CHINA PARTICUOLOGY Vol. 3, No.

5, 279-285, 2005

A CORRELATION EQUATION FOR CALCULATING INCLINED

JET PENETRATION LENGTH IN A GAS-SOLID FLUIDIZED BED
Ruoyu Hong1,*, Haibing Li3, Jianmin Ding4 and Hongzhong Li2
1

Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, P. R. China
2
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, P. R. China
3
Laboratory of Solid Waste Energy, Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, P. R. China
4
IBM, HYDA/050-3 C202, 3605 Highway 52 North, Rochester, MN 55901, USA
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: rhong@suda.edu.cn

Abstract Numerical simulation of gas-solid flow in a two-dimensional fluidized bed with an inclined jet was performed. The numerical model is based on the two-fluid model of gas and solids phase in which the solids constitutive
equations are based on the kinetic theory of granular flow. The improved ICE algorithm, which can be used for both low
and high-velocity fluid flow, were used to solve the model equations. The mechanism of jet formation was analyzed using
both numerical simulations and experiments. The emergence and movement of gas bubbles were captured numerically
and experimentally. The influences of jet velocity, nozzle diameter, nozzle inclination and jet position on jet penetration
length were obtained. A semi-empirical expression was derived and the parameters were correlated from experimental
data. The correlation equation, which can be easily used to obtain the inclined jet penetration length, was compared with
our experimental data and published correlation equations.
Keywords

fluidized bed, jet, penetration length, two-fluid model

1. Introduction

2. Experimental

The ash-agglomerating fluidized-bed coal gasification

technology is being developed for utilizing pulverized coal
in an efficient and environmentally acceptable manner. For
this purpose, many problems related to multiphase hydrodynamics should be resolved. The inclined jet will be used
in the coal gasifier to reduce slag formation on the
V-shaped gas distributor. Among all the important hydrodynamic phenomena of the fluidized-bed gasifier, the jet
penetration length is the crux (Hong et al., 1996; Hong & Li,
1996; Hong & Li, 1997; Hong et al., 2003; Hong et al., 2005;
Blake et al., 1990; Merry, 1971). While our previous attention was focused on vertical jet (Hong et al., 1996), double
jets (Hong et al., 2003) and downward jet (Hong et al.,
2005), inclined jet penetration will be scrutinized in the
present investigation since the inclined jet has not been as
much investigated as the other jets.
Our previous two-fluid model (Hong et al., 2003; 2005),
which has fewer model parameters, is used here in simulating the inclined jet in a gasifier. Because the jet velocity
is high, the model equations are solved by the improved
ICE (implicit continuum Eulerian) method at instantaneous
time steps. The motions of gas and solids were demonstrated from the simulations. The influence of jet velocity,
nozzle diameter, inclination angle, and nozzle location on
the inclined jet penetration length was analyzed. Based on
numerical simulation, a semi-empirical expression was
derived. The parameters of the expression were obtained
by correlating experimental data and illustrated with
measured data under various conditions.

2.1 Experimental apparatus and bed materials

Our previous experimental apparatus (Hong et al., 1996)
with only a vertical jet was modified to include an inclined
jet, as shown in Fig. 1. The thickness of the two-dimensional
fluidized bed is 25 mm and its width 314 mm. The width of
the central jet tube is 20 mm. In the separating zone, the
angle between the tube surface and the vertical direction is
9 degree. At the bottom of the fluidized bed, there is a 45
degree angled distributor with an aperture density of 1%.
To bag filter

Fig. 1

Flow diagram of the 2-D experimental setup. (1 rotameters; 2

V-shaped gas distributor; 3 2-D fluidized bed; 4 inclined gas jet
nozzle; 5 separation column; 6 video camera; 7 gas compressor; 8 gas filter; 9 buffer tank)

Millet, silica sand 1# or silica sand 2# were used as fluidization material respectively in the experiments. Their
physical properties are shown in Table 1.

CHINA PARTICUOLOGY Vol. 3, No.5, 2005

280
Table 1
Materials

Millet

Silica sand 1#

Silica sand 2#

dp /(mm)

1.43

2.25

1.43

b /(kgm-3)

878

808

817

s /(kgm-3)

1 042

1 354

1 582

-1

Ut/(ms )

7.6

11.7

8.2

Umf/(ms-1)

0.52

0.64

0.45

The incipient fluidization velocity (Umf) in Table 1 was

obtained from measuring the bed pressure drop (p) as a
function of fluidization velocity (Uf) when p became independent of Uf.

