Masculinity and its impact to female leadership in media companies in Vietnam

Tran Thi Thuy Binh

Graduate Student the MA program in Gender and Peace Building UN-mandated
University for Peace
Abstract: Until, there are a very few researches on masculinity in the organizational structure of
media houses in Vietnam. Based on my three-year research experience, online reports on
individual female journalists, and my personal observation as a female journalist with work
experience of fourteen years, this report argues that masculinity has had a crucial impact to the
minority of female leadership in media companies in Vietnam. The majority of male and female
journalists do not want to work with female leaders. Female leaders follow male rules in
managing their staffs. Most men and women have not recognized the gender inequality in their
media houses.
Key words: masculinity, female leadership, media companies, double standards.
Holter (2005) argues that masculinity gives power to men and then support men to dominate in
superior social positions in all fields without justification. He also affirms that masculinity power
is mostly implemented through self-regulation and self-discipline. The self-discipline causes
male privileges. "By acting "in ways consistent with gender norms... they produce male
domination and power differentials (p.18). Therefore, in news rooms, male voices are
prejudiced more powerfully than female opinions (Bruin-Maxwell, 2014). This fact can be
observed in the female subordination in the leadership in Vietnam.
Until now, based on my three-year research experience, there are very few comprehensive
researches on this topic. Therefore, most evidences are cited from online reports on individual
female journalists, my published research on gender equity in Vietnam Television (VTV) (Tran,
2012) and my personal observation as a female journalist with work experience of fourteen
years.
Masculinity a code of male behavior
In the patriarchal institution, according to Connell (2000), masculinity controls everything such
as social attitudes and behaviors with women, and gender equal-status concerns. With this
interpretation, masculinity is considered as a code of male behaviour a legal status of power
where all relations are established according to hierarchy and exclusion.
Connell also argues that male-female relationships depend on male-male ones through a central
or hegemonic patterns of masculine forms (p.24). In other words, womens oppression is
maintained in the patriarchal system when women are considered in the dependent relationship
with men. Female existence is attached with the responsibilities of unpaid house works and
childrearing with the aim to serve male business outside home. Male efforts at work are valued
when female contribution at work is devalued (Cornell, 2000). Bruin (2014) observes that when
men work with men to maintain the norms in news rooms, women are often outside male
discussions and have little opportunities to gain the right to raise their voices like men.

This theory shines the light why men do not want to include women in the highest debates as
well as why there is a low female attendance in the top levels in Vietnamese media organizations.
The status of female leadership in media houses in Vietnam
According to the latest official statistic of the government, Vietnamese female journalists have
only accounted for about thirty percent of media resources (Nhandan, 2010; Chinhphu.vn, 2014)
and the number of female top leaders is small (Grizzle, 2012). Until now, in the management
board of four biggest media organizations in Vietnam (Vietnam Television, Nhandan, Voice of
Vietnam and Vietnam News Agency), there is only one female top leader, according to my data
collection (VOV, 2015; VTV, 2015; VNA, 2015 & Nhandan, 2015). The status of female
journalists cannot be seen as having improved when they have been discriminated in the
positions of top leaders (Grizzle, 2012). ILO & Navigos Search (2015) find that the majority of
employers see Vietnamese women as more likely to have family obligations relating to
marriage, child care, and/or elder care that limit their contribution to company goals (p. 3).
Based on my data analysis, I argue that most men and women have not recognized the gender
inequality in their media houses. And the patriarchy and male dominance have created a glass
ceiling (a barrier "so subtle that it is transparent, yet so strong that it prevents women from
moving up the corporate hierarchy" (Reuters, 2011) that make both men and women socialized
that women have not worked hard enough to be elected in the higher positions. In my personal
thought, the female compromise in the leadership is mainly caused by masculinity (or male
attitudes).
Masculinity and the female marginalization on career change
According to Bruin (2014), norms of leaders in media organizations are regulated based on
masculinity which includes working extra hours, travelling as much as possible, and being
assertive, authoritative and making decisions quickly. Female leaders are required to adapt them
without negotiation or they are discriminated by both men and women. ILO & Navigos Search
(2015) report that gender-based discrimination in the promotion process when some women lost
their positions after giving birth and employers do not plan to recruit women with children in the
near future. According to Nhabaonu (2015), a director of Vietnam Television (VTV) shared that
she devoted almost time to office. Because of deadlines, this woman often edited news and
stories until midnight as well as worked in the holidays. Such stories can be found in different
reports on female top leaders who never criticize these norms and even feel proud of achieving
these norms (Thethaovanhoa, 2012; Nguoilambao, 2014).
In these above examples, masculinity has maintained a double standard for female leaders that
caused by patriarchy. They are evaluated based on the role of a mother/ a housewife and the role
of a leader. After analyzing reports on Vietnamese female journalists, I realize that in many
invisible rules of media organizations, the role as a house wife must be the first priority and the
role as a journalist must be the second one. For example, a female representative of Labour and
Society Newspaper states that its female journalists should manage their time to fulfill their
domestic works such as doing house works and childrearing and should not let unpaid works

