A Sweet Lullaby for World

Music
Stel'en ridd

Tl 01ailllg
b~gin~ the music globalization.commonplace~ th.a~ arc n~o~t br~adl y cir~u
Western Intellectual dt~course a:-. m.: tualtttes or Im mediate predic111

tion~

at the entl or the twentieth century:

I. Music's tleep connection to !->OCial itlentitics h a~ been distinctively

i nte n~ ified by globalita tion. Thi:-. intensification i ~; due to the way!. cultural
:-.cparation and i>Ocial exchange arc mutuall y m:cclcratcd hy transnational
flows of technology, media. and popular cultu re. The re~ul t is that mu-,ical
identities and styles arc more vi:-,ibly tra nsient. more audi bl y in s t ate~ of
constatll fission and fusion than ever before.
2. Our era is increasi ngly dominated by fantasies and n:ali7ations of -;onic
virtuality. Not onl y does comemporary technology make all musical
wo rlds actuall y or potentially tran:-.portablc and bearable in all others, but
thi'i tra nsportability is ~ome th i ng fewer and fewer people take in any way
to be remarkable. As 'onic virtuality i ~ increa<.ingly natura li ted. everyone's
musical world will be fe lt and experienced as both more dclln ite and more
vague. specific yet blurretl. particular but genera l. in place and in motion.
3. lt has taken only one hu ndred years for ~ound recordi ng tec h nologie~ to
amplify sonic exchange to a point that overwhelm' prior and comiguou-, hi'>Than~' 10 A fu n:t ~wu. Deep lun:,I. and Ja n Garl>ard, for t h~ un~nding mix of cd~hralion nnd
a nxiety in their recording' or Rorog" ..:lu: to Maril Lte. Odd Arc Bcr~aak. ;tnd l l ugo Zcmp lor Ihctr
friendship. cummcnL\. and provi,tun ul do~umcnh: 111 Arjun Appadur;u. Vet! l: rlmann. Li'a llcndcr.,on. AIIM>n Lcitch. D:t\ 1d S:unueb. Tim Ta) Ior. und Public Crllwre's reader' for ' uggc,uon.....tnd Ill
Spring 191J9 cnlloqu1a audience' al Ml Holyokc College. Amhcn.l Collcg<\ Ihe Univcr'll) ut Ma,s-

Ptll>li< Culrun 12( I r l-1~ - 171

Cupynghl ~J :woo b} Duke l ruHrHy l'rc''

145

Public Cu lture

lorie~ or trave l. migration. contact, coloni zation, diasrora. and di -.per:-.al. ll is

thererore the reco rded form. m. it c in.:ulate ~ cummen.:iall y, that ddines the
authenticity of mu~ic glohalia Hion. The hero and villain of thi ~ ~ ituation . the
mu:-.ic industry. ha~ triumphed through cominuou'> ,cn ical and hori tontal
merger and corN)Iidatio n. By alig ning technologie' or recording and reproduction with the di ~'cminati on caraci ti c~ of other entertainment and ruhlication media. the indu'-!ry ha:-. accomplished the key capitali ~t goal or unl.'nding
market place ex pan, ion.
4 . Mu-.ical glo balin llion i-. experienced and narrated"' equall y cclehra tory
and contemi ou ~ hceau-.e ewryone can hear equally o mnipre~e nt '> ign-. o r
augmented and dimini -,hcd mu -.ical diver'> ity. Ten<;ions around the meanings or \Oilie hcterogerwity and ho mogeneity precisely parallel Other tcn, jo n-. that characteriLe global [>f'OC.:Cs<;Cs o r ~Cpa ra t io n and mi xing. with an
emrhac.; i-. on -. tylistic genericitati on. hybridization. and re' italitation.

So. like everything el'>e called globalitation the!>e day:-.. thi:-. ver,ion i-. clear!)
about increasingly complin llcd rluralities, uneven cxreriencc-,. and consolidated
power... But io.; there a nyth ing di c.; tinctivc about how thi~ i~ happening in the
wo rld o r mu -,i<:'? One way to an -;wcr i ~ hy denaturali t ing the now ubi4uitouo.;
phra~c 1\'0fld 1/l ll .liC. today\ dominalll .. ig nilier o r a triurn pha lll industriali ta tilln
orglobal so nic rcprescnlaliou . Until liulc mo re than a dccm.k: a g othi ~ ph ra-.c wa:considcrahl y more obscure. How did it become so thoroughly and ntpidl y nuturalit.cd in public ~ ph c res? flo w ha ~ it participated in ways we have come to imagine. interpret. or co nte ~ t the notion of glohali Lat ion? I IO\\ might a ..;ketch genealogy o r ll'orld llllt s i r help make more critically v i ~ ihl e the w a ) ~ a modernity is
ten ~c l y mirro red in the kind<. of co mm onrlace~ with which I hegan?
World Music

Circulated lir:-.t by academic:- in the earl ) 1960!:. to celebrate and promote the
~ tud y of musical di ve r~ it y, the phra ~e ll'orld 1//lls i c hcgan largely as a benign and
hoperul term . In those da y~. no~talgi call y remembered by many for th eir innocence and ortimism. the phra~e " orld 11111.1ic had a clear populist ring. lt \~ a\ a
friendl y phra,c. a Ieo;, cumbcp;ome alternati ve to e thnomu.,icology. the mo re
~ trikin g l y academic term that emerged in the mid 1950.., to refer to the 'lllidy of
a.:hu,cth. i\111hcr. t. and We,lcya n Unl\er,ily. '" I d rafted t hi' ""ay. my g randmot her. Allllil R'"'
Fdd. tlicd h.tllwa) thn)ugh her tO~ru.J )<:ar. I c.kdi.:a tc 1111' to her. n:ml"lltbenng hml , he inui.w: d me
11110 Ill) "'' " nlll,i..: lH>rltl ' ' 11h " R otin~c' m it ~ Llndlc n : a 'er) "\eel Yiddi' h lull.ahy.

146

non-Wes tern mu!>ics and musics or ethnic mino nue~. Like etlmomusicology,
world music had an academicaiJy liberal m is ion, to oppo'>e the dominam tendency of mu<;ic insti tution~ and publ ics to assume th e synonymy or 11 /lt sic w ith
Western European art music. A nd in practical t e rm ~. the world music idea was
mea nt to have a pluraliLing effect on Wes tern con'>ervatori e:o.. by promoting the
hiring or non-Wes tern performers and the swdy of non-Wes tern performance
practices and repertories.
Whatever the SUCCC!>:o. Of th e~e aims, the termin ological dual io,m that distinguished II'Orld music from music helped reproduce a tense di visi on in the academy. where music:-. understood as non-We:-. tern or ethnically other continued to
be routinely partitioned from tho:-.e of the West. The binary reproduced by the
world mu ic concept thus participated in reinscrihing tlu: separation or musicology, constructed a~ the historical and ana lyti<.: ::. tudy or Wes tern European art
musi<.:s. from cthnomJsicology. constructed by default as th e cultural amJ contexLUal study of mu-;ics of non-Europea ns, European peasa nb, and marginal ized ethnic or racial minorities. Th e relationship or the colonizing anti the colonized thu s
remained generall y intact i n di ~ tin g ui s h i ng 11111.1ic from ll'orld 11111.\ic. Thi s musicology/ethnomusicology split reproduced the di ~ci pl i na ry di vide '>O common in
the academy. where unmarked "-ologies" announced \ tudi c~ of normati ve Wes tern . ubjects. and "eth no-" li e l d~ were crea ted to accommodate the West's ethnic
others. Even if little or thi '> w a~ terri bly contenti ou-. in th e academy of the 1960s
and 1970~. it is nonetheless re markable that the valorized label'> etlmomusicology
and world lltll si ~ ur v i ve w ith so little <.:hallcngc at century\ entl. T he obvious
ques ti on remain~: In w ho);C interests anti in what kind of academy mu st et/11111
ant111or/d remain distinct from a discipline of mu ~ ic, a discipline where all practices, hi stories, and ide ntiti e~ could asscn equal claim ~ to value, study, and performance?
Interes tingly. th e situati on would have been little different hatl world music
been more bluntl y termed third world music. And outside of the academy, in the
world of commerce, that is exactly what happened. For even though commercial
recording"> were increasingly made i n every world loca tion from the begi nni ng
of th i<; centu ry. following the i nvention of th e phonogra ph. the development of a
highly vi sible commerci al documentary mu~ ic recording i ndu ~ t ry ~ol ic.Jif"ied considerably later, in the 1950s and 1960s. Thi s took place when the phrase third
II'Orld made new marketing sense of the diverse set of prcviow, categories
loosely conjoining academic and commercial enterpri se, namely recordings variously laheled and sold as primithe, exotic, trihal, ethnic . fo lk. tmditional, or
in te mmional.
147

