The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st

Century (1960-2014).
What is Migration?
Migration is the temporary or permanent movement of people from one place to another
(Eelens, Maduro, Balkstein, 2005, p.1). Migration is normally caused by the existence of what
many scholars call pushpull factors. These factors can be economic, political, or social.
However, what these factors ultimately end up boiling down to is that there is an opportunity for
an increase in chance of a better life of the migrant and also a void in the destination region
which needs to be filled.
Introduction
Richardson (SSCOB,2014, p. 228) notes that the roots of Caribbean migration go much
deeper than many of us may realize. Tinker also notes that migration is a widely accepted
aspect of West Indian Life. It can be said that the advent of modern migration began with the
onslaught of European colonialism on the aboriginal condition in the time preceding the 17 th
century. This induced a need for the forced migration of African slaves to work in cementing the
establishment of a plantocracy. After the era of slavery a new migration of Asian indentured
workers to the colonies and of free-men played a key part in the further development of the
Caribbean as a boon for agriculture (Richardson[SSCOB], 2014, p. 233-237). Whites also tried
to hold on to a large portion of the economic and political power. One example of this was a
requirement for land ownership in the Bahamas (a luxury most slaves did not have then) to vote

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
(Craton, Saunders, 2002, p. 74-82). Many colonial laws were instituted to keep the class order
in place. In many countries (Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago etc.)
whites were usually segregated from blacks. The ruling class also instituted policies such as truck
system and vagrancy laws to keep the underclass dependent. Education for blacks after
emancipation was also a luxury and because of this there was largely no development of skilled
labor outside of agriculture (Denton, Massey, 1989, p. 790 to 794, Craton, Saunders, 2000, p.7490, p. 275-280). These practices largely persisted until the push for decolonization and
independence after WWII by the black underclass (Springer [SSCOB], 2014, p.42-51,
Wong[SSCOB], 2014, p.157-161).Rose (2002, p.29-30) contends that even so the English
speaking Caribbean (Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad etc.) continued to have strong economic,
cultural, and political ties to Great Britain. This era still contained a considerable amount of
racial tension and inequality that continues today. This fact is perplexing because these
Caribbean countries for the most part transitioned after WWII to being mostly ruled politically
by the colored underclass. Some of these policies that proliferated undertones of colonial
discrimination were even instituted by these new ruling entities. For example Haitian immigrants
who are often employed as low skill laborers are often marginalized and socially excluded in the
Bahamas. In Trinidad this was done to the East Indians(Tinker, 2011, p. 8592,Yelvington,1993,p. 118-120,44-50).In addition to this Cargill (1998)and Wong
(SSCOB,2014) note that the decline of the agriculture industry in the Caribbean signaled a major
2

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
shift in the flow of migration in the latter part of the 20 th century. There was a large uptick in
migration between countries before and after this time. Cargill notes this was due to:
1. many of the colonial influences leaving the region (The
socio-economic and political structure remained intact
however), 2.the movement to form independent states,
3.aggregate inequality, 4. the decline of Cuba as the major
tourist

destination

in

the

Caribbean,

and

5.

the

archipelagic nature of the Caribbean nations.(p.13).

Nurse (2004, p.3) summarizes that the more profitable Caribbean countries transitioned
from being a net exporter to a net importer of labor. Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti,
Jamaica, and Guyana became and are still presently the main disseminators of labor. According
to Cargill, Martin, and Garcia (2011) note that investment in the Caribbean is also driven mostly
by Europeans, Asians, and Americans who sometimes migrate to these countries. The dynamic of
contemporary exchange of societies that was and is still occurring produced a profound effect on
the collective political and socio-economical consciousness of the Caribbean (Reddock,
Barrow,2001 ,p. 1-30,251-255,954-967). Nevertheless, this paper will focus on the effects of the
larger groups of migrations (from a Caribbean perspective) in the Bahamas and Trinidad and

