT
ET
LT
MT
werthmesstechnik.de
PT
RT
TT
WT
X
X
woodeyeinc.com
xenics.com
xradia.com
xrt.com.au
xtekxray.com
yxlon.com
z-ndt.com
VT
wilnos.de
zetec.com
UT
westerninstruments.com
wins-ndt.com
NMR
X
X
311
13.2.3
Selected Research and Information Sites

www.wfndec.org
World Federation of NDE Centers
athena.uwindsor.ca
Windsor University
imacwww.epfl.ch
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Applied Computing

and Mechanics Laboratory
nde.mit.edu
Massachusetts Institue of Technology, NDE Lab
physics.nist.gov
National Institute of Standards and Technology
smartsite.immt.pwr.wroc.pl
Wroclaw University of Technology, Institute of Materials and

Applied Mechanics
www.anl.gov
Argonne National Laboratory
www.bam.de
Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing
www.bgr.de
Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources
www.biomed.ee.ethz.ch
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Institute of Biomedical Engineering
www.bnl.gov
Brookhaven National Laboratory
www.csem.ch
Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology
www.cnde.com
Center for Nondestructive Evaluation & Applied Technology, The

Johns Hopkins University
www.cnde.iastate.edu
Center for Nondestructive Evaluation, Iowa State University
www.empa.ch
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
www.gel.ulaval.ca
Laval University
www.hse.gov.uk
Health & Safety Executive
www.ifb.ethz.ch
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Institute for

Building Materials
www.ionactive.co.uk
Ionactive Consulting Ltd. (radiation and radiation protection)
www.izfp.fraunhofer.de
Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive Testing
www.lbl.gov
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
www.llnl.gov
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
www.me.sc.edu/Research/cmmnde/
University of South Carolina, Center for Mechanics,
Materials and Non-Destructive Evaluation
www.ndt-ed.org
NDT Resource Center
www.nordtest.org
Nordtest
www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca
National Research Council Canada
www.ntiac.com
Nondestructive Testing Information Analysis Center
www.ob-ultrasound.net
Obstetric Ultrasound (medical / historical information site)
www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/
312
Olympus (NDT tutorials site)
www.rcnde.ac.uk
UK Research Centre in Nondestructive Evaluation
www.rsphysse.anu.edu.au
Australian National University, Dept. of Applied Mathematics
www.sandia.gov
Sandia National Laboratories
www.swri.edu
Southwest Research Institute
www.uni-magdeburg.de
Otto-von-Guericke-University of Magdeburg
www.vision.fraunhofer.de
Fraunhofer-Allianz Vision
www.xray.hmc.psu.edu/rci
Penn State University, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center - A

Century of Radiology (medical / historical information site)
www.xraytomography.com
Bologna University, Physics Department
www.zfm.ethz.ch
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Centre of Mechanics
www.zfp.uni-stuttgart.de
Stuttgart University, Institute for Polymers
www-ece.rice.edu
Rice University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
www-leti.cea.fr
Commissariat d'Energie Atomique, Laboratoire d'Electronique de

Technologie de l'Information
13.3
EN Standards (related to NDT)

EN 3-8 Portable fire extinguishers Part 8: Additional requirements to EN 3-7 for the construction, resistance to pressure and mechanical tests for extinguishers with a maximum allowable
pressure equal or lower than 30 bar (with amendment AC)
EN 3-9 Portable fire extinguishers Part 9: Additional requirements to EN 3-7 for pressure
resistance of CO2 extinguishers (with amendment AC)
EN 444 Non-destructive testing General principles for the radiographic examination of metal lic materials using X- and gamma-rays
EN 583-1 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Part 1: General principles (with
amendment A1)
EN 583-2 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Part 2: Sensitivity and range setting
EN 583-3 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Part 3: Transmission technique
EN 583-4 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Part 4: Examination for discon tinuities perpendicular to the surface (with amendment A1)
EN 583-5 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Part 5: Characterisation and siz ing of discontinuities (with amendment A1)
EN 583-6 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Part 6: Time-of-flight diffraction
technique as a method for detection and sizing of discontinuities
EN 623-1 Advanced technical ceramics Monolithic ceramics General and textural properties
Part 1: Determination of the presence of defects by die penetration
EN 635-1 Plywood Classification by surface appearance Part 1: General
EN 635-2 Plywood Classification by surface appearance Part 2: Hardwood
EN 635-3 Plywood Classification by surface appearance Part 3: Softwood
EN 635-5 Plywood Classification by surface appearance Part 5: Methods for measuring and
expressing characteristics and defects
EN 975-1 Sawn timber Appearance grading of hardwoods Part 1: Oak and beech (with
amendment AC)
EN 975-2 Sawn timber Appearance grading of hardwoods Part 2: Poplars
EN 1090-2 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures: Part 2: Technical require ments for steel structures
EN 1090-3 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures: Part 3: Technical require ments for aluminium structures
EN 1147 Portable-ladders for fire service use (with amendment A1)
EN 1330-1 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 1: List of general terms
EN 1330-2 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 2: Terms common to the non-destructive testing methods
EN 1330-3 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 3: Terms used in industrial radio graphic testing
EN 1330-4 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 4: Terms used in ultrasonic testing
EN 1330-7 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 7: Terms used in magnetic particle
testing
EN 1330-8 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 8: Terms used in leak tightness test ing
EN 1330-9 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 9: Terms used in acoustic emission
testing
EN 1330-10 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 10: Terms used in visual testing
EN 1330-11 Non-destructive testing Terminology Part 11: Terms used in X-ray diffraction
from polycrystalline and amorphous materials
EN 1369 Founding Magnetic particle testing
EN 1370 Founding Examination of surface condition
EN 1371-1 Founding Liquid penetrant inspection Part 1: Sand, gravity die and low pressure
die castings
EN 1371-2 Founding Liquid penetrant inspection Part 2: Investment castings
313
EN 1440 LPG equipment and accessories Periodic inspection of transportable refillable LPG
cylinders (with amendment A1)
EN 1518 Non-destructive testing Leak testing Characterisation of mass spectrometer leak
detectors
EN 1559-3 Founding Technical conditions of delivery Part 3: Additional requirements for
iron castings
EN 1593 Non-destructive testing Leak testing Bubble emission techniques (with amendment A1)
EN 1711 Non-destructive examination of welds Eddy current examination of welds by complex plane analysis (with amendment A1)
EN 1779 Non-destructive testing Leak testing Criteria for method and technique selection
(with amendment A1)
EN 1802 Transportable gas cylinders Periodic inspection and testing of seamless aluminium
alloy gas cylinders
EN 1803 Transportable gas cylinders Periodic inspection and testing of welded carbon steel
gas cylinders
EN 1968 Transportable gas cylinders Periodic inspection and testing of seamless steel gas
cylinders (with amendment A1)
EN 1971-1 Copper and copper alloys Eddy current test for measuring defects on seamless
round copper and copper alloy tubes Part 1: Test with an encircling test coil on the outer surface
EN 1971-2 Copper and copper alloys Eddy current test for measuring defects on seamless
round copper and copper alloy tubes Part 2: Test with an internal test coil on the inner sur face
EN 2082-3 Aerospace series Aluminium alloy forging stock and forgings Technical specifica tion Part 3: Pre-production and production forgings
EN ISO 2128 Anodizing of aluminium and its alloys Determination of thickness of anodic oxidation coatings Non-destructive measurement by split-beam microscope
EN 2130 Aerospace series Bearings, precision ball in corrosion resisting steel for instruments
and equipment Technical specification
EN ISO 2143 Anodizing of aluminium and its alloys Estimation of loss of absorptive power of
anodic oxidation coatings after sealing Dye-spot test with prior acid treatment
EN 2157-3 Aerospace series Steel Forging stock and forgings Technical specification
Part 3: Pre-production and production forgings
EN ISO 2178 Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates Measurement of coating thickness Magnetic method
EN 2349-201 Aerospace series Requirements and test procedures for relays and contactors
Part 201: Visual inspection
EN ISO 2360 Non-conductive coatings on non-magnetic electrically conductive basis materials
Measurement of coating thickness Amplitude-sensitive eddy current method
EN ISO 2361 Electrodeposited nickel coatings on magnetic and non-magnetic substrates
Measurement of coating thickness Magnetic Method
EN ISO 2400 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic examination Specification for calibration
block No. 1
EN 2591-101 Aerospace series Elements of electrical and optical connection Test methods
Part 101: Visual examination
EN 2644 Aerospace series Rod assemblies for flight controls Technical specification
EN ISO 2808 Paints and varnishes Determination of film thickness
EN ISO 3059 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing Viewing conditions
EN ISO 3183 Petroleum and natural gas industries Steel pipe for pipeline transportation systems
EN ISO 3452-1 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 1: General principles
EN ISO 3452-2 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 2: Testing of penetrant
materials
EN ISO 3452-3 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 3: Reference test blocks
314
EN ISO 3452-4 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 4: Equipment

EN ISO 3452-5 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 5: Penetrant testing at temperature higher than 50 C
EN ISO 3452-6 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 6: Penetrant testing at temperatures lower than 10 C
EN 3475-201 Aerospace series Cables, electrical, aircraft use; Test methods Part 201:
Visual examination
EN ISO 3497 Metallic coatings Measurement of coating thickness X-ray spectrometric methods
EN ISO 3543 Metallic and non-metallic coatings Measurement of thickness Beta backscatter
method (with amendment AC)
EN ISO 3668 Paints and varnishes Visual comparison of the colour of paints
EN 3745-201 Aerospace series Fibres and cables, optical, aircraft use; Test methods Part
201: Visual examination
EN 3841-201 Aerospace series Circuit breakers Test methods Part 201: Visual inspection
EN ISO 3882 Metallic and other inorganic coatings Review of methods of measurement of
thickness
EN 4050-1 Aerospace series Test methods for metallic materials Ultrasonic inspection of
bars, plates, forging stock and forgings Part 1: General requirements
bars, plates, forging stock and forgings Part 2: Performance of tests
bars, plates, forging stock and forgings Part 3: Reference blocks
bars, plates, forging stock and forgings Part 4: Acceptance criteria
EN 4057-201 Aerospace series Cable ties for harnesses Test methods Part 201: Visual
examination
EN 4179 Aerospace series Qualification and approval of personnel for non-destructive testing
EN ISO 5817 Welding Fusion welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welded excluded) Quality levels for imperfections
EN ISO 6157-2 Fasteners Surface discontinuities Part 2: Nuts
EN ISO 7963 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing Specification for calibration block
No. 2
EN ISO 9712 Non-destructive testing Qualification and certification of NDT personnel
EN ISO 9809-1 Gas cylinders Refillable seamless steel gas cylinders Design, construction
and testing Part 1: Quenched and tempered steel cylinders with tensile strength less than
1'100 MPa
and testing Part 2: Quenched and tempered steel cylinders with tensile strength greater than
or equal to 1'100 MPa
and testing Part 3: Normalized steel cylinders
EN ISO 9934-1 Non-destructive testing Magnetic particle testing Part 1: General principles
(with amendment A1)
EN ISO 9934-2 Non-destructive testing Magnetic particle testing Part 2: Detection media
EN ISO 9934-3 Non-destructive testing Magnetic particle testing Part 3: Equipment
EN ISO 10042 Welding Arc welded joints in aluminium and its alloys Quality levels for
imperfections
EN 10160 Ultrasonic testing of steel flat product of thickness equal to or greater than 6 mm
(reflection method)
EN 10163-1 Delivery requirements for surface conditions of hot-rolled plates, wide flats and
sections, Part 1: General requirements (with amendment A1)
sections, Part 2: Plate and wide flats
sections, Part 3: Sections
315
EN 10208-1 Steel pipes for pipelines for combustible fluids Technical delivery conditions
Part 1: Pipes of requirement class A
EN ISO 10215 Anodizing of aluminium and its alloys Visual determination of image clarity of
anodic oxidation coatings Chart scale method
EN 10216-4 Seamless steel tubes for pressure purposes Technical delivery conditions Part
4: Non-alloy and alloy steel tubes with specific low temperature properties
EN 10218-1 Steel wire and wire products general Part 1: Test methods
EN 10219-1 Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels
Part 1: Technical delivery conditions
EN 10228-1 Non-destructive testing of steel forgings Part 1: Magnetic particle inspection
EN 10228-2 Non-destructive testing of steel forgings Part 2: Penetrant testing
EN 10228-3 Non-destructive testing of steel forgings Part 3: Ultrasonic testing of ferritic or
martensitic steel forgings
EN 10228-4 Non-destructive testing of steel forgings Part 4: Ultrasonic testing of austenitic
and austenitic-ferritic stainless steel forgings
EN 10306 Iron and steel Ultrasonic testing of H beams with parallel flanges and IPE beams
En 10307 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing of austenitic and austenitic-ferritic stain less steels flat products of thickness equal to or greater than 6 mm (reflection method)
EN 10308 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing of steel bars
EN ISO 10424-1 Petroleum and natural gas industries Rotary drilling equipment Part 1:
Rotary drill stem elements
EN ISO 10484 Widening test on nuts
EN ISO 10485 Cone proof load test on nuts
EN ISO 10863 Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing Use of time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD)
EN ISO 10893-1 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 1: Automated electromagnetic
testing of seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) steel tubes for the verification
of hydraulic leak-tightness in substitution of hydrostatic test
EN ISO 10893-2 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 2: Automated eddy current testing of seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) steel tubes for the detection of
imperfections
EN ISO 10893-3 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 3: Automated full peripheral flux
leakage testing of seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) ferromagnetic steel
tubes for the detection of longitudinal and/or transverse imperfections
EN ISO 10893-4 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 4: Liquid penetrant inspection of
seamless and welded steel tubes for the detection of surface imperfections
EN ISO 10893-5 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 5: Magnetic particle inspection of
seamless and welded ferromagnetic steel tubes for the detection of surface imperfections
EN ISO 10893-6 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 6: Radiographic testing of the
weld seam of welded steel tubes for the detection of imperfections
EN ISO 10893-7 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 7: Digital radiographic testing of
the weld seam of welded steel tubes for the detection of imperfections
EN ISO 10893-8 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 8: Automated ultrasonic testing
of seamless and welded steel tubes for the detection of laminar imperfections
EN ISO 10893-9 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 9: Automated ultrasonic testing
for the detection of laminar imperfections in strip/plate used for the manufacture of welded
steel tubes
EN ISO 10893-10 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 10: Automated full peripheral
ultrasonic testing of seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) steel tubes for the
detection of longitudinal and/or transverse imperfections
EN ISO 10893-11 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 11: Automated ultrasonic testing of weld seam of welded steel tubes for the detection of longitudinal and/or transverse
imperfections
EN ISO 10893-12 Non-destructive testing of steel tubes Part 12: Automated full peripheral
ultrasonic thickness testing of seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) steel tubes
EN ISO 11463 Corrosion of metals and alloys Evaluation of pitting corrosion
316
EN ISO 11623 Transportable gas cylinders Periodic inspection and testing of composite gas
cylinders
EN ISO 11666 Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing of welded joints Acceptance levels
EN ISO 11699-1 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film Part 1: Classification of
film systems for industrial radiography
EN ISO 11699-2 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film Part 2: Control of film
processing by means of reference values
EN 12079-3 Offshore containers and associated lifting sets Part 3: Periodic inspection, examination and testing
EN 12504-2 Testing concrete in structures Part 2: Non-destructive testing Determination of
rebound number
EN 12504-4 Testing concrete in structures Part 4: Determination of ultrasonic pulse velocity
EN 12517-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 1: Evaluation of welded joints in steel,
nickel, titanium and their alloys by radiography Acceptance levels
EN 12517-2 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 2: Evaluation of welded joints in aluminium
and its alloys by radiography Acceptance levels
EN 12542 LPG equipment and accessories Static welded steel cylindrical tanks, serially pro duced for the storage of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) having a volume not greater than 13 m 3
Design and manufacture
EN 12543-1 Non-destructive testing Characteristics of focal spots in industrial X-ray systems
for use in non-destructive testing Part 1: Scanning method
for use in non-destructive testing Part 2: Pinhole camera radiographic method
for use in non-destructive testing Part 3: Slit camera radiographic method
for use in non-destructive testing Part 4: Edge method
for use in non-destructive testing Part 5: Measurement of the effective focal spot size of mini
and micro focus X-ray tubes
EN 12544-1 Non-destructive testing Measurement and evaluation of the X-ray tube voltage
Part 1: Voltage divider method
Part 2: Constancy check by the thick filter method
Part 3: Spectrometric method
EN 12668-1 Non-destructive testing Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic examination equipment Part 1: Instruments
EN 12668-2 Non-destructive testing Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic examination equipment Part 2: Probes
EN 12668-3 Non-destructive testing Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic examination equipment Part 3: Combined equipment
EN 12679 Non-destructive testing Determination of the size of industrial radiographic sources
Radiographic method
EN 12680-1 Founding Ultrasonic examination Part 1: Steel castings for general purposes
EN 12680-2 Founding Ultrasonic examination Part 2: Steel castings for highly stressed
components
EN 12680-3 Founding Ultrasonic examination Part 3: Spheroidal graphite cast iron castings
EN 12681 Founding Radiographic examination
EN ISO 12706 Non-destructive testing Penetrant testing Vocabulary
EN ISO 12718 Non-destructive testing Eddy current testing Vocabulary
EN 12735-1 Copper and copper alloys Seamless, round copper tubes for air conditioning and
refrigeration Part 1: Tubes for piping systems
EN 12735-2 Copper and copper alloys Seamless, round copper tubes for air conditioning and
refrigeration Part 2: Tubes for equipment
317
EN 12799 Brazing Non-destructive testing of brazed joints (with amendment A1)