affect to their outside work (Vietnam Journalists Association, 2010). With this masculinity view,
women are also expected to perform better than men when they are leaders (Szymansk, 2009;
NLD, 2011). One male journalist states that I admire my leader. In spite of the busy working
schedule, she always cooks dinner for her family. A good female one must look like her. A leader
who cannot fulfill her domestic work is a bad one (Tran, 2012, p. 43).
In the opinion of Bruin (2014), a male leader is considered an independent individual while a
female leader is evaluated in the dependent relationship with men. Therefore, when a few women
hold the most powerful status in media organizations, most female leaders play the role to assist
top male ones (Guardian, 2014). For example, only one in five top directors of VTV is female
and most of female managers are the second individuals in their departments (VTV, 2015). In my
opinion, when women are the minority in the leadership, they have obstacles to practice gender
equality or promote femininity.
These standards have caused an aggressive working environment for female career change when
women are forced to solve their business problems individually (Nhabaonu, 2013). ILO &
Navigos Search (2015) state that most organization in Vietnam have not had any policies and
practices to help employees manage their family responsibilities and cope with changing
circumstances (p. 4). Dantri (2014) argues that female journalists are labeled with divorce due
to no time for family issues. According to Vietnamnet (2013), a journalist stated that her parentsin-law opposed her marriage because of the fear that she could not manage time for her own
family. Dantri (2014) also reports how female media workers have struggled with their domestic
responsibility. One time, a woman had to finish her work and no one supported her to take her
son from school to home. When she came to his school, it was late evening and both of them
hugged and cried together. In three cases, I observe that media companies keep silence about
their responsibility to support their employees in their private life.
In my personal thoughts, this silence reflects the relationship among masculinity, power and
domination. As Holter (2005) points out, in the social context, "the man is in a situation of
"having something in this relation, compared to the woman's "being something in this relation
(p.28). Male domination and female submissiveness are considered as nature and unquestionable.
I would like to argue that masculinity has caused their silence and it is the root problem that
women are underrepresented in the media's top positions.
Masculinity at the same time causes a discrimination against women to protect the patriarchys
stability. Owing to masculinity, women do not gain the respect they deserve as well as equal
evaluation from men. Bordieu and Wacquant (2004) state that the structures of domination are
maintained by "singular agents (including men, with weapons such as physical violence and
symbolic violence) and institutions - families, the church, the educational system, the state (p.
272). These invisible structures make women (the dominated) devalue themselves and define
their own values in the relationship with men (the dominant). Women are excluded from public
discourses which are presumed as male spaces. Bordieu and Wacquant name it as "the socially
imposed agoraphobia that "leads women to exclude themselves from the agora (p. 341). Even
when women leaders have the sharing responsibility from their husbands, they still face the
misogyny an attitude of fear and contempt toward women and femininity (Enloe, 2013,
p.107) - of their male colleagues (Tran, 2012). Kimmel (2004) argues that the hegemonic