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
Tobago during the latter 20th and early 21st century. The four key areas where migration has the
greatest impact include Demographics, Socio-Economic status, Politics, and Culture.
History of Migration to the Bahamas
According to Tinker (2011,) most of the ancestors of Afro-Bahamians were forcefully
migrated to the Bahamas to be slaves. There is evidence that these types of slaves were here from
the advent of the settling of the Eleutheran Adventurers. This group of people have been the most
predominant group of people in the Bahamas since the start of the Atlantic slave trade.
Historically the use of migrants in general to grow the economies of communities in this capacity
has been a recurring theme up even to modern Bahamian times (Tinker, 2011, p.101-130, Craton,
Saunders,2000, Sears,1994). . This slave trade also kick started the migration of Europeans and
their cultural influence in the Bahamas. In the Bahamas case this was primarily a small number
of people from their colonizing country (Britain).Over the years there have been many large
migrations of Afro-Bahamians out of the Bahamas. This has mostly been as laborers to other
countries (primarily the U.S and Britain) and for educational purposes (Thompson- SSCOB, p.
243, 2014, Tinker, 2011, Craton, Saunders, 2000). The second largest group of people in the
Bahamas are Haitians. There has been what some would call a steady flow of Haitian migration
to the Bahamas since 1793. The Governor's dispatches begin to mention Haitians in the Bahamas
on the date of the 17th July 1793. In this dispatch and some of those sent following this the

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
governor talks about the refugees from Haiti (then called Saint Domingue).In these letters the
Governor of the Bahamas empathizes with the white loyalists of St. Domingue who fled because
of the ongoing war between the French colonists and the black militia there. Most of these
Haitian migrants were on their way to the United States. However, due to privateering many of
the vessels and belongings of the refugees were seized. However, the majority of locals began to
build up disdain for these people and the government began to implement policies to curb this
migration. Haitian migration has basically continued to flow through and to the Bahamas like
this from the 19th century onward. The third largest group of migrants in the Bahamas would be
Turks and Caicos islanders who have been migrating to the Bahamas since the 18 th century. The
fourth and fifth largest group of migrants to the Bahamas are Jamaicans and the Guyanese who
began coming to the Bahamas in the latter 19 th century and the middle of the 20 th century
respectively .Smaller groups of migrants include Asians ,Cubans, and Greeks.
History of Migration to Trinidad and Tobago
Before the onslaught of colonization occurred in Trinidad and Tobago these islands
were populated by the Carib and Taino people who were most likely migrants from the
Americas. This group of people were reduced to smaller numbers because of colonization. After
this the British, Spanish and French brought in slaves to replace the aboriginal condition.
These Afro-Trinidadians became and are still one of the predominant groups of people in

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
Trinidad. Again like the Bahamas from this period on historically the use of migrants in general
to grow the economies of communities in this capacity has been a recurring theme up even to
modern Trinidadian times. After this the British (1834), French (1848), and Spanish (Cuba in
1886) fully abolished slavery in all of the colonies. This caused a large amount of people in the
Anglophone, Francophone, and Hispanophone Caribbean to become freed men. The freed slaves
were afforded forced apprenticeship and some human rights (Craton, Saunders, p. 2-10,
Muhammad, 2004, p.898). The effects of this echoed throughout the economic and social
structures of the Caribbean. One of the problems for the ruling class then was finding a way to
pay their laborers and still attain a sizable amount of profit. One of the ways this was done in
Trinidad and Tobago, is a large number of indentured workers were brought in to work the
plantations in Trinidad and other countries to replace former slave laborers. The migration of
Asians continues even up to today ([SSCOB]Wong,p. 155-160).Many Venezuelan farmers also
settled in Trinidad and Tobago (Carmichael,1961). The islands of Trinidad and Tobago were
united in 1889. Oil was discovered in Trinidad in the early 20th century. Trinidad became
tactically important to the Americans during and after WWII .Therefore the Americans (U.S)
created bases in Trinidad during WWII in a similar fashion to the Bahamas. The U.S and the
Europeans presence is still strong in Trinidad currently. Trinidad and Tobago during this time
was also an important destination of regional immigration. From 1870 until 1910 because of its
agricultural sector (Carmichael, 1961, Yelvington, 1993) and then again in the latter 20th
6

