Nuclear Reactor Analysis

Nuclear
Reactor
Analysis
James J. Duderstadt
Louis J. Hamilton
Department of Nuclear Engineering
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
J O H N WILEY & SONS, Inc.

New York / London / Sydney /
Toronto
Copyright 1976 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.
N o part of this book may be reproduced by any means,
nor transmitted, nor translated into a machine language
without the written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication
Data:
Duderstadt, James J 1942Nuclear reactor analysis.

Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Nuclear reactorsDesign and construction.
2. Nuclear engineering. 3. Nuclear fission.
I. Hamilton, Louis J., 1941- joint author.
II. Title.
TK9202.D77
621.48'32
ISBN 0-471-22363-8
75-20389
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Nuclear Reactor Analysis
BOARD
OF ADVISORS,
A. H-S. Ang
University of Illinois
Donald S. Berry
ENGINEERING
Civil EngineeringSystems
and Probability
Transportation Engineering
Northwestern University
James Gere
Stanford University
J. Stuart
Hunter
Civil Engineering and

Applied Mechanics
Engineering Statistics
Princeton University
T. William Lambe
R. V. Whitman
Civil EngineeringSoil
Mechanics
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Perry L. McCarty
Environmental Engineering
Stanford University
Don T. Phillips
Industrial Engineering
Purdue University
Dale F. Rudd
Chemical Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Robert F. Steidel, Jr.
Mechanical Engineering
University of California
Berkeley
Richard N. White
Cornell University
Civil EngineeringStructures
To Anne and Jacqueline
vii
Preface
The maturation of the nuclear power industry, accompanied by a redirection in

