ASSETS

Perbandingan Definisi Aset

Committee on
Terminology
(1953, par. 26)
Something represented

APB
(1970a, par. 57 &
132)

by debit balance

Property right or
value acquired
The future
Include A
deffered charge

Economics
resources having
future economics
value
More than legal
property
Include A
deffered charge

FASB
(1985, par. 25)

Probable future
benefit = future
services
potentials
Obtain and
Control by an
entity
Past events or
transactions

Assets Definition Approach

The Resources Economics Approach:

Broader than legal property concepts. Assets has value
because a future income (cash) stream
Variasi dalam metode merealisasikan future benefit
Variasi menentukan probabilitas dan realisasi future benefit

The Severability-Exchangeability
Only those economics resources that can be severed from
the firm and sold. Legal orientation

Type Assets
Held for sale: dalam suatu pertukaran
langsung, misalnya barang dagangan

Type
Assets

Held for use in production: melalui

proses konversi/produksi menjadi barang jadi
kemudian dijual, misalnya bahan baku

Deferred Charges: pengakuannya

ditangguhkan, misalnya Prepaid cost, Beban
tangguhan

Recognition and Measurement

ASSETS
APB (1970a, par 145)

Initial Recording Principles sangat penting, untuk menentukan:

1.
Data yang dimasukkan dalam proses akuntansi
2.
Timing untuk mencatat
3.
Amounts dari A, L, R dan E yang dicatat

Assets and Liabilities generally are initialy recorded on the basis of

events in which the enterprise acquire resources from other entities
or incurs obligations to other entities. The assets and liabilities are
measured by the exchange prices at which the transfers take place.

Sacrificed to acquired the assets is called: The Historical Acquisition Cost

Accounts

Measurements ASSETS

Receivables

Net realizable Value: Historical Cost - an estimate uncollectible amounts

Investments
marketable

Investments

Equity method Adjusted Historical Cost (20-50%, APB Opinion 18)

Inventories

Basic: Q x Unit Acquisition Cost.

Major Alternative: Flow assumptions: FIFO, LIFO, Weighted Average
ARB 43: LOCOM
Cost, Replacement Cost
The upper limit: Net Realizable value
The lower limit: Net Realizable Value a Normal Markup.

Asset
dibangun
sendiri dan
Persediaan
Manufaktur

ARB 43 : Full Absorption Costing untuk Inventory

SFAS 34: Acquisition Cost + Borrowing Interest (Kapitalisasi bunga)
untuk non-inventory assets

SFAS 12 : LOCOM

SFAS 115: Current Values/Fair Value

Investment in Debt Securities, digolongkan menjadi salah satu dari tiga:
(1) Held-to maturity, (2) Trading, (3) Available fo sale

Accounts

Measurements ASSETS (Lanjutan)

Aset yang
Didepresiasi
atau
Deplesi
(sumber alam)

Book Value = Historical Acquisiton Cost Cumulative Depreciation

Metode depresiasi atau dideplesi
Umum: Straight-line; Sum of Year-Digits; Declining Balance; Unit Produksi
Khusus: Group and Composite Depreciation; Replacement and
Retirement Methods; Inventory-Depreciation Systems

Impaired Asstes

Fair Value jika < Carrying Value (asumsikan undiscounted Future CF < Carrying
Value)

Pertukaran
aset non
moneter

Nilai buku aktiva lama ditambah dengan kas jika ada tambahan kas

Intangible
Assets

Nilai buku (Acquiring historical cost cummulative amortization

Deffered
Charge

Prepaid Cost (Biaya dibayar dimuka): Book Value

Deffered Cost (Beban Tangguhan): Book Value

Restrukturisa
si Piutang

Newly Restructured Future Cash Flow discounted at original rate.