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
century .Grenadians, Haitian, Jamaicans have been the largest group of migrants in this capacity
recently in this aspect. However, Blacks and East Indians have remained the dominant groups
in these countries. These two ethnicities historically have a lot of hostility towards each other
(Eclac,2006,p.1020,Herskovits,1976,Luke,2007,Mohammed,2009,Ryan,1972,WorldBank,World
Development Indicators,2014).
Demographics
Population growth is one of the principal indicators of mass migration. If you take a look
at the population growth rate from 1960 until now you would see that there is a very low net
migration rate for the high labor exporting countries and relatively high net migration rate for the
high labor importing countries (WBWDI, 2014). As of the year 2000 according to the Bahamas
department of statistics approximately 10 % of people residing in the Bahamas are immigrants.
The IOM also notes that 30% of the population of inter- Caribbean migrants live in Trinidad and
Tobago. There also seems to be a sex ratio disparity of migrants presently travelling to both
countries. Male dominant in the flow to the Bahamas as there has been historically a surplus of
migrant males coming to the Bahamas for employment in industry and agriculture. It is female
dominant in Trinidad and Tobago as there is more availability of jobs suited for women (e.g.
caretakers, maids, etc.) (WBWDI, 2014). Despite the economic state of the high labor exporting
countries when compared to Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago all of the major statistical

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
indicators of the demographic impact of migration are decreasing. There is also an increasing
number of skilled migrant workers out of the country. These migrants usually move to the states
and Canada for similar reasons as the rest of the Caribbean countries. The Bahamas and Trinidad
and Tobago have experienced very low population growth in recent years. These factors imply
that migrants have higher chance of marrying local mates. In the Bahamas children born to
marriages like these are usually resented in the larger society in regards to obtaining citizenship.
A similar dynamic of resentment has formed in Trinidad and Tobago but it more because of
racial tension. However, there is data that shows locals usually marry among themselves in
these countries. Women according to both Bahamian law cannot pass on their citizenship to their
children if her husband is a foreigner. Children born to immigrants inside of these two countries
can apply for citizenship at the age of 18 in the Bahamas. Trinidad and Tobago has similar laws
(Constitution of the Bahamas,1973, Bahamas Nationality Act,1973, Constitution of the Republic
of Trinidad and Tobago,1976). In the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago nationals tend to work
in the sectors controlled by the government (utilities, finance, government offices, etc.).Locals
have also linked high population density with the idea that there nation is being taken over by
foreigners (Cargill, 2001, p 6-27.ECLAC,2006, p 14-20,Reddock,Barrow,2001) also notes that
both countries locals have expressed distress over migrants coming into the country and would
like to see their numbers greatly reduced.

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
Socio-Economic
There is a perception in Trinidad and Tobago and Bahamas that migrants are a burden on
both societies. Cargill(1998) notes:
They are blamed for depressed wages, increase in
unemployment during economic recessions, and the displacement
of natives from jobs. They are also scape goateed by governments
for

escalating

crime,

shortage

of

affordable

housing,

overcrowding, failure to meet their tax burden, increasing poverty,

infrastructural decay and, environmental deterioration (p.22).
Conversely she also noted that there is empirical evidence that shows that immigrants
exert positive growth effects on wages and employment opportunities of natives. They also tend
to be higher risk takers in business and greatly desire to be financially solvent. Natives of the
Bahamas and the Trinidad generally praise migrants for their hard working and willingness to
follow instructions. However, immigrants also tend to live in lower quality housing. There was
also a spike in health care cost during the peaks of migration to the Trinidad and Tobago and the
Bahamas. It also costs more to educate children of migrants who cannot speak English(World
Bank, 2014,ECLAC,2005,p. 10-14).The push factors in both these countries are very strong.
Trinidad and Tobago promotes the idea of unskilled laborers leaving the country. However,
9