emphasis from research and development to the large-scale installation of nuclear
power systems, has induced a corresponding change in the growing demand for
well-trained nuclear engineers. Earlier laboratory needs for research-oriented Ph.
D. reactor physicists have been largely replaced by industrial requirements for
more broadly trained nuclear engineers at the B. S. and M. S. levels who are
capable of designing, constructing, and operating large nuclear power systems.
Most universities are rapidly reorienting their own nuclear engineering programs in
response to these changes.
Of central importance in such programs are those introductory courses in
nuclear reactor analysis that first introduce the nuclear engineering student to the
basis scientific principles of nuclear fission chain reactions and lay a foundation for
the subsequent application of these principles to the nuclear design and analysis of
reactor cores. Although several excellent texts have been written on the subject of
nuclear reactor theory, we have found both the material and orientation of existing
treatments somewhat outdated for today's nuclear engineering student. For example, the availability of large fast digital computers has had a very strong
influence on the analytical techniques used in modern nuclear reactor design. In
most cases such modern methods of reactor analysis bear little resemblance to the
precomputer techniques of earlier years. And yet most existing texts on nuclear
reactor theory dwell quite heavily on these outdated techniques, stressing analytical
methods to the near exclusion of numerical techniques and digital computation.
Furthermore most introductory texts on nuclear reactor theory present a rather
narrow view of nuclear reactor analysis by concentrating only on the behavior of
the neutron population in the reactor core. However the neutronics analysis of a
reactor core cannot be divorced from other nonnuclear aspects of core analysis
such as thermal-hydraulics, structural design, or economic considerations. In any
ix
XV
practical design study, the interplay between these various facets of reactor analysis
must be taken into account, and this should be reflected in modern nuclear
engineering education programs.
We have attempted to write a reactor analysis text more tailored to the needs of
the modern nuclear engineering student. In particular, we have tried to introduce
the student to the fundamental principles governing nuclear fission chain reactions
in a manner that renders the transition to practical nuclear reactor design methods
most natural. This goal has led to a very considerable emphasis on numerical
methods suitable for digital computation. We have also stressed throughout this
development the very close interplay between the nuclear analysis of a reactor core
and those nonnuclear aspects of core analysis, such as thermal-hydraulics or
materials studies, which play a major role in determining a reactor design. Finally,
we have included illustrations of the various concepts that we develop by considering a number of more practical problems arising in the nuclear design of various
types of power reactors.
The text has been organized into four parts. In Part 1 we present a relatively
elementary and qualitative discussion of the basic concepts involved in nuclear
fission chain reactions, inducing a brief review of the relevant nuclear physics and
a survey of modern power reactors. In Part 2 we develop in some detail a
particularly simple and useful model of nuclear reactor behavior by assuming that
the neutrons sustaining the fission chain reaction diffuse from point to point in the
reactor in such a way that their energy and direction ol motion can be ignored
(one-speed diffusion theory). In Part 3 we generalize this model to develop the
primary tool of nuclear reactor analysis, multigroup diffusion theory. In Part 4 we
illustrate these methods of nuclear reactor analysis by considering several important applications in nuclear reactor design.
We include a wide variety of problems to further illustrate these concepts, since
we have learned by past experience that such problems are essential for and
adequate understanding of nuclear reactor theory. The degree of difficulty spanned
by the problems is enormous, ranging from simple formula substitution to problems requiring extensive outside reading by the student. Since most universities
have at their disposal large time-sharing computer systems, we have not hesitated
to include problems that require rudimentary programming experience as well as
access to digital computers. Also, since more and more nuclear engineering
programs have access to libraries of the more common reactor design computer
codes, we also include problems utilizing such codes. It is our hope that the volume
and variety of problems are sufficient to provide the instructor with the opportunity to select those problems most appropriate to this particular needs.
The same broad scope also characterizes the material included in the text. We
have attempted to prepare a text suitable for a wide variety of students, including
not only senior-year B. S. or first-year M. S. nuclear engineering students, but for
students from other disciplines as well, such as electrical and mechanical engineering, physics, and chemistry, who desire an exposure to the principles underlying
nuclear reactor design and operation. Hence the text has been written with the
intent of providing suitable material for a student with only a modest background
in modern physics and applied mathematics, such as would be included in the
curriculum of most undergraduate engineering or science students. To this end,
much of the early material is presented in an essentially self-contained fashion.
xi
However it is our intent that this text should also serve as a useful reference in
more advanced courses or for practicing engineers, and therefore we include more
advanced material when appropriate (particularly in later chapters). In such cases
we provide numerous references to supplement our treatment. Certainly the entirety of the material presented would be overwhelming for a one- or even two-term
course. (We have distributed the material among three terms at Michigan.) Rather
we have sought to provide a text sufficiently flexible for a wide variety of
applications. Hence we do not apologize for the scope and occasionally more
rugged terrain covered by the text, since the instructor can always choose a less
demanding route by selecting an appropriate subset of this material.
The units employed in this text are the International System of Units (SI), their
derivatives, and several non-SI units (such as the electronvolt or the barn) which
are recognized by the International Organization for Standardization for use in
special fields. Unfortunately, the vast majority of nuclear engineering literature
published in the United States prior to 1975 makes use of British units. To assist
the reader in coordinating this literature with the SI units used in this text, we have
included brief tables of the appropriate conversion factors in Appendix I.
As with any text at this level, very little of the material presented has originated
with the authors, but rather has been accumulated and assimilated from an
enormous variety of sources, some published, many unpublished. We generally
attempt to present material in the fashion we have found most successful from our
own teaching experience, frequently sacrificing originality for effectiveness of
presentation. Throughout the text we attempt to acknowledge the sources of our
material.
However, we would particularly like to acknowledge the impact made upon this
work by several of our associates. In presentation, we have chosen to utilize the
very appealing pedagogical approach of P. F. Zweifel by introducing as much of
reactor analysis as possible within the one-speed diffusion approximation before
continuing to discuss neutron energy-dependence. Our attempts to relate the basic
concepts of nuclear reactor theory to practical reactor analysis have relied heavily
upon numerous discussions, lecture materials, admonitions, and advice of Harvey
Graves, Jr., to whom we are particularly grateful. We would also like to acknowledge the assistance of a group of truly exceptional former students (and now
practicing nuclear engineers) including Thomas Craig, David Chapin, Lawrence
Emmons, Robert Grossman, Ronald Fleming, Robert McCredy, William Martin,
Philip Meyer, Sidney Karin, Russell Mosteller, William G. Price, Jr., Robert
Steinke, and Paul J. Turinsky, as well as scores of other students who have
suffered, sweated, and occasionally cursed their way through the many sets of
lecture notes which led to this text.
It is particularly important to acknowledge the considerable assistance provided
by other staff members at Michigan including A. Ziya Akcasu, David Bach, John
Carpenter, Chihiro Kikuchi, Glenn Knoll, John Lee, Robert Martin, Richard K.
Osborn, Fred Shure, and George C. Summerfield. Also we should acknowledge
that much of the motivation and inspiration for this effort originated at Caltech
with Harold Lurie and Noel Corngold and at Berkeley with Virgil Schrock. But,
above all, we would like to thank William Kerr, without whose continued encouragement and support this work would have never been completed.
We also wish to express our gratitude to Miss Pam Hale for her Herculean
xii
efforts (and cryptographic abilities) in helping prepare the various drafts and
manuscripts which led to this text.
James J.
Louis J.
Duderstadt
Hamilton
ANN ARBOR,
FEBRUARY
MICHIGAN
1975
Contents
PARTI
Introductory Concepts
of Nuclear Reactor
Analysis
CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Nuclear Power Generation