definition of manhood is a man in power, a man with power, and a man of power (p. 272).
When women become leaders, men feel their manhood threatened and then blame women to
protect their male privileges. According to Tran (2012), many male journalists commented that
they did not want to work with female leaders because they are not masculine enough and do not
deserve for the positions.
Women also become subordinated in the media ownership when they are limited to show their
talents in several male-dominated realms. Female devaluation prevails in news rooms although a
lot of researches prove little differences between male and female capacity in the journalistic
practice (Bruin, 2014). Female journalists are segregated by their femininity than other
characters of identity, like professionalism or ethnicity (Carter et al., 1998; Bruin, 2014). Women
are labeled as double bind - too brusque or too weak or emotional for making decisions
(Griffin, 2014, p.1). They are internalized to cover soft news, which is interpretation-based or
human interest such as fashion, health, education; men are assumed to be able to write hard
news, which is fact-based, including politics, world news, business, crimes (Carter et al, 1998, p.
7; Griffin, 2014). This statement can used to describe gender- based assignments in media
organizations. Most men are required to hard news while women are expected to cover soft news
(Tran, 2012).
This gender-based appointment deprives promotion opportunities of women when masculinity
and experience to cover hard news are implicitly considered as standards to nominate top leaders
(Neverla, 1986; Griffin, 2014). Thus, female leaders have rarely been nominated in the
mainstream media houses and their representation has displayed tokenism - putting a few women
in the top positions and then generalizing their representation for all women (Guardian, 2014)
-rather than gender equality. In Vietnam, the government has approved a policy that at least thirty
percent of leaders are female by 2020 (Munro, 2012; Vietnamplus, 2013). Therefore, in my
personal experience, media organizations are forced to nominate female decision makers to
achieve this quota. When I interviewed with the editor-in-chief of Vietnamplus an online
publication of Vietnam News Agency, he affirmed that this policy supported women in the
promotion process. And more women were enlisted of the potential leadership list. Yet the
increasing female participation in the leadership has caused a perception that gender equality has
been reached and feminists should not advocate having more female leaders (Munro, 2012;
Tuoitre, 2015).
Furthermore, this discrimination also reflects through the age gap in the promotion regulation. As
noted by Pham (2008), in Vietnam, women officially retire at the age of 55 when men officially
retire at the age of 60. Male standards also limit the promotion opportunity of women through
fixed age of potential leaders. In governmental organizations, to be listed as a potential leader, a
woman must be less than 50 while a man still has five more years, at the age of 55. Pham (2008)
argues that there is very few career change for women aged 50-55. When feminists advocated
closing this gender gap, some politicians requested that female retirement age be extended to 60
and that of males to 62. Ton Nu Thi Ninh, a Vietnamese female ex-politician, criticizes that it is a
prejudice of patriarchy with the aim to serve masculinity (Tuoitre, 2015). Most media
organizations in Vietnam are owned by the government; therefore, I would like to highlight that
their female leaders also suffer from this prejudice.

This discrimination has also caused glass ceiling when it is kept them from advancing higher
because they are women. The age limitation makes females become the second individuals when
their male colleagues at the same age and the same position can be promoted in the highest
positions in their organizations (Tuoitre, 2015). It also explains why female potential leaders are
stuck in the middle management (Szymanski, 2009). For example, five top leaders of the
management board of Voice of Vietnam (VOV) are male, female managers have accounted for
less than 20% of the leading positions (VOV, 2015). The glass ceiling has formed sweet
prejudices (gender equality has been assumed to achieve, women are born to be protected by
men and women are not elected to be leaders because of no interest or the lack of talent) which
make them happy in the lower status than men. They are internalized to accept that leadership is
a male realm and they could lose their happiness if they were promoted in higher positions
(Tuoitre, 2015).
Masculinity also maintains the hidden existence of sexual harassment a kind of violence
against women - in newsrooms. Sexual harassment happens in every office and is linked to job
promotion (MOLISA & ILO, 2012). Some women have experienced to be asked for sexual
favours by a superior in return for some kind of workplace benefit (ILO & Navigos Search,
2015, p. 4). In Vietnam, flirting words are very popular and accepted in the workplace; touching
behaviors are perceived as teasing without harmful meaning (MOLISA & ILO, 2012) and
reporting the abuse could lead a female reporter to cover other unexpected fields (Maloff, 2007).
If a woman shows her annoyance, she will be criticized to be too sensitive or serious and then
will be isolated by male and female colleagues. This situation can deprive potential votes of
these individuals for her career change. Therefore, Kaufman (2000) adds that sexual abuse backs
males to maintain their privileges and management in organizations. Coomaraswamy (2003)
affirms that sexual violence is a male weapon to prove their power and women never actively
perform their role as top leaders.
Female leaders obey male rules
Bourdieu (2004) argues about the symbolic violence that masculinity forces women leaders to
adjust their thoughts and actions to become masculine. To achieve higher positions in the
hierarchical management structure, women adapt with the aggressive working environment and
prefer masculinity to femininity. As Tran (2012) points out, some female journalists state that
they have to follow unwritten requirements which are approved in the male-dominated culture of
newsrooms if they want to be treated as equally as men. In my personal experience, a female
leader prefers to portray herself as strong, successful, capable, and reliable, in control
characters of manhood (Kimmel, 2004, p. 272). In many interviews with female leaders, they
rarely discuss how femininity helps women to become decision makers (Thethaovanhoa, 2012). I
argue that female leaders in media organizations become masculine and do not want to equate
themselves with femininity. For instance, Le Binh, a director of VTV24 a channel of Vietnam
Television proudly affirms that I have the masculinity of a man (Nhabaonu, 2015).
Masculinity also makes women ashamed if they could not do both roles. In published stories on
female leaders, they are reported to accept to perform the role of a wife/ a mother even when
they overwhelm with their workload (Dantri, 2013; Nhabaonu, 2015). A female one states that
she felt guilty not to stop working when her child was ill. It always happened in the special