lullaby for World Music

Public Culture

If thl:!se reco rding~ had much in com mon it was often th eir rolitics of representati on. Th ey were frequently ckpicti ons or a world where th e audibility of
intercu l wral inlluence~ was mi xed down or muted. Acad~m ics we n: particularl y co mp.licit with co mmerce here. becoming guarantors of a musica l authentic ity mea nt equally to sign ify authoritative documentary rea lism and cultural
uniqucncs:-.. Ironica ll y it was th e turbul ence of independence m ove me nt ~. antico lonial demonstrati ons, and th e power ru l nationalist ~ tru gg l es or th e late
1950-, and earl y 1960s in Al"ricu. A:,ia. and Latin America that l"ueled this marketplace creation or and commercial desire for authentic (a nd orten nos tal gic)
musical ebewher e),. So undprint ~ or tho~e political stru ggles wo uld not be
widely hearahle on popu lar recordings or ce lebrated in the commercia l music
marke tplace for th ei r own stunningly powerful authentici ty for another dec ade.
A nd complex ly intcrcu lturalmusics. like the one<; indexing histories of motion
in and through numcrou:-. cities and multiethnic or trade regions. were li kewi:-.c
more commercially munled. as i f waiting for th e label intern(lliono/ to be markette:, tcd for multiculturalist. migrant. and middle-class ethnic buyers.
The 1960:-. and 1970s witnessed the ri se o f wken form~ of musica l plurali sm
through the academic proliferation or ethn omusicl.l logy courses and th eir world
mu!.ic -;hadow \'er!>ion::.. But thi s was in many ways ove rwhelmed in thel 98()s
by th e rise of popular music studies. who),e international prominence was
quick ly marked by the emergence or a professiona l journal (Popular Mu sic in
198 1) ant! society (I AS PM . the Internati onal As:-.oc iation for the Study of Popular Mu sic. also 1981) and a su cce~sio n or inllucntial theoretica l texts (for
example. Fri th 1983; Chambers 1985: Middleton 1990: Shepherd 199 1;
McCiary 1991). Even though much or the earl y empha:-is was on ~tudying
Wes tern popu lar musical forms. particularly rock music, popular music studies
concern to theoriL.c the gl obal dom inance of media ted mu~ic!> in the twe ntieth
century signalcd to ethn omusicol ogy that its uncri ti cal nawralinti on of
" authentic traditions" was in troub le. Increasingl y. ethnomusicol ogy incorporated insights from popu lar mu sic studies lO c tTect a shift from studying
bounded and discrete mu sica l worlds to one:- crea ted out of contac t histories
and co lonial legacies. out of diaspora and hybridity. out of rni grution. urbani7ation, and ma:-.s media. Reflecting on t.hi '> moment in an introduction to a colkcti on o f ea rly I ASPM conference paper~, Simon Frith ( 1989, 5) writes: "Perhaps
it is not a c.:oincidenec.: th at l ASPM has grown a~-, an academic orga ni D.t ti o nju ~ t
a:-. world mu ~ic; the sou nds or co untries oth er than North A merica or Western
Europe. ha ~ begun to he recordctl. packaged. and ~o ld a~ a success ful new rop
genre:
148

This commercial potential of world music begun developing rapidly in the

1980">. as did the di~c ur~ive shift in the term from acutlemic de:-.ignation to di~
tinct marketing ca tegory. Reprising an earlier trend. signa led commcn.:ially in the
promotional relation ship or the B caLlc~ to Ravi Shankar. pop star co lluhorulion
and curation became the central world music marketplace ~ ignifier ror the mid1980~ . This wa~ made po~:-. ible by the ability of Western pop mu ~ic elite and their
record companic:-. to finance artistic forays into a world that would quick!) come
to be experienced a~ geographically expan~ive and aestheticall y familiar. The key
example:-. were Paul Simon'<; Grace/and ( 1986) with South African mu ~ician~.
and David Byrne\ Rei Mo111o ( 1989) with Latin mu<;ician!'.. Acatkmic~ greeted
these productions with critical inquiries into how they mixed pleasure and impcriou sne~s (for example. Feld 1988; 1-lamm 1989: Goodwin anti Gore 1990; Meintjes
1990: Lipsi tz 1994), and popular cullure it<;elf threw an occasional ironic glance
at Simon\ and Byrne\ adventures, for example in Drew Friedman's canoon (fig.
I ). which dresses their curatorial voyages in colonial ~a fari gear.
Into and throu gh the 1990s, pop ~ta r curation continued to lead the marketplace expansion or world music. But in each case di ~ tinct modcb of the inspiration and collaboration mi x also emerged, revealing more of th e political and aes-

Figure I
11u~ curator'' <IU\'Cntur.:

ul di\C<W<:I')

149

lullaby for World Music

Public Culture

thetic po, sibilities for promoting both an i~ tic equity and wealth distributi on. The
key examples were Peter Gabriel's WOMAD (World or Music and Dance) rest ivals and Real World label. and hi ~ collaboration with ani:-. ts as diverse as You~
;.ou N. Dour and N u ~r<~ t Fat.eh Ali Khan; Mic key Hart\ Wo rld Series on the
Rykotlisc label, his projects with Tibetan Monks and African and Indian percu~
sioni;.ts. and his Endangered Musics Project in collaboration wi th the U.S.
Library ofCo n gres~: Ry Cooder"s collaborution~ wiLh Hawaiian. Mexican American. Africa n. and Indi an guitari;.ts and his promotion or Cuban music a nd musicians: Henry Kai;.er and David Li nd lcy'-; Madagascar collaborati on:-, and promotions: and Davitl Bridie's Not Drowning. Wav ing collabora tion with mu~icia ns
from Papua New Guinea and his prod uctions of Abo ri gi nal. Tslandcr. and
Melane!>ian mu:-.icia m. like Archie Roach. Christine Anu. and George Telek.
But. significa ntl y. the 1990s music industry was no lo nger dependent Oil pop
~tars to sell the wo rld: the marketplace succes;. or world mu:-.ic wa;. building
more Oil rapid product expansion and t he promotio nal support or both the reco rding and aligned entertainment indu:-.trie~. ln 1990 Biffboan/ magazin e reinvented
world music <I~ a <;n les tracki ng ca tegory and began charting its commercial
impact. In 1991. the American National Academy of Recording Arts and Science. in ve nted a world mu.;;ic Grammy award category out o r its forme r ..ethnic
and traditional.. one. The mnga7.inc Rhythm Music: Glohal Sou 1rd~ and Ideas
sta rt ed at th e <:a mc time, followed by World Music in the mitl- 1990<;. and, in 1999.
Songlines. Additionall y. world music news and review sections spread throu gh
numcrou~ consumer recording, cmertaillmen t. and aud io technology magazi nes
over the dccadc.
The ;.amc paucrn emerged with li ~ tc n e r guides. The Vi1;f{in Directmy of World
Music (Swee ney 199 1) appe:.tred in 199 1. followl.!d hy World Bem (S pencer 1992)
the nex t yea r. By 1994 there was a n almos t ~even- hundr ed-page 'vVo rld Music:
The Rough Guide (B roughton et al. 1994): it.s populari ty led to an expanded two
vol ume second edition in 1999 and 2000. Even ror those seeking somethi ng more
pocket-sized, Bill board 's world music pocket guide manages to include the top~e llin g ni ne hundred CO$ by the top selli ng one hundred and fifty artis t ~ (B iumenthal 1998).
World music airp lay prolircrated likewi:;e in the 1990s and. with tremendo us
record industry and fan support , ex panded into new venues, like airline world
mu:.ic channels. video and television series, and thousands of lmernet web <: itcs.
The 1 990~ abo brough t a deve lopment o r ~La res. mail-order c:ttalogs. and web
~i tcs either mercha ndising worltlmusic or devoting special -;cctions to it. Upon
purchase of wo rld music products, one could become the recipient or regular
ISO

c-mail info-ti sement!>: hcsH ..eller l i t!>. critic\ hot pick\. downloadahle sample'>,
and oth er promotional fare. Likewise th ere wa-.. a proliferation of recording
laheb devoted to world mu ~ic and even diqinct marketing plans '>pecifically
devoted to the genre - for example, the Putamayo compilations. now ubiquitous
in Starhucks and other chain:- (Zwerin !993).
So if the 1990s crea ted a world of co n s um e r ~ incrca:-..ingly familiar wi th musical groups a. diverse in hi ~ tory, region. and sty le a'> L adysmith Black Mambazo
and The M ys teri ou:.. Bulgarian Voices. or The Chieflam. and Zap Mama. or Carlo!. akai and The Gipsy Kings. or Apache Indian and Yothu Yindi. or Ofra Haza
and Manu Dibango. it wa~ due to a major rewnfigurati on or how the musica l
globe was being curated. recorded, marketed, advertised, and promoted. World
music was no longer domi nated hy academic documentation and promotion of
traditions. Rather. the phrase -,wept through the public sphere lir'> t and foremost
signify ing a global indu5.try. one focused on marketing danccahlc ethnicity and
exotic alterity on the v. orld pleasure and commodity map. By century\ end.
ll'orld music had come to signify "a small world with a huge number of po..,!-.ibiliti es: \onic cxcur'> ion. a.., clo-..e a!-. a CD player,.. in the memorable phrasing of the
Ne11' York Ttmes' "Pop View" columnist .Ion Pareles ( 1999, E I ).