LIABILITIES

LIABILITIES

Committee on Terminology (1953, par. 27)

Something represented by credit balance that is

or would be properly carried forward upon a
closing books of account according to the rules
or principles of accounting, provided such credit
balance is not in effect a negative balance
applicable to an assets.
Entity theory
Legal debt

Definisi LIABILITIES

APB (1970a, 132)

Economics obligations of an enterprise that are
recognized and measured in comformity with generally
accepted accounting principles
Assets also include certain deffered credits that are not
obligations but that are recognized and measured in
comformity with generally accepted accounting
principles.
Economics

obligations
Include A deffered charge

Definisi LIABILITIES

FASB (1985, par. 35)

Probable future sacrifices of economic benefits
arising from present obligations of a particular
entity to transfers assets or provide services to
other entities in the future as a result of past
transactions or events

Probable future sacrifices = a duty exists

The duty is virtually unavoidable
The event obligating the enterprice has occurred

Type Liabilities
Contractual Liabilities: Liabilities yang
Didukung perjanjian tertulis ada dasar hukum
secara eksplisit

Constructive Liabilities: Liabilities yang

Type
Liabilities

tidak didukung perjanjian tertulis tetapi hanya

dinyatakan atas dasar trust

Equitable Obligation: Liabilities yang ada

pada gray area, yang timbul dari kewajiban sosial

Contingent Liabilities: kewajiban yang

muncul jika suatu kejadian tertentu terjadi dimasa
mendatang (bersyarat)

Deferred Credits: Liabilities yang

pengakuannya ditangguhkan Prepaid revenue dan
Beban yang masih harus dibayar

Recognition and Measurement

LIABILITIES

For Current Liabilities: Face Value

For Noncurrent Obligations: PV based on
current interest rates
Bond: if ib = im
present value = net
proceeds = face value
if ib > im
Premium
if ib < im
Discount

Bonds Payable

Dinilai sebesar: Net Proceeds

PV of Principal (P x PVIF).
PV of Interest (I x PVIFA).
Net Proceeds..
Nominal ...
Premium (Discount)..

Premium/Discount diamortisasi

xxx
xxx +
xxx
xxx xxx

Convertible Bonds (CB)

Bond yang dapat dikonversi dengan Saham

Biasa
Tingkat bunga lebih rendah
Two Policy to Account for Convertible Bonds:
1.
2.

CB diperlakukan seperti Bond biasa sampai saat

konversi
Memisahkan perhitungan hak konversi dan
ditambahkan pada Contributed capital

Saat dikonversi tidak ada pengakuan gain or loss

Debt with Stock Warrant

Utang dan Hak untuk membeli saham yang

diterbitkan terpisah.
Stock warrant bisa diperjualbelikan.

Redeemable Preferred Stock and

Other Hybrid Securities

Saham ini tanpa hak vote

Memiliki mandatori untuk menebus pada nilai pari
Perusahaan punya opsi untuk memanggil
Dividens kumulatif
DIvidends tahunan dengan tarif tetap

Securitizations
Financial Asset

Transferor

Transferee
Cash

Jika Transferor melepaskan hak atas aset,

maka dia akan mengkredit aset seperti
menjual, tidak timbul Utang.
Jika Transferor memiliki hak untuk membeli
kembali aset tersebut, maka transaksi seperti
ini merupakan utang dengan jaminan aset, jadi
timbul Utang di Neraca

Cash

Securitas

Outside
Investor

OWNERS
EQUITIES

Owners Equity

The Stockholders residual interest in the net

assets of the firm (Proprietary theory)
APB 4 dan SFAC 6:
The excess of the firms assets over the liabilities

Accounting Classification System

ASSETS - LIABILITIES =
Contributed Capital

Legal
Capital

OWNERS EQUITY
Retained Earnings

Other Contr.
Capital

Income Statement
Accounts

Debits

Losses

Ordinary

Unrealized Capital Adjustments

Prior Period
Adjustments

Dividens

Credits

Expenses

Extra ordinary

Revenues

Gains

Ordinary

Extra ordinary

Contributed Capital

Legal Capital
Modal saham sebesar nilai nominal, atau harga pasar saat
diterbitkan jika tidak memiliki nilai nominal.
Other Contributed Capital
Stock premium (Harga pasar > Nilai pari)
Donated capital (Modal sumbangan, fair value)
Reissue treasury stock (Harga Jual > harga penarikan)
Issue stock option (Tambahan konvensasi saat pembelian)
Stock warrant (jika harga saham> nilai warrant+Kas)
Unrealized Gains or Losses
Gains or Losses dari securitas yang tersedia untuk dijual

