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ui u j
called Reynolds stress tensors
unknown a priori.
uv
uw
uu
vv
vw
w h ere ; R j = uiu j= vu
wv
ww
wu
[ ]
uw
uu
vu
w h ere ; R j = vv
wv
ww
Then we need a model for uiu j to close the equation system. This is called
the closure problem: the number of unknowns (ten: three velocity
components, pressure, six stresses) is larger than the number of equation
(four: the continuity equation and three components of the Navier stokes
equations).
This illustrates the issue of closure which establishinga sufficient number of
equations for all of the unknowns.
One of the methods to solve the closure problem is the use of turbulence
models.
Turbulence modeling
0.5
k
as the turbulence time scale, while the quantity
served as a
Both stresses appear on the right hand side of the momentum equation and
in Newton's law of viscosity the viscous stresses are taken to be
proportional to the rate of deformation of fluid elements (e ij ) .
For an incompressible fluid this gives
ij = e ij =(
u i u j
+
)
x j xi
In order to simplify the notation using the suffix notation where i, j, and k
denote the x, y, and z directions respectively, viscous stresses are given by:
ij = e ij =
ui u j
u v
+
=(
+ )
x j xi
y x
u v
+ )
y x Except for the appearance of the turbulent or eddy
t =
m2
with dimensions s .
stress and mean rate ofdeformation is the same in all directions. This
assumption is valid for many flows, but not for all (e.g. flows with strong
separation or swirl).
ZERO EQUATION MODELS
In zero equation models, as the name designates, we have no PDE that
describes the transport of the turbulent stresses and fluxes. A simple
algebraic relation is used to close the problem. Based on the mixing length
theory, which is the length conceptually analogous to the concept of mean
free path in thermodynamics: a fluid parcel will conserve its properties for a
characteristic length, l , before mixing with the surrounding fluid.
On dimensional grounds we assume that the kinematic turbulent viscosity
t
whichhas dimensions
m
s
velocity scale (m/s) and a length scale l (m). If one velocity scale and
one length scale suffice to describe the effects of turbulence dimensional
s
m /
t
2
analysis yields
we then assume that the velocity scale is proportional to the length scale
and the gradients in the velocity (shear rate, which has dimension 1/s):
l
|Uy |
| |
2 U
we can derive Prandtls (1925) mixing length model: t =l m y
The instantaneous kinetic energy k(t) of a turbulent flow is the sum of mean
kinetic energy K and turbulent kinetic energy k :
K t =K +k
1
K= (U 2 +V 2+ W 2)
2
We also make use of the fact that t l but in this case , the velocity scale
is proportional to the square root of the kinetic energy
(unlike the above case where was proportional to the gradient of velocity). Therefore, we have: t =l m k
Now that the turbulent viscosity is expressed in terms of the turbulent
kinetic energy (therefore the turbulent stresses is functions of the kinetic
energy), a PDE is developed for the mean kinetic energy.
K
div ( KU ) div PU 2 UEij Uui ' u j ' 2 Eij .Eij ( ui ' u j '.Eij )
t
(I )
II
( III ) ( IV )
(V )
(VI )
(VII )
Where;
Eij is the mean rate of deformation tensor.
And This equation can be read as:
(I) the rate of change of K, plus
(II) transport of K by convection, equals
(III) transport of K by pressure, plus
(IV) transport of K by viscous stresses, plus
k
div ( kU) div p' u' 2 u' eij ' 12 ui '.u i ' u j ' 2 eij '.eij ' ( u i ' u j '.Eij )
t
II
(I )
( III ) ( IV )
(V )
(VI )
(VII )
t=
t
t
The equation for the model equation for k is commonly used is repeated
here for convenience
Dissipation rate:
realizable k-
It Shares the same turbulent kinetic energy equation as the standard k-
model and improved equation for . The Variable C is located instead of
constant.
Distinctions from standard k- model:
Alternative formulation for turbulent viscosity:
k- model
the basic idea of this model was originated by kolmogorov 1942 with
turbulance associated with vorticity .
In this model is an inverse time scale that is associated with the
turbulence.and this model solves two additional PDEs:
A modified version of the k equation used in the k model.
A transport equation for .
The turbulent viscosity is then calculated as follows:
It suffers from some of the same drawbacks, such as the assumption that t
is isotropic.
SECOND ORDER MODELS
The central concept of second order models is to make direct use of the
governing equations for the second order moments (Reynolds stresses and
turbulent fluxes) instead of the questionable Boussinesq hypothesis. The
motivation is to overcome the limitations of first order models in dealing
with the isotropy of turbulence and the extra strains. The overshoot of this
approach is the large number of PDEs induced which involve many unknown
or impossible to find correlations. The most famous models are the
Algebraic Stress Model (ASM) and the Reynolds Stress Model (RSM).
Pressure strain interactions ij, are very important. These include pressure
fluctuations due to eddies interacting with each other, and due to
interactions between eddies and regions of the flow with a different mean
velocity. The overall effect is to make the normal stresses more isotropic
and to decrease shear stresses. It does not change the total turbulent
kinetic energy. This is a difficultto model term.