2.2 Experimental operation range

The central jet velocity (Uj) should be higher than the
particle terminal velocity (Ut), but not too high to cause
channeling in the bed. The gas velocity above the gas
distributor should be high enough to ensure the incipient
fluidization of particles. The gas flow rate of the central jet
and the two V-shaped distributors in the present experiments are given in Table 2.
Table 2

Experimental parameters for measuring Lj (Umf=1.5 ms-1,

h0=270 mm)

Parameters
Nozzle diameter/mm
Inclination angle
Jet position (m)
Q1/(m3h-1)
Q2=Q21+Q22/(m3h-1)
Q3/(m3h-1)
Uj/(ms-1)
No. of frames

Millet
5, 7, 8, 10

Silica sand 1#
Silica sand 2#
5, 7, 8, 10
5, 8, 10
10, 0, 10
0.043, 0.103, 0.163, 0.223
11
13
10.5
1024
1224
1224
7.921.9
7.417.4
7.917.9
26.2189.7
26.2218.0
35.0196.7
312
288
180

2.3 Experimental measurement

To observe the development of the jet clearly and
measure the jet penetration length accurately, the development of a jet was recorded with a video camera in the
experiments. Under the same experimental condition, the
jet was recorded five times. The video was then replayed
on a TV frame by frame. Thus the jet penetration length
was obtained from the five values recorded.

3. Two-Fluid Model
3.1 Governing equations
The equations of the two-fluid model (Hong et al., 1996;
Hong & Li, 1997; Hong et al., 2003; 2005; Ding & Gidaspow, 1990; Gidaspow, 1994), describing gas-solid
macroscopic flow in fluidized beds, are given as follows:
Continuity equations for phase k (k=g or s),
K
k'
+ k' U k = 0 ,
(1)
t

where k' = k k and

Physical properties of bed materials

= 1.

Momentum equations for phase k (k=g or s; l =g or s; l k),

K K
K K
K
' K
kUk + k' UkUk = k pg + Ul Uk + k + k' g .
t
(2)
The derivation of the two-phase model equations, the
determination of the model parameters and the solution of
these equations are given in detail by Hong & Li, (1996). It
was also found that these equations could be simplified to
those of Davidson's (Hong et al., 1996). The model equations were solved previously by the improved IPSA method
(Hong et al., 1996). A computer program with this model
has been used to calculate the vertical jet penetration
length (Hong et al., 1996). In the present study, the program was modified using the improved ICE method to
simulate the inclined jet penetration in a fluidized bed.

3.2 Constitutional equations

Gas-phase stress tensor

g = 2 g g Sg ,

(3)

where
K T
K
1 K
1
Ug + Ug Ug I ,

3
2
Solid-phase stress tensor
JG
s = [ ps + s s U s ]I + 2 s s Ss ,
Sg =

(4)

(5)

where
Ss =

K
1 K
Us + Us

1 UK I ,
s
3

(6)

I is the unit matrix.

Drag constant between the two phases
The drag model of Syamlal et al. (1993) was employed,
K
K
(1 s ) s g U g Us
3
,
(7)
= CD
4
Vr 2d s
2

V
CD = 0.63 + 4.8 r was recommended by

Re

Dalla Valle (1948) and Vr was devised by Garside and

Al-Dibouni (1977).

where

3.3 Boundary conditions

For the boundary conditions used in this investigation:
(1) at the inlet, all the variable are known; (2) at the exit,
the flow is assumed to be fully developed; (3) at walls, the
gas velocities were taken to be zero, while partial slip was
used for the solids (Ding & Gidaspow, 1990) as shown
below,
V
(8)
Vs |w = Lp ( s ) |w ,
r
where Lp is the mean free path of particles (Ding & Gidaspow, 1990).

Hong, Li, Ding & Li: A Correlation Equation for Calculating Inclined Jet Penetration Length

3.4 Numerical method

To obtain instantaneous jet penetration details, the ICE
algorithm (Harlow & Amsden, 1975) is used. The method
improves the numerical computation in such a way that, if
Vg
eg
U g
Vs
es
U s
,
,
,
are evaluated
,
and
p
p
p
p
p
p
from the unconverged solution, then the pressure correction (p') is
eg es
+
p' =

eg
p

es
p

(9)

The correction for Ug, Vg, Us and Vs can be obtained too.

