Coventry University

Faculty of Engineering and

Computing

MSc Dissertation in

Manufacturing Systems Engineering

'The Design of Light Weight

Automotive Brake Pedal'

Submitted By: Nurfaizey A. Hamid

Project Supervisors:
Dr. Gumail Singh
Assc. Prof. Ir. Mustafar Abdul Kadir
Dr. Janatul Islah Mohammad
10th September 2007

ABSTRACT

In recent years, people concerns on emissions are growing. As vehicles are one of
the contributors, some governments had introduced legislations pertaining to the matter.
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) for example was introduced by the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) of the United States in order to
encourage car manufacturers to improve their product's efficiency, thus reducing
emissions. Higher efficiency means less fuel consumption without compromising
vehicles' performance. One of the solutions is to design the vehicles using smaller engine
and light weight design. Conventional heavy materials can be replaced with new
advanced materials to reduce weight.
This dissertation is concerned with the design of light weight automotive brake
pedal. Later we will be looking at how a new material can be selected as replacement for
conventional material. Material selection will be carried out systematically using CES
Edupack to search for potential materials. Material properties and manufacturing process
are the two factors which will be considered during material selection process.
An actual steel brake pedal sample from a passenger car will be used as example.

The component will be measured using coordinate measuring machine before a 3D model
can be generated using Solidworks. A new brake pedal will be designed using alternative
material. Both current and new design of brake pedal will be analysed using ABAQUS.
Linear static stress analysis will be performed to study the behaviour of the component
when subjected to extreme foot load. Based on analysis results, a polymer based
composite material was found as a suitable material to produce light weight brake pedal.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1

History of Automotive Brake System

In the early days, wagons and other animal drawn vehicles relied on the animal's

power to both accelerate and decelerate the vehicle. Eventually there was the
development of basic supplemental braking system consisting of a hand lever to push a
wooden fiiction pad directly against the metal tread of the wheels. Over the years, as the
level of transportation technology has increased the braking system used to slow down
vehicles has also been improved.
In 1902 in New York, Ransom E. Olds had invented a brake system known as
external brake. It used a single flexible stainless-steel band, wrapped around a drum on
the rear axle. When the brake pedal was applied, the band contracted to grip the drum.
Although it ground down solid rubber tires pretty quickly, the tire brake was popular on

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHTAUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

carriages and many early autos. By 1904, practically all car makers were building cars
with an external brake on each rear wheel [I].
However, the external brake demonstrated some serious flaws in everyday use.
On hills, for example, the brake unwrapped and gave way rapidly. Another drawback to
the external brake was it had no protection from dirt so its bands and drums quickly wore.
A brake job every 200 to 300 miles was considered normal. The problems associated
with the external brake were overcome by the internal brake or drum brake as it is now
known. And, since brake parts were inside drums and protected from dirt, drivers could
go over 1,000 miles between brakes overhauls [l].
Since those days, drum brakes became all-dominant in the United States. In
Europe, particularly in Great Britain, it had to share the stage with disc brakes. The first
record of the disc brake was in 1902 in England where Dr. F.W. Lanchester patented a
design for a disc brake. However, these early disc brakes were not as effective at stopping
as the contemporary drum brakes of that time. Its major problem was noise. Metal-tometal contact between his copper linings and the metal disc caused an intense screech
that sent chills through anyone within earshot. The problem was solved in 1907 when
Herbert Frood, another Englishman, came up with the idea of lining pads with asbestos.
The new material was quickly adopted by car manufacturers on both drum and disc
brakes. Asbestos linings also outlasted other friction materials by a wide margin up to
10,000-mile [I].
As roads improved and cars began to be driven at high speeds, engineers
recognized the need for even better braking system. In 1918, a young inventor named
Malcolm Lougheed (or Lockheed) applied hydraulics to braking. He used cylinders and
tubes to transmit fluid pressure against brake shoes, pushing the shoes against the drums.

In 1921, the first passenger car the Model 'A' Duesenberg was equipped with four-wheel
hydraulic brakes [I]. The basic braking system we have today is based on this technology.
The modern automotive brake system today is the result of improvement for over 100

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Typical Disk Brake

Front Brakes

Typical
Drum Brake
-.

I I

Rear Brakes

V
Brake Lines

Typical Automotive Braking System

Figure 2 - Typical Brake System [5]

There are three subsystems in automotive brake system:

a) Leverage system
b) Hydraulic system
c) Friction
In an emergency stop, the forces that have to be applied to the brake shoes in
order to produce the maximum deceleration are very large. Approximating to the weight
of the vehicle, and to enable the driver to produce these forces with an effort which
cannot exceed 700 N and which is normally kept down to about one-third of that amount,
the brake system must be able to provide a considerable leverage [2]. The force
multiplication processes take place in two areas; leverage system and hydraulic system.