Owners Equity Transactions

Capital Transactions
Kontribusi oleh pemilik
Distribusi ke Pemilik
Income Related Transactions
Income Statement Transactions
Prior Period Adjustment

The Market
Value at The
Time of
Transactions

Financial Instruments

Adalah kontrak yang melibatkan financial aset dari satu

entitas dan financial liabilities dari entitas lainnya.
FASB (1990, p.3)
Financial instruments adalah: Kas, bukti kepemilikan
kepentingan dalam suatu entitas, atau kontrak yang:
1. Membebankan kepada satu entitas kewajiban
kontraktual untuk (a) mengirim kas atau instrumen
keuangan lainnya kepada entitas lainnya, atau (b)
menukar financial instrument atas potentially
unfavorable term dengan entitas kedua.
2. Menyampaikan kepada entitas kedua hak kontraktual
untuk (a) menerima kas atau instrumen keuangan
lainnya dari entitas pertama, atau (b) menukar financial
instrument atas potentially favorable term dengan entitas
pertama.

Contoh Financial Instruments

Yang Umum
Cash held on demand deposit
Trade Receivable
Notes
Bonds
Commons and Prferred stock

Yang Kompleks
didasari oleh motivasi manajemen misalnya untuk
memanfaatkan hukum pajak, hedging dan untuk tujuan
off-balance sheet (misalnya Leasing)

Derivatives

Instrument keuangan yang nilainya didasarkan

pada instrumen keuangan lainnya, indeks saham,
tingkat bunga, atau indeks tingkat bunga.
Ada dua Type derivatives:
1. Forward Based derivativies
2. Option Based Derivatives

Forward Based Derivatives

Party will
Realize Gain

Party will
Realize Loss

Forward Contract involve foreign currency atau komoditas

untuk Hedging
1. Future contracts: hedge thd fluktuasi kurs.
Misal: kontrak untuk membeli mata uang asing dengan kurs
tententu di masa yang akan datang.

2. Swap: hedge thd fluktuasi tingkat bunga pinjaman

Option-Based Derivatives

Stock option
Klaim/opsi untuk membeli atau menjual saham (put-call) yang sengaja
diciptakan oleh investor untuk dijual kepada investor lain.
Convertible bonds
Obligasi yang dapat dikonversi dengan saham biasa. Obligasi
seperti ini mengandung sifat ekuitas dan kewajiban.
Jika hak konversi digunakan maka akan menjadi modal setoran
Convertible Preffered Stock
Saham prioritas yang dapat dikonversi menjadi saham biasa. Pada
saat konversi agio/diasgio juga ikut ditransfer.
Swaption: Gabungan Swap dan Option disebut

Classification in The Balance Sheet

Current - Noncurrent
Asset dan Liabilities disajikan mulai dari yang paling likuid ke yang
paling tidak likuid. Pendekatan ini Hanya memberikan gambaran
kasar mengenai Liquidity phrusahaan.

Classification
Approach

Monetary Non monetary combined Current-Noncurrent

Memberikan pemahaman yang lebih baik mengenai future cash flows
Held for Sale - Held for Use - Deferred Charges
Memberikan informasi tambahan mengenai bagaimana manfaat
ekonomik akan direalisasikan dan ketidakpastian disekitar realisasi.
Eclectic

Pengklasifikasian aset didasarkan pada atribut yang sedang diukur,

sehingga merupakan memilih yang paling sesuai untuk dipakai.