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
according to the IDB migration of skilled or tertiary educated workers reaches nearly 80 % and
60 % for the Bahamas. This does not take account of remittances but, the effects of this on the
socio-economic state of both countries are insanely enormous. Estimates by the IDB indicate that
both countries may be losing upwards of 4 billion dollars a year in gross domestic product per
year because of this. Countries at the World Congress on Intellectual Capital were all in
agreement in the fact that the loss of intellectual capital effect on society is virtually incalculable
(Bontis, 2002). Bahamians also tended to resist the integration of immigrants. However, Trinidad
and Tobago was observed to be more tolerant of migrants in their policies (ECLAC, 2005, p. 1416).They were shown to be by ECLAC to be one of only three countries that actively tries to aid
the assimilation of migrants.
Politics
It then becomes the burden of the government to retroactively plan a way to fix these
problems. On the contrary in both Countries there has not been a solution found to alleviate this
problem for quite some time. The collective anxiety of both countries have caused their
governments to enact policies and language that can be seen as xenophobic. For example
amnesty international (2014) expressed great concern over the treatment of Haitians and their
children which were born in the bahamas. Both the prime minister of the Bahamas and the
minister for foreign affairs responded to this statement by saying they were badly mistaken

10

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
(Christie,2014,Mitchell, 2014).This is not a new occurrence as under Loftus Roker of the
Progressive Party and prior to him the Bahamas has been accused of mistreating migrants by
international organizations(Tinker,2011,Sears,1994,p.3-6). However, In an interview with B.J.
Johnson Assistant Director of Immigration noted that the policy was supposed to be nondiscriminant and that the officers we were well trained to deal with migrants humanely. The
Minister for National security also had to address similar concerns (Griffin,2014) .Trinidad again
is a little more tolerant of migration to their country as they have as was said before a high
instance of outward migration. Trinidad and Tobagos government also passed two acts the
Immigration Act and the Caribbean Community Skilled Nationals Act which allows skilled
personnel to migrate to this country easily. Locals also frequently voice concerns about a
political coup dtat or uprising that the migrants may incite. Even if this is non-sensical, it is not
feasible to automatically allow migrants to engage in the democratic procedure without due
process.

Culture
The ethnic diversity of both of these countries is now palpable. Yet there is still a
significant level of social exclusion and fight for homogeneity between ethnic groups.
11

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
Globalization and a reliance on tourism has forced both countries into trying to move towards
being more bilingual and multicultural. The diverseness of the migrants of all races that are now
flocking to the islands for better or worse have also given the locals perspective. Bahamians
often play American, Reggae, and Soca music at social events. Trinidadians also play American
and Reggae music at social events (FHE- Regis, 2014, p. 351-357, FHE-Encarta Encyclopedia,
2014, p.348). They also play a foray of different popular Caribbean sports in both countries.
Bahamians tend to lean towards playing American sports. In these countries you can also find a
great variety of cuisine from all over the world that is being cooked there. People of the
Caribbean also seem to share a somewhat similar mindset and social structure as others in the
Caribbean.(Reddock, Barrow, 2001,p. 860,995,Bethell-Bennett,p. 1-4).
Conclusion
Migration has been a common part of Caribbean life since before the dawn of European
colonization. Without it the Caribbean that is known today would not exist. Now deep in to the
age of globalization and transnationalism; The Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago continues to
attract migrants to their shores. This has formed an interdependent relationship that is sometimes
contentious as migrants start to compete with locals for jobs and economic viability. At other
times this relationship is sometimes loving (mostly during the initial part of economic growth
periods). There is no magic pill to get rid of the problems associated with migration despite the

12

The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st
Century (1960-2014).
great need for them to do menial labor in developing. However, a form of symbiosis must be
achieved as the need for migrant labor increases throughout the developing Caribbean. The
locals and migrants must understand that they will have to live cohesively if they wish to live in
peace and harmony together. The impacts of migration to both countries vast and deeply rooted
into each society. As Tinker (2011,p. 160) the problem of

migration cannot be fixed by

remedial action. There should be more research done to creating all-encompassing policies in
both countries.

13