Anxiety and Celebra tion

That any and every hybri d or traditional ~ t y l e could ~o successfully be lumped

together by th e single market labelll'or/d 11111.\h' ~i gnilied the commercial triumph
of global mu. ical industrial ization (Chanan 1995). But the same proce\~ ~i gnifi ed
somethi ng more cri tical to scholars in cthnomu icology and cultural ::. tudie:-. of
m u~ ic, namely, the relative ea~e with which the music industry could. in Joccly nc's Guilbault\ ( 1993, 40) phrase, 'banali;rc diffcrcm:c." Cone..,pondingly. the
first decade of ac:.~dcmic inves tigation of the making of world mu-;ic focu-;es on
how difference ha.., fared in thi world mu ~ i c i ndu ~ t ry {for example, Erl rnann
1993, 1996a. J996b: Feld 1988. 1994. 1996: Garofalo 1993: Goodwin and Gore
1990: Gui lbau h 1993, 1997: llayward 1998; LipsitL 199-t: Mitchell 19%: euenfe ldl 1997: Sharrna. Hutnyk. and Sharma 1996; Taylor 1997). T hese works ask
how musical differcntc ha~ been represented, exalted and feti ~hi/cd : how its
market shares have ri ~e n and fallen. where they have been deprecia ted and mortgaged; how th ey have been traded. merged. and cashed out. Thc:-..e storie!-> first
and foremost arc about the uneven reward~. the un!->eLLi ing representation'>. and
the complex ly entangled desires that lie undernea th the commercial rhetoric of
global connection. th at is. the rhetoric of "free" now and "greater" acccs-... They
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lullaby for World Music

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pre~elll

:-.tories of how mu:-.ic':-. form!> of local. regional. and

~;oda l di~tinction

arc

more and more tensely poi:-cd, living the contradiction" encountered through
embracing and re~>ii>ting dominant hcgemonic trends in the g lobal popular music
indu-; try.
Witnc~sing and chronicling these :-.torie~ has prmlucctl a new discour-;e on

::wthenticity. a discourse forged out of narrati ve:-. equally anxiou:-. and celebra tory
about the world-anti the

mu~ic-of

world mu-.ic. Anxiou-;

naJTative~

!-ome-

time"> ">tart from the o;u-;picionthat capi tal i:-.tconcent ration and competition in the
recording

111du~try

i),

alway~

productive of a lc:-.l>er arti'>try. a more commercial.

lel>~

diluted. and M.:llahlc ve r),il)Jl o f a world once more "pure: real,.. or

com-

rnodi lied. Thi!> su:-.picion fuel!> a kintl or policing of the lm;atilln:-. of musical authenticity and traditi ons. lt que!>tion~ whether world music does more to incite or
cra\e mu:-.ical divcr'>ity, a~l-,ing why and how mu:-icallo<.,s i"> cou mered by the proliferation Of new 111U">iC!..
In

re~ponse.

ce lebratory narra tives counter the:-e anxieties h) <;tre">'>i ng the

reappropriation uf Western pop. emphasiLing f u:-ion form-. as rejection\ of

hounded, fixed. nr c:-.sentialited idelllities. That is. celehratory narratives of worltl
mu o;ic often focu:-. on the production of hybrid mu ~ic:-.. They place a positive

or

cmpha\i:-. on nuiu itlentitie~. <;Oilletime:-, edging towa rd romantic equation:-.

hyhridit) wi th overt re-;i..,taJll'e. Cl:lt:bralllr) narrati'l:" tend toward hopeful :-.ccnario-; for cullural and financial CLJUity in the entertainment
de-.ignation

~:lobctl

i nd u ~ t rie~.

can replace the prc\iOLJ"> label internotional

a~

l lcrc the

a positi\C

valence term for modl.'rn practices and in<;titution:-.. This can ha ve the effect of
downplaying hegcrnon ic managerial and capital rdation' in the music industry.
focusing in,tcad on th e ~~ ay~ larger segment:-. o f th e woriLI of mu-;ic now get
somewhat larger returns in financia l and cultural capital to match their greater
visibi lity.
Cclcbr;\lOJ) narrative~ of" orld JnLJl>ic tend to normali;e and naturali;e gloh:JIiL.ation. not unlil-,e way:-. "moderni;ation .. narrative~ once naturali7eu other grand
and -.weering currents that tran,formcd and rerigured intercullural hi~tories. A<.,
wit h these pn::deccs<;Qp, addres<;ing the question-. of \\hat has been brought and
what ha-; bl.!entaken. celebrat ory narrati ves l>tn::-.s the costs to tradition .. as ra ther
~urface one">, 1mes that " ill. in the larger -;weep of thing">. bl.! overcome by cn.:a ti vity. imcntion, and resilience. "Sure. the world'l> developing and no tradition will

stay the same: writes philosopher- mL"ician David Rothenherg in a Chronicle of

Higher Edunllion commentary on mu:-,ic\ place in college cour:-.e:-. ahout technology and g loha l dcvclorment. " But: he conti nue~. ''divcr\e musical :-train~ need
not fade away into one global monotone. If there i-. 'uch a thing as development.
152

it will include a joyful and chaotic mi x of many !>Ounds. a music that plays on
w hile no one knows how it"s going to end .. ( 1998. 8 8). Celebratory narrative!> then
imagine a natural tenacity of the past rcr-.ounding in pos~ibi lities for an ampl ified
present. one that Sca n Barlow and Banning Eyre characteri Le in th eir celebratory
book AfmPop! as an "endlessly crea tive conversation" between " local roots and
intern ational pop culture.. ( 1995. vii).
On the an xiou.., side we read narra ti ves that ino;ist on the complicity of world
music in commodifying ethnicity. locuting it in the .. finanscapcs and .. mediastapes" of global popular culture (Appadurai 1996) and the .. noise'' or ''channelizcd violence of mus ic'~> industrial economy (A ttali 1985). Anxiou!'. mmati ve~> see
lillle possibil ity ror resisting commodifications or ethnicity and rocu-;, instead, on
understanding the hegcmonic location th ey occupy within global ia uion pructices
and instiltltions. In Veil Erlmann's ( 1993. 130) phrasing: The global musical pastiche i-. more an attempt at coating the sounds of the full y commodified pre-;ent
wi th the patina of use value in some other time and place... In particular. it i !> the
production and di ssemination of world music in cosmopolitan and metropolitan
ce nters that clearly underscores the character of the exotic labor it impom and
sell . Ashwani Shanna ( 1996. 22) locates it thi s way in Dis-Oriellling Rhyr!tms:
T!te Po/irics of 1/te Ne11 Asion Dance Mu sic, an exemplary collection of anx iou~
eio.says: "instances of mu..,ical and cultura l conversation' validated under the si gn
of World Music too easi ly ma~k the expl oitati ve labour rc lation:-.hip of the very
powerful transnational corporations with the 'Third World' mm.icians, let alone
with tho. e or the Third World with only thei r photogenic po verty to !-.Cl I...
A t the same ti me. anxious narra ti ves also chronicle indigeni zation as a
respon ~e to globaliLation, a response that i ~ resistant either to trends in cultural
imperiali sm or to incrcascd cultural homogeneity. Likewise, anxiou'> narrati ves
also insist on world music\ abilities to reassert place and locale agai nst globalizati on. Indeed. in "ome anxiouc; narrati ves. the very term glohal comes tu be
synonymous wi th di:,p/aced. In other words. di-.placement metaphorites globalinttion as a simultanei ty of alienation and dispersal. Anxiou\ narrati ves then
want to dic;cover a CO~> I of globalizati on, want to calculate the kind\ of lo~s and
diminution of musical heterogeneity that proceed from its practices. A I the same
time anxious narratives want to claim th e potemial and hope that every loss
opens up for resistance. for reassertion. for recla mation. for response.
The broad picture then. is that today\ world music. li J.. e global itation discour~e more generall y, i~ equally routed through th e public <iphcre vi a trope!> of
anxiety and celebration. Whil e c;ometimes quite tl i<>tinct. these narra ti ve posi ti ons
on anxi ety and celebration :.ecm increasingly more intert wined, seamlcssly
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indexing the ~ tatu ~ o r world music a... a tensely modern category. Where anx i ou~
and celehrmory narrati ve'> typicall y merge i~ in the space o r a g uarded optimism
for mu sical future!>. Rccogni 7ing how. in a n.:mar!..ably short time, the dive r<;ity of
wo rltl music- its promi se- ha~ come to be co n ~ i s t e ntl y su!-.pended in the
!->pecter or o ne world mu:-ic - its antithesis - the anxiou<> and celebratory both
embrace mu ~ica l plurality a:- a dialectical necc ...-.ity in a world where world mu..,ic
circu lation is increasingly dominated hy predictable mu-..ical C\)ll11110ditie:-.

