MTH410 S14 Lecture 01 May 12 - Mo-Wed

MTH410
Probability and Statistics

Spring 2014
Nursel S. Ruzgar
Mathematics Department
nruzgar@ryerson.ca
416-979 5000/ext. 3173
MTH410 S14- Lecture 1
Discussion of Syllabus
Required Text:
Solved problems in Statistics, Part I- P. Ghargbouri, B. Todorow
Exercises in Statistics, Part I- P. Gharghbouri, B. Todorow
Meets
Mondays: 2:00-5:00pm-KHE221,
Wednesdays: 2:00-5:00pm- KHE221
Office Hours: Tuesdays: 5pm-5:45pm-VIC707
Labs:
Section 1: Fridays: 10:00-12:00pm-ENGLG12

Section 4: Wednesdays: 11:00-13:00pm-ENG102
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Discussion of Syllabus (contd)

Course Web Site: Blackboard
Labs and Quizzes
Labs will start in the first week, May 12.

There will be a quiz each week, except the
first week.
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Discussion of Syllabus (contd)

Academic Dishonesty (Strongly
discouraged)
Refer to the senate policy
Tentative Course Outline
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Course Objectives
Identify and formulate problems where
statistics can have an impact.
See the relevance of statistics. Apply what has
been learned to other engineering courses and
to career practice.
Understand the basics of Statistics and
Probability Theory
Interpret the statistical results and retrieve
necessary information to help decision making
Develop the bases for the other courses.
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Evaluation
30% MidtermTest (100 minutes) 10:00am,
Saturday, June 14, 2014
60% Final exam (180 minutes), room: TBA
10% Lab quizzes
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OUTLINE Lecture 1
Statistics-Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Populations, Parameters, and Samples,
Statistic, Variable
Data & Types of Data
Cross-Sectional vs Time Series Data

Interval, Nominal Data, Ordinal
Graphical descriptive techniques for each type of

data
Histograms, Pie and Bar Charts

Scatter Diagrams, Contingency Table
Line Chart
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In todays world
we are constantly being surrounded by statistics and statistical information.
For example:
Political Polls, Customer Surveys
Interest rates, Economic Predictions
Course Marks, Job Market Information
How can we make sense out of all these data?
How can we differentiate valid from flawed claims?
What is Statistics?!
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What is Statistics? (Contd)

Statistics is a way to get information from data
Statistics
Data
Information
Data: Facts, especially

numerical facts, collected
together for reference or
information.
Information: Knowledge
communicated concerning
some particular fact.
Statistics is a tool for creating new understanding from a set of numbers.

Definitions: Oxford English Dictionary
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Example
A student is somewhat apprehensive about the statistics
course because the student believes the myth that the
course is difficult. The professor provides last terms marks to
the student. What information can the student obtain from this
list?
Statistics
Data
Information
List of last terms marks.

95
89
70
65
78
57
:
New information about

the statistics class.
E.g. Median of all marks,

Typical mark, i.e. average,
Mark distribution, etc.
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Population, Parameter, &

Sample, Statistics, Variable
Population: group of all items of interest to the statistics
practitioner.
All the members of the Ryerson University.
Parameter: A descriptive measure of a population.
Mean number of soft drinks sold at Ryerson every week.
Sample: A set of items drawn from the population.
500 students surveyed.
Statistic: A descriptive measure of a sample.
Average number of soft drinks these students buy per week.
Variable: A characteristic of population or sample that is

of interest for us.
Number of soft drinks a student buys every week.
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Key Statistical Concepts

Population
a population is the entire set of all items under study.
frequently very large, sometimes infinite.
E.g. All 5 million Florida voters

Sample
A sample is a set of data drawn from the population.
Potentially very large, but less than the population.
E.g. a sample of 765 voters exit polls on election day.
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Key Statistical Concepts (Contd)

Parameter
A descriptive measure of a population.
In most applications of inferential statistics, the parameter
represents the information we need.
E.g. The proportion of the 5 million Florida voters who voted
for Obama.
Statistic
A descriptive measure of a sample.
E.g. The proportion of the sample of 765 Floridians who voted
for Obama.
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Key Statistical Concepts (Contd)

Population
Sample
Subset
Inference
Statistic
Samples have
Statistics
Parameter
Populations have
Parameters
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Types of Statistics
Descriptive statistics: involves the
arrangement, summary, and presentation of
data, to enable meaningful interpretation, and
to support decision making.
Inferential Statistics: a set of methods used
to draw conclusions about characteristics of a
population based on sample data.
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Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics is a set of methods of organizing,
summarizing, and presenting data in a convenient and
informative way. These methods include:
Graphical Techniques
Numerical Techniques
The actual method used depends on what information we
would like to extract. Are we interested in:
measure(s) of central location? and/or

measure(s) of variability (dispersion)?
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Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics describe the data set thats being
analyzed, but doesnt allow us to draw any conclusions
or make any inferences about the data. Hence we need
another branch of statistics: inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics is also a set of methods, but it is used
to draw conclusions or inferences about characteristics of
populations based on data from a sample.
17
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Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is the process of making an estimate,
prediction, or decision about a population based on a sample.
Population
Sample
Inference
Statistic
Parameter
What can we infer about a Populations Parameters
based on a Samples Statistics?
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Statistical Inference(Contd)
We use statistics to make inferences about parameters.
Therefore, we can make an estimate, prediction, or
decision about a population based on sample data.
Then, we can apply what we know about a sample to the
larger population from which the sample was drawn!
What is the purpose or/and which kind of benefits
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Statistical Inference (Contd)