EN 12805 Automotive LPG components Containers
EN 12807 LPG equipment and accessories Transportable refillable brazed steel cylinders for
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Design and construction
EN 12817 LPG equipment and accessories Inspection and requalification of LPG tanks up to
and including 13 m3
EN 12819 LPG equipment and accessories Inspection and requalification of LPG tanks greater
than 13 m3
EN 12863 Transportable gas cylinders Periodic inspection and maintenance of dissolved acetylene cylinders (with amendment A1)
EN 12889 Trenchless construction and testing of drains and sewers
EN 12927-8 Safety requirements for cableway installations designed to carry persons Ropes
Part 8: Magnetic rope testing (MRT)
EN 12952-6 Water-tube boilers and auxiliary installations Part 6: Inspection during construction; documentation and marking of pressure parts of the boiler
EN 12953-5 Shell boilers Part 5: Inspection during construction, documentation and marking
of pressure parts of the boiler
EN 13018 Non-destructive testing Visual testing General principles (with amendment A1)
EN 13068-1 Non-destructive testing Radioscopic testing Part 1: Quantitative measurement
of imaging properties
EN 13068-2 Non-destructive testing Radioscopic testing Part 2: Check of long term stability
of imaging devices
EN 13068-3 Non-destructive testing Radioscopic testing Part 3: General principles of radioscopic testing of metallic materials by X- and gamma rays
EN 13100-1 Non-destructive testing of welded joints of thermoplastics semi-finished products
Part 1: Visual examination
EN 13100-2 Non-destructive testing of welded joints of thermoplastics semi-finished products
Part 2: X-ray radiographic testing
EN 13100-3 Non-destructive testing of welded joints in thermoplastics semi-finished products
Part 3: Ultrasonic testing
EN 13100-4 Non-destructive testing of welded joints in thermoplastics semi-finished products
Part 4: High voltage testing
CEN ISO/TR 13115 Non-destructive testing Methods for absolute calibration of acoustic emis sion transducers by the reciprocity technique
EN 13121-3 GRP tanks and vessels for use above ground Part 3: Design and workmanship
(with amendment A1)
EN 13121-4 GRP tanks and vessels for use above ground Part 4: Delivery, installation and
maintenance (with amendment AC)
EN 13183-2 Moisture content of a piece of sawn timber Part 2: Estimation by electrical resistance method (with amendment AC)
EN 13183-3 Moisture content of a piece of sawn timber Part 3: Estimation by capacitance
method
EN 13184 Non-destructive testing Leak testing Pressure change method (with amendment
A1)
EN 13185 Non-destructive testing Leak testing Tracer gas method (with amendment A1)
EN 13187 Thermal performance of buildings Qualitative detection of thermal irregularities in
building envelopes Infrared method
EN 13192 Non-destructive testing Leak testing Calibration of reference leaks for gases
(with amendment AC)
EN 13445-4 Unfired pressure vessels Part 4: Fabrication (with amendment A1)
EN 13445-5 Unfired pressure vessels Part 5: Inspection and testing
EN 13445-6 Unfired pressure vessels Part 6: Requirements for the design and fabrication of
pressure vessels and pressure parts constructed from spheroidal graphite cast iron
EN 13445-8 Unfired pressure vessels Part 8: Additional requirements for pressure vessels of
aluminium and aluminium alloys
318
EN 13477-1 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission Equipment characterisation Part 1:

Equipment description
EN 13477-2 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission Equipment characterisation Part 2:
Verification of operating characteristic
EN 13480-5 Metallic industrial piping Part 5: Inspection and testing
CEN/TR 13480-7 Metallic industrial piping Part 7: Guidance on the use of conformity assessment procedures
EN 13480-8 Metallic industrial piping Part 8: Additional requirements for aluminium and alu minium alloy piping
EN 13508-2 Conditions of drain and sewer systems outside buildings Part 2: Visual inspection
coding system (with amendment A1)
EN 13523-0 Coil coated metals Test methods Part 0: General introduction and list of test
methods
EN 13523-1 Coil coated metals Test methods Part 1: Film thickness
EN 13530-2 Cryogenic vessels Large transportable vacuum insulated vessels Part 2:
Design, fabrication, inspection and testing (with amendments A1 and AC)
EN 13554 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission testing General principles
EN ISO 13588 Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing Use of automated phased
array technology
EN 13625 Non-destructive testing Leak test Guide to the selection of instrumentation for
the measurement of gas leakage
EN 13863-1 Concrete pavements Part 1: Test methods for the determination of the thickness
of a concrete pavement by survey method
EN 13863-3 Concrete pavements Part 3: Test methods for the determination of the thickness
of a concrete pavement from cores
EN 13923 Filament-wound FRP pressure vessels Materials, design, manufacturing and testing
EN 13925-1 Non-destructive testing X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous
material Part 1: General principles
material Part 2: Procedures
materials Part 3: Instruments
EN 13927 Non-destructive testing Visual testing Equipment
CR 13935 Non-destructive testing Generic NDE data format model
EN 13938-5 Explosives for civil uses Propellants and rocket propellants Part 5: Determina tion of voids and fissures
EN 14096-1 Non-destructive testing Qualification of radiographic film digitisation systems
Part 1: Definitions, quantitative measurements of image quality parameters, standard reference film and qualitative control
EN 14096-2 Non-destructive testing Qualification of radiographic film digitisation systems
Part 2: Minimum requirements
EN 14127 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic thickness measurement
EN 14141 Valves for natural gas transportation in pipelines Performance requirements and
tests
EN 14186 Advanced technical ceramics Ceramic composites Mechanical properties at room
temperature, determination of elastic properties by an ultrasonic technique
EN 14197-3 Cryogenic vessels Static non-vacuum insulated vessels Part 3: Operational
requirements (with amendments AC and A1)
EN 14255-4 Measurement and assessment of personal exposures to incoherent optical radi ation Part 4: Terminology and quantities used in UV-, visible and IR-exposure measurements
EN 14398-2 Cryogenic vessels Large transportable non-vacuum insulated vessels Part 2:
Design, fabrication, inspection and testing (with amendment A2)
EN 14398-3 Cryogenic vessels Large transportable non-vacuum insulated vessels Part 3:
Operational requirements (with amendment A1)
EN 14571 Metallic coatings on nonmetallic basis materials Measurement of coating thickness
Microresitivity method
319
EN 14579 Natural stone test methods Determination of sound speed propagation

EN 14584 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission Examination of metallic pressure
equipment during proof testing
EN 14624 Performance of portable leak detectors and of room monitors for halogenated refrigerants
CEN/TR 14748 Non-destructive testing Methodology for qualification of non-destructive tests
EN 14784-1 Non-destructive testing Industrial computed radiography with storage phosphor
imaging plates Part 1: Classification of systems
EN 14784-2 Non-destructive testing Industrial computed radiography with storage phosphor
imaging plates Part 2: General principles for testing of metallic materials using X-rays and
gamma rays
EN 14876 Transportable gas cylinders Periodic inspection and testing of welded steel pressure
drums
EN 14893 LPG equipment and accessories Transportable Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) welded steel pressure drums with a capacity between 150 litres and 1'000 litres (with amendment
AC)
EN 14894 LPG equipment and accessories Cylinder and drum marking
EN 14912 LPG equipment and accessories Inspection and maintenance of LPG cylinder valves
at time of periodic inspection of cylinders
EN 14917 Metal bellows expansion joints for pressure applications (with amendment A1)
EN ISO 14922-2 Thermal spraying Quality requirements of thermally sprayed structures
Part 2: Comprehensive quality requirements
EN 15042-1 Thickness measurement of coatings and characterisation of surfaces with surface
waves Part 1: Guide to the determination of elastic constants, density and thickness of films
by laser induced surface acoustic waves
EN 15042-2 Thickness measurement of coatings and characterisation of surfaces with surface
waves Part 2: Guide to the thickness measurement of coatings by photothermic method
CEN/TS 15053 Non-destructive testing Recommendations for discontinuities-types in test
specimen for examination
EN 15085-5 Railway applications Welding of railway vehicles and components Part 5:
Inspection, testing and documentation
CEN/TR 15134 Non-destructive testing Automated ultrasonic examination Selection and
application of systems
CEN/TR 15135 Welding Design and non-destructive testing of welds
EN 15305 Non-destructive testing Test method for residual stress analysis by X-ray diffrac tion (with amendment AC)
EN 15317 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing Characterisation and verification of
ultrasonic thickness measuring equipment
EN ISO 15463 Petroleum and natural gas industries Field inspection of new casing, tubing
and plain and end drill pipe (with amendment AC)
EN 15495 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission Examination of metallic pressure
equipment during proof testing Zone location of AE sources
EN ISO 15548-1 Non-destructive testing Equipment for eddy current examination Part 1:
Instrument characteristics and verification (with amendment AC)
Probe characteristics and verification
System characteristics and verification
EN ISO 15549 Non-destructive testing Eddy current testing General principles
CEN/TR 15589 Non-destructive testing Code of practice for the approval of NDT personnel by
recognized third party organisation under under the provisions of Directive 97/23/EC
EN ISO 15626 Non-destructive testing of welds time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD)
Acceptance levels
EN 15856 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission General principles for AE testing for
the detection of corrosion within metallic surrounding filled with liquid
320
EN 15857 Non-destructive testing Acoustic emission Testing of fibre-reinforced polymers

Specific methodology and general evaluation criteria
EN 16016-1 Non-destructive testing Radiation methods Computed tomography Part 1:
Terminology
Principle, equipment and samples
Operation and interpretation
Qualification
EN 16018 Non-destructive testing Terminology Terms used in ultrasonic testing with
phased arrays
EN 16090 Copper and copper alloys Estimation of average grain size by ultrasound
EN ISO 16148 Gas cylinders Refillable seamless steel gas cylinders Acoustic emission (AT)
examination and follow-up ultrasonic examination (UT) for periodic inspection and testing
CEN/TR 16332 Interpretation of EN ISO/IEC 17024 for NDT personnel certification application
EN 16392-2 Non-destructive testing Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic phased
array systems Part 2: Probes
EN 16407-1 Non-destructive testing Radiographic inspection of corrosion and deposits in
pipes by X- and gamma rays Part 1: Tangential radiographic inspection
EN 16407-2 Non-destructive testing Radiographic inspection of corrosion and deposits in
pipes by X- and gamma rays Part 2: Double wall radiographic inspection
EN ISO 16946 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing Specification for step wedge calib ration block
EN ISO 17405 Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing Technique of testing claddings
produced by welding, rolling and explosion
EN ISO 17635 Non-destructive examination of welds General rules for metallic materials
EN ISO 17636-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing Part 1: X- and
gamma ray techniques with film
EN ISO 17636-2 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing Part 2: X- and
gamma ray techniques with digital detectors
EN ISO 17637 Non-destructive examination of welds Visual testing of fusion-welded joints
EN ISO 17638 Non-destructive testing of welds Magnetic particle testing
EN ISO 17640 Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing Techniques, testing
levels, and assessment
EN ISO 19232-1 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs Part 1: Image quality
indicators (wire type) Determination of image quality value
indicators (step/hole type) Determination of image quality value
classes for ferrous metals
EN ISO 19232-4 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs Part 4: Experimental
evaluation of image quality values and image quality tables
indicators (duplex wire type) Determination of image unsharpness value
CEN ISO/TS 21432 Non-destructive testing Standard test method for determining residual
stresses by neutron diffraction (with amendment AC)
EN ISO 21968 Non-magnetic metallic coatings on metallic and non-metallic basis materials
Measurement of coating thickness Phase-sensitive eddy-current method
EN ISO 22825 Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing Testing of welds in austenitic steels and nickel-based alloys
EN ISO 23277 Non-destructive testing of welds Penetrant testing of welds Acceptance
levels
EN ISO 23278 Non-destructive testing of welds Magnetic particle testing of welds Accept ance levels
321
EN ISO 23279 Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing Characterisation of indications in welds
CEN ISO/TR 25107 Non-destructive testing Guidelines for NDT training syllabuses
CEN ISO/TR 25108 Non-destructive testing Guidelines for NDT personnel training organiza tions
EN 25580 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic illuminators Minimum requirements
Further standards exist concerning electronic, medical, dental and security equipment.
322
323
14
DICTIONARY
English
2D matrix array
A-scan presentation
absolute arrangement
absolute measurement
absolute permeability
absolute pressure
absolute pressure gauge
absolute probe
absolute signal
absolute system
absolute value
absorption
absorption coefficient
acceptance criteria
acceptance level
accumulation test
acoustic emission
acoustic emission activity
acoustic emission burst count
acoustic emission burst rate
acoustic emission decibel
scale;
dBAE scale
acoustic emission detection
threshold
acoustic emission event
Nachweisschwelle der
Schallemission
Schallemissionsereignis
acoustic emission wave energy