Sweet Lullaby

I :-.hirt now from wo rld music a.., a discourse to wo rl d music as a contact t.one or
and representation\. I particul arly wa nt to explo re ..,nme of the ~.:xperi
ential eiTccts ofworldmu..,ic. a ... !..ing how it~ routes. circuits. and traffic- the now
familiar motional and tra n ~ pon metaphor<; or tranmational now-invohe intersubject ive da,hc<> for mu ... icians. recordist!>. indu-. try players, journali::.t'>. and
academics. The particular t:tt'>e I review is one that begin' with the unaha'>hcd
reproduction of primiti vism in world mu.,ic. Thi' is a theme that has already produced con, iderab lc critica l commentary. ye t it..; pcr'\i\tcncc continues to cxpO'>C
sig niticant i:-sue:- in under'> tanding mu'> ical power and difference. The question
I" 11 pose co n ce rn ~ how the notion of being into world music .. in Will I Kerr\
recent po<.tcard (fig. ~l ha ......omething to do with the reproduction of primitivi'>l
repre:-entation and des ire.
In 1973 the U ESC'O Mu-.ical Source!> collection re lea,cd an LP titled
Solomon l.llalld.l: 1-'t.ite/eka mu/ Buegu Mu sicjimn /vlolaito. recorded in 1969 and
1970 hy llugu Zemp of the Ethnomu~ico lugy Department of the Mu:-l!c de
rf-lomme and Centre National de la Rechcn.:he Seientili4ue. The LP wa:-. rcrelea:-eJ a-; a CD in 1990. in the reorganized UNESCO 'erie:-. Mmic:-. and Mu:-.iciam. of the World. di!->lrihuted by AuviJi:-.. Among the :-election'> on the LP and
CD is a Baegu lullahy from orthern Malaita. Titled .. Rorog\\ ela." it i~ an unaccompanied vocal !-.Ung by a woma n named Afunal..wa. While this recording is
well known to c thn o mu sico l ogis t ~ or tht: Pacific bland .... it received liulc airplay.
limited di:- tri bution. and minimal ~a l es.
All of this changed in 1992 when .. Rorogwcla began a ca reer as a popular hit
~un g in the '~orld mu:,ic marketplace. Thi-, took place when Zcmps recording or
Arunal..wa was digitally sampled by Eric Moquet and Michcl Sanchc; for /)eep
Forest. a CD produced by Dan Lacbman for Ccline Mu:-ic and ma rl..cted by 550
Mu:-idEpic. a di v i ~ i on of Sony Mu:-ic. The ::.ong appea red under the title ..Sweet
Lullaby.. and includes Afunakwa\ voice singing .. Rorogwcla.. to a dance bl.!a t
activitic~

t54

provided by a drum machine. The recordin g abo inc lud e~ ~ynthesi1.cr accompaniments and imerludes of digital samples from Cem ral Aflican forest watcr!> pla ~ hing game'> and 'ocal yodels. On the first choru:-. Afunal-. wa:-. voice i'> solo:
on th e second chorus ~ he is backed by digital YOice multiplica tion and a swdio
choru<;, creating a de n ~e .. We arc the World .. vocal effect: on the third chorus
Afunakwas voice di~appe ar~ i nto the l ingui-.tic indi.tinction of an ensemble
singing her lullaby. Through thi~ progres~i on one hearl! ho'' '' hat was once distinctl y Afun akwa~ world is now up for a new ' haring. becoming. ultimately. a
world where her voice il> no longer neces,ary to her imagined presence.
In the liner notes to Boheme, their 1995 Grammy award- winning CD. Deep
Forest refer to the :-.ampling of " native melodies'' a~ the u:-.e or raw material. an
oppor1unity to cross and blend.'" or their relution to these .. nati ve melodies.. on
their fir~t recording, their liner notes say: ..Deef' Fores/ is the rc-.pect of this tradi tion which humanity !.hould cherish as a treasure which murrie' world ha rmony. a
harmony often comprorni,ed today. That\ why the mu..,ical creation of Deep Fore.w has recei ved the suppon of U ESCO and of t\\O mu..,icologis tl>. Hugo Zempe
Isic I and Shima lsic l A ron JsicJ. who collected the original docurnenh ...

~amon ~o~nd \\t'nd'

"t'"-" n-11.' nto \\ orld \lu<.

~
@

figu re 2

The underlying per,i,tence of prim Ill\ ;,m

155

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Figure 3
Till

mayhc ... )OUr luiUrc"

1>f prinuti'c

and ' Pintualm<lllcrru,nt

The \econd reference here i s to Simha Aro m. another C 1RS ethn o mu ~icolo
or Cemral A frica n pygmy mu!>ic are sampled on many or
/Jeefl Fo re,(~ tracks. In fact much o f the music on Dee11 Fo rest invol ve!-> pygmy
refere n ce~. and the theme o f the African m in forc:-.t and it:-. peoples i~ announced
gi~ t . ~ho'>l! rl!co rdin g~

qrongly in the CD's mu<;ic and packaging. Indeed, the introductory <;ong. also
titled " Deep Fnrc~t:' begins w ith a very deep and re!-.ona nt voice that announces
(in English): ..Somewhere deep in th e jungle arc li ving some liulc men and
woml!n. They arc your past. Maybe they arc your future.''
This particular mi x or respectful reverence and primitivist ca ricature cr eate ~
thl! eclchratory ambience of Deep Forest . and it struck a financially responsive
chord. The rccordmg has a11racted a huge audience worldwide, selling approximately four million copies and appearing in <;cvcral editions and remi xe.'>. Several
:-.ong-., including -sweet Lullaby: appeared in video form : several. again including "Sweet Lullaby: were abo licensed as background music for TV commercial'> hy. among other'>. cutrogcna, Coca-Cola. Por..,che. Sony. and The Bod)
Shop (fig. } )_
In 1996 llug.o Zemp wro te an article in the Yea rlmok for Traditional Mu~ic.
c lhnomu ~ico logy\ main international journal: hi~ pic<:c wa:-. one of four on the
theme of cthnomusicology and the politics or glohal ~ound recordi ng (Zcmp
1996; Fcld 1996: Mill~ 1996: Sccgcr 1996). In thi ~ anicle /.cmp ( 1996, 4-+- 49)

