Part 2: The Methods of Study in Psychology1

Basic concept of social research: What are the purposes of research?

1. Descriptive research, has the purpose of systematically observing and recording
behavior. Four types of descriptive research are observation (in a laboratory or
natural environment), surveys based on questionnaires and interviews,
standardized tests and case studies.
2. Experimental research involves conducting an experiment, a systematic
controlled study in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior
being studied are manipulated while other factors are held constant. An experiment
can determine cause and effect relation. An independent variable in an experiment
is a manipulated, influential, experimental factor. A dependent variable is a factor
that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent
variable. Experiments can involve one or more experimental groups and one or
more control groups. The experimental group is the group whose experience is
being manipulated. In random assignment, researcher assigns participants to
experimental or control group by chance.
3. Results of social and psychological research must be verifiable by other
investigators, that is, we must deal with what is observable. Operational definition
specifies an action for translating what is unobservable into something that can be
observed and measured. Empirical indicator, an observable and measurable thing
that represents a basically unobservable phenomenon (e.g. education, income and
occupation are indicators of our social class).
4. In Correlational research, the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship
between two or more events or characteristics. Concretely, correlation refers to a
consistent association between two or more variables, which may or may not be
causal. A correlation coefficient is the numerical value that expresses the degree of
relationship between two variables. An important point to remember is that
correlation does not equal causation.
4.1 Positive correlation exists when an increase in one variable is associated with
the increase in the other variable (e.g. education and income).
4.2 Negative correlation exists when one variable is associated with a decrease in
the other (education and murder).
4.3 Curvilinear correlation, as one variable is change, another variable first changes
in the same direction and then in the opposite (e.g. social integration and suicide).
4.4 Spurious, when there is no causal connection between two variables that are
correlated (e.g. hospital and death).
5. Causal Relationship. Two conditions necessary for causal relationship:
5.1 The independent variable must precede the dependent variable in time.
5.2 There must not be a third variable that cause both of them.
Major Research Methods
1. Survey the most frequently used by sociologist. To take survey we must select
first a population (the people whom we want to study) of any size but all it
members must have something in common. 1.1 Sampling. Sample must accurately
represent the entire population from which it is drawn.
1.1.1 Random sample (e.g. throw names of the entire population in a hut, mix
them up, and then pull as many names as you needed in the sample.
1

Condensed by Roland L. Aparece, MA from from Santrock, John W. Psychology 7th ed. (Singapore: The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.) 47-73. See also Alex Thio, Sociology: An Introduction, 3rd ed. (New York:
HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992) pp. 27-40.

1.1.2 Systematic sampling involves the use of a system such as selecting every 10 th
or 100th person in the population.
1.1.3 Stratified sampling is used when the population can be divided into various
strata or categories (e.g. males, and females).
1.2 Types of Survey
1.2.1 Self-administered questionnaires. This is intended when the study requires a
large number of respondents. Here, the researcher simply gives or sends the people
in a sample a list of questions and then asks them to fill the answers by themselves
(e.g. true or false; yes, no, dont know). This method saves a lot of time, money
and effort.
1.2.2 Personal interview. This method is used when the study requires a small
number of respondents.
12.2.1 Structured interview. The researcher read the questions to the subject and
gives the same choice of answers and gets the subjects answer on the spot.
1.2.2.2 Unstructured interview. The researcher asks open ended questions and the
respondents are allowed to answer freely in their own words. This method costs
much time, money and effort.
2. Observation. Generally, on surveys we depend on others to tell us what has
happened. By contrast, in observation we rely on ourselves to go where the action
isand watch what is happening.
2.1 Detached observation, the researcher observes as outsider, from a distance,
without getting involved.
2.2 Participant observation, researchers take part in the activities of a group they
are studying.
3. Experiment, a research operation in which the researcher manipulates variables
so that their influence can be determined. One group, called the experimental
group is exposed to the independent variable; the second, called the control group
is not.
4. Analyzing Existing Data. Sometimes it is impossible to conduct an interview,
observation or experiment because the people we want to study are long dead.
Thus, sociologists often turn to analysis of existing data.
4.1 Secondary Analysis. The researcher searches for new knowledge from the data
collected earlier by another researcher or public agency. Usually, the original
investigator has gathered the data for a specific purpose and the secondary analyst
uses them for something else.
4.2. Content Analysis. Some existing information is qualitative, in the form of words
or ideas. This can be found in virtually all forms of human communication-books,
magazines, movie, TV programs, laws, songs and so on. To study human behavior
from these materials, sociologist often resort to content analysis, searching for
specific words or ideas and then turning them into numbers.
5. Case Study or case history is an in-depth look at a single individual. A case study
provides information about a persons fear, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences,
upbringing, family relationships, health or anything that helps the psychologist
understand the persons mind and behavior.
6. Test Method. This involves the use of psychological tests as instrument.
Examples are IQ test like Otis-Lennon mental ability test; self-projective test like
Rorschach Ink Blot test, and personality test like Myer Briggs Personality Type
Inventory.