1.3.1

Leverage System
Leverage system is a foot pedal mechanism which is designed in such a way that

it can multiply the force from driver's foot several times before it is transmitted to the

1.3.2 Hydraulic System

Hydraulic system consists of a master cylinder, brake lines and braking unit at
each wheel. Figure 5 shows hydraulic system and a typical master cylinder in automotive
brake system. Due to the fact that fluid cannot be compressed, the force transmitted from
the foot pedal can be manipulated for an even greater force and then transferred to the
braking unit at each wheel. Figure 6 explains this process. To determine the
multiplication factor in Figure 6, start by looking at the size of the pistons. Assume that
the piston on the left is 2 inches (5.08 cm) in diameter (1-inch 12.54 cm radius), while the
piston on the right is 6 inches (15.24 cm) in diameter (3-inch I 7.62 cm radius). The area
of the two pistons is

71

* 3. Therefore piston on the right is nine times larger than the

piston on the left [6]. This means that if 100 lbs force is applied to the left-hand piston, a
900 lbs force will come out on the right-hand piston.

Typical Master Cylinder

Figure 5 - Hydraulic system and a typical master cylinder [5]

Force

inches

inches

I 2 in. I

I
II

6 in.

II

Figure 6 - Force multiplication in hydraulic system [6]

1.3.3 Friction

Friction happens when force from the brake fluid press the brake pads or friction
linings against the rotor or drum. Friction also happens between tires and road surface.
Friction is a measure of how hard it is to slide one object over another [ 6 ] .The coefficient
of friction is the ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction between the sliding
surfaces. It is constant for a given pair of surfaces.
Coefficient of fiction = Friction force I Normal load

Friction force (F) = p. Normal load (N)

The friction force is proportional to normal load. Therefore, the heavier the
vehicle, the greater force is needed to decelerate the vehicle. This concept applies to the
brake system where the more force applied at the brake pads or linings, the greater the
friction force or braking force generated.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHTAUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

1.4

The Project Objectives

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) was introduced by the National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) of the United States in order to

encourage car manufacturers to improve their product's efficiency, thus reducing
emissions. CAFE is the sales weighted average fuel economy, expressed in miles per
gallon (mpg), of a manufacturer's fleet of passenger cars or light trucks with a gross
vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 8,500 lbs (3,855 kg) or less, manufactured for sale in
the United States [lo]. According to [9], the trend toward lightweight materials continues
to grow each day. Whether it is for the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
standards in the automotive industry or just an OEM's drive to improve product
performance by increasing efficiency though weight reduction [9].
This project is concerned with the design of light-weight automotive brake pedal.
Most of the cars today have pedals that are made of steel. In some performance cars,
aluminium has been used to replace steel due to its higher strength to weight ratio. In this
project, we will be looking at a polymer-based material as the replacement material for
steel. A product sample from an average production car will be used as reference. The
main advantages of using this material are light-weight and ease of manufacture.
However, there are few problems that need to be considered such as limitation in material
properties, reliability and cost.
The aim of this project is to come out with a successful design of light-weight
automotive brake pedal using polymer-based material with acceptable level of
performance. In achieving this aim, project objectives are set as below:
To understand the working principles, components, standards and theories
through a literature study.
To analyse current design and its material properties.
To select an alternative materials using a systematic selection method.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

To develop and analyse new component design using CAD and CAE applications.
To clearly justify the results and conclusions.
Knowledge gained from this project is to be able to understand the steps needed to
design new brake pedal with new material from systematic material selection. The use of
CAD and CAE for design and analysis will help to minimise design time.
1.5

Current Developments in Brake Pedal Design

Efficiency of a car can be improved through weight reduction. In this perspective,

manufacturers are searching out opportunities to replace conventional materials with new
and lighter materials without compromising its mechanical and physical properties. An
example of reducing weight through new material application can be seen in the
manufacturing of Chevrolet Corvette. The Chevrolet Corvette is the sport car range that
has been manufactured by Chevrolet since 1953. It has been proclaimed to be the
"America's Sports Car" [l 11. The recent model Chevrolet Corvette C6 is shown in Figure

Figure 7 - Chevrolet Corvette C6 [8]

Chevrolet will take another step forward through the next generation of Chevrolet
Corvette C7 which will be launched in 2010. It was reported by [9], the conventional
brake pedal which was made of steel will be replaced with B356 aluminium. To solve

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

structural and mechanical property concerns, modified alloy chemistries and heat
treatment cycles were used with permanent mould casting to achieve the mechanical
properties of 35 ksi tensile strength, 25 ksi yield strength and 7% elongation [9]. Another
advantage other than light weight is the exceptional appearance which is important as it is
a visible component. Secondary cosmetic process such as spray painting will be no longer
required.