acoustic emission waveguide
Schallemissionswellenleiter
acoustic shadow
Schallschatten
akustische Impedanz;
Schallwellenwiderstand
Erfassungszyklus;
Salve
Erfassungssequenz
Aktivitt
adaptive Fokussierung
Additionsfluss-Sensor
anliegender Leiter
Technik mit anliegenden Leiter
Alterungsschleier
Luftspulensensor
Alkali-Ionendetektor
Wechselstrom
Amperewindungen
Amplitude
Amplitudenauswertung
Amplitudenausgleich
Einfallswinkel;
acoustical impedance
acquisition cycle;
salvo
acquisition sequence
activity
adaptive focusing
additive magnetic flux probe
adjacent conductor
adjacent conductor technique
ageing fog
air-cored probe
alkali-ion detector
alternating current
ampere turns
amplitude
amplitude analysis
amplitude balance
angle of incidence
Franais
rseau matriciel 2D
reprsentation de type A
montage absolu
mesurage absolu
permabilit absolue
pression absolue
manomtre absolu
capteur absolu
signal absolu
systme absolu
mesure absolu
absorption
coefficient dabsorption
critres dacceptation
niveau dacceptation
contrle par accumulation
mission acoustique
activit d'mission acoustique
nombre de salves d'mission
acoustique
taux de salves d'mission
acoustique
Dezibelskala fr die Schallem- chelle d'mission acoustique

ission
dBAE
Cluster;
Hufung von Schallemissionsortungen
Energieinhalt eines Schallemissionsereignisses
acoustic emission location

cluster
324
Deutsch
zweidimensionales Matrix-Array
A-Bild
Absolutschaltung
Absolutmessung
absolute Permeabilitt
Absolutdruck
Absolutdruckmessgert
Absolutsensor
Absolutsignal
Absolutsystem
Absolutmesswert
Schallabsorption
Schallabsorptionskoeffizient
Zulssigkeitskriterien
Zulssigkeitsgrenze
Akkumulationsprfung
Schallemission
Schallemissionsaktivitt
Anzahl der Schallemissionssignale
Rate der Schallemissionssignale
seuil de dtection d'mission

acoustique
vnement d'mission acoustique
cluster de localisation d'mission acoustique
nergie de l'onde d'mission
acoustique
guide d'ondes d'mission
acoustique
ombre acoustique
impdance acoustique
cycle d'acquisition;
rafale
squence d'acquisition
activit
focalisation adaptative
capteur flux additifs
conducteur adjacent
technique de contrle laide
de conducteur adjacent
voile de vieillissement
capteur noyau neutre
dtecteur dions alcalins
courant alternatif
ampres-tours
amplitude
analyse en amplitude
quilibrage en amplitude
angle dincidence
English
angle of reflection
angle of refraction
angle of vision
angle probe
angular corrected gain (ACG)
angular sensitivity
annular array
annular sectorial array
anode
anode current
aperture leak
approach technique
arc strikes
archival image recording system
area of coverage
arrangement;
construction
array probe
arrival time
artefact;
false indication
artificial discontinuity
atmospheric pressure
attenuation
attenuation coefficient
automatic scanning
auxiliary lighting
azimuthal electronic scanning;
lateral electronic scanning
B-scan presentation
back scatter;
back scattered radiation
back-wall echo
background noise
backing line;
fore-line
backing pressure;
fore pressure
backing pump;
fore pump
backing volume
Deutsch
Auftreffwinkel
Reflexionswinkel
Brechungswinkel;
Einschallwinkel
Blickwinkel
Winkelprfkopf
winkelkorrigierte Verstrkung
(ACG)
Richtungsempfindlichkeit
Ringarray
segmentiertes Ringarray
Anode
Rhrenstrom
Blendenleck
Annherungsverfahren
Brandstellen
Bildaufzeichnungssystem
Wechselwirkungsflche
Schaltung
Sensorarray
Ankunftszeit
Artefakt;
Scheinanzeige
knstliche Inhomogenitt
Atmosphrendruck
Schwchung
Schwchungskoeffizient
automatische Prfung
Hilfsbeleuchtung
azimutale elektronische Abtastung;
laterale elektronische Abtastung
B-Bild
angle de rfraction
angle dobservation
transducteur dangle
gain corrig angulairement
(GCA)
sensibilit angulaire
rseau annulaire
rseau annulaire sectoris
anode
courant anodique
orifice en paroi mince
technique d'approche
amorage darc
systme denregistrement des
images pour archivage
surface d'action
montage;
construction
capteur en rseau
temps d'arrive
artefact;
pseudo image
discontinuit artificielle
pression atmosphrique
attnuation
coefficient dattnuation
contrle automatique
clairage auxiliaire
balayage lectronique azimutal;
balayage lectronique latral
reprsentation de type B
rayonnement rtrodiffus
Rckwandecho
Untergrundrauschen
cho de fond
bruit de fond
ligne de prvidage;
canalisation de vide primaire
vide primaire;
vide prliminaire
pompe primaire;
pompe prliminaire
volume de prvidage
technique de la canalisation
de prvidage
robinet de canalisation de
vide primaire
quilibrage
technique de mesure par pont
filtre passe-bande
filtre coupe-bande
bande passante;
largeur de bande
lot
bain
angle du faisceau
Vorvakuumleitung
Vorvakuumdruck;
Vordruck
Vorvakuumpumpe;
Vorpumpe
Vorvakuumvolumen
Vorvakuumanschlusstechnik
backing-line valve
Vorvakuumventil
balance
balanced bridge technique
band pass filter
band stop filter
Abgleich
Brckenmesstechnik
Bandpassfilter
Bandsperrfilter
bandwidth
Bandbreite
batch
bath
beam angle
Charge
Bad
Einschallwinkel
Bndelachse;
akustische Achse
Bndelgrenze
beam edge
angle de rflexion
Rckstreuung
backing-line port technique
beam axis
Franais
axe du faisceau
bord du faisceau
325
English
beam hardening
beam index
beam profile
beam steering
betatron
black light lamp;
Woods glass lamp
bleedout
blocking medium
blooming
bobbin coil;
internal coaxial coil
bombing
bombing test;
pressurising-evacuation test;
back pressurising test
borescope
bubble test
bucking signal;
compensating signal
Deutsch
Strahlenaufhrtung
Schalleintrittspunkt
Schallbndelf-Profil
Steuern des Schallbndels
Betatron
build-up factor
Aufbaufaktor
burst emission
burst signal duration
transiente Emission
Signaldauer
burst signal peak amplitude
Maximalamplitude
burst signal rise-time

burst signal;
burst
C-scan representation
calibration
calibration block
calibration leak
capacitive reactance
capillary leak
Anstiegszeit
Burst;
transientes Signal
C-Bild
Kalibrierung
Kalibrierkrper
Prfleck
kapazitiver Blindwiderstand
Kapillarleck
carrier liquid
Trgerflssigkeit
cassette
cathode
CEN speed
central conductor
centre frequency
characteristic curve
characteristic frequency
characteristic frequency ratio
characteristic transfer curve
(CTC)
circular magnetisation
clean up (time)
coaxial probe;
feed-trough probe
coercivity
Kassette
Kathode
CEN-Empfindlichkeit
Zentralleiter
Mittenfrequenz
charakteristische Kurve
Grenzfrequenz
Arbeitskonstante
charakteristische bertragungsfunktion
Kreismagnetisierung
Erholzeit
reprsentation de type C
talonnage
bloc dtalonnage
fuite calibre
ractance capacitive
capillaire
liquide porteur;
liquide support
cassette
cathode
sensibilit CEN
conducteur central
frquence centrale
courbe caratristique
frquence caractristique
frquence rduite
courbe de transfert caractristique du numriseur
aimantation circulaire
rcupration (temps de)
Durchlaufsensor
capteur axial
Koerzitivfeldstrke
Spule;
Spulenanordnung
coercivit
coil assembly
326
Ausbluten
Blende
Blooming
Franais
durcissement de faisceau
point dincidence
forme du faisceau
conduite du faisceau
btatron
lampe lumire noire;
lampe de Wood
ressuage
matriaux de blocage
flash lumineux
Innendurchlaufsensor
sonde axiale
Drucklagerung
pressurisation
Drucklagerungsprfung
contrle par pressurisation;

contrle par ressuage
starres Endoskop
Blasenprfung
borescope
contrle la bulle
Kompensationssignal
signal de compensation
UV-Lampe
coil fill factor
Wicklungsfllungsgrad
coil length
coil separation
coil spacing
coil technique
coil turns
coil winding
collimation
Spulenlnge
Spulenentfernung
Spulenbasis
Spulentechnik
Windungszahl
Wicklung
Kollimierung
facteur de diffusion;
facteur daccumulation
mission discontinue
dure de la salve
amplitude maximale de la
salve
temps de monte de la salve
salve
disposition denroulement(s)
taux de remplissage dun enroulement
longueur denroulement
distance interenroulement
cartement moyen
aimantation par bobine
nombre de tours
enroulement
collimation
English
collimator
colour contrast penetrant
colour discrimination
colour temperature
colour vision
coloured media
combined transmit-receive
probe;
impedance probe
Deutsch
Kollimator
Farbeindringmittel
Farbunterscheidung
Farbtemperatur
Farbsehen
nichtfluoreszierende Prfmittel
Franais
collimateur
pntrant color
discrimination de couleurs
temprature de couleur
vision de la couleur
Doppelfunktionssensor
capteur double fonction
comparative arrangement
Fremdvergleichsschaltung
comparative measurement
with external reference
with local reference
Vergleichsmessung
comparator probe
Fremdvergleichssensor
compensation coil
Kompensationsspule
complete encircling array;

surrounding array
complex permeability
vollstndig umschliessendes
Array
komplexe Permeabilitt
complex plane analysis
Vektorauswertung
complex plane display
X/Y-Darstellung
component analysis
compression ratio
Compton scatter
Komponentenauswertung
zeitproportionale Komponentendarstellung
Kompressionsverhltnis
Compton-Streuung
computed tomography (CT)
Computertomographie (CT)
concentrates
conditioning agent
conductance
Konzentrate
Additive
Strmungsleitwert
conductance leak
Leitwertleck
cone beam CT
Kegelstrahl_CT
constant current control
Konstantstrom-Regelung
constant potential circuit

contact pad
Gleichspannungsanlage
Kontaktplatte
contact testing technique
Kontakttechnik
continuous
continuous
technique
continuous
continuous
kontinuierliche Emission
simultane Magnetisierungstechnik
kontinuierliches Signal
kontinuierliches Spektrum
Dauerschall;
kontinuierliche Welle
formangepasster Prfkopf
Kontrast
Kontrastfarbe
Kontrastmittel
Kontrastverhltnis
Kontrastempfindlichkeit;
Dickenempfindlichkeit
Kern
Winkelspiegel
component/time display
emission
magnetisation
signal
spectrum
continuous wave
contoured probe
contrast
contrast aid paint
contrast medium
contrast ratio
contrast sensitivity;
thickness sensitivity
core
corner reflector
Fremdvergleich
Selbstvergleich
produit indicateur color
montage absolu rfrence

externe
mesurage comparatif
mesure comparative
rfrence externe
mesure comparative
capteur absolu rfrence
externe
enroulement de compensation
rseau encerclant complet;
rseau environnant
permabilit complexe
analyse dans le plan complexe
reprsentation du plan complexe
analyse de projection
reprsentation en base de
temps
taux de compression
diffusion Compton
tomographie informatise
(TI)
concentrs
agent de conditionnement
conductance
dfaut dtanchit (par conductance)
faisceau conique TI
contrle de la constance du
courant
circuit potentiel constant
touches de contact
technique de contrle par
contact
mission continue
mthode simultane
signal continu
spectre continu
onde entretenue
transducteur de forme
contraste
peinture de contraste
produit de contraste
rapport de contraste
sensibilit au contraste;
sensibilit lpaisseur
noyau
rflecteur coin
327
English
counterflow leak detector
Gegenstromleckdetektor
couplant path
couplant techniques
couplant;
coupling medium;
coupling film
coupling
coupling factor
coupling losses
creeping wave
Koppelstrecke
Ankoppeltechnik
Franais
dtecteur de fuites contrecourant
trajet de couplage
techniques de couplage
Koppelmittel
couplant
couplage
coefficient de couplage
perte de couplage
onde rampante
cupping effect
Curie point
current driven excitation
Ankopplung
Kopplungsfaktor
Ankopplungsverluste
Kriechwelle
kritischer Winkel;
Grenzwinkel;
berkoppelecho;
bersprechen
Strahlenaufhrtungsartefakt
Curie-Punkt
stromgesteuerte Erregung
current flow technique
Stromdurchflutung
current generator
cut-off frequency;
frequency limit
cylindrical wave
D-scan presentation
Stromgenerator
Eckfrequenz;
Grenzfrequenz
Zylinderwelle
D-Bild
DAC-method
Bezugslinienmethode (DAC)
damping capacity
dead volume
dead zone
decay curve
Dmpfungsvermgen
Totvolumen
tote Zone
Zerfallskurve
decrease of sound pressure
Schalldruckabnahme
defect
defect sizing;
defect size assessment
delay law
delay line;
delay block
delayed time-base sweep;
correction of zero point
Fehler
effet de tuilage
point de Curie
injection en courant
aimantation par passage de
courant
gnrateur de courant
frquence de coupure;
frquence limite
onde cylindrique
reprsentation de type D
mthode de la courbe amplitude/distance (DAC)
capacit damortissement
volume mort
zone morte
courbe de dcroissance
diminution de la pression
acoustique
dfaut
Fehlergrssenabschtzung
dimensionnement
Verzgerungsgesetz
Verzgerungsstrecke;
Vorlaufstrecke
loi de retards
ligne de retard;
bloc de retard
Impulsverschiebung
base de temps retard
critical angle
cross-talk
demagnetise
demodulated signal
demodulator
demonstration test piece
densitometer
Entmagnetisierungseinrichtung
entmagnetisieren
demoduliertes Signal
Demodulator
reprsentativer Testkrper
Densitometer
density contrast sensitivity
Dichtekontrastempfindlichkeit
density range
Dichtebereich
density sampling pitch
Dichte-Abtastauflsung
detection
detection criteria
detection media
detection sensitivity
detection threshold
developer
development
development time
DGS-diagram;
Nachweis
Nachweiskriterien
Prfmittel
Nachweisempfindlichkeit
Nachweisgrenze
Entwickler
Entwicklung
Entwicklungsdauer
AVG-Diagram
demagnetisation unit
328
Deutsch
angle critique
diaphonie
unit de dsaimantation
dsaimanter
signal courant de Foucault
dmodulateur
pice type tmoin
densitomtre
sensibilit au contraste de
densit
plage de densit du
numriseur
pas d'chantillonnage de
densit
dtection
critre de dtection
produit indicateur
sensibilit de dtection
seuil de dtection
rvlateur
dveloppement
dure de rvlation
diagramme de rflectivit;
English
AVG-diagram
Deutsch
DGS-method;
AVG-method
AVG-Methode
diamagnetic substance
diaphragm;
wear plate
differential arrangement
differential filter
differential measurement
diamagnetischer Werkstoff
Verschleissschicht;
Schutzschicht
Differenzschaltung
Differenzfilter
Differenzmessung
differential Pirani gauge
Differenzpiranivakuummeter
differential probe
differential system
differential value
diffraction mottle
diffuse density
digital image processing
equipment
digital resolution (bit)
digitiser unsharpness
dip rinse
direct current
Differenzsensor
Differenzsystem
Differenzmesswert
Beugungsmuster
diffuse optische Dichte
Ausrstung zur digitalen Bildverarbeitung
digitale Auflsung (Bit)
Digitalisier-Unschrfe
Tauchsplen
Gleichstrom
direct flow leak detector
Hauptstromleckdetektor
direct scan;
single traverse scan
direct visual testing
directional reflectivity
discharge tube leak detector
discontinuity echo
discontinuity;
inhomogeneity
display level
distance amplitude correction
curve (DAC)
distance-amplitude compensation
divergence angle
dose rate meter
dosemeter;
dosimeter
double (twin) transducer
probe
double aperture technique
double differential measurement
double differential probe
drag effect;
speed effect
dry developer
dry powder technique
dual focus tube
duplex wire image quality indicator
Direktanschallung;
Prfung im halben Sprungstand
direkte Sichtprfung
Richtungsabhngigkeit eines
Reflektors
Gasentladungsvakuum-prfgert
Fehlerecho
Franais
diagramme AVG
mthode des diamtres de
rflectivit;
mthode AVG
substance diamagntique
protection de phase avant
montage diffrentiel
diffrentiateur
mesurage diffrentiel
manomtre diffrentiel de Pirani
capteur diffrentiel
mesure diffrentiel
signal diffrentiel
moutonnement de diffraction
densit diffuse
dispositif de traitement
numrique de limage
rsolution numrique (bit)
flou du numriseur
rinage par immersion
courant continu
dtecteur de fuites flux direct
balayage direct;
balayage transversal simple
contrle visuel direct
rflectivit directionnelle
Abbildungsgrenze
dtecteur de fuites
dcharge
cho de discontinuit
discontinu;
inhomognit
niveau de visualisation
Bezugslinie (DAC)
courbe de DAC
Tiefenausgleich
correction amplitude-distance
Divergenzwinkel
Dosisleistungsmessgert
angle de divergence
dbitmtre de dose
Dosimeter
dosimtre
Inhomogenitt
Doppel-Aperture-Technik
transducteur metteur et
rcepteur spars
technique d'ouverture double
Doppeldifferenzmessung
mesure double diffrentiel
Doppeldifferenzsensor
Mitfhrungseffekt;
Geschwindigkeitseffekt
Trockenentwickler
Trockentechnik
Doppelfokusrhre
Doppel-Drahtsteg-Bildgteprfkrper
capteur double diffrentiel