Rationale:
Large populations make investigating each member
impractical, extremely expensive and time-consuming.
Easier and cheaper to take a sample and make estimates
about the population from the sample.
However:
Such conclusions and estimates are not always going to be
correct.
Hence, we have to build into the statistical inference
measures of reliability, namely confidence level and
significance level.
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Confidence & Significance

Levels
The confidence level is the proportion of times that an

estimating procedure will be correct, if the sampling
procedure were repeated a very large number of times.
E.g. a confidence level of 95% means that, estimates based on
this form of statistical inference will be correct 95% of the time.
When the purpose of the statistical inference is to draw a

conclusion about a population, the significance level
measures how frequently the conclusion will be wrong in
the long run.
E.g. a 5% significance level means that, in repeated samples,
this type of conclusion will be wrong 5% of the time.
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Confidence & Significance Levels

(Contd)
So if we use (Greek letter alpha) to
represent significance level (how frequently
the conclusion will be wrong) , then our
confidence level is 1 .
This relationship can also be stated as:
Confidence Level
+ Significance Level
=1
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Confidence & Significance Levels

(Contd)
Consider a statement from polling data you
may hear about in the news these days:
This poll is considered accurate within 3.4
percentage points, 19 times out of 20.
In this case, the confidence level is 95%

(19/20 = 0.95), and the significance level is
5%.
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Graphical Descriptive
Techniques
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Agenda
Types of Data and Information
Graphical and Tabular Techniques for Nominal
Data
Graphical Techniques for Interval Data
Describing Time-Series Data

Describing the Relationship Between Two
Variables
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Definitions
A variable is some characteristic of a population or sample.
Typically denoted with a capital letter: X, Y, Z
E.g. student marks. No all students achieve the same mark. The
marks vary from student to student, so the name variable.
Values of a variable are all possible observations of the variable.
E.g. student marks: all integers between 0 and 100.
Data are the observed values of a variable.
E.g. marks of 6 students in an exam: {67, 74, 71, 83, 93, 48}
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Types of data analysis

Knowing the type of data is necessary to properly
select the technique to be used when analyzing data.
Type of analysis allowed for each type of data
Interval data arithmetic calculations

Nominal data counting the number of observation in each
category
Ordinal data - computations based on an ordering process
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Types of data and information

Variable - a characteristic of population or
sample that is of interest for us.
Number of soft drinks a student buys every week

The waiting time for medical services
The score of a student in the Stats Exam.
Data - the actual values of variables
Interval data are numerical observations

Nominal data are categorical observations
Ordinal data are ordered categorical observations
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Types of Data & Information

Data (at least for purposes of Statistics)
fall into three main groups:
Interval Data
Nominal Data
Ordinal Data
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Interval Data
Real numbers, i.e. weights, prices,
distance, etc.
Also called as quantitative or numerical.
Arithmetic operations can be performed on
Interval Data, so its meaningful to talk
about 2*Weight, or Price + $1.5, and so on.
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Nominal Data
The values of nominal data are categories.
E.g. responses to questions about marital status, coded as:
Single = 1, Married = 2, Divorced = 3, Widowed = 4
Because the numbers are arbitrary, arithmetic operations

dont make any sense (e.g. does Widowed 2 = Married?!)
Any other numbering system is also valid provided that
each category has a different number assigned to it.
E.g. Another coding system as valid as the previous one:
Nominal data are also called qualitative or categorical.

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Ordinal Data
Ordinal Data appear to be nominal, but their values have an
order, a ranking to them.
E.g. The most active stocks traded on the NASDAQ in
descending order
MSFT = 1, CSCO = 2, Dell = 3, SunW = 4
Any other numbering system is valid provided the order is
maintained.
E.g. Another coding system as valid as the previous one:
We can say something like the number of stocks traded from:
Microsoft > Cisco or Sun Microsystems < Dell
It is still not meaningful to do arithmetic operations on this kind of data (e.g.
does 2*MSFT = CSCO?!).
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Nominal data vs. Ordinal data

The critical difference between nominal data and ordinal
data is that the values of the latter are in order.
E.g. It is valid for nominal data to have:
However, it wont be valid for ordinal data:
(The order changed to be: SunW, CSCO, MSFT,
Dell.
We must keep the order of MSFT, CSCO, Dell, SunW)
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Interval data vs. Ordinal data

The critical difference between interval data and ordinal data
is that the intervals or differences between values of interval
data are consistent and meaningful.
E.g. The difference between marks of 85 and 80 is the same
five-mark difference as that between 75 and 70.
However for coding system like:
We can see CSCO MSFT = 1, and SunW Dell = 1
But we cant conclude that the difference between the
number of stocks traded in Microsoft and Cisco Systems is
the same as the difference in the number of stocks traded
between Dell Computer and Sun Microsystems.
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Types of Data & Information(Contd)