I.VI
II.
III.
Nuclear Fission Reactors

Role of the Nuclear Engineer
Scope of the Text
CHAPTER 2
I.
II.
I.
II.
III.
4
6
7
The Nuclear Physics of Fission Chain Reactions
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission
CHAPTER 3
10
12
54
Fission Chain Reactions and Nuclear Reactors

an Introduction
The Multiplication Factor and Nuclear Criticality

A n Introduction to Nuclear Power Reactors
Nuclear Reactor Design
xiii
74
74
88
96
xiv
PART 2
The One-Speed
Diffusion Model
of a Nuclear Reactor
CHAPTER 4
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Neutron Transport
The Neutron Transport Equation
Direct Numerical Solution of the Transport Equation
The Diffusion Approximation
CHAPTER 5 The One-Speed Diffusion Theory Model

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
The One-Speed Diffusion Equation

Neutron Diffusion in Nonmultiplying Equation
The One-Speed Diffusion Model of a Nuclear Reactor
Reactor Criticality Calculations
Perturbation Theory
CHAPTER 6
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Nuclear Reactor Kinetics
The Point Reactor Kinetics Model

Solution of the Point Reactor Kinetics Equations
Reactivity Feedback and Reactor Dynamics
Experimental Determination of Reactor Kinetic Parameters
Spatial Effects in Reactor Kinetics
103
105
111
117
124
149
150
157
196
214
219
233
235
241
257
268
276
PART 3
The Multigroup
Diffusion Method
CHAPTER 7
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Multigroup Diffusion Theory
A Heuristic Derivation of the Multigroup Diffusion Equations

Derivation of the Multigroup Equations from Energy-Dependent
Diffusion Theory
Simple Applications of the Multigroup Diffusion Model
Numerical Solution of the Multigroup Diffusion Equations
285
286
288
295
301
XV
V.
VI.
Multigroup Perturbation Theory

Some Concluding Remarks
CHAPTER 8
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Neutron Slowing Down in an Infinite Medium

Resonance Absorption (Infinite Medium)
Neutron Slowing Down in Finite Media
Fast Spectrum Calculations and Fast Group Constants
CHAPTER 9
I.
II.
III.
Thermal Spectrum Calculations and Thermal

Group Constants
General Features of Thermal Neutron Spectra

Approximate Models of Neutron Thermalization
General Calculations of Thermal Neutron Spectra
CHAPTER 10
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Fast Spectrum Calculations and Fast Croup

Constants
Cell Calculations for Heterogeneous Core Lattices
Lattice Effects in Nuclear Reactor Analysis

Heterogeneous Effects in Thermal Neutron Physics
Heterogeneous Effects in Fast Neutron Physics
Some Concluding Remarks in the Multigroup Diffusion Methods
308
311
315
317
332
347
358
375
377
384
392
398
399
413
427
439
PART 4
An Introduction
to Nuclear Reactor
Core Design
CHAPTER 11
I.
II.
III.
General Aspects of Nuclear Reactor Core Design
Nuclear Core Analysis

Other Areas of Reactor Core Analysis
Reactor Calculation Models
CHAPTER 12 Thermal-hydraulic Analysis of Nuclear Reactor Cores

I.
II.
Introduction
Power Generation in Nuclear Reactor Cores
447
448
454
460
467
467
473
xvi
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Radial Heat Conduction in Reactor Fuel Elements

Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Single-Phase Coolants
Boiling Heat Transfer in Nuclear Reactor Cores
Hydrodynamic Core Analysis
Thermal-hydraulic Core Analysis
CHAPTER 13 The Calculation of Core Power Distributions

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Static Multigroup Diffusion Calculations

Interaction of Thermal-hydraulics, Neutronics, and Fuel Depletion
Parameterization of Few-Group Constants
Flux Synthesis Methods
Local Power-Peaking Effects
CHAPTER 14
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Introduction
Movable Control Rods
Burnable Poisons
Chemical Shim
Inherent Reactivity Effects
CHAPTER 15
I.
II.
III.
Reactivity Control
Analysis of Core Composition Changes
Fission Product Poisoning