effet dynamique;
effet de vitesse
rvlateur sec
technique de la poudre sche
tube double foyer
indicateur de qualit dimage
duplex fils
courants de Foucault dynamiques
limite de dtection dynamique
focalisation lectronique dy-
SE-Prfkopf
dynamic currents
Schleppwirbelstrme
dynamic detection limit
dynamische Nachweisgrenze
dynamic electronic focusing:
dynamische elektronische
329
English
dynamic leakage rate measurement

dynamic range
Deutsch
Fokussierung;
dynamische Tiefenfokussierung
dynamische Leckageratenmessung
Dynamikbereich
dynamic receiving aperture
dynamische Empfangsapertur
E-scan presentation
echo
echo height;
signal amplitude
echo receiving point
echo width
E-Bild
Echo
Echohhe;
Signalamplitude
Schalleintrittspunkt
Echobreite
eddy current distribution
Wirbelstromverteilung
eddy current instrument
Wirbelstrom-Prfgert
eddy current testing
Wirbelstromprfung
eddy current testing system
Wirbelstrom-Prfsystem
eddy currents
Wirbelstrom
Kanteneffekt;
Randeffekt
dynamic depth focusing

(DDF)
edge effect
edge spread function (ESF)
Kantenspreizfunktion
edge-blocking material
Ausgleichskrper
effective coil diameter
effektiver Spulendurchmesser
effective depth of penetration
effektive Eindringtiefe
effective permeability
effektive Permeabilitt
effective transducer size
effektive Schwingergrsse
electrical centre
electromagnetic induction
electromagnetic-acoustic
transducer
elektrisches Zentrum
elektromagnetische Wechselwirkung
elektromagnetische Induktion
elektromagnetisch-akustischer Wandler
electronic beam shaping
Elektronische Bndelformung
electromagnetic coupling
electronic beam steering

electronic focusing
electronic scanning
electrostatic spraying
elementary A-scan presentation
330
Elektronische Bndelsteuerung
Elektronische Fokussierung
elektronische Abtastung
elektrostatisches Sprhen
Franais
namique;
focalisation dynamique en
profondeur
mesurage dynamique du flux
de fuite
tendue dynamique
ouverture dynamique en rception
reprsentation de type E
cho
hauteur dcho;
amplitude du signal
point de rception dcho
largeur dcho
distribution des courants de
Foucault
appareil courants de Foucault
contrle par courants de Foucault
appareillage courants de
Foucault
courants de Foucault
effet de bord
fonction d'talement d'une
marche
matriau de blocage des
bords
diamtre quivalent
profondeur de pntration effective
permabilit effective
dimensions efficaces du
transducteur
centre lectrique
couplage lectromagntique
induction lectromagntique
transducteur lectromagntique-acoustique
formation de faisceau lectronique
dflexion lectronique
elementary A-scan presentation
elementbezogenes A-Bild:
Elementarsignal
elliptical display method

empty coil impedance;
unloaded impedance
emulsification time
emulsifier
encircling coil
end effect
endoscope
equalizing filter;
beam flattener
Ellipsendarstellungsverfahren
focalistaion lectronique
balayage lectronique
pulvrisation lectrostatique
reprsentation de type A
somme
reprsentation de type A lmentaire;
signal lmentaire
mthode de l'ellipse
Leerimpedanz
impdance vide
Emulgierdauer
Emulgator
Aussendurchlaufsensor
Endeneffekt
Endoskop
dure dmulsification
mulsifiant
bobine encerclante
effet dextrmit
endoscope
Ausgleichsfilter
filtre galisateur
Summen-A-Bild
English
equivalent nitrogen pressure
Deutsch
Stickstoffquivalentdruck
equivalent X-ray voltage
quivalente Rhrenspannung
evaluation
Bewertung
evaluation level
Beobachtungsschwelle
evaluation of indications
examination levels
examination object
examination volume
Anzeigebewertung
Prfempfindlichkeit
Prfgegenstand
Prfvolumen
excess penetrant removal
Zwischenreinigung
excitation current
excitation element;
primary coil
excitation field;
primary field
excitation frequency
excitation power amplifier
excitation;
induction
excitation;
induction
exhaust pressure
exposure
exposure chart
exposure latitude
exposure time
extenders
Erregerstrom
Franais
pression quivalente dazote
tension de rayonnement quivalente
valuation
niveau dvaluation;
niveau de caractrisation
valuation des indications
sensibilit dexamen
pice dexaminer
zone contrle
limination de lexcs de
pntrant
courant dexcitation
Erregerwicklung
enrouement dexcitation
Erregerfeld
champ dexcitation
Erregerfrequenz
Senderverstrker
external tracer gas drift
externe Prfgasdrift
F-scan representation
false indication
fan beam CT
far field;
Fraunhofer-zone
far vision
Felicity effect
Felicity ratio
ferrite
ferromagnetic cored probe
ferromagnetic substance
fibre optics
fibrescope
field of view
film base
film density
film gradient
film illuminator;
viewing screen
film processing
film system
film system class
filter
fixed installation
fixing
F-Bild
Scheinanzeige
Fcherstrahl-CT
Fernfeld;
Fraunhofer-Zone
Fernsehfhigkeit
Felicity-Effekt
Felicity-Verhltnis
Ferrit
Ferromagnetkernsensor
ferromagnetischer Werkstoff
Faseroptik
flexibles Endoskop
Blickfeld
Filmbasis
Filmschwrzung
Filmgradient
frquence dexcitation
ampliateur d'injection
excitation;
induction
excitation;
induction
pression de refoulement
exposition
abaque dexposition
latitude de pose
temps dexposition
rallonges magntiques
drive due au gaz traceur externe
reprsentation de type F
indication fallacieuse
TI faisceau en ventail
champ loign;
zone de Fraunhofer
vision lointaine
effet Felicity
rapport Felicity
ferrite
capteur circuit magntique
substance ferromagntique
fibres optiques
fibroscope
champ dobservation
support de film
densit de film
gradient du film
Filmbetrachtungsgert
ngatoscope
traitement du film
systme film
classe de systme film
filtre
installation en poste fixe
fixage
flaw detection equipment

sensitivity
Filmverarbeitung
Filmsystem
Filmsystemklasse
Filter
stationre Anlage
Fixierung
Fehlertiefe;
Reflektortiefe;
Tiefenlage
Fehlernachweisempfindlichkeit
flaw sensitivity
Anzeigeempfindlichkeit
flaw depth;
reflector depth
Erregung
Erregung
Auspuffdruck
Belichtung
Belichtungsdiagramm
Belichtungsumfang
Belichtungszeit
Verlngerungen
profondeur
sensibilit de dtection
sensibilit de dtection des
dfauts
331
English
flexible coil technique
flow rate
fluorescence
fluorescent detection media
fluorescent intensifying
screen
Deutsch
Kabelspulentechnik;
Kabeltechnik
fluorescent stability
fluoroscopy
Gasstrmungsrate
Fluoreszenz
fluoreszierende Prfmittel
fluoreszierende Verstrkerfolie
fluoreszierendes Eindringmittel
Fluoreszenzbestndigkeit
Fluoroskopie
flux gate sensor
Fluxgate-Sensor
flux indicator
Magnetisierungsindikator
focal spot
Brennfleck
focal spot size

focal zone
focus-to-film distance
focus;
focal point;
focusing probe
focusing transducer
fog density
frequency
frequency spectrum
gamma radiography
gamma rays
Brennfleckgrsse
Fokusbereich
Abstand Fokus-Film
Fokus;
Fokuspunkt
fokussierender Prfkopf
fokussierender Wandler
Schleierschwrzung
Frequenz
Frequenzspektrum
Erfassung der gesamten Matrix
Verstrkungssteller
Apodisierung der
Verstrkung;
Gewichtung der Verstrkung
Gammaradiographie
Gammastrahlen
gamma-ray source
Gammastrahlenquelle
fluorescent penetrate
full matrix capture

gain adjustment
gain apodisation
Pftzentechnik;
Fliessspalttechnik
gas ballast device
Gasballastvorrichtung
gate level;
Blendenschwelle;
monitor level
Monitorschwelle
gate;
Monitorblende;
time gate
Zeitblende
gating technique
Blendentechnik
gauge pressure
berdruck
allgemeine Sichtprfung;
general visual testing
bersichtsprfung
generator unit
Generatoreinheit
geometric effect
Geometrieeffekt
geometric unsharpness
geometrische Unschrfe
gettering
Aufzehrung
ghost echo
Phantomecho
Giant magnetoresistiver
giant magnetoresistive sensor
Sensor
glare
Blendung
gradient/noise ratio
Gradient/Rausch-Verhltnis
graininess
Krnigkeit
granularity
Krnung
graticule
Skala
grey scale
Grauwertskala
group velocity
Gruppengeschwindigkeit
gap testing technique
332
Franais
technique de la bobine
souple;
technique des spires enroules
dbit
fluorescence
produit indicateur fluorescent
cran renforateur fluorescent
pntrant fluorescent
stabilit de la fluorescence
fluoroscopie
capteur effet de vanne de
flux
tmoin daimantation
foyer missif;
foyer optique
dimension du foyer missif
tache focale
distance foyer-film
foyer:
point focal
transducteur focalisant
transducteur focalisant
densit de voile
frquence
spectre de frquence
acquisition de la matrice inter-lments
rglage du gain
apodisation en gain
gammagraphie
rayonnement gamma
source de rayonnement
gamma
technique d'essai par le vide
lest dair
hauteur de porte;
seuil du moniteur
porte de slection;
largeur de porte
slection par porte(s)
pression effective
contrle visuel global;
contrle visuel complet
gnrateur
effet de gomtrie
flou gomtrique
effet getter
cho fantme
capteur magntorsistance
gante
blouissement
rapport gradient/bruit
granulation
granularit
rticule
chelle des gris
vitesse de groupe
English
guard sensor
Deutsch
Abschirmsensor
half value thickness (HVT)
Halbwertsschicht (HWS)
half-amplitude technique;
6 dB drop technique
Hall effect sensor
Halbwertsverfahren;
6 dB Technik
Halleffektsensor
halogen leak detector
Halogenleckdetektor
helium leak detector

high-pass filter
hit
holding pump
hood test
Hsu-Nielsen source;
pencil lead break
hydrophilic emulsifier
illuminance
image contrast
image definition
image enhancement
Heliumleckdetektor
Hochpassfilter
Hit
Haltepumpe
Hllenprfung
Hsu-Nielsen Quelle;
Bleistiftminenbruch
hydrophiler Emulgator
Beleuchtungsstrke
Beleuchtungsstrkemesser;
Beleuchtungsmesser;
Luxmeter
Bildkontrast
Bildauflsung
Bildverbesserung
image intensifier
Bildverstrker
image quality
image quality indicator (IQI)
image quality value;
IQI sensitivity
image sensor
immersion technique
impedance
impedance plane diagram
in phase demodulation
in-phase demodulation
incident beam axis
incremental permeability
technique
indication
Bildgte
Bildgteprfkrper (BPK)
Bildgtezahl;
BPK-Empfindlichkeit
Bildsensor
Tauchtechnik
Impedanz
Impedanzortskurve
Demodulation in Phase
Demodulation in Phase
Zentralstrahl
berlagerungspermeabilittstechnik
Anzeige
indirekte Anschallung;
Prfung im ganzen Sprungstand
Induktionsdurchflutungstechnik
Induktivitt
induktiver Sensor
industrielle Radiologie
Eigenfilterung
innere Unschrfe
Einlassleitung
Einlasssystem
Einlassventil
Einlaufeffekt
Gertedrift
Verstrkungsfaktor
Aufnahmefolie
Grenzflche
Grenzflchenecho
illuminance meter;
luxmeter
indirect scan
induced current flow technique
inductance
inductive sensor
industrial radiology
inherent filtration
inherent unsharpness
inlet line
inlet system
inlet valve
input effect
instrument drift
intensifying factor
intensifying screen
interface
interface echo
internal coaxial probe;
bobbin coil
internal probe
ion source
ionisation potential
Franais
capteur de garde
paisseur (couche) de demi-absorption (CDA)
technique de demi-amplitude
technique 6 dB
capteur effet Hall
dtecteur de fuites dhalognes
dtecteur de fuites lhlium
filtre passe-haut
hit
pompe de maintien
contrle sous enveloppe
source Hsu-Nielsen;
rupture d'une mine
mulsifiant hydrophile
intensit lumineuse
luxmtre
contraste image
dfinition dimage
amlioration dimage
intensificateur dimage;
amplificateur de luminance
qualit dimage
indice de qualit dimage
indice de qualit dimage
capteur dimage
technique en immersion
impdance
diagramme dimpdance
dmodulation en phase
dmodulation en phase
axe du faisceau incident
technique de permabilit incrmentale
indication
balayage indirect
technique d'aimantation par
passage de courant induit
inductance
capteur inductif
radiologie industrielle
filtration inhrente
flou interne
canalisation daspiration
systme daspiration
vanne daspiration
effet dentre
drive dun instrument
facteur de renforcement
cran renforateur
interface
cho dinterface
Innendurchlaufsensor
sonde axiale
Innensensor
Ionenquelle
Ionisationspotential
sonde
source dions
potentiel dionisation
333
English
isolated pressure test
Druckhalteprfung
Kaiser effect
Lamb wave;
plate wave
latent image
law of similarity
leak
leakage rate
length of coverage
lens
lift test
lift-off
light source
line chart
Kaiser-Effekt
Lamb-Welle;
Plattenwelle
latentes Bild
hnlichkeitsgesetz
Leck
Leckagerate
Wirkbreite
Linse
Abhebetest
Abhebeeffekt
Lichtquelle
Linientafel
line spread function (LSF)
Linienspreizfunktion
linear array;
1D linear array
Lineares Array;
eindimensionales lineares Array
linear electron accelerator