Knowing the type of data is necessary to properly select
the technique to be used when analyzing data.
Data
Categorical?
Interval
Data
Ordinal
Data
Ranked?
Categorical
Data
Nominal
Data
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Calculations for Types of Data

All calculations are permitted on interval data.
Only calculations involving a ranking process are
allowed for ordinal data.
No calculations are allowed for nominal data, only

allowed to count the number of observations in each
category.
This leads to the following hierarchy of data
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Hierarchy of Data
Interval
Values are real numbers.
All calculations are valid.
Data may be treated as ordinal or nominal.
Higher
level
may be
treated
as lower
level(s)
Ordinal
Values must represent the ranked order of the data.
Calculations based on an ordering process are valid.
Data may be treated as nominal but not as interval.
Nominal
Values are the arbitrary numbers that represent categories.
Only calculations based on the frequencies of occurrence are valid.
Data may not be treated as ordinal or interval.
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E.g. Representing Student Grades

N
Data
Categorical?
Interval Data
e.g. integers in {0..100}
Y
Ranked?
Categorical
Data
Ordinal Data
e.g. {F, D, C, B, A}
Ranked order to data
Nominal Data
e.g. {Pass | Fail}
NO ranked order to data
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Agenda
Graphical and Tabular Techniques for
Nominal Data
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Graphical & Tabular Techniques for

Nominal Data
The only allowable calculation on nominal data is to
count the frequency of each value of the variable.
We can summarize the data in a table that presents the
categories and their counts called a frequency
distribution.
A relative frequency distribution lists the categories
and the proportion with which each occurs.
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Relative frequency
It is often preferable to show the relative frequency
(proportion) of observations falling into each class, rather
than the frequency itself.
Class relative frequency =
Class frequency
Total number of observations
Relative frequencies should be used when
the population relative frequencies are studied

comparing two or more histograms
the number of observations of the samples studied are different
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Class width
It is generally best to use equal class width, but
sometimes unequal class width are called for.
Unequal class width is used when the frequency
associated with some classes is too low. Then,
several classes are combined together to form a

wider and more populated class.
It is possible to form an open ended class at the
higher end or lower end of the histogram.
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Example: Light Beer Preference

Survey
In 2006 total light beer sales in the United States was
approximately 3 million gallons
With this large a market breweries often need to know more
about who is buying their product.
The marketing manager of a major brewery wanted to
analyze the light beer sales among college and university
students who do drink light beer.
A random sample of 285 graduating students was asked to
report which of the following is their favorite light beer.
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Example
1. Budweiser Light
2. Busch Light
3. Coors Light
4. Michelob Light
5. Miller Lite
6. Natural Light
7. Other brand
The responses were recorded using the codes. Construct a
frequency and relative frequency distribution for these data
and graphically summarize the data by producing a bar
chart and a pie chart.
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Example
1
1
5
1
3
3
3
7
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Frequency and Relative Frequency

Distributions
Light Beer Brand
Frequency
Relative Frequency
Budweiser Light
90
31.6%
Busch Light
19
6.7
Coors Light
62
21.8
Michelob Light
13
4.6
Miller Lite
59
20.7
Natural Light
25
8.8
Other brands
17
6.0
Total
285
100
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Nominal Data (Frequency)

100
90
90
80
70
62
59
60
50
40
25
30
19
20
17
13
10
0
1
Bar Charts are often used to display frequencies

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Nominal Data (Relative

Frequency)
6
9%
7
6%
1
31%
5
21%
4
4%
2
7%
3
22%
Pie Charts show relative frequencies

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Nominal Data
Light Beer Brand
Frequency
Relative Frequency
Budweiser Light
90
31.6%
Busch Light
19
6.7
Coors Light
62
21.8
Michelob Light
13
4.6
Miller Lite
59
20.7
Natural Light
25
8.8
Other brands
17
6.0
6
9%
7
6%
It all the same information,

(based on the same data).
Just different presentation.
100
90
90
1
31%
80
70
62
59
60
50
5
21%
40
25
30
4
4%
2
7%
3
22%
19
20
17
13
10
0
1
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Agenda
Nominal Data
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There are several graphical methods that are used when
the data are interval.
The most important of these graphical methods is the
histogram, which is created by drawing rectangles
whose bases are the intervals and whose heights are the
frequencies.
The histogram is not only a powerful graphical

technique used to summarize interval data, but also used
to help explain probabilities.
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Building a Histogram
Example The marketing manager of a long-distance telephone
company conducted a survey of 200 new costumers wherein the
first months bills are recorded. What information can be extracted
from those data?
This manager was only able to find that the smallest bill is $0, and
the largest bill is $119.63, and most of bills are less than $100
However, there is a lot of information may be more interesting.
Bill distribution,
Are there many small bills and few large bills?
What is the typical bill?
Are the bills somewhat similar or different?
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Building a Histogram(Contd)
1) Collect the Data
2) Create a frequency distribution for the data

a) Determine the number of classes to use
Refer to Table.
With 200 observations, we
should have between 7 & 10
classes 9 seems the best. For
our purpose, let us pick 8.
Alternatively, we could use Sturges formula:

Number of class intervals = 1 + 3.3 log (n), n
is the number of observations, then we get 9.
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1) Collect the Data
a) Determine the number of classes to use. [8]
b) Determine how large to make each class

Look at the range of the data, that is,
Range = Largest Observation Smallest Observation
Range = $119.63 $0 = $119.63
Then each class width becomes:
Range (# of classes) = 119.63 8 15
FYI: if pick 9, the width should be 13.3

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1) Collect the Data
a) Determine the number of classes to use. [8]
b) Determine how large to make each class. [15]
c) Place the data into each class
each item can only belong to one class;
each class contains observations greater than its

lower limit and less than or equal to its upper limit.
That means, there is not overlapping between any
two classes.
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1) Collect the Data
2) Create a frequency
distribution for the data.
3) Draw the Histogram

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1) Collect the Data
2) Create a frequency distribution for the data.
3) Draw the Histogram
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Example : Interpret
About half of all
the bills are small
71+37=108
80
60
40
120
105
90
75
60
45
20
15
30
Frequency
Relatively, large
number of bills
are large
18+28+14=60
A few bills are in

the middle range
13+9+10=32
Bills
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FYI The difference with Bar chart

All data are nominal,
Each bin is one category,
There is a gap between
two neighbor bins.
All data are interval,

Each bin is an interval of values,
There is no gap between two
neighbor bins.
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Shapes of histograms
There are four typical shape characteristics
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Shapes of Histograms
Variable
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Frequency
Frequency
Frequency
Symmetry
A histogram is said to be symmetric if, when we
draw a vertical line down the center of the histogram,
the two sides are identical in shape and size:
Variable
Variable
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Shapes of Histograms(Contd)
Skewness
A skewed histogram is one with a long tail extending to
either the right or the left:
Negatively skewed
Positively skewed
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Shapes of Histograms(Contd)
Unimodal
Frequency
Frequency
Modality
A unimodal histogram is one with a single peak,
while a bimodal histogram is one with two peaks:
Bimodal
Variable
Variable
A modal class is the class with the largest number of observations

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Modal classes
A modal class is the one with the largest number of
observations.
A unimodal histogram
The modal class

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Modal classes
A bimodal histogram
A modal class
A modal class
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Bell Shaped Histograms
Frequency
A special type of symmetric unimodal histogram

is Bell Shaped:
Many statistical techniques

require that the population
be bell shaped.
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Variable
Bell Shaped
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Bell shaped histograms

Many statistical techniques require that the
population be bell shaped.
Drawing the histogram helps verify the shape of
the population in question
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Stem & Leaf Display

Retains information about individual observations that would
normally be lost in the creation of a histogram.
Split each observation into two parts, a stem and a leaf:
e.g. Observation value: 42.19
There are several ways to split it up
We could split it at the decimal point:
Stem Leaf
42
19
4
Or split it at the tens position (while rounding to the nearest

integer in the ones position)
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Stem & Leaf Display

Continue this process for all the observations.
Then, use the stems for the classes and
each leaf becomes part of the histogram as
follows
Stem Leaf
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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0000000000111112222223333345555556666666778888999999
000001111233333334455555667889999
0000111112344666778999
001335589
124445589
33566
3458
022224556789
Thus, we still have access to our
334457889999
original data points value!
00112222233344555999
001344446699
124557889
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Histogram and Stem & Leaf
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Ogive
(pronounced Oh-jive) is a graph of
a cumulative relative frequency distribution.
We create an ogive in three steps
First, from the frequency distribution created earlier,
calculate relative frequencies
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Relative Frequencies
For example, we had 71 observations in the first class (telephone
bills from $0.00 to $15.00). Hence, the relative frequency for this
class is 71 200 (the total # of phone bills) = 0.355 (or 35.5%)
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Ogive(Contd)
is a graph of a cumulative frequency distribution.
We create an ogive in three steps
1) Calculate relative frequencies.
2) Calculate cumulative relative frequencies by adding
the current class relative frequency to the previous
class cumulative relative frequency.
(For the first class, its cumulative relative frequency is just its relative
frequency)
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Cumulative Relative
Frequencies
first class, just itself
next class: .355+.185=.540
last class: .930+.070=1.00
Always or by chance?
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Ogive(Contd)
is a graph of a cumulative frequency distribution.
1) Calculate relative frequencies.
2) Calculate cumulative relative frequencies.
3) Graph the cumulative relative frequencies.
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Ogive(Contd)
The ogive can be
used to answer
questions like:
What telephone bill
value is at the 50th
percentile?
around $35
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Agenda
Nominal Data
Graphical Techniques for Interval
Data
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Describing Time Series Data

Observations measured at the same point in time
are called cross-sectional data.
Observations measured at successive points in
time are called time-series data.
Time-series data graphed on a line chart, which
plots the value of the variable on the vertical axis
against the time periods on the horizontal axis.
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Example
We recorded the monthly average retail
price of gasoline since 1978.
Draw a line chart to describe these data
and briefly describe the results.
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Example
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
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25
49
73
97
121 145 169 193 217 241 265 289 313 337
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Agenda
Nominal Data

Variables
Two Nominal Variables
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Relationship between Two