Fuel Depletion Analysis
Nuclear Fuel Management
475
483
489
498
502
515
516
519
522
525
529
537
537
540
551
554
556
566
567
580
589
xvii
APPENDICES
"A. Some Useful Nuclear Data
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Miscellaneous Physical Constants

Some Useful Conversion Factors
2200 m / s e c Cross Sections for Naturally Occurring Elements
2200 m / s e c Cross Sections of Special Interest
605
605
605
606
610
B.
Some Useful Mathematical Formulas
611
C.
Step Functions, Delta Functions, and Other Exotic Beasts
613
I.
Introduction
613
II.
Properties of the Dirac S-Function

A. Alternative Representations
B. Properties
C. Derivatives
614
614
614
615
D.
Some Properties of Special Functions
616
E.
Some Assorted Facts on Linear Operators
621
I.
Scalar Products
621
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Linear Operators
Linear Vector Spaces
Properties of Operators
Differential Operators
622
622
623
624
F.
An Introduction to Matrices and Matrix Algebra

I.
Some Definitions
626
II.
Matrix Algebra
628
G.
An Introduction to Laplace Transforms
I.
II.
H.
I.
626
629
Motivation
"Cookbook" Laplace Transforms
629
631
Typical Nuclear Power Reactor Data
634
Units Utilized in Text
Index
636
639
Nuclear Reactor Analysis
1
of Nuclear Reactor
Analysis
1
An Introduction to
Nuclear Power
Generation
It has been more than three decades since the first nuclear reactor achieved a
critical fission chain reaction beneath the old Stagg Field football stadium at the
University of Chicago. Since that time an extensive worldwide effort has been
directed toward nuclear reactor research and development in an attempt to harness
the enormous energy contained within the atomic nucleus for the peaceful generation of power. Nuclear reactors have evolved from an embryonic research tool into
the mammoth electrical generating units that drive hundreds of central-station
power plants around the world today. The recent shortage of fossil fuels has made
it quite apparent that nuclear fission reactors will play a dominant role in meeting
man's energy requirements for decades to come.
For some time electrical utilities have been ordering and installing nuclear plants
in preference to fossil-fueled units. Such plants are truly enormous in size, typically
generating over 1000 MWe (megawatts-electric) of electrical power (enough to
supply the electrical power needs of a city of 400,000 people) and costing more
than half a billion dollars. It is anticipated that some 1000 nuclear power plants
will be installed in the United States alone by the year 2000 with an electrical
generating capacity of about 1,000,000 MWe and a capital investment of more than
$600 billion, 1 with this pattern being repeated throughout the world. The motivation for such a staggering commitment to nuclear power involves a number of
factors that include not only the very significant economic and operational advantages exhibited by nuclear plants over conventional sources of power, but their
substantially lower environmental impact and vastly larger fuel resources as well.2"7
The dominant role played by nuclear fission reactors in the generation of
electrical power can be expected to continue well into the next century. Until at
least A.D. 2000, nuclear power will represent the only viable alternative to
3
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR ANALYSIS
fossil-fueled plants for most nations. 2,3 The very rapid increase in fossil-fuel costs
that has accompanied their dwindling reserves has led to a pronounced cost
advantage for nuclear plants which is expected to widen even further during the
next few decades. 4 ' 6 Of course, there are other longer-range alternatives involving
advanced technology such as solar power, geothermal power, and controlled
thermonuclear fusion. However the massive practical implementation of such
alternatives, if proven feasible, could probably not occur until after the turn of the
century since experience has shown that it takes several decades to shift the energy
industry from one type of fuel to another, 2 due both to the long operating lifetime
of existing power machinery and the long lead times needed to redirect manufacturing capability. Hence nuclear fission power will probably be the dominant new
source of electrical power during the productive lifetimes of the present generation
of engineering students.
I. NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS

The term nuclear reactor will be used in this text to refer to devices in which
controlled nuclear fission chain reactions can be maintained. (This restricted
definition may offend that segment of the nuclear community involved in nuclear
fusion research, but since even a prototype nuclear fusion reactor seems several
years down the road, no confusion should result.) In such a device, neutrons are
used to induce nuclear fission reactions in heavy nuclei. These nuclei fission into
lighter nuclei (fission products), accompanied by the release of energy (some 200
MeV per event) plus several additional neutrons. These fission neutrons can then be
utilized to induce still further fission reactions, thereby inducing a chain of fission
events. In a very narrow sense then, a nuclear reactor is simply a sufficiently large
mass of appropriately fissile material (e.g., 2 3 5 U or 239 Pu) in which such a controlled
fission chain reaction can be sustained. Indeed a small sphere of 235 U metal slightly
over 8 cm in radius could support such a chain reaction and hence would be
classified as a nuclear reactor.
However a modern power reactor is a considerably more complex beast. It must
not only contain a lattice of very carefully refined and fabricated nuclear fuel, but
must as well provide for cooling this fuel during the course of the chain reaction as
fission energy is released, while maintaining the fuel in a very precise geometrical
arrangement with appropriate structural materials. Furthermore some mechanism
must be provided to control the chain reaction, shield the surroundings of the
reactor from the intense nuclear radiation generated during the fission reactions,
and provide for replacing nuclear fuel assemblies when the fission chain reaction
has depleted their concentration of fissile nuclei. If the reactor is to produce power
in a useful fashion, it must also be designed to operate both economically and
safely. Such engineering constraints render the actual nuclear configuration quite
complex indeed (as a quick glance ahead to the illustrations in Chapter 3 will
indicate).
Nuclear reactors have been used for over 30 years in a variety of applications.
They are particularly valuable tools for nuclear research since they produce
copious amounts of nuclear radiation, primarily in the form of neutrons and
gamma rays. Such radiation can be used to probe the microscopic structure and
dynamics of matter (neutron or gamma spectroscopy).
INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION
The radiation produced by reactors can also be used to transmute nuclei into
artificial isotopes that can then be used, for example, as radioactive tracers in
industrial or medical applications. Reactors can use the same scheme to produce
nuclear fuel from nonfissile materials. For example, 238 U can be irradiated by
neutrons in a reactor and transmuted into the nuclear fuel 239 Pu. This is the process
utilized to "breed" fuel in the fast breeder reactors currently being developed for
commercial application in the next decade.
Small, compact reactors have been used for propulsion in submarines, ships,
aircraft, and rocket vehicles. Indeed the present generation of light water reactors
used in nuclear power plants are little more than the very big younger brothers of
the propulsion reactors used in nuclear submarines. Reactors can also be utilized as
small, compact sources of long-term power, such as in remote polar research
stations or in orbiting satellites.
Yet by far the most significant application of nuclear fission reactors is in large,
central station power plants. A nuclear power plant is actually very similar to a
fossil-fueled power plant, except that it replaces the coal or oil-fired boiler by a
nuclear reactor, which generates heat by sustaining a fission chain reaction in a
suitable lattice of fuel material. Of course, there are some dramatic differences
between a nuclear reactor and, say, a coal-fired boiler. However the useful quantity
produced by each is high temperature, high pressure steam that can then be used to
run turbogenerators and produce electricity. At the center of a modern nuclear
plant is the nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), composed of the nuclear reactor,
its associated coolant piping and pumps, and the heat exchangers ("steam generators") in which water is turned into steam. (A further glance at the illustrations in
Chapter 3 will provide the reader with some idea of these components.) The
remainder of the power plant is rather conventional.
Yet we must not let the apparent similarities between nuclear and fossil-fueled
power plants overshadow the very significant differences between the two systems.
For example, in a nuclear plant sufficient fuel must be inserted into the reactor
core to allow operation for very long periods of time (typically one year). The
nuclear fuel cycle itself is extremely complex, involving fuel refining, fabrication,
reprocessing after utilization in the reactor, and eventually the disposal of radioactive fuel wastes. The safety aspects of nuclear plants are also quite different, since
one must be concerned with avoiding possible radiological hazards. Furthermore
the licensing required by a nuclear plant before construction or operation demands
a level of sophisticated analysis totally alien to fossil-fueled plant design.
Therefore even though the NSSS contributes only a relatively modest fraction of
the total capital cost of a nuclear power plant (presently about 20%), it is of central
concern since it not only dictates the detailed design of the remainder of the plant,
but also the procedures required in plant construction and operation. Furthermore
it is the low fuel costs of the NSSS that are responsible for the economic
advantages presently enjoyed by nuclear power generation.
The principal component of the NSSS is, of course, the nuclear reactor itself. A
rather wide variety of nuclear reactors are in operation today or have been
proposed for future development. Reactor types can be characterized by a number
of features. One usually distinguishes between those reactors whose chain reactions
are maintained by neutrons with characteristic energies comparable to the energy
of thermal vibration of the atoms comprising the reactor core (thermal reactors)
and reactors in which the average neutron energy is more characteristic of the
much higher energy neutrons released in a nuclear fission reaction ( f a s t reactors).