Details about the numerical algorithm and solution procedure can be found in reference (Harlow & Amsden, 1975).
Numerical computations were conducted using a DEC
Alpha workstation, and the numerical results in this investigation were post-processed using the Tecplot (version 7.5)
(Amtec Engineering Inc., 1999) on a personal computer.

and particles entrainment by the jet due to the high gas

velocity and the low gas pressure at the neck of the jet.
Therefore, the jet neck is compressed by the entrainment
process, and to some extent, further compression leads to
the detachment of the jet from the nozzle. When the gas is
first introduced through the nozzle, there is no jet, and the
first process predominates, leading to the formation of a jet.
At this instant, the gas velocity at the base of the jet is very
large, the second process predominates, and the jet becomes unstable and detaches. Therefore, the jet emerges
near the nozzle and detaches from the nozzle, alternatively.

4.3 Factors affecting inclined jet penetration

length (Lj)
4.3.1 Influence of jet velocity (Vj)
Hong et al. (1996) found that the vertical jet penetration
length (Lj) increased with increasing jet velocity (Vj) until it
reached a plateau at high jet velocity. For the inclined jet, it
was found by numerical simulation that the jet velocity is a
major factor in determining the inclined jet penetration
length, which increases obviously with increasing jet velocity even at relatively high jet velocity (Fig. 3).

4. Results and Discussion

30

4.1 Definition of jet penetration length (Lj)

24

18

Lj/dj

The inclined jet penetration length (Lj) is defined as the

maximum length from the farthest point of the jet to the jet
nozzle when the jet is detached from the nozzle (Hong et
al., 1996) (see Fig. 2). In the numerical computation, the
first-order upwind difference scheme is used in discretizing
the solid continuity equation to obtain the solid volume
fraction. The voidage of the jet surface is defined as the
voidage value of 0.8 (Hong et al., 1996), which is consistent with Yang's definition (Yang & Keairns, 1980).

281

12

0
20

48

76

104

132

160

Jet velocity Vj /(ms-1)

Fig. 3 Influence of jet velocity (Vj) on dimensionless jet penetration
length (Lj/dj); bed material, millet.

Fig. 2

A sketch of horizontal jet penetration length (Lj).

Lj/dj

4.3.2 Influence of jet diameter (dj)

It is found from numerical simulation that the inclined jet
penetration length (Lj/dj) can be increased (Fig. 4) by reducing the cross-sectional area of the nozzle when the flow
rate of the jet is fixed at Q3=15 m3h-1. This is due to the
increase of the jet velocity (Vj2), leading to increase of jet
momentum of unit cross-section area (jVj2).

4.2 The mechanism of the jet

It is found by numerical simulation that there are two
processes taking place above the nozzle. One is the
movement of particles under the drag force exerted by the
gas of high velocity. This movement will result in a
torch-like vacant space due to the jet. The other is the gas

Nozzle diameter dj /mm

Fig. 4 Influence of jet diameter (dj) on dimensionless jet penetration
length (Lj/dj) ; bed material, millet.

CHINA PARTICUOLOGY Vol. 3, No.5, 2005

When the inclined jet velocity (Vj) is maintained at the

same value, by enlarging the nozzle diameter, the inclined
penetration length (Lj) is also increased.
4.3.3 Influence of jet inclination angle ()
To the authors knowledge, no researchers studied the
influence of jet inclination angle () on jet penetration
length (Lj). The present study showed that jet inclination
angle has definite influence on jet penetration, as shown in
Figs. 5 and 6. In particular, when other conditions maintain
the same, horizontal jet penetration length is less than that
for vertical jet for jet velocities in the range, as shown in
Fig. 5.

periments showed that, placing the jet nozzle at the height

of 0.2h0, 0.4h0, 0.6h0, and 0.8h0 above the bed bottom resulted in little difference in jet length, as can be seen in
Fig. 7.

Lj/dj

282

Dimensionless height h/h0

Lj/dj

Fig. 7 Influence of horizontal jet position (h) on jet penetration length

(Lj/dj) (: Vj=102.8 ms-1; : Vj=161.4 ms-1).

4.4 Derivation of a correlation equation

Jet velocity Vj /(ms-1)

Influence of jet angle () on dimensionless jet penetration
length (Lj/dj) (: 10; : horizontal; : +10) with upward inclining as position.

3
V
= 1.0 2 ,
Vm

Lj/cm

Fig. 5

A semi-empirical expression for calculating the inclined

jet penetration length (Lj) is derived in this section, to account for the influence on inclined jet penetration length (Lj)
by jet velocity (Vj), nozzle diameter (dj), jet inclination angle
() and jet position (h).
Consider a horizontal gas jet penetrating into a stationary medium, as shown in Fig. 8. The horizontal gas velocity
(V) of a given cross-section can be expressed as (Merry,
1971):
(10)

where Vm is the velocity on the jet axis and = x / b , where

b is the cross-sectional radius of the jet.