Nominal Variables
So far weve looked at tabular and graphical
techniques for one variable (either nominal or
interval data).
A cross-classification table (or cross-tabulation
table) is used to describe the relationship between
two nominal variables.
A cross-classification table lists the frequency of
each combination of the values of the two
variables
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Example
In a major North American city there are four competing
newspapers: the Post, Globe and Mail, Sun, and Star.
To help design advertising campaigns, the advertising
managers of the newspapers need to know which segments of
the newspaper market are reading their papers.
A survey was conducted to analyze the relationship between
newspapers read and occupation.
A sample of newspaper readers was asked to report which
newspaper they read: Globe and Mail (1) Post (2), Star (3),
Sun (4), and to indicate whether they were blue-collar worker
(1), white-collar worker (2), or professional (3).
2014/5/8
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Example
By counting the number of times each of the 12 combinations occurs,
we produced the Table
Occupation
Newspaper
Blue Collar White Collar
Professional
Total
G&M
27
29
33
89
Post
18
43
51
112
Star
38
21
22
81
Sun
37
15
20
72
Total
120
108
126
354
2014/5/8
84/153
Example
If occupation and newspaper are related, then there will be differences in
the newspapers read among the occupations. An easy way to see this is
to covert the frequencies in each column to relative frequencies in each
column. That is, compute the column totals and divide each frequency by
its column total.
Occupation
Newspaper
Blue Collar
White Collar
Professional
G&M
27/120 =.23
29/108 = .27
33/126 = .26
Post
18/120 = .15
43/108 = .40
51/126 = .40
Star
38/120 = .32
21/108 = .19
22/126 = .17
Sun
37/120 = .31
15/108 = .14
20/126 = .16
2014/5/8
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Example
Interpretation: The relative frequencies in the columns 2 & 3 are similar,
but there are large differences between columns 1 and 2 and between
columns 1 and 3.
similar
dissimilar
This tells us that blue collar workers tend to read different newspapers
from both white collar workers and professionals and that white collar and
professionals are quite similar in their newspaper choice.
2014/5/8
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Graphing the Relationship Between Two Nominal

Variables
Use the data from the cross-classification table to create bar charts
Professionals tend
to read the Globe &
Mail more than
twice as often as the
Star or Sun
2014/5/8
87/153
Agenda
Graphical and Tabular Techniques for Nominal
Data
Variables
Two Nominal Variables
2014/5/8
Two Interval Variables

88/153
Graphing the Relationship Between Two

Interval Variables
Moving from nominal data to interval data, we are
frequently interested in how two interval variables are
related.
To explore this relationship, we employ a scatter
diagram, which plots two variables against one another.
The independent variable is labeled X and is usually
placed on the horizontal axis, while the other, dependent
variable, Y, is mapped to the vertical axis.
2014/5/8
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Example
A real estate agent wanted to know to what extent the selling
price of a home is related to its size. To acquire this
information he took a sample of 12 homes that had recently
sold, recording the price in thousands of dollars and the size
in hundreds of square feet. These data are listed in the
accompanying table. Use a graphical technique to describe
the relationship between size and price.
Size
Price
2014/5/8
23
18 26 20 22 14
33 28 23 20 27 18
315 229 355 261 234 216 308 306 289 204 265 195
90/153
Example
It appears that in fact there is a relationship,
that is, the greater the house size the greater
the selling price
2014/5/8
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Patterns of Scatter Diagrams

Linearity and Direction are two concepts we are interested in.
Positive Linear Relationship
Non-Linear Relationship
2014/5/8
Negative Linear Relationship
No Relationship
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Summary
Interval
Data
Single Set of
Data
Relationship
Between
Two Variables
2014/5/8
Nominal
Data
Histogram, Ogive
Frequency and
Relative Frequency
Tables, Bar and Pie
Charts
Scatter Diagram
Cross-classification
Table, Bar Charts
93/153
Agenda
Introduction
Measures of Central Location
Measures of Variability
Measures of Relative Standing
94/153
Numerical Descriptive Techniques

Mean, Median, Mode
Range, Standard Deviation, Variance,
Coefficient of Variation

Percentiles, Quartiles
95/153
Agenda
Introduction
96/153

Usually, we focus our attention on two
types of measures when describing
population characteristics:
Central location (e.g. average)

Variability or spread
The measure of central location

reflects the locations of all the actual
data points.
97/153

The measure of central location reflects the locations
of all the actual data points.
How?
With two data points,
the central location
But
if
the
third data
With one data point
should
fallpoint
in the middle
the leftthem
hand-side
clearly the central appears on
between
(in order
of the midrange,
pullof
location is at the point
to reflectit should
the location
the centralboth
location
to the left.
itself.
of them).
98/153
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean, or average, simply
as mean, is the most popular & useful
measure of central location.
It is computed by simply adding up all the
observations and dividing by the total
number of observations:
Sum of the observations
Mean =
Number of observations
The arithmetic mean for a sample is denoted with an
x-bar:
99/153
Notation
When referring to the number of
observations in a population, we use
uppercase letter N
When referring to the number of
observations in a sample, we use lower
case letter n
The arithmetic mean for a population is
denoted with Greek letter mu:

100/153
Statistics is a pattern language
Size
Population
Sample
Mean
101/153
Mean(Contd)
Population Mean
Sample Mean
102/153
Size
Population
Sample
Mean
103/153
Mean(Contd)
is appropriate for describing interval data,
e.g. heights of people, marks of student
papers, etc.
is seriously affected by extreme values
called outliers.
E.g. If Bill Gates moved into any
neighborhood, the average household income
for that neighborhood would increase
dramatically beyond what it was previously!
104/153
The Arithmetic Mean

Example
The reported time on the Internet of 10 adults are 0, 7, 12, 5, 33,
14, 8, 0, 9, 22 hours. Find the mean time on the Internet.
10
x01 x72 ... x2210
i 1 xi
x
10
10
11.0
Example
Suppose the telephone bills of Example 2.1 represent
the population of measurements. The population mean is
x42.19
x38.45
... x45.77
i200
1
2
200
1 x i
43.59
200
200
105/153
Properties of Mean
Calculated by using every data point.
Every interval data has a unique mean.
Sum of deviations from mean is 0.
Effected from extreme (very large or small)
values
Not meaningful for nominal or ordinal data.
Useful comparing 2 or more data sets.
106/153
Median
The median is calculated by placing all the observations in
order; the observation that falls in the middle is the median.
Data: {0, 7, 12, 5, 14, 8, 0, 9, 22}
N=9 (odd)
Sort them bottom to top, find the middle:

0 0 5 7 8 9 12 14 22
Data: {0, 7, 12, 5, 14, 8, 0, 9, 22, 33} N=10 (even)
Sort them bottom to top, there are two elements in
the middle:
0 0 5 7 8 9 12 14 22 33
median = (8 + 9) 2 = 8.5
Sample and population medians are computed the same way.
107/153
Properties of Median
Calculated by using only 1 or at most 2
values.
Every interval data has a unique median.
Not affected from extreme values.
Can be calculated for ordinal data as well,
but cant be interpreted as the centre of
location.
108/153
Mode
The mode of a set of observations is the value that
occurs most frequently. Sometimes we say
MODE = PEAK of a curve.
A set of data may have one mode (or modal class),
or two modes, or more modes.
Mode can be used for all data types, although mainly
used for nominal data.
For populations and large samples the modal class
is more preferable.
Sample and population modes are computed the same way.
109/153
Mode(Contd)
E.g. Data: {0, 7, 12, 5, 14, 8, 0, 9, 22, 33}
N=10
Which observation appears most often?
The mode for this data set is 0. How about
this as a measure of central location?
In a small sample, it may not be a good measure.
110/153
Mode(Contd)
The mode may be not unique, i.e. 2 modes for
bimodal data.
Note: if you are using Excel for your data
analysis and your data is multi-modal (i.e.
there is more than one mode), Excel only
calculates the smallest one.
You will have to use other techniques (i.e.

histogram) to determine if your data is bimodal,
trimodal, etc.
111/153
Properties of Mode
Not affected from extreme values.
Multiple modes possible, hence not a good
measure of central location.
No mode exists sometimes, all observations
have the same value.
Can be calculated for nominal data as well,
but cant be interpreted as the centre of
location
112/153
Mean, Median, Mode

If a distribution is symmetrical, the mean,
median and mode may coincide
mode
median
mean
113/153
Mean, Median, Mode(Contd)

If a distribution is asymmetrical, say skewed to the
left or to the right, the three measures may differ.
E.g.:
A positively skewed distribution
(skewed to the right)
mode
MedianMean
Mode
median
mean
A negatively skewed distribution

(skewed to the left)
Note: Median not as sensitive

as Mean for the skewness.
Mean
Mode
Median
114/153
Mean, Median, Mode(Contd)

If data are symmetric, the mean, median,
and mode will be approximately the same.
If data are multimodal, report the mean,
median and/or mode for each subgroup.
If data are skewed, report the median.
115/153
About Ordinal & Nominal Data

For ordinal and nominal data the calculation
of the mean is not valid.
Median is appropriate for ordinal data.
For nominal data, a mode calculation is
useful for determining highest frequency but
not central location.
116/153
Course Marks: Mean & Median

Example: Assume you got 35 marks for one exam,
and the average was 45 marks, which kind of result
would you expect? Failed?
No sure. Dependent on the actual marks for all
students.
If all marks like:
15, 20, 25, 25, 25, 30, 35, 75, 100, 100
Congratulation! Good job, youre the fourth highest!
How about telling you the median was 27.5 (
would you worry again?
25 30
),
117/153
Mean, Median, Mode: Which is Best

The mean is generally the first choice.
When the following scenarios, the median is
the best
there are extreme observations

determine the rank of a particular value
relative to the data set
The mode is rare the best measure.