156

spoke out abou t hi), presumed "!>uppon for Deep f (Jre.w- indeed. he sharply
challenged the legal and moral circumstancc5. of UNESC0'1- co nt racLUal relationship to the recording. Hi1- protest contains the following key narrative points:
Noriko Aikawa, UNESCO's Chief of Cultural Heritage. from the division in
charge of their recording series. contacted Zemp in 1992 to seek his permission to
license to Deep Forest samples from a UNESCO recording he had made in West
Africa. Zernp was told that Deep Forest wished to sample several U ESCO
recordi ngs for a projcct in honor of Earth Day: UNESCO was will ing to grant
license for the samples as long as Zemp and th e other recon.Jists agreed. and i f
the source musicians and recordings were properl y credited. Zemp listened to a
Deep Forest extract over the phone and re fused to give his perm ission; in opposition he encouraged A ikuwa and UNESCO to suppon project:- that more direc tly
benefit ind igcn o u ~ nwsics and musicians.
Sometime later Francis Bebey called Zcmp, urging him to reconsider his
refusal. Of this epi sode Zcmp ( 1996. 45) writes: since Bcbey, a well known
African co mpo~er and musician (who wrote also a book on traditional African
music), gave his personal support to the matter, I reconsidered my point of view.
and out of respec t to him.J .,aid O. K. on the telephone to him. After all , I thought,
it wa~ for a justifiable aim: pre-;erving and protecting tropical rai n forests in the
world."
Zemp's next encounter with the recording was unrelated. After Oeep Forest
wa!-1 released, L e Chant du Monde. the publ isher of the cthnomusicological
record series Zemp direct:-. at the Musce de l ' llomme. informed him that Deep
Fores t had. without license. sampled material from an African recording in th e
mu ~cum series. L e Chant du M ondc pursued the case. eventually wi nni ng an outof-court financial selllcmcnt from Celine Mu~ic.
Only after thi ~ episode, plu s press repon o; of the CD\ mounting marketpl ace
succe!.~ and two lcuers from overseas colleague' inquiring about his adveni~ed
compl icity in Deep Forest. did Zcmp actuall y receive and li~ te n to a copy of the
C D. While he heard no :-.amples taken from his Wc<, t African UNESCO recording, he wa~ quite -.urpriscd by the -;ampling of Afunakwa\ "Rorogwela" for
''Sweet Lullaby." lie had never been a::.ked for hi!> con'-Clll to u..e any materi al
from his Solomon blands recording ( tigs. 4 and S). Then. moved by hearing
"Sweet L ullaby'' as background music for a !>hampoo commerci al on French TV.
Zemp rcque-. tcd meetings with both Francis Bebey and Noriko A ikawa.
Franci ~ Bebey confirmed that he had been enlisted by the producer ut Celinc
Music to persuade Zcmp to rewnsider. Bebey's ~u bscqu entlcncr to Cel ine Music.
quoted by Zcmp ( 1996, 47). put it this way: 'Mr. Zemp, after making sure that I
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lullaby for World Music

Public Culture

really believed in the value of u;;ing his recordings in the context of a modern
musica l crea tion a~ yo urs, was remarkabl y cou rteo u~ and under~ta ntling. At the
end of our telephone conver'iation. he consented to let you use forty '>econds of
music taken rrom his disc ... I hope that thi o., allows you to fini ~ h your project for
The Day o f the Earth successfully. Yours ..... Based on this lener and their meeting Zemp decided that Celine Music had misled Behey to helieve that the recording was a limited relea"e for a noncommercial purpose, com parable to other
UNESCO recording~.
In his meeting with Noriko Aikawa. Zemp reviewed three items in the
UNESCO correspondence tile. First was A ikawa's letter to A uvidis (the company
that holds licensing rights on UNESCO '-; behall') indicating that Zcmp had denied
permission for his Wes t African recording to be ..,ampled. Second. there was a letter from Ce line Mu sic to Auvidis ao.,king for confirmation that Zemp had reconsidered. Finally. th ere was a <;uhsequl!nt letter from Auvitlis to Aikawa. a\king
UNESCO to confirm the authoriza ti on and to ). Late whether ri ght ~ should he
given freely or to -;pecify the requiretl payment. What Zemp then discovcrctl was
that Aikawa never answered the letter from Auvidis. and that Auvidis never
an~wercd the contingent letter from Celine Music. In other wo rtls. Zemp discllv-

or

ered that UNESCO authorized no sa mpling

his recordings to Auvidis or I ll
Cdine Music. This wou ld indicate that Ccline Music and Deep Forest acted
~olcly on the ba~is of Franci~ Bebey's letter. treating it as a legally binding document. None of this addressetl why UNESCO contacted Zcmp only about hi s Wes t
A i'rican recording and not the Solomon Islands one.
Zemp ( 1996. -1-8 - 49) wrote to Deep Forest in July 1996. denouncing their
usurpation or hi~ name anu reques ting compen~ation to the Baegu com munity for
the u:-.c o f Rorogwela." They answered two months later, insisting that their project had the full aULhori;.ation of Auvidis (Sanchez and Mouquet 1996). But in the
meantime Zemp had already rcccivetl a contrary leucr, from Auvitlis's director.
Loui. BricarcL a~se rting that no such pcnni~sion had ever been authorized.
Bricard's letter also co nfirms that Celinc Music's lawyer had. in February 1992.
n.:qucsted ttuthorizations for sa mpling from UNESCO tli~c .s. inclutling the ones
Zemp recorded in West Africa and the Solomon blantl~. But he indicated that
Auvidio.,, hearing from UNESCO of Zemp\ ini tial refu saL o.igned no agreement
and informed Cel ine Music's lawyer of the impus~c in M arch 1992 (Bricard 1996).
Facetl with reconciling Deep Forest's claim that their project had legal liccn!.e.
antl Auvicli~\ claim that no such authorization was signed. Zcmp wrote a p o~ t
~t:r ipt to his Yearbook.for Tmditiona/ Music article, conclutling: "somebody (Deep

158

lulla by for World Music

V

Rtwltktunul Bmgu \ hLnr

i1almto
Solmnon /.<Jmulr

Figuros 4 and S Rorog" c la\ cthnomu,icological ;our.o

Fore~ I or Auvidi~) is lying: Thi'i statement wa<; never printed. lt \\a!. cut by the
j ournal's editor, who informed Zemp that neither the journal nor it ~ parent academic organization. the International Council ror Traditional Music (hot h. ironically.
spon!.ored by UNESCO). could arford th e ri l>k of pos!>ible legal action from either

the combination of Deep Fores t. Ce line Mu~ ic. and Sony. or from U ESCO and
Auvidi~. In the three year:-. "incc there ha" heen no other re\olution. Zcrn p"s further requests for darilica tion from all partie), have gone largely unan~wcred. For
their part. Deep Fore),t ha'> ... ucces),full y used the music pr es~ to pre),ent themselves as guardians of respect: when pre),!>Cd on que!>tion~ o f sampling ethics they
have made them),elve" out as would-be victi m), o f academic purish (for exa mple.
Goldman 1995; Prior 1996).

Pygmy (sic) Lullaby

Aside from Zemp\ chill ing articl e. '>Omethin g else important happened to Afunakwa's lullahy in 1996. An acoul.tic and instrumcntnl adaptation of"Rorogwela"'
was recorded by Jan Garharek. a Norwegian saxophoni:>t. on his ECM CD tit led
Visible World. Garbarek didn't encounter Rorogwcla.. though Zcmp\ UNESCO
recording but ra ther through Deep Fore.11 . Since Deep Forest gave no '>Ource for
sweet Lul laby: Garbarek a... sumed that the ... ong originated in Cent ral A frica. at
the si te of many of the CD '. sources. So on Visible World hi ~ adaptation i~ titled

159

Public Culture

Figure 6

f'thno-tcdmn "'und doe~ "' ;H::ou,ric .111d

'p1rirual 'uuud,.:apc

'Pygmy Luii<Jhy: and the lin er not~~ cred it th e compo-;ition as "a traditional
Afncan melody. arranged hy Jan Garbarck :
On /Jeep F(Jre:,/, the u~e or ~ynthC'-i/Cr~ ....ampler<.. and drum machine-. take
" Ro rog\vela" from ethnomu ,icological aura (the primitive "your pa,(') to global
fore'>t grome (the modernl',t "111<1) be ... your future"). But on \li.vihle World th i..,
ethno-tcchno ' ound clod. i ~ tran,fo rmed into an acou~ t ic and ..,piri tua l ~uun J
~ca pc. With \lU rk reverb. new age arpeggio'>. and ~ u ggcs ti o n or plagal cadence.
Garbarek. harmoni/eS AfunaJ.. wa\ " Rorogwcl a'' to the modal \ tyle
Protestant
hymnody and ~wcct l y deli ver~ thl: melody on soprano '-<t:>.ophone i n the romantic
.. ..,mooth j:.l/ /' mdio format '> ty le a"ociated wi th Kenny G (fig. 6).