Yet another common distinction refers to the type of coolant used in the reactor.
In the United States, and indeed throughout the world, the most popular of the
present generation of reactors, the light water reactor (LWR) uses ordinary water
as a coolant. Such reactors operate at very high pressures (approximately 70-150
bar) in order to achieve high operating temperatures while maintaining the water in
its liquid phase. If the water is allowed to boil in the core, the reactor is referred to
as a boiling water reactor (BWR), while if the system pressure is kept sufficiently
high to prevent bulk boiling (155 bar), the reactor is known as a pressurized water
reactor (PWR). Such reactors have benefited from a well-developed technology and
performance experience achieved in the nuclear submarine program.
A very similar type of reactor uses heavy water ( D 2 0 ) either under high pressure
as a primary coolant or simply to facilitate the fission chain reaction. This
particular concept has certain nuclear advantages that allow it to utilize lowenrichment uranium fuels (including natural uranium). It is being developed in
Canada in the C A N D U series of power reactors and in the United Kingdom as
steam generating heavy water reactors (SGHWR).
Power reactors can also utilize gases as coolants. For example, the early MAGN O X reactors developed in the United Kingdom used low-pressure C 0 2 as a
coolant. A particularly attractive recent design is the high-temperature gas-cooled
reactor (HTGR) manufactured in the United States which uses high-pressure
helium. Related gas-cooled reactors include the pebble-bed concept and the advanced gas cooled reactors (AGR) under development in Germany and the United
Kingdom, respectively.
All of the above reactor types can be classified as thermal reactors since their
fission chain reactions are maintained by low-energy neutrons. Such reactors
comprise most of the world's nuclear generating capacity today, and of these the
LWR is most common. It is generally agreed that the LWR will continue to
dominate the nuclear power industry until well into the 1980s, although its market
may tend to be eroded somewhat by the successful development of the H T G R
or advanced heavy water reactors.
However as we will see in the next chapter, there is strong incentive to develop a
fast reactor which will breed new fuel while producing power, thereby greatly
reducing nuclear fuel costs. Such fast breeder reactors may be cooled by either
liquid metals [the liquid metal-cooled fast breeder reactor (LMFBR)] or by helium
[the gas-cooled fast breeder reactor (GCFR)]. Although fast breeder reactors are
not expected to make an appreciable impact on the nuclear power generation
market until after 1990, their development is actively being pursued throughout the
world today.
Numerous other types of reactors have been proposed and studiedsome even
involving such exotic concepts as liquid or gaseous fuels. Although much of the
analysis presented in this text is applicable to such reactors, our dominant concern
is with the solid-fuel reactors cooled by either water, sodium, or helium, since these
will comprise the vast majority of the power reactors installed during the next
several decades.
II. ROLE OF THE NUCLEAR ENGINEER

The nuclear engineer will play a very central role in the development and
application of nuclear energy since he is uniquely characterized by his ability to
assist in both the nuclear design of fission reactors and their integration into large
power systems. In the early days of the reactor industry a nuclear engineer was
usually regarded as a Ph. D.-level reactor physicist primarily concerned with
nuclear reactor core research and design. Today, however, nuclear engineers are
needed not only by research laboratories and reactor manufacturers to develop and
design nuclear reactors, but also by the electrical utilities who buy and operate the
nuclear power plants, and by the engineering companies who build the power
plants and service them during their operating lifetimes.
Hence an understanding of core physics is not sufficient for today's nuclear
engineer. He must also learn how to interface his specialized knowledge of nuclear
reactor theory with the myriad of other engineering demands made upon a nuclear
power reactor and with a variety of other disciplines, including mechanical,
electrical, and civil engineering, metallurgy, and even economics (and politics), just
as specialists of these other disciplines must learn to interact with nuclear engineers. In this sense, he must recognize that the nuclear analysis of a reactor is
only one facet to be considered in nuclear power engineering. To study and master
it outside of the context of these other disciplines would be highly inadvisable. In
the same sense, those electrical, mechanical, or structural engineers who find
themselves involved in various aspects of nuclear power station design (as ever
increasing numbers are) will also find some knowledge of nuclear reactor theory
useful in the understanding of nuclear components and interfacing with nuclear
design.
Future nuclear engineers must face and solve complex problems such as those
involved in nuclear reactor safety, environmental impact assessment, nuclear power
plant reliability, and the nuclear fuel cycle, which span an enormous range of
disciplines. They must always be concerned with the economic design, construction, and operation of nuclear plants consistent with safety and environmental
constraints. An increasing number of nuclear engineers will find themselves concerned with activities such as quality assurance and component standardization as
the nuclear industry continues to grow and mature, and of course all of these
problems must be confronted and handled in the public arena.
III. SCOPE OF THE TEXT