(LINAC)
Linearbeschleuniger
linear electronic scanning;

E-scan
linear location
linearity indicators
lipophilic emulsifier
loaded coil impedance;
apparent impedance
local tomography;
region of interest CT
location
longitudinal wave;
compressional wave
low-pass filter
barrette linaire;
rseau linaire 1D
lineare elektronische Abtastung;

E-Abtastung
lineare Ortung
Linearittsanzeiger
lipophiler Emulgator
Arbeitsimpedanz
impdance apparente
lokale Tomographie;
Ausschnitt-CT
Ortung
Longitudinalwelle;
Druckwelle
Tiefpassfilter
tomographie locale;
TI de rgion d'intrt
localisation
onde longitudinale;
onde de compression
filtre passe-bas
banc de contrle par magntoscopie
champ magntique
intensit du champ magntique
aimantation par passage de
flux magntique
flux magntique
Magnetpulverprfbank
magnetic field
Magnetfeld
magnetic field strength
Magnetfeldstrke
magnetic flow technique
Felddurchflutung
magnetic
magnetic
magnetic
magnetic
magnetischer Fluss
magnetische Flussdichte;
Induktion
magnetische Hysterese
flux
flux density;
induction
hysteresis
Franais
contrle par maintien de
pression
effet Kaiser
onde de Lamb;
onde de plaque
image latente
loi de similtude
dfaut dtanchit
flux de fuite
longueur daction
lentille
force de soulvement
effet dloignement
source lumineuse
mire linaire
fonction d'talement d'une
ligne
acclrateur lectronique
linaire
balayage lectronique
linaire;
E-balayage
localisation linaire
indicateur de linarit
mulsifiant lipophile
magnetic bench
magnetic ink
Nassprfmittel
magnetic particle content
Magnetpulveranteil
magnetic particle inspection

magnetic particles
magnetic remanence
magnetic saturation
magnetic writing
magnetising coil
magnetostrictive transducer
masking
Magnetpulverprfung
Magnetpulver
magnetische Remanenz
magnetische Sttigung
Magnetschrift
Magnetisierungsspule
magnetostriktiver Wandler
Handprfung;
manuelle Prfung
Ausblendung
mass spectrometer
Massenspektrometer
manual scanning
334
Deutsch
induction magntique
hystrsis magntique
liqueur magntique;
encre magntique
concentration en particules
magntiques
examen par magntoscopie
particules magntiques
rmanence magntique
saturation magntique
criture magntique
bobine
transducteur magntostrictif
contrle manuel
masquage
cellule de spectromtre de
masse
English
material effect
metal screen
microfocus radiography
mirror
mode conversion;
wave conversion
modulation transfer function
(MTF)
monitor
movement unsharpness
multichannel instrument
multidirectional magnetisation
multifrequency examination
Deutsch
Werkstoffeffekt
Metallfolie
Mikrofokusradiographie
Spiegel
Franais
effet de matriau
cran renforateur mtallique
radiographie microfocale
miroir
Wellenumwandlung
conversion de mode
Modulationsbertragungsfunktion
Blendenmodul
Bewegungsunschrfe
Mehrkanalgert
fonction de transfert par

modulation
moniteur
flou cintique
appareil multivoie
aimantation multidirectionnelle
examen multifrquence
kombinierte Magnetisierung
multiple-echo technique
Mehrfrequenzprfung
Mehrfachecho;
Echofolge
Mehrfachrekonstruktion der
empfangenen Signale
Anschallung mit mehrfacher
Umlenkung
Mehrfachecho-Methode
NDT instruction
ZfP-Prfanweisung
NDT method
ZfP-Verfahren
NDT procedure
ZfP-Verfahrensbeschreibung
NDT technique
ZfP-Technik
near field;
Fresnel-zone
near vision
noise
noise signal
nominal angle of probe
nominal frequency
normal probe;
straight beam probe
normalised impedance plane
diagram
normalised leakage rate
normalised reactance
normalised resistance
object contrast
object-to-film distance
occlusion (of gas)
operating point
optical attenuator
optical density
optical device
optical test chart
opto-electronic device
orbital scanning
output effect
P-scan presentation
paintbrush method
panoramic exposure
parallel beam CT
paramagnetic substance
Nahfeld;
Fresnel-Zone
Nahsehfhigkeit
Struntergrund
Rauschanzeige
Nennwinkel
Nennfrequenz
Normalprfkopf;
Senkrechtprfkopf
multiple echo
multiple reconstruction of the
received signals
multiple transverse technique
partial annular sectorial array

(type daisy)
partial pressure
normierte Impedanzortskurve
Normleckagerate
normierter Blindwiderstand
normierter Wirkwiderstand
Objektkontrast
Abstand Prfgegenstand-Film
Okklusion (von Gas)
Arbeitspunkt
optischer Abschwcher
optische Dichte
optische Vorrichtung
optische Prftafel
optotronisches Bauelement
Kreisabtastung
Auslaufeffekt
P-Bild
Paint-Brush-Verfahren
Karussell-Aufnahme
Parallelstrahl-CT
paramagnetischer Werkstoff
Segmentiertes partielles Ringarray (Typ
Gnseblmchen)
Partialdruck
chos multiples
reconstruction multiple des
signaux reus
contrle en bonds multiples
technique chos multiples
instruction dessai non destructif
mthode dessai non destructif
procdure dessai non destructif
technique dessai non destructif
champ proche;
zone de Fresnel
vision proche
bruit
bruit de fond
angle de rfraction nominal
frquence nominale
transducteur normal;
transducteur droit
diagramme dimpdance
norm
flux de fuite normalis
ractance rduite
rsistance rduite
contraste objet
distance film-objet
occlusion (de gaz)
point de fonctionnement
attnuateur optique
densit optique
instrument doptique
mire optique
instrument optolectronique
contrle orbital
effet de sortie
reprsentation de type P
mthode du pinceau
exposition panoramique
TI faisceau parallle
substance paramagntique
rseau annulaire sectoris
partiel (type "marguerite")
pression partielle
335
English
partial volume effect
partially encircling array
path-synchronous display
peak frequency
peelable developer
penetrant
penetrant system;
test system;
product family
penetrant testing
penetration time
Franais
effet de volume partiel
Eindringsystem;
Produktefamilie
systme de ressuage;
famille de produits
Eindringprfung
Eindringdauer
rseau encerclant partiel

reprsentation en fonction du
trajet d'examen
frquence crte
rvlateur pelliculaire
pntrant
permanent magnet probe
Permanentmagnetsensor
permeability
permeability coefficient
permeation leak
phase
phase adjustment;
phase setting
phase analysis
phase reference
phase shifter
phase velocity
phased array probe;
transducer array probe
Gaspermeabilitt
Permeationskoeffizient
Permeationsleck
Phase
contrle par ressuage

dure de pntration
capteur aimant(s) permanent(s)
permabilit
coefficient de permabilit
fuite de permation
phase
Phasenjustierung
calage de phase
Phasenauswertung
Referenzphase
Phasensteller
Phasengeschwindigkeit
analyse en phase
rfrence de phase
dphaseur
vitesse de phase
transducteur matriciel multilments
phased array technique

piezoelectric crystal
pitch
pitch and catch technique;
double probe technique
pixel size
planar location
plane wave
point of return technique
portable electromagnet
(yoke)
post-cleaning
Gruppenstrahler
Technik mit phasengesteuerten Arrays
piezoelektrischer Schwinger
Elementabstand;
Pitch
Zweikopftechnik
Pixelgrsse
planare Ortung
ebene Welle
Umkehrpunkttechnik
technique multi lments

lment pizo-lectrique
pas inter-lments
technique deux transducteurs
taille de pixel
localisation planaire
onde plane
technique du point de
rebroussement
Handmagnet (Joch)
lectroaimant portatif
nettoyage aprs examen
post-magnetisation time
precleaning
Nachreinigung
nachemulgierbares Eindringmittel
Nachmagnetisierungszeit
Vorreinigung
pressure change test
Drucknderungsprfung
post-emulsifiable penetrant
probe array
probe axis
probe clearance
Flssigkeits-Durchdringprfung
Primrstrahlung
Prfkopf;
Sensor
Gruppensensor
Prfkopfachse
Sensorabstand
probe damping factor
Dmpfungsfaktor
probe fill factor
Sensorfllungsgrad
probe index
probe orientation
probe pusher puller unit
Schallaustrittspunkt
Prfwinkel
Sensorvorschubeinheit
pressure dye test

primary radiation
probe
336
Deutsch
Teilvolumen-Effekt
teilweise umschliessendes Array
wegproportionale Signaldarstellung
Spitzenfrequenz
abziehbarer Entwickler
Eindringmittel
pntrant post-mulsion
dure de post-aimantation
nettoyage avant ressuage
contrle par mesure de variation de pression
contrle par liquides traceurs
sous pression
rayonnement primaire
transducteur;
capteur
capteurs en rseau
axe du transducteur
entrefer
facteur damortissement du
transducteur
taux du remplissage du
capteur
point dmergence
orientation du transducteur
tireur-pousseur
English
probe shoe
prods
product family
proportioning spray gun
pulse
pulse amplitude
pulse echo technique;
reflection technique
pulse energy
pulse envelope
pulse length
pulse repetition frequency;
PRF;
rate
pulse reverberation
pulse shape
pulse technique
pulsed eddy currents
pulser
pV-throughput
quadrature demodulation
radiation contrast
radiation source
radiograph
radiographic film
radiographic film digitisation
system
radiography
radioisotope
Deutsch
Prfkopfschuh
Aufsetzelektroden
Eindringsystem
Dosiersprhpistole
Impuls;
Schallimpuls
Impulshhe
Impuls-Echo-Technik
Impulsenergie
Einhllende des Impulses
Impulsdauer
Impulsfolgefrequenz
PRF
Nachschwingen des Impulses
Impulsform
Impulstechnik
Impulswirbelstrom
Pulser
pV-Durchfluss
Quadratur-Demodulation
Strahlenkontrast
Strahlenquelle
Durchstrahlungsbild
radiographischer Film
Rntgenfilm-Digitalisierungssystem
Radiografie
Radioisotop
radionuclide leakage test
Radionukliddichtheitsprfung
radioscopy
Rayleigh wave;
surface wave
Radioskopie
Rayleigh-Welle;
Oberflchenwelle
Blindwiderstand;
Reaktanz
Messspule;
Messelement
Rekonstruktion
Bildaufzeichnung
Registrierung
reactance
receiving element;
secondary coil
reconstruction
record of image
recording
recording level;
reporting level
rectified signal
reference block method
reference block;
test panel
reference echo
reference level
reference probe
reference reflector
reference test piece
reflection
reflection assembly
reflection coefficient
reflectivity
reflector
refracting prism;
wedge
refraction
Registrierschwelle
gleichgerichtetes Signal
Vergleichskrpermethode
Kontrollkrper;
Referenzkrper
Vergleichskrper
Bezugsanzeige
Bezugshhe
Vergleichssensor
Bezugsreflektor
Bezugskrper
Reflexion
Reflexionsanordnung
Reflexionsfaktor
Reflexionsvermgen
Reflektor
Brechungsprisma;
Vorsatzkeil
Brechung
Franais
sabot
touches
famille de produits
pistolet-doseur daspersion
impulsion
amplitude dimpulsion
technique par chos;
technique par rflexion
nergie dimpulsion
enveloppe de limpulsion
dure de limpulsion
frquence de rcurrence des
impulsions;
FRI
rverbration d'une impulsion
forme de limpulsion
technique pulse
courants de Foucault pulss
pulser
flux gazeux
dmodulation en quadrature
contraste rayonnement
source de rayonnement
radiogramme
film radiographique
systme de numrisation des
films radiographiques
radiographie
radio-isotope
contrle dtanchit aux radionuclides
radioscopie
onde de Rayleigh;
onde de surface
ractance
enroulement rcepteur;
lment rcepteur
reconstruction
enregistrement dimage
enregistrement
seuil de notation;
seuil denregistrement
signal redress
mthode dvaluation par
comparaison directe
chantillon de rfrence;
prouvette de rfrence;
bloc de rfrence
cho de rfrence
amplitude de rfrence
capteur de rfrence
rflecteur de rfrence
pice de rfrence
rflexion
dispositif en rflexion
coefficient de rflexion
rflectivit
rflecteur
prisme de rfraction;
sabot
rfraction
337
English
refractive index
relative reflectivity
remote field technique
remote visual testing
replication
residual field
resistance to flow
resolution
resolution capability
Deutsch
Brechungsindex
interessierender Objektbereich (IOB)
relative Permeabilitt;
Permeabilittszahl
relativer Reflexionsgrad
Fernfeldtechnik
indirekte Sichtprfung
Abdrucktechnik
Restfeld
Strmungswiderstand
Auflsung
Auflsungsvermgen
resolution target
Auflsungstestplatte
response factor
response time
reticule
Empfindlichkeitsfaktor
Ansprechzeit
resultierendes magnetisches
Wechselfeld
Skale
reverse phasing technique
Umkehrphasentechnik
region of interest (ROI)