or

Thi'> rrayer-lik.c " Pygmy Lullaby" was on Ill) mind when I went to a mL...,ic globalintion \erninar in orway in June J9(}H to Ji -.cu'" my research on "p)gmy por."
the hi~t or) of jaa. rock.. and uvant-garde appropriations and extension' of mu,ic-.
from Central Africa's rainfore'-t people-. (Fcld 1996). While not Ai'rica-dcrived. Garh;trck.\ " Pygmy Lullaby'' nonethclcs-; bore an interesting relation<.hip to trends in
the genre. it -,eemed an example of the kind of ..,ccond-gcnera tion schi.wphonic
mimesi' that wa!:> becoming popular in the softer. kinller. anti gentler (a l ~o often ethnica lly whiter) mid-to late-1990~ world mu ~ ic ~cc n e. Where glohul pop\ lin-,t generation Of ~a mpJed cJct:tfOilil: ve r~ i on:-. llf indigenOll'- lllll"il:\ \VLI'> becoming oJd 11CW\,
the mark.etplacc was now grcciing many example-. of rcfa-,hionell acou~t ic ver-.ion'
160

or the !>a me or sim ilar material, following on the tremendous commercial 'iUCCe\!> of
" unplugged"' recordings. a trend MTV initiated for rock in 19H9.
One of the seminar participants wa~ Marit Lie of Norway~ NRK radio. Having presented programs or Garbareks music, ~ he volunteered to contact him
about th e '"Pygmy Lullaby"' ~tory. When she did Garbarck acknowledged Deep
Forest's .. Sweet Lullaby"" as hi.., source and regic.,tered su rpri~e and some dismay
abou t his miscredit. But. comparing himself to Edvard Grieg. Garharck claimed
folk music to be an important '>Ourcc of inspiration for him and not a :-.cholarly
preoccupation. where auention to source origins might maner morl.!. He told her
that he cou ld not do anything about the printed allribution on Visible World. hut
that hc wou ld correct the title if he performed the song in concert.
While Garbarek's response indicated concern. it didn't address the underlying legal and financial relation <:hip. or rather lack of it . that he and ECM have to
the original compo~cr and performer. By law. or course. Garbarck and ECM
owe nothing to the Bacgu communi ty and to Afunakwa. The hi..,torical acc ident
that makes this possible is that her .. Rorogwcla was created wi thin and circulates through what is called oral tradition. Academically that mean'> th at her
:-ong typically cin.:u latcs in an aural and oral economy. without an underlying
wrillen or notaled form. Legally. however, the term ora/tradition can easi ly be
manipulatec.l. from signifying that which i:-. vocally comm unal to signifying that
which belongs to no one in particular. When th at happens, the notion or oral tradition can ma~k both the exi -.tencc of local canon-. of owncr..,hip and the existence of local consequence:- for taking wi thou t asking. Con1>equcntly, in th e
hands of a Western mu~ic lawyer. oral tradition is a concept that might more easily protect those who wish to cheapl y acquire indigcnou ~ cu ltural property. and
rather le!>s to protect indigenous cultural property or it ~ originators. The phrase
OITllnMed by (as in '"a rran ged hy Jan Garbarck"") further naturalize~ thb power
relati on~h ip , :-.cparatin g and di stancing th e creati ve work of mu .. icians and
recording compa nies from the 'traditions of their muses (on the moral and
lega l complexi ti es or these mauer~. :-cc Frith 199.1: Mills 1996: Seeger 1992:
Z i ff and Rao 1998).
The local Norwegian tlimcn!>ion of thi s minor world mu:-.ic saga would have
ended there, save for the fact that it played out just as ECM was about to release
a major Garbarek double CD project. titled Rite.\ . Indeed. Rite.\ includes a bookkl
documenting the acclaimed rel ationship between Garbarek and ECM. Over th e
twenty-eight year period from 1970-98 Garbarck was fea tured as a leader on
twemy-three ECM recording'> and as a participalll on another twemy-'>even. l?ite.\
both celebra tes and ex tends thi s hi!>tory. again indicating how Ga rbarek\ compo161

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Public Culture

-.ition' und performance!-. link and blur the genres u-;ually called jau. cl<t'>~ical.
aml roll-.. They involve numerou" cro... ~ings o r acou\tic and electronic, improv i ~ed aml wriuen. vocal and ins trumental. art and popular. We!-.tcrn European
a nu non- We-; tcrn European mu ... ical \tylcs. Garbarcks ECM recordings feature a
veritable who's who of global cnntemporary jan, indigcnou!'.. and avant-pop
worl<k lie has a l~o worl-.l!d with di,tingui-;hcd European an orchc-.tra .... string
a nu bra\\ groups. and VOCa)i-..h - for e\ampJc. wi th the mcdieval-mll',ic \pl!cia(ist llill iard Ensembk. collaborating on Ofliciu111. one or ECM's bcc,H,cll ing
recordi ng' (Griftith.., 11)9lJ).
So ju~t when. o r maybe just be<:au~e. Garbarek\ mu ... ic and accompti ... hments
we re. with the release o r Rite.\. oncl! :.~gain new~ in the Norwegian music world,
one or Marit Lie~ NRK Ctllleagues seemed particularly in terc:-.tcd that ~omeonc
might be asking a few atypicalque:-.tion' about Garharel-. ,repertory. NR K\ Per
Kristian ot ... cn then called me lO Ji.,cUS'> the .. Pygmy Lullaby.. \lOry. anu I \Ugge!'. tCd that he al-;o contact Hugo Zemp. Thc!'.e interview... \\ere edited inw :.1 ..,)mrt
hroadca\l on NRK \ 15 September edition of Kulturnytt (Culture New,).
In the openi ng to the progmm Per Kristian Ol,cn indicates that Garha rek has
been critici;.ed for hi ~ use of indigenous mu ~ i c on Visih/e World. He the n pl ays
some or G<1rburck's .. Pygmy Lullaby.' mi -;identifying the ~o n g's source a~ the
Samoa (not Solomon) blands. Oben says th:.~t Deep Forest and Garbarck
.. carneu million~ from the 'ong but that the rccordi!'> t and performer didn't gel a
penny." M) voice follow\, a nu i\ tran~lated. IO say that We!'> tern COp) right law is
not comprehensive enough to cq uiwbly include indi genou'> culture!>. creating a
new kind of imperi alism. one that musicians and record co mp<ln i e~ mu~t engage
rather than avoid.
01-.cn then says that Garbarel-. was interviewed by Kulturn yll and that he
repudiated thc~c notion:-. But. he say,, Garharek called an hour laLer to withdraw
his inten iew, refu-,ing further comment. 01-.cn then inuicate-; that Zemp. who
mude the recording in Samoa (sic). b dic;illu,ioncd h) these event,. The piece
c lo"e' with Zl!mp\ voice (in Engli-.h). addrcs~ing Garharel-.: "So l would a:-.1,. you.
would you accept to corrc<:t thi s on the next reic;, ue? Would you also accept to
scnu part of thl! royalties ynu get from thi~ record to the Solomon Islands. where
it <:an be U!-.ed for promotion and preserva ti on of cultural heritage?"
A few wceh later Marit Lie called rne to say that Jan Garharc k wa-. ex tremely
upset by Per Kristian Olsens program. Indeed. Garharek had wriuen to the NRK
accu,ing Ol~cn. Zern p. and me o r lie~ that tarni,hed his reputation. She "aid she
would get me an audio copy of the r<ldio program and gcnerou!.ly offered to
tran::.latc it.
162