118/153
Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is used when the variable is a
growth rate or rate of change, such as the value of
an investment over periods of time.
For the given series of rate of
returns the nth period return is
calculated by:
If the rate of return was Rg in every

period, the nth period return would
be calculated by:
n
(1 R1 )(1 R2 )...(1 Rn ) (1 R g )
The geometric mean Rg is selected such that
R g n (1 R1 )(1 R 2 )...(1 Rn ) 1
119/153
Finance Example
Suppose a 2-year investment of $1,000 grows by 100% to
$2,000 in the first year, but loses 50% from $2,000 back to
the original $1,000 in the second year. What is the average
return?
Using the arithmetic mean,
misleading
This would indicate having more than $1,000 at the end of the second
year, however in fact we only have $1,000.
Solving for the geometric mean yields a rate of 0%.
more precise
The upper case Greek Letter Pi represents a product of terms

120/153
Measures of Central Location Summary

Compute mean to
Describe the central location of a single set of
interval data
Compute median to
Describe the central location of a single set of
ordinal or interval data (with extreme observations)
Compute mode to
Describe a single set of nominal, ordinal or interval
data
Compute Geometric mean to
Describe a single set of interval data based on
growth rates
121/153
Agenda
Introduction
122/153
Measures of variability
Measures of central location fail to tell
the whole story about the distribution.
A question of interest still remains
unanswered:
How much are the observations spread out
around the mean value?
123/153
Why not use mean

Observe two data sets:
The average value provides
a good representation of the
observations in the data set.
Small variability
This data set is now

changing to...
124/153
Why not use mean(Contd)

Observe two data sets:
The average value provides
a good representation of the
observations in the data set.
Small variability
Larger variability
The same average value does not

provide as good representation of the
observations in the data set as before.
125/153
Range
The range is the simplest measure of variability, and
calculated as:
Range = Largest observation Smallest observation
E.g. Data set: {4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 50} Range = 46
Data set: {4, 8, 15, 24, 39, 50}
Range = 46
The range is the same in both cases, but the data
sets have very different distributions
126/153
Range(Contd)
But, how do all the observations spread out?

The range cannot assist in answering this question
Range
? ? ?
Smallest
observation
Largest
observation
127/153
Variance
Variance and its related measure,
standard deviation, are arguably the most
important statistics. Used to measure
variability, they also play a vital role in
almost all statistical inference procedures.
Population variance is denoted by
(Lower case Greek letter sigma squared)
Sample variance is denoted by
(Lower case s squared)
128/153
Size
Population
Sample
Mean
Variance
129/153
Variance(Contd)
population mean
The variance of a population is:

population size
sample mean
The variance of a sample is:

Sample size minus one !
The reason we will discuss later
130/153
Variance(Contd)
As you can see, you have to calculate the sample mean
in order to calculate the sample variance.
Alternatively, there is a short-cut formulation

to calculate sample variance directly from the
data without the intermediate step of
calculating the mean. Its given by:
131/153
Why not use the sum of deviations...

Consider two small populations:
goodofmeasure
of be a
CanAny
the sum
deviations
should
agree
gooddispersion
measure of
variability?
with this observation.
9 10 11 12
Sum = 0
but
Themeasurements
mean of both in B
arepopulations
more dispersed
is 10...
than those in A.
B
4
9-10 = -1
11-10 = +1
8-10 = -2
12-10 = +2
10-10 = 0
10
13
The sum of deviations is zero for all populations,

therefore, is not a good measure of variability.
16
4-10 = - 6
16-10 = +6
7-10 = -3
13-10 = +3
10-10 = 0
Sum = 0
132/153
Let us calculate the variances

2
2
2
2
2
(
8
10
)
(
9
10
)
(
10
10
)
(
11
10
)
(
12
10
)
2A
2
5
2
2
2
2
2
(
4
10
)
(
7
10
)
(
10
10
)
(
13
10
)
(
16
10
)
B2
18
5
Why is the variance defined as

the average squared deviation
rather than the sum of squared
deviations?
133/153
Why not use the sum of squared deviations...

Let us calculate the sum of squared deviations for both
data sets in this example
Which data set has a larger dispersion?
Data set B is
more dispersed
around the mean
B
1 2 3
Date set A:
{1, 1, 1, 1, 1
3, 3, 3, 3, 3}
Date set B:{1, 5}
134/153
Why not use the sum of squared deviations...
Sum of squared deviation for A = 5(1-2)2 + 5(3-2)2= 10

Sum of squared deviation for B = (1-3)2 + (5-3)2 = 8
SumA > SumB. This is inconsistent
with the observation that set B is
more dispersed.
B
1 2 3
Date set A:
{1, 1, 1, 1, 1
3, 3, 3, 3, 3}
Date set B:{1, 5}
135/153
How about averaged squared deviations...

When calculated on per observation basis (variance),
the data set dispersions are properly ranked.
A2 = SumA/N = 10/10 = 1
B2 = SumB/N = 8/2 = 4
B
1
2 3
136/153
Application
Example
The following sample consists of the
number of jobs six students applied for:
17, 15, 23, 7, 9, 13.
Finds its mean and variance.
What are we looking to calculate?
137/153
Sample Mean & Variance

Sample Mean
Sample Variance
Sample Variance (shortcut method)
138/153
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the square root of
the variance.
Population standard deviation:
Sample standard deviation:
139/153
Size
Population
Sample
Mean
Variance
Standard
Deviation
140/153
Mean Absolute Deviation

There is another deviation: Mean Absolute Deviation
(MAD), which is calculated by averaging the absolute
value of the deviation. However, this statistic is rarely
used.
MAD
i 1
( xi x )
n
E.g. Given data set {17, 15, 23, 7, 9, 13}

|17 14||1514||2314||7 14||914||1314|
1
MAD
4
6
3
141/153
Measures of Variability Summary