Income Definitions
Sumber
Committee on
Terminology
(1955, par. 8)
APB
(1970b par.
134)

Definisi
Income and profit refer to amounts resulting from
the deduction from revenues, or from operating
revenues, of cost of gods sold, other expenses, and
losses (Revenue-Expense Approach)
Net income (net loss)the excess (deficit) of revenue
over expenses for an accounting period
(Revenue-Expense Approach)

FASB (SAFC 6, Comprehensive income is the change in equity (net

assets) of an entity during a period of transactions and
1985b par. 70)
other events and circumstances from non-owner
sources
(Asset-Liability Approach)

Revenue Definitions
Sumber

Definisi

Committee on
Terminology
(1955, par. 5)

Revenue results from the sale of goods and rendering of services

and is measured by the charge made to customers, clients, or
tenants for goods and services furnished to them
(Revenue-Expense Approach)

APB
(1970b par. 134)

Revenuegross increases in assets and gross decrease in

liabilities measured in conformity with generally accepted
accounting principles that result from those types of profitdirected activities
(Asset-Liability Approach)

FASB
(SAFC No. 6,
1985b par. 78)

Revenues are the inflows or other enhancements of assets of an

entity or settlements of its liabilities (or combination of both)
during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering
services, or other activities that constitute the entitys ongoing
major or central operations
(Asset-Liability Approach)

Gains
Sumber

Definisi

APB
(1955, par. 198)

Revenuesfrom other than sales of products,

merchandise, or services

FASB
(1985b par. 82)

Gains are increases in equity (net assets) from peripheral or

incidental transactionsexcept those that result from revenues
or investments by owners

Dalam hubungannya dengan definisi Revenue, telah menimbulkan

Pro-Con
Munculah konsep: Current operating income concept
All-inclusive income concept

Expenses Definitions
Sumber
Committee on
Terminology
(1957, par. 3)
APB (1970b
par. 134)

Definisi
Expense in the broadest sense includes all expired
costs which are deductible from revenues
(Revenue-Expense Approach)
Expensesgross decreases in assets or gross increases in liabilities
recognized and measured in conformity with generally accepted
accounting principles that result from those types of profitdirected activities of an enterprise
(Revenue-Expense Approach)

FASB (SAFC
6, 1985b par.
80)

Expenses are outflows or other using up of assets or incurrence

of liabilities (or combination of both) during a period from
delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or carrying out
other activities that constitute the entitys major or central
operations
(Asset-Liability Approach)

Perbandingan Definisi Aset

Committee on
Terminology
(1953, par. 26)
Something represented
by debit balance

R-E

Property right or
value acquired
The future
Include A
deffered charge

APB
(1970a, par. 57 &
132)
Economics
resources having
future economics
value

More than legal

property

Include A
deffered charge
R-E A-L

FASB
(1985, par. 25)

A-L

Probable future
benefit = future
services
potentials
Obtain and
Control by an
entity
Past events or
transactions

Current Operating vs. All-Inclusive Income

School of Thought

Current Operating

All-Inclusive

Laporan L/R hanya berisi

item-item yang
berasal dari kegiatan
normal operasi
Akibatnya, item-item non
operating dilaporkan
di laporan perubahan
Laba Ditahan

Laporan L/R harus berisi dan

melaporkan semua komponen
laba komprehensif
Akibatnya laporan Laba Ditahan
hanya berisi total earning
(clean surplus) yang terdapat
di laporan L/R dan distribusi
dividen
(BegBl + Lb (Rg)-Div=EdgBl)

Perbandingan Baik-Buruk
Current Operating
CO lebih berguna untuk menilai
kinerja manajemen
2.
CO lebih berguna untuk
memprediksi kinerja masa y.a.d.
Alasan:
Aliran ini percaya bahwa para
pengguna hanya melihat bottomline net income untuk menilai dan
prediksi. OKI jika laporan L/R
dimasuki item-item yang
extraneous, nonoperating,
insidental, maka user akan seriously
misleading.
1.

All-Inclusive
1.

2.

3.

4.

CO mudah dimanipulasi dengan

judgment manajemen untuk
mangklasifikasikan suatu item
extraordinary atau tidak.
CO menyembunyikan gain/loss
pada laporan R/E
All-I mencerminkan semua net
income yang terjadi dalam periode
bersangkutan
All-I mengklasifikasikan item-item
yang normal dan unusual dalam
satu laporan, dan mencerminkan
kinerja manajemen & perusahaan