But before these arrived I rece i v~ d a !.urpri !>e phone call, on 12 October, fro m
Jan Garbarek. He wa~> ted no time asking if I had branded him a thie f to th e
NRK. He !.aid that he did not hear me 1.ay thi ~ hut that it wa:. implied in the program\ introduct ion. I ex rlained that my concern was not to auack him pen.onall y but to rai '>e the i::.l>Ue of ownership inequitiel> in intellectual and cu ltural
properLy. He '>aid he was relieved to hear that my concern ' were ~tru c tura l a nd
not ~pecilic to him. Nonetheless he ~ai d he wan ted RK 10 issue an apo logy
becau ~e Per Kris tian Olscns statemenh were mi sleading. He said that the prog ram !>ingled him out, giving li ~ ten er' the impre~si on that he hadn't paid for
songs he recorded.
On thi ~ point Garbard. :. tressed. repeatedl y, that he had indeed paitl for
"Pyg my Lullaby"' because in orway. TONO. the national collecting age ncy.
split the reven ues from ~o n g~ auributed to oraltratlitio n between the pcrl'ormer
and a rund to promote rolk mu.,ic ... TO 0 j udges. on a rercentagc ba~i.,, what
portion of a recorded ~ong i ~ a uniquely new arrangement and performance and
what portion is the source material. In the c a ~e of "Pygmy Lullaby .. TONO considered 50 percent of the song to be Garbarek\ o rigi nal wo rk . From hi., point of
view the 50 percent or withheld roya ltie~ (whether o r nmthcy went to the ~ong\
original source) constituted comren<;ation for the use or oral tradition material.
After this calli <..ent Garbarek a letter reviewi ng my concerns, cn clo~ in g co pi c~ of
the articles Zemp and I had written fo r the 1996 Yearhon/.. for Tradi1ional Music.
Crossing with thi ~ in the mail. I wa.~ surprbed to receive a gift of Riles. in~crihcd
" I'm glad you didn't !>ay what RK quoted !"
Mean while. I continued to hear from o rway that Ga rbarek felt accu ~ed by
NRK of not paying royalties. Arguing that he had handled all of his TONO obligatio ns prcci:-.ely a!> required. he insis ted that his case against Kulturnytt be
reviewed by the highest broadcasti ng review board. The revie\\ that followed
uphe ld Kulturnytr s integrity. The report stated that culture jo urnali~m in orway
was once typica lly less critical in s tyle and that Kulturnytt\ current approach was
welcome. although it could he accomp li ~ hed with more a~.:curacy. This comment
was not a reference to Per Kris tian Olscns confusion of Sa moa with the Solomon
blands: rather it was a reference to the inaccurate !.tatcment that Garbarek was
"earning million:. from Third World mu:.ics ... The decision aJ...o stated ~orne sympathy for Garbarek'~> predicament , reminding the RK that the effect of criticic;m
may be hurtful. even if the content is technicall y correct.
The muller didn't end there. Unsatisfi ed by NRK\, re!>pon. e, Garbarek then
asked the Norwegian Pres\ Council. the highest journalism body in the country.
to review the case. documenting his grievances in a 17 ovcmber letter of over
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2.500 words. The Norwegian Press Council agreed tO review the case. even
though they more ty pi cally deal with social and political co mplaints involving
censorship and free :-.pecch. Fir:-. t among Garbarek's grieva nces wa:-. that NRK
personalized the story. In this contex t he cited our phone co nv e r~a ti o n as evidence that Per Kristian Olsen had overstated my concerns. Th en. insi sting that he
adequately paid through TONO for the use of any unoriginal material. he nrgued
that he could hardly be held accountabl e for a prior error that wa~ made hy Deep
Forest. He said that he was open to correctin g th e song title. if and when it was
proven to him that he wao; in fact in error (thereby refu sing to take N RK and its
..ex pe rt~ .. at their wo rd ). But mos t criticull y. Garbarek insisted that NRK"s program insi nuated that he generally gave wro ng in formati on or ignored the ownerindigcnou' property. In thi ~ way he suicl that N RK had manipulated the
ship
feelings
its listeners, making him into .. the ont.: who -;hntthe Bambi."" In '> hort.

or

or

Garbarek built a lengthy and emotional case that he was the victim of zca l o u ~
j ournalism founded on misinformati on. Th e No rwegian Prcs-: Counci l was convinced hy thi ~ appea l, indicating, in February 1999. that they ~ id ed w ith Garbarek and agai nst the vindica ti on or '"Culture News by the prior hroadca<;Ling
board review (Lie 1999).
Or th e many twist'> and turn:-. of the .. Rorogwela.. va ri ati ons. thi s Norwegian
phase play~ out in a distincti vely national mediated space, focu~cd around radi o
jo urn a li ~ m and the stake~ in critica l discourse. A s the events unl"olded around
Garbareks protes ts. anthropologist Odd A re Berkaak responded to their shape
by 1:.eei ng how the Norwegian media wer e staging a di~ Lin ct nationali st drama.
He read it us a morality play where the ct.:ntral issue in the Royal Norwegian
cthOi, i ~ bciltg threatened. that or being th e Global Samaritan. Jan Garbarek i~ the
nati onal moral icon who is now falling from grace like the tragic hcroe~ of the
melodrama. On next wee k ~ epi sode o f JanWatch: will he be throw n into the dungeon forever or will he be rc<; torecl to th e throne?" ( Berkaak 1998) .
At the sa me time. from an engaged po ~i ti on in Norwegian mu~ic journalism.
th e i rony or what tran spired pleased Marit Lio.:. She felt that owing to .lan Garbarcks high protile. the is~ ue of copy ri ght and owner~hip incq uitie~ for indigcll(HIS musics wm. thrust more substantially imo the Norwegian public arena than
ever before. writi ng. 'Jf he wa ~ a nobody. there would never have hccn any discussion around ir ( Li e 1998). Ultimately. it may he l e~~ significa nt that Garbnrek
prevailed with the Norwegian Pres~ Council than that the res ulting publicity
movt.:d UNESCO"s Norway branch to seck n mee ting with Noriko A ikawa.

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lulla by for World Mus ic

Whose Master('s) Voice?

Much more could be detailed abou t these versions of Rorogwcla: and the ~onic,
aesthetic. and pol itical issues they ra i ~e. Much too could be added about why
nobody knows whether ''Sweet Lul laby" or 'Pygmy Lullaby'' have had a hearing
or response from Afunakwa or the Baegu community. But even this introductory
accounting begins to make clear how companies. performers. rccordi~ts. organizations. and media ca n now fi nd their identities embroiled in complex multilocal <;ong
histories. These hi stolies can be reviewed as signs of anx ious and celebratory contradictions in world music and as signs of globaliLation's uneven naturali tation.
First. the world music story has something to say about power under globalization, speciHcally the fraught politics of the copy, as revealed by chains of schizophonic mimesi'>. In Mimesi.\ und Alreriry. Michacl Taussig writes: "Once the
mimetic ha. sprung into being, a terrifically ambiguous power is established;
there is born the power to represent the wo rld, yet that same power is a power to
falsify. mask and pose. The two powers are inseparable' ( 1993. 42-43). Here
those two in eparable power~ are productive of the anxiety and celebration that
links aura to authenticity, creati vi ty to caricature. difference to dominance. Critically, the musiciu ns who made "Sweet Lullaby" a nd "Pygmy Lullaby'' didn't
need to know the name Afunakwa, the name "Rorogwela: or the song's ac tual
geographic location. From the initial s tandpoint of the 1-.ampler, Afu nakwa i1-. not
a person but a ~o und ; from the ~ ub~eq u c nt standpoint of the arra nger tha t ~ound
is a melody and not a distinct performance. Thu-;, when it comes to mimetic
power. it is the detachability of their underlying acoustic material that takes
precedence over hearing 'Rorogwela." "Sweet Lullaby; and ''Pygmy Lullaby'' as
the same song.
These representational politics call out for more his torical contextualitation,
which can in part be accompli~hed by juxtaposing today's world music wi th a
momen t in its prehistory. one hundred years ago. at the clol.e of the nineteenth
century. Consider then John Comfon Fill more, a pianist and pioneer field rccord i ~ t
of ati vc Nort h America active at that time. In 1895 and 1899 he wrote articles
in the Journal of Ame rican Folklore a nu A111erican Anthropologist to argue that
natural and uni versal acoustic la ws underlie the latent harmonic logic of Native
American vocal melodic:.. Accordingly, he produced transcriptions of early wax
cylinder fie ld record ing in the form of harmoni zed piano arrangement , and presented them as revelation:. of what American Ind ia ns really meant to ~i n g. but
couldn't realize. This work initi all y suckered the most prominent ethnomu!>icologist (France Dcnsmore) and ant hropologist (Fran7 Boas) or the <.lay, al though

