MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 18
Wang Fei

matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 6:Inverse Functions andTechniques of Integration 2

Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Log Differentiation (Cont’d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hyper Trigo-Funs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Substitution Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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Chapter 6:
Inverse Functions and
Techniques of Integration 2 / 16

The Exponential Function

• Recall that e is the unique number such that ln e = 1.
◦ As a number, we are able to define the power:
• If n ∈ Z+ , en = e| · e · {z
· · · e · e},
n copies
1
• If n ∈ Z , then −n ∈ Z+ ,
−
en = ,
e−n
• e0 := 1.
◦ We can also define its nth root:
√
• If n ∈ Z+ , e1/n = n
e.
◦ If r = Q, r = m/n, m ∈ Z, n ∈ Z+ .
√
• We can define er = em/n = n
em , (r ∈ Q).
• Question. What is ex when x is irrational, such as eπ ?
◦ We would like to introduce the exponential function.

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The Exponential Function

• Let r ∈ Q. ln(er ) = r ln e = r · 1 = r .
ln
er r

ln−1
◦ Note that ln x : R+ → R is an increasing function.
It admits an inverse function ln : R → R+ .
−1
•
We have ln (r) = er for all r ∈ Q.
−1
•

• It is natural to define
◦ ex = ln−1 (x), for all x ∈ R.
This is called the exponential function, denoted by exp x.
◦ By definition y = ex = exp x ⇔ ln y = x.
◦ Then ln(ex ) = x for all x ∈ R.

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2
The Exponential Function
• exp x and ln x are inverse functions of each other.

y y

y = ex y= 1
t
1

O
Area = A
1 x

y = ln x

O 1 t
eA

◦ lim ex = ∞, lim ex = 0. (Exercise).

x→∞ x→−∞
ex
◦ lim n = ∞, n ∈ Z+ . (Exercise).
x→∞ x
P∞ xn x2 x3
◦ ex = = 1+x+ + + ···.
n=0 n! 2! 3!
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The Exponential Function

• We have defined ex = ln−1 (x) for any x.
How to define ax for other positive number a?

• Again, let’s first look at ar when r ∈ Q, (a > 0).

√
◦ ar = am/n = n am for r = m/n, m ∈ Z, n ∈ Z+ .
◦ ln ar = r ln a ⇒ ar = exp(r ln a) = er ln a .
• For any a > 0 and x ∈ R, it is natural to define
◦ ax = exp(x ln a) = ex ln a , (∴ ln ax = x ln a).
y

O x

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3
Properties of the Exponential Function
• Theorem. The exponential function satisfies:
1) eu ev = eu+v ,
2) e−u = 1/eu ,
3) (eu )v = euv ,
4) (ex )′ = ex . (If f ′ (x) = f (x), then f (x) = Cex ).
• Proof.
1. ln(eu ev ) = ln eu + ln ev = u + v ⇒ eu ev = eu+v .
2. e−u eu = e(−u)+u = e0 = 1 ⇒ e−u = 1/eu .
u)
3. (eu )v = ev ln(e = ev·u = euv .
4. Let y = ex . Then ln y = x.
1 1
◦ (ex )′ = = = y = ex .
(ln y) ′ 1/y
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Properties of the Exponential Function

• Theorem. For any a > 0 and u, v ∈ R,
1) au av = au+v ,
2) a−u = 1/au ,
3) (au )v = auv ,
4) (ax )′ = ax ln a.
• Proof.
1. au av = eu ln a ev ln a = e(u+v) ln a = au+v .
2. a−u = e−u ln a = 1/eu ln a = 1/au .
u)
3. (au )v = ev ln(a = ev·u ln a = auv .
4. (ax )′ = (ex ln a )′ = ex ln a · ln a = ax ln a.

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4
Properties of the Exponential Function
• Recall that (xr )′ = rxr−1 , for x > 0 and rational r .
◦ We proved in order: r : Z+ ⇒ Z ⇒ Q99K R.
• Theorem. For any r ∈ R, (xr )′ = rxr−1 , (x > 0).
◦ Let’s compute directly. Let u = r ln x.

d r d r ln x du d u r
x = e = e = eu
dx dx dx du x
r r ln x −1 r r−1
= e = rx x = rx .
x
 r+1
Z  x + C, if r 6= −1
r
• Therefore, x dx = r+1 .

ln |x| + C, if r = −1
r
Here x is defined for x ≥ 0 only, if r is irrational.
For example, (−1)π is not defined.