Vj/(ms-1)
Fig. 6

Comparison of vertical with horizontal jet penetration length

(: horizontal; : vertical).

Evidently the jet is pushed upward by the fluidizing gas

as well as by buoyancy, as shown in Fig. 2. The force acting on the jet is in the same direction for the vertical jet,
thus elongating the jet. At higher jet velocity, the vertical jet
penetration length (Lj) increases slowly with jet velocity (Vj)
(Hong et al., 1996), while for horizontal jet, its penetration
length increases more notably with jet velocity. In Yang's
correlation equation (Yang & Keairns, 1980), the vertical jet
penetration length (Lj) is directly proportional to the
0.374-power of jet velocity (Vj), while in Merry's correlation
equation, the inclined jet penetration length (Lj) to the
0.80-power of jet velocity (Vj).
4.3.4 Influence of jet position (h)
Hong et al. (1996) found that bed depth had little influence on vertical jet penetration length. The present ex-

Fig. 8

A horizontal gas jet penetrating into a fluidized bed.

The following equation can be obtained by using momentum balance:

jd j2Vj2 = b 2V 2 ,

(11)

where and V are respectively the mean density and

mean velocity of the cross section. In turbulent flow, the
relation between Vm and V is (Merry, 1971)
V
= 0.26 .
Vm

Combination of Eqs. (10), (11) and (12) yields

(12)

Hong, Li, Ding & Li: A Correlation Equation for Calculating Inclined Jet Penetration Length
2

V 2
1 dj
=
1.0 2 ,
2
A y + yj
jVj

(13)

travels until the relative velocity (Vg Vs ) falls to 1/e of its

initial value, then r can be calculated as

where A = 0.26 tan = 0.26b ( y+y j ) , y being the distance

from the nozzle to the cross-section.
Assume constant density of the gas, and the above
equation can be rewritten as
2

3
dj

V
=
1.0 2 .
Vj y + y j

(14)

The entrainment velocity (Ve) at the boundary layer can

be expressed as (Merry, 1971)
2

3
dj

Ve
=
1.0 2 .
Vj y + y j

(15)

r = 2.2

(16)

Similar to gas penetrating into a stationary medium,

when gas penetrates into a fluidized bed, the penetration
length may be expressed as (Merry, 1971)

Lj
dj

1 jVj

,
A (1- ) sVb2
2

(17)

where Vb is velocity at the jet boundary. When Vb is fixed,

the inclined jet penetration length can then be calculated.
In a fluidized bed, there are two forces exerting on the
particle phase: drag force exerted by the horizontal jet:
d 2
1
(18)
g (Vg Vs )2 s Cd ,
2
4
and gravitational force:

(19)
Fg = ds3 s g .
6
For a particle at the boundary of the jet (Merry, 1971),
Fg 4 sgd s
.
(20)
=
tan =
Fd 3 gCdVb2

be multiplied by (r / Lj )a .
Considering the influences of the nozzle inclination angle () and the nozzle position (h) on the inclined jet penetration length (Lj), and assuming the jet half angle constant,
Eq. (22) is modified to be
a1

jVj2
g
=C

dj
(1- ) s gds s
Lj

Lj

jVj2

1.64 106

(1)
gd

s
s

If r is defined as the distance through which the particle

1.974

ds

dj

0.040

+ 2

0.148

h

h0

0.028

Lj/dj measured experimental

35
30
25
20
15
10
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Lj/dj predicted by Eq. (26)

Fig. 9

(23)

g

s

40

(21)

d 2
dV
1
3
d s sV
= Cd g (Vg Vs )2 s .
6
d
2
4

0.327

(26)
Comparison of above equation with experimental data is
illustrated in Fig. 9, showing a maximum difference of less
than 25%.

0
0

3C tan
jVj2

= d 2
g .
(22)
d j 4 A
(1- ) sgd s s
For a spherical particle with diameter (ds) at high Reynolds number flow, the equation for steady motion of the
particle is assumed to be

+ 3.80 =

1
2

Lj

a3

a
5
d
4 h
s + . (25)
2 h0
dj

By inserting experimental data into the parameters of

Eq. (25), it can be expressed as the following empirical
expression for jet penetration:

Therefore, the gas velocity at the jet boundary, Vb, is determined as

1
2

a2

4.5 Correlating the experimental data

Fd =

gd
4
Vb =
s s .
3C tan
g
d
Substitution of Eq. (21) into Eq. (17) yields

(24)

As a matter of fact, r characterizes the momentum trans-

dj

1
2

sd s
.
g

fer between the gas and the particle phase (Merry, 1971).
Taking account of this momentum transfer, Eq. (22) should

When = 0 , y + y j = Lj , and the inclined jet penetration

length (Lj) can be given as
L j 1 Vj
= .
d j A Ve

283

Comparison of experimental data for jet penetration length with

Eq. (26).