relative permeability
resultant magnetic field
RF signal
rigid coil technique
ring down count
rinse
rod anode tube
roof angle;
toe-in-semi-angle
rotating field technique
rotating head
rotating probe
roughing pump
S-scan presentation
sagittal electronic scanning
sampling phased array technique
sampling probe
saturation coil
saturation unit
scale expansion;
expanded time-base sweep
scanning
scanning aperture
scanning direction
scanning surface
scattered energy
scattered radiation
screen;
shield
secondary field
sectorial analysis
sectorial electronic scanning;
S-scan
338
Hochfrequenzsignal;
HF-Signal
Spulentechnik mit fester
Spule
Anzahl der berschwingungen
Splen
Stabanodenrhre
Franais
indice de rfraction
rgion d'intrt (ROI)
permabilit relative
rflectivit relative
technique du champ lointain
contrle visuel indirect
prise dempreinte par rplique
champ rsiduel
rsistance lcoulement
rsolution
capacit de rsolution
cible pour le contrle de la
rsolution
facteur de rponse
temps de rponse
champ magntique rsultant
rticule
technique du retournement
temporel
signal H.F.
aimantation par bobine rigide
nombre de coups
rinage
tube anode longue
Dachwinkel
angle de toit
Rotierfeldtechnik
Rotierkopf
Rotiersensor
Hilfspumpe
S-Bild;
Sektorbild
sagittale elektronische Abtastung
Technik mit phasengesteuerten Arrays
Schnffelsonde
Vormagnetisierungswicklung
Einrichtung zur magnetischen
Sttigung
Tiefenlupe;
gedehnte Zeitachse
Abtastung;
Prfung
Abtast-Apertur
Prfrichtung
Kontaktflche;
Prfflche
gestreute Energie;
Schallstreuung
Streustrahlung
technique du champ tournant

tte tournante
sonde tournante
pompe de prvidage
Abschirmung
Sekundrfeld
Sektorauswertung
elektronische Sektorabtastung;
S-Abtastung
reprsentation de type S
balayage lectronique sagittal
technique dchantillonnage
de multi lments
sonde de reniflage
enroulement de saturation
unit de saturation
loupe de profondeur
contrle;
balayage
ouverture de balayage
direction de balayage
surface balaye
nergie diffuse
rayonnement diffus
blindage;
masque
champ en retour
analyse sectorielle
balayage lectronique sectoriel;
S-balayage
English
segmental probe
sensitivity
sensitivity curve
sensor array
separate transmit receive
probe
shielded probe
shot
signal amplifier
signal locus
signal phase;
phase angle of a signal
signal/noise ratio
signature
single
single
single
single
single
single
single
single
aperture technique
channel instrument
frequency examination
frequency instrument
frequency technique
parameter examination
parameter instrument
parameter technique
Deutsch
Segmentsensor
Empfindlichkeit
Empfindlichkeitskurve
Sensorgruppe
Franais
capteur sectoriel
sensibilit
courbe de sensibilit
maillage de capteurs
transformatorischer Sensor
capteur fonctions spares
abgeschirmter Sensor
Schuss
Signalverstrker
Signalschleife
capteur masque
tir
amplificateur du signal
enveloppe du signal
Signalphase
phase dun signal
Signal/Rausch-Verhltnis
charakteristisches Signalmuster
Einzel-Apertur-Technik
Einkanalgert
Einfrequenzprfung
Einfrequenzgert
Einfrequenztechnik
Einparameterprfung
Einparametergert
Einparametertechnik
rapport signal/bruit
single probe technique
Einkopftechnik
skew angle
Schielwinkel
Skineffekt;
Stromverdrngung
skin effect
skip distance;
full skip
slot
sniffing test
solid state camera
Sprungabstand
sorting class
sound attenuation
sound field
sound generation
sound path length
sound path travel distance
sound path travel time
sound propagation
sound velocity;
velocity of propagation
source holder
source location
source-to-film distance
Schlitz
Schnffelprfverfahren
Halbleiterkamera
Zwischenreiniger auf Lsemittelbasis
Nassentwickler auf Lsemittelbasis;
nichtwssriger Nassentwickler
lsemittelentfernbares
Eindringmittel
Prfklasse
Schallschwchung
Schallfeld
Schallerzeugung
Schallweg
Schalllaufweg
Schalllaufzeit
Schallausbreitung
Schallgeschwindigkeit;
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit
Strahlenhalter
Quellenordnung
Abstand Strahlenquelle-Film
spark coil leak tester
Hochfrequenzleckprfgerte
spatial frequency
spatial resolution
specific activity
specification
specular density
spherical wave
spiral scanning
Ortsfrequenz
Ortsauflsung
spezifische Aktivitt
Spezifikation
gerichtete optische Dichte
Kugelwelle
spiralfrmige Abtastung
solvent remover
solvent-based developer;
non-aqueous wet developer
solvent-removable penetrant
signature
technique d'ouverture unique
appareil monovoie
examen monofrquence
appareil monofrquence
technique monofrquence
examen monoparamtre
appareil monoparamtre
technique monoparamtre
technique du transducteur
unique
angle de skew
effet de peau
longueur du bond;
bond complet
fente
contrle par reniflage
camra intgre
solvant
rvlateur base de solvant;
rvlateur humide non
aqueux
pntrant liminable par
solvant
classe de tri
attnuation acoustique
champ acoustique
gnration du son
trajet ultrasonore
parcours ultrasonore
temps de parcours
propagation des ondes
vitesse de propagation de
londe
porte-source
localisation de la source
distance source-film
dtecteur de fuites bobines
dinduction
frquence spatiale
rsolution spatiale
activit spcifique
spcification
densit spculaire
onde sphrique
contrle en spirale
339
English
split coil probe
spray gun
spurious echo;
parasitic echo
spurious noise
SQUID sensor
squint angle
standard (calibrated) leak
Deutsch
teilbarer Sensor
Sprhpistole
Strecho;
Stranzeige
Strgerusch
SQUID-Sensor
Schielwinkel
Standardleck
standard depth of penetration Standardeindringtiefe

standard reference film
Standard-Referenzfilm
static electronic focusing
statische elektronische Fokussierung
stationary wave;
standing wave
steering angle
step wedge
stereo radiography
subtractive magnetic flux
probe
suppression;
grass cutting
surface probe
onde stationnaire
Steuerwinkel
Stufenkeil
Stereoradiografie
angle de dflexion
cale gradins
stroradiographie
Subtraktionsfluss-Sensor
capteur flux soustractifs
Unterdrckung;
Verstrkerschwelle
Tastsensor
Oberflchenwellenprfkopf
swivel scanning
Wedeln
phasenselektive Demodulation
T-Sensor
T-sensor
T probe
T-probe
tandem technique;
tandem scanning
tangential field
seuil de rejet
palpeur
transducteur dondes de surface
contrle en rotation
dmodulation synchrone
capteur en T
capteur en T
Tandemtechnik
mthode tandem
Tangentialfeld
tangential field strength
Tangentialfeldstrke
target
test
test equipment
testing configuration
thermal imaging camera
Target
Prfung
Prfausrstung
Prfanordnung
Infrarotkamera
Magnetisierungstechnik mit
durchgestecktem Hilfsleiter
durchgesteckter Leiter
Drosselung
champ magntique tangentiel

intensit du champ magntique tangentiel
cible
essais
appareillage de contrle
configuration dexamen
camra infrarouge
technique daimantation par
conducteur traversant
conducteur traversant
tranglement
Durchschallungstechnik
technique par transmission
Kippwinkel
Kippeffekt
Grundlinie;
Zeitachse
Einstellen des Justierbereichs
Justierbereich
angle de tilt
effet de basculement
threaded conductor technique

threading conductor
throttling
through transmission technique
tilt angle
tilt effect
time base
time base adjustment
time base range
time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD)
time of flight technique
time synchronous display
total (integral) leakage rate
total electronic focusing
total reflection
340
stehende Welle
surface wave probe

synchronous demodulation
Franais
bobine ouvrante
pistolet daspersion
cho brouilleur
cho parasite
bruit parasite
capteur SQUID
angle de bigle
fuite de rfrence
profondeur de pntration
conventionnelle
film de rfrence normalis
focalisation lectronique
statique;
focalisation lectronique en
un seul point focal
Beugungslaufzeit Technik
Laufzeittechnik
zeitproportionale Signaldarstellung
integrale Leckagerate
elektronische Gesamtfokussierung
Totalreflexion
base de temps
rglage de la base de temps
chelle de la base de temps
technique de diffraction du
temps de vol
technique de temps du vol
reprsentation en fonction de
la dure de l'examen
flux de fuite global
focalisation lectronique
totale
rflexion totale
English
tracer fluid
tracer gas background
transceiver
transducer backing
transducer mosaic
transducer size;
nominal size
transducer;
crystal
transfer correction
transmission assembly
transmission coefficient
transmission point;
zero point
transmission pulse indication
transmission technique
transverse wave probe
transverse wave;
shear wave
tube camera
tube diaphragm
tube head
tube shield
tube shutter
tube voltage
tube window
ultrasonic beam;
sound beam
Deutsch
Prffluid
Prfgasuntergrund
Einschwinger-Prfkopf
Dmpfungskrper
Mosaikschwinger
Schwingergrsse;
Nenngrsse
Schwinger;
Wandler
Transferkorrektur
Transmissionsanordnung
Durchlssigkeitsfaktor
Franais
fluide traceur
bruit de fond du gaz traceur
transducteur mono-lment
amortisseur
transducteur mosaque
Nullpunkt
point zro
Sendeimpuls
Durchschallungstechnik,
Transmissionstechnik
Transversalprfkopf;
Transversalwellenprfkopf
Transversalwelle:
Scherwelle
Rhrenkamera
Rhrenblende
Rntgenstrahler
Rhrenschutzgehuse
Rhrenverschluss
Rhrenspannung
Rhrenfenster
signal dmission
Schallbndel
faisceau acoustique
ultrasonic leak tester
Ultraschallleckprfgert
ultrasonic test equipment
Ultraschallprfgert
ultrasonic wave
ultraviolet radiation
unsealed source
unsharpness
V-transmission
vacuum box
vacuum cassette
Ultraschallwelle
UV Strahlung
offene Strahlenquelle
Unschrfe
V-Durchschallung
Vakuumglocke
Vakuumkassette
vacuum test
Vakuumprfverfahren
dimensions du transducteur
transducteur
correction de transfert
dispositif en transmission
coefficient de transmission
technique par transmission

transducteur dondes transversales
onde transversale;
onde de cisaillement
tube analyseur
diaphragme du tube
tte du tube
gaine du tube
cache
tension du tube
fentre du tube
dtecteur de fuites par ultrasons
appareil de contrle par ultrasons
onde ultrasonore
rayonnement ultraviolet
source non scelle
flou
transmission en V
bote dpression
cassette vide
contrle dtanchit sous
vide
vent valve
verification
videoscope
viewing mask
Prfkopf mit variablem

Winkel;
Universalprfkopf
Belftungsventil
Funktionskontrolle
Videoskop
Blendschutz
viscosity coefficient
Viskositt
viscous leak
visible radiation
visual contrast
visual testing
visual testing
viskoses Leck
sichtbare Strahlung
sichtbarer Kontrast
Sichtprfung
Sichtprfung
Apodisierung der Anregespannung;
apodisation en tension
Gewichtung der Anregespannung
spannungsgesteuerte Erreinjection en tension
gung
variable angle probe
voltage apodisation
voltage driven excitation
transducteur langle variable

entre dair
vrification
vidoscope
cache de lecture
coefficient de viscosit (dynamique)
fuite visqueuse
rayonnement visible
contraste visuelle
contrle visuel
examen visuel
341
English
volume scan presentation
W-transmission
waveguide
wavelength
wedge
Deutsch
Volumenbild
W-Durchschallung
Nassentwickler auf
Wasserbasis
Nassentwickler auf
Wasserbasis, suspendiert
wasserabwaschbares
Eindringmittel
Welle
Wellenfront
Interferenz
Wellenzug
Bildschirm mit Impulsdarstellung
Wellenleiter
Wellenlnge
Vorsatzkeil
wet technique
Nassprfung
water-soluble developer
water-suspendable developer
water-washable penetrant
wave
wave front
wave interference
wave train
waveform display
wide beam transmitting

width of coverage
window
wobble
Radprfkopf;
Rollenprfkopf
Senden eines breiten Bndels
Spurbreite
Fenster
Wackeleffekt
working range
Arbeitsbereich
wheel probe
X-ray film
X-ray tube
Dickenschwinger;
X-Schwinger
Rntgenfilm
Rntgenrhre
X-rays
Rntgenstrahlen
Y-cut crystal
Scherschwinger;
Y-Schwinger
yoke
Joch
yoked coil
zone location
zone of influence of the probe
zone of interaction
Jochspule
Zonenortung
Sensoreinflusszone
Wechselwirkungsvolumen
X-cut crystal
342
Franais
reprsentation volumique
transmission en W
rvlateur hydrosoluble
rvlateur en suspension
dans leau
pntrant liminable leau
onde
front dondes
interfrence
train dondes
affichage de la forme d'onde
guide d'ondes
longueur donde
sabot
mthode de contrle par voie
humide
transducteur-roue
mission large champ
largeur daction
fentre
ballottement
plage de fonctionnement du
numriseur
cristal-taille X
film rayons X
tube radiogne
rayonnement X;
rayons X
cristal-taille Y
aimant portatif;
fer cheval
capteur en circuit en fer
localisation par zone
zone dinfluence du capteur
zone daction du capteur
343
INDEX
A
A-scan .............................................. 158, 213
Abbot, C. .................................................... 41
Absolute probe .......................................... 135
Absorbed dose ........................................... 292
Absorption edge scanning ........................... 285
Acceptance level ........................................... 3
Acoustic emission (AE) ................................ 230
Acoustic emission decibel scale .................... 233
Acoustic emission signature ......................... 231
Acoustic impedance .................................... 182
Acoustic microscopy ................................... 227
Acoustic mirror .......................................... 201
Acoustic shadow ........................................ 190
Acousto-ultrasonics .................................... 237
Active thermography .................................... 51
Activity ..................................................... 292
ADEPT probe ............................................. 225
Adjacent cable ............................................ 99
Adjacent conductor ...................................... 99
Air coupling transducer ............................... 202
ALARA ...................................................... 294
Alkali-ion diode ........................................... 79
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) . . . .
149
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
.................................................................. 20
Ammonia leak detection ............................... 81
Amorphous carbon ..................................... 272
Amorphous selenium .................................. 270
Amorphous silicon ...................................... 270
Angle double transducer probe ..................... 197
Angle probe .............................................. 196
Anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR) ............... 89
Annihilation ............................................... 289
Aperture leak .............................................. 77
Appleton, E. .............................................. 151
Arago, D. .................................................. 119
Arc blow ................................................... 104
ASTM International ...................................... 20
Attenuation coefficient ................................ 183
Attenuator ................................................ 160
Automated optical inspection (AOI) ................ 31
Autoradiography ........................................ 288
Axial current flow ......................................... 97
B
B-scan .............................................. 158, 213
Back pressurising test .................................. 81
Background limitation performance (BLIP) ....... 46
Backing .................................................... 193
Backscatter radiation .................................. 282
Bandwidth ................................................ 192
Barium strontium titanate (BST) .................... 45
Barkhausen noise ....................................... 113
Barkhausen, H. .......................................... 114
Beam angle ............................................... 222
Beam hardening ........................................ 278
Becquerel [Bq] ................................... 255, 292
Becquerel, H. ............................................ 242
344
Beer law ................................................... 243