If data are symmetric, with no serious outliers, use
range and standard deviation.
If comparing variation across two data sets, use
coefficient of variation.
The measures of variability introduced in this
section can be used only for interval data.
The next section will discuss a measure that can
be used to describe the variability of ordinal data.
There are no measures of variability for nominal
data.
142/153
Agenda
Introduction
143/153

Measures of relative standing are designed to provide
information about the position of particular values relative
to the entire data set.
Percentile: the Pth percentile is the smallest point in a
distribution at or below which p percentage of cases is
found.
Example: Suppose your score is the 60th percentile of a
GMAT test. That is
60% of all the scores lie here
40%
Your score
Note: The 60th percentile doesnt mean you scored 60% on the
exam. It means that 60% of your peers scored lower than you on
the exam..
144/153
Quartiles
We have special names for the 25th, 50th, and 75th
percentiles, namely quartiles.
The first or lower quartile is labeled Q1 = 25th percentile.
The second quartile, Q2 = 50th percentile (also the
median).
The third or upper quartile, Q3 = 75th percentile.
We can also convert percentiles into quintiles (fifths) and
deciles (tenths).
145/153
Quartiles vs. Variability

Quartiles can provide an idea about the shape of a histogram
Q1 Q2
Q3
Q1
Q3
>
<
Positively skewed
histogram
Q2
Negatively skewed
histogram
146/153
Commonly Used Percentiles

First (lower) decile
First (lower) quartile, Q1,
Second (middle) quartile, Q2,
Third quartile, Q3,
Ninth (upper) decile,
= 10th percentile
= 25th percentile
= 50th percentile
= 75th percentile
= 90th percentile
147/153
Location of Percentiles
The following formula allows us to
approximate the location of any percentile:
P
LP (n 1)
100
whereLP is the location of the P th percentile
148/153
Location of Percentiles(Contd)
Given the data :
0 0 5 7 8 9 12 14 22 33
Where is the location of the 25th percentile?
0 0 5 7 8 9 12 14 22 33
L25 = (10+1)(25/100) = 2.75

The 25th percentile is three-quarters of the distance between
the second (which is 0) and the third observations (which is 5).
Three-quarters of the distance is: (.75)(5 0) = 3.75; because
the second observation is 0, the 25th percentile is
0 + 3.75 = 3.75
149/153
What about the upper quartile?
L75 = (10+1)(75/100) = 8.25
0 0 5 7 8 9 12 14 22 33
It is located one-quarter of the distance between the eighth
and the ninth observations, which are 14 and 22, respectively.
One-quarter of the distance is: (.25)(22 - 14) = 2, which
means the 75th percentile is at: 14 + 2 = 16
150/153
position
2.75
16
0 0 5 7 8 9 12 14 22 33
position
8.25
3.75
Lp determines the position in the data set where the percentile value
lies, not the percentile itself.
We have already shown how to find the Median, which is the 50th
percentile. It is the 5.5th observation, (8+9)/2=8.5 The 50th percentile
is halfway between the fifth and sixth observations (in the middle
between 8 and 9), that is 8.5.
50
L 50 (10 1)
100
5.5
151/153
Interquartile Range
The quartiles can be used to create another
measure of variability, the interquartile range,
which is defined as follows:
Interquartile range = Q3 Q1
The interquartile range measures the spread of the
middle 50% of the observations.
Large values of this statistic mean that the 1st and 3rd
quartiles are far apart indicating a high level of
variability.
152/153
1. It is a summary.
2. It is also a guideline for

selecting techniques.
153/153

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MTH410

Probability and Statistics

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Section 1: Fridays: 10:00-12:00pm-ENGLG12

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Discussion of Syllabus (contd)

Labs and Quizzes

Labs will start in the first week, May 12.

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Discussion of Syllabus (contd)

Refer to the senate policy

Tentative Course Outline

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Cross-Sectional vs Time Series Data

Graphical descriptive techniques for each type of

Histograms, Pie and Bar Charts

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

What is Statistics? (Contd)

Data: Facts, especially

Statistics is a tool for creating new understanding from a set of numbers.

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

List of last terms marks.

New information about

E.g. Median of all marks,

Population, Parameter, &

All the members of the Ryerson University.

Parameter: A descriptive measure of a population.

Mean number of soft drinks sold at Ryerson every week.

Sample: A set of items drawn from the population.

500 students surveyed.

Statistic: A descriptive measure of a sample.

Average number of soft drinks these students buy per week.

Variable: A characteristic of population or sample that is

Number of soft drinks a student buys every week.

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Key Statistical Concepts

E.g. All 5 million Florida voters

Key Statistical Concepts (Contd)

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Key Statistical Concepts (Contd)

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

measure(s) of central location? and/or

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Statistical Inference (Contd)

Confidence & Significance

The confidence level is the proportion of times that an

When the purpose of the statistical inference is to draw a

Confidence & Significance Levels

Confidence & Significance Levels

In this case, the confidence level is 95%

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Describing Time-Series Data

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Types of data analysis

Interval data arithmetic calculations

MTH410 S14- Lecture 1

Types of data and information

Number of soft drinks a student buys every week

Data - the actual values of variables