Our goal in this text is to develop in detail the underlying theory of nuclear
fission reactors in a manner accessible to both prospective nuclear engineering
students and those engineers from other disciplines who wish to gain some
exposure to nuclear reactor engineering. In every instance we attempt to begin with
the fundamental scientific principles governing nuclear fission chain reactions and
then carry these fundamental concepts through to the level of realistic engineering
applications in nuclear reactor design. During this development we continually
stress the interplay between the nuclear analysis of a reactor core and the parallel
nonnuclear design considerations that must accompany it in any realistic nuclear
reactor analysis.
We must admit a certain preoccupation with nuclear power reactors simply
because most nuclear engineers will find themselves involved in the nuclear power
industry. This will be particularly apparent in the examples we have chosen to
discuss and the problems we have emphasized. However since our concern is
always with emphasis of fundamental concepts over specific applications, most of
the topics we develop have a much broader range of validity and would apply
equally well to the analysis of other types of nuclear reactors. And although our
principal target is the prospective nuclear engineer, we would hope that engineers
from other disciplines would also find this text useful as an introduction to the
concepts involved in nuclear reactor analysis.
The present text develops in four progressive stages. Part 1 presents a very brief
introduction to those concepts from nuclear physics relevant to nuclear fission
reactors. These topics include not only a consideration of the nuclear fission
process itself, but also a consideration of the various ways in which neutrons, which
act as the carrier of the chain reaction, interact with nuclei in the reactor core. We
next consider from a qualitative viewpoint the general concepts involved in
studying nuclear chain reactions. Part 1 ends with an overview of nuclear reactor
engineering, including a consideration of the various types of modern nuclear
reactors, their principal components, and a qualitative discussion of nuclear reactor
design.
Parts 2-4 are intended to develop the fundamental scientific principles underlying nuclear reactor analysis and to apply these principles for derivation of the most
common analytical tools used in contemporary reactor design. By way of illustration, these tools are then applied to analyze several of the more common and
significant problems facing nuclear engineers.
Part 2 develops the mathematical theory of neutron transport in a reactor. It
begins with the most general description based on the neutron transport equation
and briefly (and very qualitatively) reviews the standard approximations to this
equation. After this brief discussion, we turn quickly to the development of the
simplest nontrivial model of a nuclear fission reactor, that based upon one-speed
neutron diffusion theory. This model is used to analyze both the steady state and
time-dependent behavior of nuclear reactors, since although the model has very
limited validity in practical reactor analysis, it does illustrate most of the concepts
as well as the calculational techniques used in actual reactor design.
In Part 3, we develop the principal tool of modern nuclear reactor design, the
multigroup diffusion model. Particular attention is devoted to the calculation of the
multigroup constants appearing in these equations, as well as to the practical
numerical solution of the equations themselves.
In Part 4, we attempt to give an overview of the methods used in nuclear reactor
core design. In particular, we consider the application of the concepts and tools
developed in the earlier sections to a variety of problems faced by the nuclear
engineer, including criticality calculations, the determination of core power distributions and thermal-hydraulics analysis, burnup and control studies, and fuelloading requirements. While certainly incomplete, we do feel that the problems we
have chosen to examine are representative of those encountered in nuclear reactor
design and serve to illustrate the concepts developed in the earlier chapters of the
text.
REFERENCES
1. The Nuclear Industry, USAEC Report WASH-1174-73, 1973. The USAEC publishes an
annual report on the status of private nuclear industry within the United States. These
reports provide a very comprehensive survey of the growth of the nuclear power industry.
2. Chauncey Starr, Sci. Amer. 225, 39 (1971).
3. Fourth International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (International
Atomic Energy Agency, Geneva, 1972), Vol. 1.
4. A study of base-load alternatives for the Northeast Utilities System, Report to the Board
of Trustees of Northeast Utilities, Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1973).
5. Nuclear Fuel Resources and Requirements, USAEC Report WASH-1243 (1973); Nucl.
Ind. 21 (2) (1974); Nucl News 17, (5) (1974).
6. David J. Rose, Science 184, 351 (1974).
7. A n Assessment of Accident Risks in U. S. Commercial Nuclear Power Plants, USAEC