events and she felt so exhausted that she thought of quitting her position (Nhabaonu, 2013). If a
woman could not balance, she would choose: private life or employment. In fact, many women
decide to change their job, refuse career change or accept to divorce (Dantri, 2014). My manager
used to cry and tried all her best to reject it when she received the promotion decision. She
worried to have no time for her daughter and then felt depressed because of over workload, over
domestic work and her husbands attitudes. He often criticized her leadership and even blamed
her not fulfilling her nurturing responsibility. I think that hegemonic masculinity protects him,
makes him internalized to have the right to blame her and makes herself socialized that it is her
fault.
Masculinity always makes women feel grateful of their husbands support (Vietnam Journalists
Association, 2010). In every report on female journalists, I have never read any comment from
women to question about the responsibility of their husbands in unpaid works. Normally, both
women and their colleagues have praised the male participation as a valuable support or empathy
(Vietnam Journalists Association, 2010; Vietnamnet, 2013 & Dantri, 2014). Most female leaders
accept these norms and even one of them stated that she left her positions out at the door when
she came home (Nhabaonu, 2013). In other examples, female leaders who did not accept to be
discriminated in house works often chose to be single or single mothers (Nhabaonu, 2013).
Many female journalists believe that the body and their femininity are powerful weapons for
work (Tran, 2012). A female manager comments that femininity and beauty are two advantages
of a journalist to access interviewees (Vietnam Journalists Association, 2010). Therefore, female
journalists are often assigned to interview male persons who dominate the top positions. As a
consequence, women often spend time on making themselves beautiful, doing house work rather
than recruiting themselves for higher power (Tran, 2012).
In the thoughts of Summers, 2013a & 2013, misogyny devalues all contribution of female
leaders. When female beauty is highly valued and female professional skills are not recognized,
it also causes misogyny among women. According to Tran (2012), some female journalists
spread the rumor that their female colleagues use their bodies to serve men leaders with the aim
to climb their career ladder. Thus, it has formed a dilemma: women can exploit their beauty for
work, however, also face perceptions that they occupy the power because of beauty, not by
capacity. Women are also found to prefer male leaders and not trust female colleagues when men
are prejudiced to be more reasonable and easier to make a decision than women (Tran, 2012).
Many female leaders do not support other women to become leaders (Tuoitre, 2015). For
instance, in the seventy-year history of VOV, it had only a vice general director but until now,
there is no second one.
Conclusion
When masculinity maintains the invisibility of women and their capacity in the awareness of
men and women, hegemonic process to choose leaders still closes the door for female
participation in Vietnam. In the hierarchical structure of newsrooms, men who are oppressors
with masculinity apply their values and norms to lead media companies; women who are
subordinators with their femininity have to follow male-privilege rulers. I think it is a kind of
external hegemony masculinity which refers to the institutionalization of men's dominance over
women (Messerschmidt & Cornell, 2004). As a consequence, most men and women have not

recognized the gender inequality in their media houses. The glass ceiling makes both men and
women socialized that the minority of female leadership is caused by the prejudice that women
have not worked hard enough to be elected in the higher positions.
Women also become subordinated in the media ownership when they are limited to show their
talents in several male-dominated realms. This discrimination has also caused glass ceiling when
it is kept them from advancing higher because they are women. The age limitation makes
females become the second individuals when their male colleagues at the same age and the same
position can be promoted in the highest positions in their media organizations (Tuoitre, 2015
Masculinity also maintains the hidden existence of sexual harassment a kind of violence
against women - in newsrooms. Sexual harassment happens in every office and is linked to job
promotion (MOLISA & ILO, 2012).)
Female leaders obey male rules
the symbolic violence that masculinity forces women leaders to adjust their thoughts and actions
to become masculine. Masculinity also makes women ashamed if they could not do both roles. In
published stories on female leaders, they are reported to accept to perform the role of a wife/ a
mother even when they overwhelm with their workload
Masculinity always makes women feel grateful of their husbands support
In the thoughts of Summers, 2013a & 2013, misogyny devalues all contribution of female
leaders. When female beauty is highly valued and female professional skills are not recognized,
it also causes misogyny among women.
Many female journalists believe that the body and their femininity are powerful weapons for
work (Tran, 2012). A female manager comments that femininity and beauty are two advantages
of a journalist to access interviewees (Vietnam Journalists Association, 2010).
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