Beer, A. .................................................... 243
Bell pressure change .................................... 83
Belm, A. ................................................... 179
Berthold penetrameter ................................ 106
Beryllium neutron generator ........................ 257
Betatron ................................................... 253
Biot-Savart law ........................................... 93
Biot, J.-B. ................................................... 93
Bismuth germanate (BGO) .......................... 268
Black light lamp ........................................... 66
Blackbody ............................................. 41, 60
Bleed back .................................................. 71
Bleed out .............................................. 63, 71
Bloch wall ................................................. 113
Bloch, F. ............................................ 113, 171
Blower door ................................................ 86
Blue base .................................................. 260
Bolometer .................................................. 41
Boltzmann constant ..................................... 41
Boltzmann, L. .............................................. 41
Bombing test .............................................. 81
Borescope .................................................. 25
Box car technique ........................................ 56
Bremsstrahlung ......................................... 249
Brewster angle .......................................... 154
Brewster, D. .............................................. 154
Bubble emission ................................... 84, 314
Bubbler .................................................... 199
Bureau de Normalisation des Industries de la
Fonderie (BNIF) ........................................... 25
Buys-Ballot, C. .......................................... 179
C
C-scan .............................................. 158, 213
Caesium iodide .......................................... 267
Calibration block ....................... 218, 221, 314p.
Capacitive micro-machined ultrasonic transducers
(CMUT) .................................................... 207
Capillary leak .............................................. 77
Centre frequency ....................................... 192
Certification ......................................... 14, 315
Characteristic frequency .............................. 124
Charcoal gettering ....................................... 87
Charge-coupled device (CCD) ...................... 269
Chilowsky, C. ............................................ 179
CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram ...................... 28
Circulator .................................................. 160
Coaxial cable ............................................. 191
Coercitivity ................................................. 90
Coil fill factor .............................. 122, 126, 145
Colladon, J.-D. ........................................... 179
Colour temperature ...................................... 31
Colour vision deficiency (CVD) ....................... 17
Complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) ... 272
Complex impedance plane .................... 124, 126
Complex plane ................................... 133, 314
Compton backscatter technique ................... 284
Compton effect ....................................... 242p.
Compton scattering .................................... 243
Compton, A. .............................................. 242

Computed laminography ............................. 275
Computed radiography (CR) ........................ 265
Computed tomography (CT) ........................ 276
Conductance ............................................. 119
Contact angle .............................................. 65
Contact probe ........................................... 197
Contact testing technique ............................ 195
Contrast aid paint ...................................... 100
Converter foil ............................................ 272
Cormack, A. .............................................. 242
Corner reflection ........................................ 185
Couplant ................................................... 197
Coupler .................................................... 161
Creeping wave ................................... 185, 225
Critical angle ............................................. 154
Cross-talk .......................................... 270, 276
Curie temperature ....................... 104, 120, 192
Curie, J. .................................................... 179
Curie, M. .................................................. 242
Curie, P. ..................................... 104, 179, 242
Cut-off frequency ....................................... 192
D
D-scan .............................................. 158, 214
Damadian, R. ............................................ 171
Damping ................................................... 193
Dark adaptation .......................................... 18
Decay constant .......................................... 255
Decibel [dB] ....................................... 183, 188
Deconvolution ........................................... 277
Delay line transducer .................................. 196
Demagnetisation ........................................ 104
Densitometer ............................................ 281
Detector panel ........................................... 270
Deuteranomaly ............................................ 17
Deuterium-tritium neutron tube ................... 257
Developer ...................................... 64, 70, 260
Dice-and-fill technique ................................ 193
Differential blackbody ................................... 60
Differential phase-contrast imaging .............. 286
Differential probe ....................................... 135
Diffuse scattering ....................................... 183
Digital holography ....................................... 34
Dirac pulse ................................................. 53
Dirac, P. ..................................................... 53
Direct coupling zone ................................... 146
Direct visual testing ..................................... 25
Disc shaped reflector (DSR) ................. 189, 218
Distance gain size (DGS) ......... 189, 209, 217
Distance amplitude correction (DAC) ..... 209, 217
Doppler sonography ................................... 226
Doppler, C. ............................................... 179
Dose ................................................. 260, 271
Dose rate .................................................. 292
Double film technique ................................. 273
Double transducer probe ............................. 195
Double transmission ................................... 211
Dry magnetic particles ................................ 100
Dual energy tomography ............................. 279
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA or DXA) .
287
Echo planar imaging (EPI) .................... 171, 177

Eddy current probe testing .......................... 128
Eddy current through-transmission testing ..... 128
EddyTherm ................................................. 59
Edge spread function (ESF) ............................. 9
Effective dose ............................................ 292
Effective permeability ................................. 124
Eigenfrequency ................................... 192, 238
Electon-bombarded charge-coupled device
(EBCCD) ................................................... 269
Electric conductivity ............................ 119, 152
Electrocardiography (ECG) .......................... 118
Electromagnetic-acoustic transducer (EMAT) . 112,
202, 239
Electron multiplying charge-coupled device
(EMCCD) .................................................. 270
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) ... 75, 177
Electron radiography .................................. 288
Electron spin resonance (ESR) ..................... 177
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) . .
30, 35
Electrostatic spray gun ................................. 66
Emulsifier ................................................... 64
Encircling probe ......................................... 125
Endoscope .................................................. 25
Equivalent dose ......................................... 292
Equivalent dose rate ................................... 297
Ernst, R. ................................................... 171
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC
EURATOM) ................................................ 291
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) ........ 21
European Co-operation for Accreditation (EA) . . 21
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) ...
20
European Federation for Nondestructive Testing
(EFNDT) ..................................................... 12
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) ...
258
Excess penetrant remover ....................... 64, 70
Experimental hutch .................................... 260
Extensional mode ...................................... 182
F
F-scan ...................................................... 214
False call ...................................................... 3
Far field .................................................... 187
Far vision acuity .......................................... 39
Faraday rotation ........................................ 103
Faraday, M. ............................................... 119
Farnsworth-Munsell ...................................... 14
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) .......................... 11
Feed-through attenuator ............................. 191
Felicity effect ............................................. 231
Felicity ratio .............................................. 231
Femtosecond laser ..................................... 163
Fermat transducer ..................................... 198
Fermat, P. ................................................. 198
Fert, A. ...................................................... 89
Fessenden, R. ............................................ 179
Fibre optic plate with X-ray scintillator (FOP) . 269
Fibre optic taper ........................................ 269
Fibrescope .................................................. 25
Fick law ...................................................... 41
Fick, A. ...................................................... 41
345
Field effect transistor (FET) ......................... 160

Field of view (FOV) ...................................... 44
Film base .................................................. 260
Film digitisation .................................. 264, 319
Film illuminator .................................. 263, 322
Film laminography ..................................... 274
Film processing .......................................... 262
Filtered backprojection ............................... 278
Filtered particle testing ................................. 74
Firestone, F. .............................................. 179
First article inspection ................................. 279
Fixed-frequency continuous-wave transmission ....
156
Flash X-ray machine ................................... 253
Flat bottom hole (FBH) ........................ 189, 217
Flexible coil ................................................. 99
Flexural mode ........................................... 182
Flow gap coupling ...................................... 199
Fluorometallic intensifying screen ................. 264
Fluxgate magnetometer .............................. 117
Flying line thermography .............................. 56
Flying spot thermography ............................. 56
Focal plane array (FPA) ........................... 45, 47
Focal spot size .................................... 280, 317
Fog density ............................................... 260
Frster, F. ........................................... 90, 119
Foucault, L. ............................................... 119
Fourier transform ........................................ 11
Fourier, J. ................................................... 11
Fraunhofer-zone ........................................ 187
Fraunhofer, J. ............................................ 187
Frequency encode gradient .......................... 175
Frequency limit .......................................... 192
Frequency scanning eddy current technique
(FSECT) .................................................... 145
Fresnel equations ....................................... 153
Fresnel-zone ............................................. 187
Fresnel, A. ................................................ 153
Fringe projection .................................... 29, 34
Fuchsine dye test ......................................... 65
Full screen height (FSH) .............................. 217
Full wave direct current (FWDC) ............. 93, 252
functional MRI (fMRI) .......................... 171, 177
G
Gadolinium oxisulphide (GOS) ..................... 267
Gamma-ray source ............................. 254, 297
Gas-coupled laser acoustic detection (GCLAD) .....
207
Geiger-Mller (GM) .................................... 293
Geiger, H. ................................................. 243
General visual testing ................................... 25
Geometric domain ...................................... 183
Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) ..................... 89
Giant magnetostrictive material (GMM) ......... 204
Granularity ............................................... 260
Grating lobe .............................................. 206
Gray [Gy] .......................................... 260, 292
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) ................... 161
Grnberg, P. ............................................... 89
Gyromagnetic ratio .................................... 171
H
Halbach .................................................... 173
346
Half live .................................................... 255

Half value layer (HVL) ......................... 244, 295
Half wave direct current (HWDC) ............ 93, 252
Hall effect ................................................. 102
Hall, E. ..................................................... 102
Head wave ................................................ 185
Henry [H] ................................................. 121
Hermetically sealed device ............................ 87
Herschel, W. ............................................... 41
Hertz, H. ................................................... 151
Heterodyne ............................................... 156
Homodyne ................................................ 156
Horn ........................................................ 161
Hounsfield, G. ........................................... 242
Hsu-Nielsen source .................................... 232
Hydrodynamic paradox ............................... 202
Hydrophilic emulsifier ................................... 65
Hydrophone .............................................. 179
I
Illuminance ................................................. 39
Illuminance meter .................................. 39, 72
Image intensifying system ........................... 268
Image quality indicator (IQI) ................ 281, 321
Imaging plate (IP) .............................. 265, 320
Immersion transducer ................................ 200
Impact-echo .............................................. 208
Impedance ................................................ 122
Impedance bridge ...................................... 136
In phase component ................................... 156
In phase demodulation ............................... 132
Index of refraction .............................. 152, 169
Induced current flow .................................... 98
Inductance ................................................ 121
Induction .................................................. 120
Induction coil ............................................ 102
Inductive reactance .................................... 121
Instantaneous field of view (IFOV) ............ 45, 61
Instantaneous measurement field of view
(IFOVmeas) ........................................... 45, 62
Insulation component test (INCOTEST) ......... 148
Intensifying screen ..................................... 263
Internal coaxial probe ................................. 127
International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) . .
120
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) . . . 291
International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP) ....................................... 291
International Committee for Nondestructive
Testing (ICNDT) .......................................... 12
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) ......................................................... 20
Intrinsic impedance .................................... 152
Inverse Doppler effect ................................ 165
Inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) .............. 11
Ionisation gauge .......................................... 79
Ishihara test plate ....................................... 14
Isotope crawler .......................................... 256
J
Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC)...
.................................................................. 20
Jet technique ............................................. 199
Joliot, F. ................................................... 242
Joliot, I. .................................................... 242

Josephson junction ..................................... 117
Josephson, B. ............................................ 117
Joule effect ............................................... 203
Joule-Thomson effect ................................... 46
Joule, J. .............................................. 46, 203
K
K-shell radiation ........................................ 249
k-space .................................................... 177
Kaiser effect .............................................. 231
Kelvin, Lord ................................................ 46
Kirchhoff law ............................................... 42
Kirchhoff, G. ............................................... 42
Klein-Nishina cross section .......................... 284
Klein, O. ................................................... 242
L
Laboratory blackbody ................................... 60
Lamb wave ............................................... 180
Lamb, H. .................................................. 180
Langevin, P. .............................................. 179
Langley, S. ................................................. 41
Larmor equation ........................................ 171
Larmor frequency ....................................... 171
Larmor, J. ................................................. 171
Laser shearography ................................ 30, 36
Latent image ............................................. 260
Lauterbur, P. ............................................. 171
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ....................... 192
Leakage rate ............................................... 77
Leaky Rayleigh wave .................................. 180
Lenz law ................................................... 121
Lenz, H. .................................................... 121
Lidar (light detection and ranging) ................. 25
Lift-off .................................. 90, 129, 134, 145
Light field camera ........................................ 40
Line chart ................................................... 38
Line of response (LOR) ............................... 289
Line spread function (LSF) .............................. 9
Linear accelerator (linac) ............................ 253
Linear non-threshold hypothesis (LNT) .......... 294
Lipophilic emulsifier ..................................... 65
Lippmann, G. ............................................ 179
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) ........... 234, 317p.
Lissajous figure ......................................... 119
Lissajous, J. .............................................. 119
LLL-interferometer ..................................... 286
LLT examination ................................. 185, 210
Local default (LD) ...................................... 102
Lock-in thermography .................................. 56
Longitudinal wave ...................................... 180
Lorentz effect ............................................ 202
Lorentz, H. ................................................ 202
Loss of metallic area (LMA) ......................... 102
Love wave ................................................ 181
Low frequency eddy current (LFEC) .............. 115
Lumen [lm] ................................................ 39
Lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) ................... 268
Lutetium yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) ...... 268
Lux [lx] ...................................................... 39
Luxmeter .................................................... 39
Magnetic Bench ........................................... 96

Magnetic field constant ................................. 90
Magnetic field meter ................................... 106
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) ............ 89, 109, 133
Magnetic hysteresis loop ............................... 90
Magnetic remanence method (MRM) ............. 115
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ........ 171, 276
Magnetic rope testing (MRT) ................. 110, 318
Magnetic saturation .............................. 90, 144
Magneto-optical (MO) ................................. 103
Magneto-optical imaging (MOI) .................... 149
Magnetocardiography (MCG) ....................... 118
Magnetostriction ........................................ 203
Magnetovision ........................................... 116
Mandrel ...................................................... 95
Manhattan Project ........................................ 77
Mansfield, P. ............................................. 171
Mass spectrometer ............................... 79, 314
Maxwell, J. ................................................ 151
Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) ................... 48
Metal screen ............................................. 263
Metal-semiconductor field effect transistor
(MESFET) .................................................. 151
Metamaterial ............................................. 169
Michelson interferometer .............................. 36
Micro power xenon light (MPXL) ..................... 66
Micro-channel plate (MCP) ........................... 269
Microbolometer ........................................... 45
Microfocus X-ray tube ................................. 252
Microwave reflectometer ............................. 158
Microwave transmission .............................. 156
MIL-standards ............................................. 20
Minimum detectable leakage rate ................... 78
Minimum resolvable temperature difference
(MRTD) ................................................. 44, 61
Mirror transmission .................................... 211
Modulation ................................................... 9
Modulation transfer function (MTF) ...... 8, 45, 246
Moir interferometry ............................... 29, 37
Molecular mobility ...................................... 172
Monochromator ......................................... 285
Multi-quantum well (MQW) ............................ 48
Mumetal ................................................... 120
Mutual inductance ...................................... 121
N
Near field ..................................... 34, 168, 187
Near vision acuity ........................................ 14
Nel temperature ....................................... 120
Nel, L. .................................................... 120
Neutron detector ....................................... 272
Nishina, Y. ................................................ 242
Noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) . .
45
Noise vibration harshness (NVH) .................... 36
Non-linear acoustics ................................... 240
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) .............. 171
Nyquist frequency ........................................ 10
Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem ............... 10
Nyquist, H. ................................................. 10
O
Ohm, G. ................................................... 119
Oil and whiting ............................................ 63
347
One-sided access NMR (OSA-NMR) ............... 172