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Logarithmic Differentiation (Cont’d)

d x d x x d x
• Evaluate x . Exercise: (x ) and x(x ) .
dx dx dx
d a d
◦ x = axa−1 . Is xx = x · xx−1 = xx ?
dx dx
d x x d x
◦ a = a ln a. Is x = xx ln x ?
dx dx
◦ Let y = xx . Then ln y = x ln x.
1 dy 1
• = 1 · ln x + x · = ln x + 1.
y dx x
dy
• = y(ln x + 1) = xx (ln x + 1).
dx
• In general, if y = f (x)g(x) , (f (x) > 0), then
1 dy d
◦ ln y = g(x) ln f (x) ⇒ = [g(x) ln f (x)].
y dx dx
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5
Properties of the Exponential Function
• We can compute the number e numerically as a limit.
• Theorem. e = lim (1 + x)1/x .
x→0
 

ln lim (1 + x)1/x = lim ln (1 + x)1/x
x→0 x→0
ln(1 + x)
= lim
x→0 x
(ln(1 + x))′
= lim
x→0 (x)′
1/(1 + x)
= lim = 1.
x→0 1
∴ lim (1 + x)1/x = exp(1) = e.
x→0

◦ Remark. Let y = 1/x. Then x → 0+ ⇔ y → ∞.

• e = lim (1 + 1/y)y = lim (1 + 1/n)n .
y→∞ n→∞

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Example
• Evaluate lim xx .
x→0+
 
x x ln x
lim x = lim+ e = exp lim+ x ln x
x→0+ x→0 x→0
   
ln x 1/x
= exp lim+ = exp lim+
x→0 1/x x→0 −1/x2
 
= exp lim+ (−x) = exp(0) = 1.
x→0

• In general, in order to evaluate lim f (x)g(x) , we use
x→a


lim f (x)g(x) = lim exp (g(x) ln(f (x)))
x→a x→a
 
= exp lim g(x) ln f (x) = · · · .
x→a

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6
The Hyper (Hyperbolic) Trigonometric Functions
• Definition. The hyper trigonometric functions:
ex − e−x ex + e−x
◦ sinh x = , cosh x = .
2 2
• Some properties:
(ex )′ − (e−x )′ ex + e−x
◦ (sinh x)′ = = = cosh x.
x ′
2 −x ′ x
2 −x
(e ) + (e ) e −e
◦ (cosh x)′ = = = sinh x.
2 2
They are similar as trigonometric functions.
 2  2
2 2 ex + e−x ex − e−x
cosh x − sinh x = − =1
2 2

x = cosh t
◦ Let . Then x2 − y 2 = 1.
y = sinh t
This parametrization represents a hyperbola.

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The Hyper (Hyperbolic) Trigonometric Functions

• Similarly we can define
sinh x cosh x
◦ tanh x = , coth x = ,
cosh x sinh x
1 1
◦ sech x = , csch x = .
cosh x sinh x
y

y = cosh x y = sinh x

y = tanh x

y = sech x

O x
y = csch x

y = coth x

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7
Inverse of Hyper Trigonometric Functions
• We see that sinh is increasing on R with range R.
a
◦ Then we have the inverse hyper sine function.
• sinh−1 x = y ⇔ x = sinh y .
1 1 1
◦ (sinh−1 x)′ = = = √ .
(sinh y)′ cosh y 1 + x2
∵ cosh2 y = 1 + sinh2 y , cosh y ≥ 0.
• cosh is increasing on [0, ∞) with range [1, ∞).
b c
◦ We have the inverse hyper cosine function.
1
◦ One can show that (cosh−1 x)′ = √ , (x > 1).
x2 −1
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a
√
sinh−1 x = ln(x + √1 + x2 ), x ∈ R.
b
cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1), x ≥ 1.
c
tanh−1 x = 12 ln 1+x
1−x − 1 < x < 1. (Exercise)

Substitution Rule
Z
1
• Evaluate √ dx.
1+ x
◦ Recall the substitution rule: If u = g(x),
Z Z
′
• f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.

1
√ to f (g(x))g ′(x).
◦ It is difficult to convert
1+ x
√ dx
• Let t = x. Then x = t2 , and = 2t.
Z dt Z
1 1
√ dx = · 2t dt
1+ x 1+t
Z  
1
=2 1− dt = 2(t − ln(1 + t)) + C
1+t
√ √
= 2( x − ln(1 + x)) + C.

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