4.6 Comparison of simulated data with experimental data

For millet particles, Vf=1.5 ms-1, dj=10 mm, h=0.223 m,
and =10, comparison of the jet penetration length predicted by numerical simulation with experimental measurements is shown in Fig. 10. The two curves are very
close.

CHINA PARTICUOLOGY Vol. 3, No.5, 2005

284

Lj/dj

based on a two-fluid model. The predicted results are

in accordance with the experimental data.
(3) A semi-empirical expression was obtained to determine the inclined jet penetration length. The equation
is in good agreement with experimental data.

Acknowledgment
Jet velocity Vj /(ms-1)
Fig. 10

Comparison of simulated results with experimental data

(: Experimental; : Numerical).

4.7 Comparison with Merrys correlation

Substituting the experimental conditions of jet velocity,
nozzle diameter and particle diameter, etc. into Eq. (26)
and Merry's correlation equation (Blake et al., 1990) respectively, the horizontal jet penetration lengths at various
conditions can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 11. Compared
to Fig. 9, which compares Eq. (26) with measured data, it
can be concluded that our empirical equation yields better
agreement with experimental data than Merry's. The advantage of our correlation is that it can be used for either
horizontal or inclined jets.

Lj/dj predicted by Merrys correlation

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Lj/dj predicted by Eq. (26)

Fig. 11

Comparison of Merry's correlation for horizontal jet penetration length with Eq. (26).

5. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present investigations:
(1) From numerical simulations for inclined jets in a 2-D
fluidized bed using a two-fluid model, it was found that
the inclined jet penetration length (Lj) was affected by
gas density ( g ), bed structure (), particle properties
( s , ds), jet characteristics ( j , Vj), jet diameter (dj)
and jet inclination angle (), and little by jet position
(h).
(2) The inclined jet penetration lengths (Lj) under various
conditions were obtained from numerical simulations

The project was supported by the National Natural Science

Foundation of China (NNSFC, No. 20476065), the Scientific Research Foundation for Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars of
State Education Ministry (SRF for ROCS, SEM) and the
Multi-Phase Reaction Laboratory of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences (No. 2003-5).

Nomenclature
ak

gas or solid volume fraction

db
dj
dp
D

g
Hb
h0
K
Lj
M
T
p
ps
p'
Q1
Q2
Q3
Rep
t

bubble size, m
nozzle diameter, m
particle diameter, m
bed width, m
error of gas or solid phase continuity equation,
-3 -1
kgm s
-2
gravitational acceleration, ms
the fluidized bed height, m
jet position, m
2
-2
turbulent fluctuation kinetic energy, m m
jet penetration length, m
-1 -2
gas axial momentum, kgm s
temperature, K
gas phase pressure, Pa
solids phase pressure, Pa
pressure correction, Pa
3 -1
gas flow rate of separation column, m s
3 -1
gas flow rate of V-shaped gas distributor, m s
3 -1
gas flow rate of inclined jet, m s
particle Reynolds number
time, s

Sk

deformation rate tensor, s

Ub
Uj
JJG
Uk

bubble ascending velocity, ms

-1
central jet velocity, ms

Uf
Umf
Vj
Vf
Vm

superficial gas velocity in bed, ms

-1
incipient fluidization velocity, ms
-1
inclined jet velocity, ms
-1
bed superficial gas velocity, ms
maximum gas velocity of cross-section as defined in
-1
Fig. 6, ms
length defined in Fig. 6, m

eg,es

yj

-1
-1

=(Uk, Vk), velocity vector of phase k, ms

-1

-1

Greek letters

eg, es
g

g
s

jet inclination angle

-3 -1
gas-solids drag coefficient, kgm s
2
-3
dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy, m m
-1 -1
gas or solids effective viscosity, kgm s
-1 -1
gas viscosity, kgm s
-3
gas density, kgm
-3
solids density, kgm

Hong, Li, Ding & Li: A Correlation Equation for Calculating Inclined Jet Penetration Length
j

-3

gas density at nozzle, kgm

sphericity of particle,
cohesive force, Pa

stress tensor of phase k, Pa

gas volume fraction

solid volume fraction

distance defined in Eq. (24), m

Subscripts
g
j
p
s

gas phase
jet
particle
solids phase

Operators
gradient

divergent

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Manuscript received November 19, 2004 and accepted May 19, 2005.