Operating point ......................................... 124
Optical approximation ................................. 155
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) ............. 33
Optical density .......................................... 260
Optical region ............................................ 155
P
P-scan ...................................................... 214
Paintbrush scanning ................................... 205
Pair production .......................................... 243
Panoramic exposure technique ..................... 273
Parallel optical low-coherence tomography (pOCT)
.................................................................. 33
Partial discharge localisation ........................ 234
Passive thermography .................................. 51
Peak frequency .......................................... 192
Peelable detection media ............................ 101
Peelable developer ....................................... 65
Peltier element ..................................... 46, 272
Peltier, J. .................................................... 46
Penetrant .............................................. 69, 77
Permalloy ................................................. 204
Permanent magnet ...................................... 93
Permeability .......................... 90, 120, 152, 169
Permittivity ........................................ 152, 169
Phase contrast radiography ......................... 286
Phase encode gradient ................................ 175
Phase lag .................................................. 123
Phase scattering ........................................ 183
Phase shifter ............................................. 160
Phased array ...................................... 151, 204
Photo disintegration ................................... 243
Photo stimulated luminescence (PSL) ............ 265
Photochromatic spectacles ............................ 72
Photoconductor ............................. 46, 163, 270
Photoelectric absorption .............................. 243
Photoelectric detector ................................... 46
Photoemissive detector ................................. 46
Photometer ................................................. 79
Photonic detector ......................................... 46
Photopic ..................................................... 16
Photovoltaic detector ................................... 46
Pierce, G. .................................................. 179
Piezo-composite ........................................ 193
Piezoelectric element ........................... 192, 208
Pipeline inspection gauge (PIG) .................... 112
Pipeline pig ............................................... 113
Pirani gauge ................................................ 79
Pirani, M. .................................................... 79
Pitch and catch .......................................... 211
Planck constant ........................................... 41
Planck law .................................................. 41
Planck, M. ................................................... 41
Plenoptic camera ......................................... 40
Point spread function (PSF) ............................. 9
Poisson ratio ........................................ 35, 181
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) ..................... 200
Positron emission tomography (PET) .... 268, 276,
289
Post-emulsifiable penetrant ........................... 65
Post-magnetisation time ............................. 100
Power divider ............................................ 161
Pressure change method .................. 78, 82, 318
348
Pressure decay ............................................ 83

Pressure dye test ......................................... 77
Pressure rise ............................................... 83
Pressurisation-evacuation test ....................... 81
Probability of detection (POD) ......................... 3
Probability of false alarms (POFA) .................... 4
Probe array ............................................... 137
Probe index ............................................... 222
Prod ..................................................... 95, 98
Product family ............................................. 64
Protanomaly ............................................... 17
Pulse echo technique .................................. 209
Pulse envelope .......................................... 192
Pulse phase thermography ............................ 58
Pulse shape ............................................... 192
Pulse thermography ..................................... 53
Pulsed eddy current (PEC) ........................... 146
Purcell, E. ................................................. 171
Pyroelectric detector .................................... 45
Q
Quadrature component ............................... 156
Quadrature demodulation ............................ 132
Qualitative thermography ............................. 51
Quantitative thermography ........................... 51
Quantum detector ........................................ 46
Quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) . 48
R
Radar (radio detection and ranging) ............. 151
Radargram ................................................ 158
Radiation weighting factor ........................... 292
Radionuclide leakage .................................... 87
Radon transform inversion .......................... 278
Radon, J. .................................................. 242
RamLak filter ............................................. 277
Rapid prototyping ................................. 34, 279
Rayleigh approximation .............................. 155
Rayleigh domain ........................................ 183
Rayleigh region .......................................... 155
Rayleigh scattering ..................................... 243
Rayleigh wave .............................. 36, 180, 185
Rayleigh, Lord ........................................... 179
Reactance ................................................. 122
Receiver operation characteristics (ROC) ........... 6
Reference vessel technique ........................... 83
Reflection coefficient ...................... 43, 153, 183
Refractometer ............................................. 72
Region of interest (ROI) .............................. 280
Relative bandwidth ..................................... 192
Remanence ................................................. 90
Remote field eddy current (RFEC) ......... 112, 146
Remote field zone ...................................... 146
Remote visual testing ................................... 27
Replica ....................................................... 25
Residual thiosulphate ................................. 280
Resistance ................................................ 119
Resistivity ................................................. 119
Resolution target .................................. 38, 169
Retentivity .................................................. 90
Reverse engineering ............................. 34, 279
Rho-theta probe ........................................ 205
Richardson, L. ........................................... 179
Rigid coil .................................................... 99
Roller probe .............................................. 198

Rntgen, C. ............................................... 242
Rotating probe ........................................ 130p.
Roughness .................................................. 25
S
S-scan ...................................................... 214
Sampling probe ........................................... 81
Saturation low frequency eddy current (SLOFEC) .
144
Savart, F. ................................................... 93
Scanning near field optical microscopy (SNOM) ....
34
Schottky-barrier detector .............................. 47
Schottky, W. ............................................. 151
Scintigraphy .............................................. 289
Scintillator ................................................ 266
Scotopic ..................................................... 16
Sedimentation tube .................................... 107
Self-inductance .......................................... 121
Sensitometric curve ................................... 260
Shear horizontal sh .................................. 203
Shear vertical sv ..................................... 203
Shear wave ............................................... 180
Shepp-Logan filter ..................................... 277
Short ....................................................... 161
Shortened projection .................................. 222
Side lobe .................................................. 188
Side-drilled hole (SDH) ........................ 189, 217
Siemens [S] .............................................. 119
Sievert [Sv] .............................................. 292
Signal-to-noise ratio ...................................... 7
Single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT) .................................................... 289
Sinogram .................................................. 274
Six sigma ..................................................... 6
Skin effect ........................................... 59, 122
Skip distance ............................................. 210
Slice select gradient ................................... 175
Slit response function (SRF) ..................... 45, 62
Smith chart ............................................... 151
Smith, P. .................................................. 151
Snell law ........................................... 153, 183
Snell, W. .................................................. 153
Sniffing ...................................................... 81
Sokolov, S. ............................................... 179
Sonar (sound navigation and ranging) ........... 179
Sorting ..................................................... 143
Source location .......................................... 232
Spallanzani, L. ........................................... 179
Spallation neutron source ............................ 257
Spark coil leak tester ................................... 77
Specific activity ......................................... 254
Specific heat capacity ................................... 43
Spherical wave .......................................... 188
Spin-lattice relaxation ................................. 172
Spin-spin relaxation ................................... 172
Split ring resonator (SRR) ........................... 169
SPRITE detector .......................................... 48
Sproule, D. ............................................... 179
Squirter .................................................... 199
Standard depth of penetration ..................... 123
Standard reference film ....................... 265, 319
Standing wave ........................................... 159
Steel Castings Research and Trade Association

(SCRATA) ................................................... 25
Stefan-Boltzmann constant ........................... 42
Stefan-Boltzmann law .................................. 42
Stefan, J. .................................................... 42
Step heating ............................................... 58
Stereo radiography .................................... 274
Stirling cooler ............................................. 46
Stirling, R. .................................................. 46
Stochastic domain ...................................... 183
Stoneley wave ........................................... 180
Stress pattern analysis by thermal emission
(SPATE) ..................................................... 59
Sturm, J.-F. .............................................. 179
Super lattice detector ................................... 47
Superconductive quantum interference device
(SQUID) ................................................... 117
Superheterodyne ....................................... 208
Swept frequency continuous-wave transmission
technique ................................................. 156
Swept frequency technique .......................... 145
Swiss Accreditation Service (SAS) ............. 12, 21
Swiss Association for Standardisation (SNV) .... 20
Swiss Association for Technical Inspections
(SVTI)... ..................................................... 20
Swiss Federal Office for Public Health (BAG) ... 292
Swiss Light Source (SLS) ............................ 258
Swiss National Accidence Insurance Organisation
(SUVA) ..................................................... 292
Swiss Society for Nondestructive Testing (SGZP)...
.................................................................. 12
Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects (SIA) ...
20
Swiss Spallation Neutron Source (SINQ) ........ 258
Swiss Water Pollution Control Association (SVA) . .
86
Synchronous demodulation .......................... 132
Synchrotron ....................................... 258, 285
Synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT) ......
167, 221
T
T-probe .................................................... 136
T1 relaxation ............................................. 172
T2 relaxation ............................................. 172
Talbot-Lau interferometer ........................... 286
Tandem examination .................................. 210
Tap testing ............................................... 239
Tenth value layer (TVL) .............................. 295
Terahertz pulse imaging (TPI) ...................... 158
Terfenol .................................................... 204
Tesla, N. ................................................... 151
Thermal conductivity .................................... 43
Thermal diffusion length ............................... 57
Thermal diffusivity .................................. 41, 43
Thermal effusivity ........................................ 43
Thermal mismatch factor .............................. 43
Thermochromic liquid crystal (TLC) ................ 49
Thermoelastic constant ................................. 60
Thermoelastic stress analysis (TSA) ................ 59
Thermoelectric method with magnetic readout
(TEM) ....................................................... 115
Thermoluminescence dosimeter (TLD) .......... 292
Thin-film inductive (TFI) ........................ 89, 115
349
Thin-film transistor (TFT) ............................ 270

Thomson scattering .................................... 244
Thomson, J. .............................................. 244
Threading conductor .................................... 98
Time of flight ............................................. 158
Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) ........... 219, 313
Time-resolved infrared radiometry (TRIR) ....... 58
Tissue weighting factor ............................... 292
Tone burst generator .................................. 208
Torrent permeability measurement technique . . 84
Total reflectance ........................................ 185
Tracer gas method ............................. 78p., 318
Track-edge-foil .......................................... 273
Transceiver ............................................... 193
Transfer correction ..................................... 217
Transient thermography ............................... 53
Transition zone .......................................... 146
Transmission coefficient ....................... 153, 183
Transmission technique ....................... 210, 313
Transmission thermography .......................... 52
Transreflective ........................................... 190
Transverse wave ........................................ 180
Tritanomaly ................................................ 17
Trombone line ........................................... 160
Trost, A. ................................................... 179
Troxler gauge ............................................ 256
TV holography ............................................. 34
U
Undercut .................................................. 282
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) ...................... 27
Unsharpness ........................ 246, 273, 280, 321
UV-A radiometer .......................................... 72
V
V(z) curve ................................................. 227
Vacuum box ................................................ 81
Vacuum chamber technique .......................... 82
Vacuum technique ....................................... 80
350
Verdet constant ......................................... 103

Verdet, E. ................................................. 103
Veselago, V. .............................................. 169
Vibro-thermography ..................................... 59
Viewing conditions ......................... 72, 107, 314
Villari effect ....................................... 116, 204
Villari, E. .................................................. 204
Virgin curve ................................................ 90
Visual tactile comparator .............................. 25
Volume-scan ............................................. 214
W
Water-air-gun ............................................. 65
Water-bag method ..................................... 278
Waterfall display ........................................ 130
Watson-Watt, R. ........................................ 151
Waveguide ................................................ 233
Wet magnetic particles ............................... 100
Wheel probe .............................................. 198
Wien law .................................................... 41
Wien, W. .................................................... 41
Wigner-Ville distribution ...................... 147, 216
Wthrich ,K. .............................................. 171
X
X-ray
X-ray
X-ray
X-ray
X-ray
X-ray
constant ........................................... 296

film ................................................. 260
flash technique .................................. 290
limit .................................................. 80
refractometry .................................... 291
tube ................................................ 250
Y
Y-cut crystal .............................................. 196
Yoke ..................................................... 95, 99
Young modulus .................................... 35, 181
Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) ............................ 103
Z
Z plane technology ...................................... 47

NDT-ispitivanja SVA PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

NDT-ispitivanja SVA PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Non-Destructive

Surface, Near-Surface and Volume Inspection.................................................1

Flaw Response and Discrimination Criterion....................................................3

Probability of Detection (POD).......................................................................4

Flaw Response and Noise.............................................................................5

Receiver Operation Characteristics (ROC).......................................................6

Basic Concepts on Data Acquisition and Interpretation.............................7

Signal and Noise.........................................................................................7

Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)...............................................................8

Edge Spread Function (ESF) and Line Spread Function (LSF).............................9

Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem............................................................10

Training, Qualification and Certification of Personnel..............................12

Experience, Training and Qualification..........................................................13

Influences on Human Reliability...................................................................15

Colour Sensibility of the Human Eye.............................................................16

Colour Vision Deficiency (CVD)....................................................................17

Contrast Sensitivity of the Human Eye..........................................................17

National Standards (Switzerland).................................................................20

Standards for Aviation................................................................................21

Examination Procedure and Report General Requirements...................21

VISUAL AND OPTICAL INSPECTION..............................................25

Measuring Equipment and Reference Parts for Comparisons.............................25

Equipment for Direct Visual Techniques........................................................25

Equipment for Remote Visual Techniques......................................................27

Equipment for Optical Methods....................................................................29

Testing Procedures for Visual Testing.....................................................30

Automated Optical Mass Inspection (AOI).....................................................31

Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM)..................................................32

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)..........................................................33

Scanning Near Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM).............................................34

Optical Measuring Methods.....................................................................34

Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)...........................................35

Aspects of Quality Assurance..................................................................38

Special Vision Requirements.......................................................................39

Procedure and Record.............................................................................39

Trends, Summary and Conclusions..........................................................40

INFRARED AND THERMAL INSPECTION........................................41

Heat Transfer Mechanisms..........................................................................41

Influence of the Atmosphere.......................................................................43

Performance Parameters of Infrared Instruments...........................................44

Non-Contact Temperature Sensors...............................................................45

Contact Temperature Sensors.....................................................................49

Pulse or Transient Thermography.................................................................53

Flying Spot and Flying Line Technique..........................................................56

Pulse Phase Thermography.........................................................................58

Step Heating (Long Pulse)..........................................................................58

Thermoelastic Stress Analysis (TSA).............................................................59

Aspects of Quality Assurance..................................................................60

Imaging Spatial Resolution.........................................................................61

Measurement Spatial Resolution..................................................................62

Procedure and Record.............................................................................62

Summary and Conclusions......................................................................62

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION.................................................63

Classification of Testing Products.................................................................64

Chemical Compatibility and Thermal Restrictions............................................64

Excess Penetrant Removers........................................................................65

Electrostatic Spray Guns.............................................................................66

Black Light Lamps.....................................................................................66

Blue Light Systems....................................................................................66

Flaw Inspection Systems............................................................................67

Excess Penetrant Removal..........................................................................70

Aspects of Quality Assurance..................................................................71