Figure 8 - Aluminium cast brake pedal to be used by the next generation Corvette C7 [9]
It is reported in [12] titled 'Concurrent design and manufacturing process of
automotive composite components' which had used concurrent engineering in the
development of polymeric based composite automotive clutch pedal. The research
objective was to demonstrate the use of Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer
Aided Engineering (CAE) to help designers in the design process. The chosen product
was a cable operated automotive clutch pedal which was converted from conventional
material to polymer based composite. Several engineering computer applications were
used from conceptual design until prototyping such Pro Engineer, LUSAS, Mould Flow
Analysis, and Stereolithography(SLA) and 3D Printer for rapid prototyping.

There were two conceptual designs considered; the 'T' profile and the 'I' profile.
Highlighted by [12] that based on analysis, the 'T' profile design was stiffer compared to
the 'I' profile. The analysis was done using LUSAS finite element analysis software.
Another interesting finding was the addition of ribs to the design to improve stiffness and
rigidity. The use of ribs enables designers to compensate the effect of reducing section
thickness to improve design efficiency. However, S.M. Sapuan [12] did not discuss the
overall performance of the new component in comparison with the original component.
1.6

Report Structtire

Chapter I
lNTROWCTlON

Chapter 2
CURRENT COMPONENT

h-3
MEASUREMENT. GEOMETRY
GENERATION AND ANALYSIS
OF CURRENT COMPONENT

Chapter4
NEW WTERIAL SELECTION

4
Chapter5
NEW DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Ulapter 6
DISCUSSION

w e r7
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
RECOMMENDATIONS

Figure 9 - Report Structure

Chapter 1 is the introduction chapter. A brief literature review on brake system
has been carried out focusing on history, hndamental theory and brake subsystems. The
project objectives and current developments in brake pedal design had also been
discussed.
Chapter 2 explained about the current steel brake pedal with an actual brake pedal
used as example. The material properties and manufacturing process of the current brake
pedal will be discussed in detail.
Chapter 3 is about measurement, geometry generation and finite element analysis
of current brake pedal. Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) will be used for
'
for geometry generation and ABAQUS for finite
measurement, ~ o l i d ~ o r k s 2003
element analysis.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHTAUTOMOTIVEBRAKE PEDAL

also the mounting place of hydraulic master cylinder (not shown in figure) of the brake
system and brake light switch. The spring is used to retain brake pedal assembly at its
original position. When the brake pedal is depress, the spring will provides slight load to
the brake pedal. When brake pedal is released, it will move back to its original position.
Bolt and nut, pivot shaft and plastic bearings anchored the brake pedal assembly to the
bracket. Grease was applied at this area to minimise friction.

Figure 10 - Proton Wira (known as Persona in the UK) [14]

Figure 11 - Proton Wira brake pedal assembly

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHTAUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

Figure 14 - Brake light switch mounting area

Figure 15 - Location of spring

The size of the brake pedal assembly is about 370 mm x 148 mm with overall
weight of 944.4 grams. Brake pedal assembly consists of three components; brake pedal,
rubber foot pad and switch contact pad. The main body of brake pedal is made of steel
plate with thickness 6 mm. It consists of three subcomponents joint by welding. The
welding areas are shown in Figure 17. Rubber foot pad is used to prevent foot slip while
switch contact pad is used to absorb noise as the result of contact between pedal and
brake light switch.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHTAUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

Figure 16 - Brake pedal asse&bly: (a) Brake pedal (b) Rubber foot pad (c) Switch
contact pad

Figure 17 - Three areas of welding

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT W?ZIGHTAUTOMOTIVEBRAKE PEDAL

2.3

Material Properties
A good design should always accompanied with the correct choice of material.

Selecting the wrong material will result in higher product cost, poor product performance
or even product failure. It was stated by [15] that normally the choice of material is
dictated by the design, but sometimes the other way around. Since the number of
engineering materials is large at an estimated over 120,000 materials are available, the
material selection process can be a difficult task without guidance. Ashby [IS] also
explained that a method of screening those materials is by understanding the design
requirements for a component by an analysis of function, constraints, objectives and free
variables. Table 1 explains what those criteria are while Table 2 shows the design
requirements for a brake pedal.
Table 1 - Function, constraints, objectives and free variables [15]
Function
Constraints

What does component do?