165

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both later repudiatcu Fillmorc\ methou'., rccogniting them as reflecti ve more

of the ro mantic nationalism o r his compo~ iti o n :-. ( for exam ple, Indian Famasia
Numl1er OnejiJr Full Orches/ra . 1890) than a scholarl y inquiry into acou:,tic univer'>ali:-.m.
One hundred years later. Deep Fores t take to their sampler),, synt h e~ i t.er-. . and
drum machine-;. Lii- tening to old reco rdin g~ . they !>earch fo r the nat ural rhythm -;:
then. in virtual collabo ratio n'> with the indigene\, they amplify the latent beat
they hear in:-.idc diiTerenee. Li:-.tcning to that amplification. Jan Garbarek hea r'>
ye t more: arra nging the inner harmonic:-.. he i- u ggc~ t '> their underl}i ng ~ piritual
it y. Th e~e "train<, of "world mu ~ ic," like their primiti v i ~ t and romantic n ational i~ t
antecedents. then. an: deeply about exploration. about the power and privilege tll
contact and !-now. to tal-c av.ay and u:-.e. That thc'>e blend" and mi xing'> arc celebrated a:, liberato ry and in:-.piring, that they unque:,ti onab ly bring plea"ure and
s timulation to ma ny, retell!> a '> tory of the aflinitie'> of modern., and primiti ve:-.
Lil-c varictie-. or prim i ti v i ~ m well chronicled in other domain-; (for examp k .
Rubin IY84: ClilTo rd 1988, 189 - 214: To rgovnicl- 1990: Bar"an an d Bu-.h 1995),
world mul-ic create!-. a voyage of di-.covery. a sonic ex perience of contact. an auditory denowering tha t penetrate" the harmony of difference. And like other ~itcs
of di ~ cnvery. this one provoke:-. the :-.arne anxiou.., qu e~ti on : h world mu'> ic a form
of artis tic humiliatio n. the price primiti've!-. pay for attracting the allention Of
modems. fo r gain ing emry in to their world of rcp re~e nta t i o n ? (on deve lopmen t
and humiliati on. sec Sahlins 1<)92).
For recordb t' o r cl. hn omu~ico log i !-. t S. these power and represelllat ion theme:,
can be producti ve of a different humiliation: complicity. The de<,pair of 'eci ng
documentary projects lran~fo rm from icons o r musical di versity to "raw materi al"
ror inuu -. triali ted neocolo niali' m ' urely mark'> th ~.: end of all c thn omu~ i wl ogica l
innocence. The le-...on for rescarchcr1> i'> that community tru ~t. academic recogniti on. and in:-. titlllional presti ge mean lillle when you arc up against internati onal
entertainment law. mnjor rccoru companic~ . the media and ma rketing ''orld.
music cDIIccti ng agencic'. and highl y paid. highly protect.:d pop star\. Here they
arc glohali7<llion. and yo u arc a clino,aur. And your action on behalf of local
..orult raditio n" o r .. heritage can become more of a s truggle. not le-.-.. when your
allie'>. like pro fessio nal academic -.ocieties and their journa l\. or famous in d ig~.:
no us compose r-performer-.. or even UN ESCO. are revealed to be even weaker or
mo re complicit in the"' hole affair.
Butt he"e occasio nal pains or ethnomusicology -.cem vas tly overwrittcn by the
plea'> ure:-. or musical panicipation. and that is -. till the wo rld mu ~ic location
where celebration ru le., mo:-.1. Musician-. are havi ng a great time. and they arc
166

very inve:- ted in reminding everyone that for th em. world music means th e joy of
playing any kind of mu:,ic. anywhere in the world. with anyone (li ve or virtual)
they choose. The opportunities arc numerous for crossing what were once ph y~ i cal and aesthetic boundaries. Industry ha-. th e abili ty to take bi g risk-; in technological and promoti onal support of those crossings, and mu ~ida ns are eager to do
the exploring, to be identifi ed a~ voyagers. A udiences arc happy: there i s plenty
to listen to. plenty to bu y, plenty to dance to. The marketplace is Oooded, with
fi ve or six times as many titl e~ a<> ten years ago. For many consumer.., thi -. overwhelming amount of product choice is imagined as . omc kind or sign that democracy prevails. that every voice can be heard. every style can be purcha~cd . everything will be available to everybody. The de~ire to ad verti se a democratic vi<.; ion
of world mu~ i c i-. central to it'> industrial <>ucccss in th e West. For example. the
world music page in a recent HMV (His M as ter\ Voice) catalog circulated in my
Sunday newspaper beg in~: .. The best World Mu-.ic remind., us of our globa l community. G reu t music knows no nati onal boundaries. Much or thi s year s list has
elements or more than one innucnce with a celebrati on or sharing:
Th e advcrti ~cme nl of thi " democratic and liberal vision for world music
embodies an idcali m about frec-nows. ~haring. and choice. But it masks th e reality that visibility in product choice is directly related to sales volume. profi tability.
<1 11d stardom. Succes ful musicians don't just get "royalties: they become .. royalty: ' th e princes and princcSl>CS or an aes thetic and technological kingdom
guarded by sal e~ ( Kcil and Fclu 1994. 32 1). How else could one read Deep Fores t and Jan Garbarek presenting themscl ve!-. as th e victims i n a hi ~to ry w here
they are guaranteed vastly dil> proponionute gain to their muses? The inability of
pop music .. royalty'' to examine their pri vilege ( Lip~ iu 1994. 63), and th eir lack
of reflex ivity about how tho~e being cumtcd might sec and hear it all quite di fferently. is a stunning ac t or n a rci ~si ~ m for an indust ry so invested in a democratic
image of collaborati on.
In th e end . no matter how in~ p iring the musical creation. no matter how
affirming its participatory dimension. the ex i ~ Lcnce and ~ ucccss or world music
returns to one of globali zation\ basic economic clichcl>: the dri ve for more and
more markets and market niches ( Harvcy 1989: Kumar 1995). In the ca&es here.
we sec how the worlds or ~m all (U ESCO and Auvid il.) and large (Sony) and
maj or independent (ECM ) music owners and di stributor'\ can come into unexpec ted interaction. We sec how productiun can proceed from the acqui-;ition of u
faraway cheap in:-.piration and labor. We sec how exotic Eu ro morph s can be marketed through newly layered tropcs. like green enviroprimitivism. or '> pi ritual
new age avant-gardc roma ntici -;m. We sec how what is produced has a place i n a
167

Lullaby for World Music

Public Culture

larger in<.lu-.tri al mu~ ic 1onc of commodity imc n~ilica tio n . in thi~ ca11e ani.,tic
wi th in<.ligcncity. al. made over in popular Western styles. In all, we
~cc how world music participates in ~ hapin g a kind or consu mer- friendly multicultural ism. one that follow-; the market logic or expansion and con:-.oli dation.
Thi :-. i ~ the place where a '':-.wect lullaby"' might resona te most as a liui ng mu ~ ic a l
tropc for globaliLation'l> capital project. Drifting ofT. th e dream desires technologica l and arti:-.tic e lite~ arc jolted by market cycle~ of agitated waJ.. cfulncs-;.
Then. blanketed in prommion. they are once more cradled and lulled on a fi rm
mauress of stark in cquit i c~ anti padded mergers. and nurtured at the corporate
breast.
enco unter~

or

Steven Feld teaches anthropology at New York Uni versity. His work as a ~ou nd

recordi .,t includes the CD Voices {~f the Rainj(Jrest. A~ a rnu:-ician he ha~ played
with Bonc tied. TG 3, Leadbelly L cgm;y. and Li ve Action Brass Band. ll i-; .. otes
on World Beat" appeared in the lir:-1 i ~~ue of Puhlic Culture.

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or

Figure Credits

Figure 3- Deep Fore.1r. 1992 Celine Mu1.ic/Synsound 1992 Cclinc

Mu~ic/Syn:.ound/550 Mu!.ic- Epic (Sony Mu-,ic. Inc.). Produced by Dan Lack~
man. arranged by E1ic Mouquctand Michcl Sanchct. Dc~ign and photo~: F.A.W.
Figure 4- U ESCO Collection Mu!ieal Source~. Faraleka and Baegu Music.
Malaita , Solomon Islands. The Primeval Culture~ 1- 1. 197J. (LP) Edited for the
International Mu-.ic Council hy the Intcrnational lnl>titutc for Comparative Mu~ic
Studies and Documentation. General Editor: Alain Daniclou. Recording'>, otes,
and Photographs by Hugo Zemp. LP 1973 Philip~/U ESCO.
Figure 5- UNESCO Collection Mul> ique~ et Mu~>ic.:ien~ du Mondc/M us ic~ and
Mu!>icia ns of lhe World. Solomon Islands/lies Salo111o11: Faw!eka wul Baegu
Mt1.1icjro111 Malaira. Recordings, Notes, and PhoiOgraphl> by Hugo Zcmp. (CD)
Rci ~suc with I he support of the French Ministry of Culture and Communication
for lhc International Music Councii/Consei l lntemati onal de la Musique.
Auvidis/IIMSD/UNESCO 1990 Auvidi~-UNESCO 197311990. Design:
Jacques Blanpain.
Figure 6-Jan Garharek, Vi.1ihle World. Produced by Manfrcd Eicher. CD 1996
ECM Record:.. "All compositions by Jan Garbare(... except Pygmy Lullaby. an
African traditi onal melody. arranged by Jan Garharek...... Cover photo: Jan
Jcdlicka : cover design: Barbara Wojirsch.

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