What non-negotiable conditions must be met?
What negotiable but desirable conditions.. ..?

Objective

What is to be maximised or minimized?

Free variables

What parameters of the problem is the designer free to change?

Table 2 - Design requirements for a brake pedal

Function

Brake pedal (load transfer)

No failure, meaning able to withstand load

Constraints

High Young's modulus

Good tensile strength

Objective
Free variables

Low material cost

Choice of material
Choice of design

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

Table 3 - Material properties of Low Carbon Steel AISI 1010 [18]

-

Minimum

Properties

Maximum

General:

I Density
Price

*7800

*99.13

*0.25

7900

99.62

Units

___I

0.45

Composition:

I Fe (Iron)
C (Carbon)
Mn (Manganese)
P (Phosphorus)
S (Sulphur)

*O

0.05

Si (Silicon)

0.05

Young's Modulus

*205

215

Compressive Strength

*255

315

Tensile Strength

3 10

430

Poisson's Ratio

0.285

0.295

Mechanical:
GPa

Note: Value marked * are estimates

2.4

Manufacturing Process
Steel brake pedals are manufactured using press forming. Press forming covers a

range of sheet forming processes performed by means of a die and press. Processes used
include blanking, shearing, drawing, bending, forming, coining and swaging. These
processes may be performed consecutively to form complex shapes. However, all shapes
produced by this process have a uniform cross-sectional thickness. Tools are dedicated
and, therefore, tooling costs are high. Only materials available in sheet form can be
stamped and the thickness is limited to available sheet size 1181. More detail information
on press forming is attached in Appendix 2.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

Deep drawing

Blanking

Die

Bending

Blank

Stretching

Figure 19 - Process schematic of press forming [18]

and
The overview of current component as well as the material properties
manufacturing process had been explained earlier in this chapter. In the next chapter, the
current component will be measured to get the actual dimensions. These data will be used
to generate the 3D model for stress analysis. The analysis will simulates the component's
behaviour when it is subjected to load exerted by the driver's foot.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHTAUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

CHAPTER 3

MEASUREMENT, GEOMETRY GENERATION AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT

COMPONENT

3.1

A Brief History of Finite Element Method

This section presents a brief history of the Finite Element Method (FEM).

Although 'finite element' terminology was first used in 1960 by R.W. Clough in a paper
on plane elasticity problems [19], the ideas were dated back much further. A. Hrennikoff
in 1941 and D. McHenry in 1943 used a latticed of line elements for the solution of
stresses in continuous solids. Meanwhile R. Courant in 1943 had proposed setting up the
solution of stresses in a variational form. He used piecewise interpolation functions over
triangular sub-regions making up the whole region as a method to obtain approximate
numerical solutions [20]. Since then more and more researchers involved in FEM. Table
4 summarizes the important findings made by early researchers.

THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL

Table 4 - Brief History of Finite Element Method [20]

Year

Name of researchers
A. Hremikoff and
D. McHenry

1941-1943
1943

R. Courant
S. Levy

Latticed of line elements for the solution of stresses

in continuous solids
Interpolation functions over triangular sub-regions as
a method to obtain approximate numerical solutions

1947-1953 Force method and displacement method

J.H. Argyris and S.

1954

Kelsey
M.J. Turner

1956

R.W. Clough

1960

M.J. Turner

Findings

1960

Matrix structural analysis using energy principles

Direct stzfiess method for obtaining total structure
stifiess matrix
Introduction ofJinite element using both triangular
and rectangular elements for plane stress analysis
Large deflections and thermal analysis
Flat rectangular-plate bending-element stiffness

R.J. Melosh

1961

R.H. Gallagher

1962

Material nonlinearities

1963

Introduction of buckling problems

R.H. Gallagher and

J. Padlog
P.E. Grafton and
D.R. Strome
Martin, Gallagher,
Melosh and Argyris
R.W. Clough, Y.

1963
1961-1964

matrix

Curved-shell bending-element stiffness matrix for

axisymmetric shells and pressure vessels
Extension of the FEM to three-dimensional
problems

1965

Special case of axisymmetric solids

J.S. Archer

1965

Dynamic analysis in consistent-mass matrix

O.C. Zienkiewicz

1968

Visco-elasticity problems

B.A Szabo and Lee

1969

Weighted residual methods

T. Belytschko

1976

Large-displacement nonlinear dynamic behaviour

Rashid, E.L. Wilson