Report WASH-1400 (1974).
Most current information concerning the nuclear power industry appears in a number of
journal publications. Although the number of journals appearing in the field of nuclear
science and engineering is quite voluminous, a brief list of journals of more general interest
would include:
Nuclear Engineering International (Europressatom): A British journal distinguished by its
elaborate, multicolored diagrams of nuclear power plants.
Nuclear Industry (Atomic Industrial Forum): A monthly news magazine written more from
the viewpoint of the consumer of nuclear power productsnamely, the electrical utilities.
Nuclear News (American Nuclear Society): A monthly news magazine published by the
American Nuclear Society, the principal technical organization of nuclear engineering in
the United States.
Nuclear Safety (Office of Information Services, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission): A
journal highlighting recent developments in the field of nuclear reactor safety.
Nuclear Science and Engineering (American Nuclear Society): The principal technical
research journal of nuclear engineering.
Other more research-oriented journals in the field of nuclear science and engineering
include:
Annals of Nuclear Science and Engineering (formerly Journal of Nuclear Energy) (Pergamon,
New York).
Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology (Atomic Energy Society of Japan).
Nuclear Engineering and Design (North-Holland, Amsterdam).
Nuclear Technology (American Nuclear Society).
Soviet Atomic Energy (Consultant's Bureau).
References on nuclear reactor theory include:
Bell, G. I., and Glasstone, S., Nuclear Reactor Theory, Reinhold, New York (1970).
Henry, Allan F., Nuclear Reactor Analysis, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass. (1975).
Glasstone, S. and Edlund, M. C., The Elements of Nuclear Reactor Theory, Reinhold, New
York (1952).
Glasstone, S. and Sesonske, A., Nuclear Reactor Engineering, 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand,
Princeton, N.J. (1975).
Lamarsh, J. R., Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
(1966).
Lamarsh, John R., Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
(1975).
Meghreblian, R. V. and Holmes, D. K., Reactor Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York (1960).
Murray, Raymond L., Nuclear Energy, Pergamon Press, New York (1975).
Weinberg, A. M. and Wigner, E. P., The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors, Chicago
U. P. (1958).
Zweifel, P. F., Reactor Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York (1973).
2
The Nuclear Physics of
Fission Chain Reactions
The primary objective in the design and operation of a nuclear reactor is the
utilization of the energy or radiation released by a controlled chain reaction of
nuclear fission events maintained within the reactor core. Such fission reactions
occur when a heavy atomic nucleus such as 235 U splits or fissions into two lighter
nuclei with an attendant release of both energy and radiation. Yet just how are
such fission reactions induced in a reactor? The rate at which such naturally
occurring heavy nuclei will fission on their own (,spontaneous fission) is very slow. It
should also be apparent that one cannot simply smash two nuclei together to
induce such a reaction, since the large electrical charges of heavy nuclei would lead
to a very strong repulsion. A more attractive idea is to slam a neutral particle
(which doesn't feel the nuclear charge) into a big, "overweight" nucleus and hope
that this splits it. An ideal candidate for the incident particle is the neutron. Indeed
experiments have shown that certain nuclei have an enormous appetite for
neutrons, but after swallowing them suffer a case of violent indigestion that results
in their fission. As an example of such a reaction, consider a neutron incident upon
a 235 U nucleus:
Neutron
+ 235U^-fission
products
+ more neutrons +
energy.
The products of such a reaction (e.g., lighter nuclei, neutrons, and gammas) emerge
with very large kinetic energy (some 200 MeV) which is then converted into heat as
they slow down by banging into neighboring atoms in the reactor fuel. It is this
heat energy that one utilizes to produce steam and eventually electrical power in a
nuclear power plant.
Yet just as significantly the fission reaction kicks loose a few neutrons that may
then go on to induce more fission reactions. Hence we can use the neutrons to
10
THE NUCLEAR PHYSICS OF FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS
11
propagate a chain of fission reactions. In this sense, then, the neutron plays the role
of the chain carrier while the fission reactions supply the desired energy.
However there are other possible nuclear reactions a neutron can undergo that
do not lead to fission and hence are unproductive in nature. Indeed since there are
usually two or three neutrons emitted in each fission reaction, it should be apparent
that if each neutron resulted in another fission, the chain reaction would quickly
grow without bound. One such parasitic reaction involves the capture of the
neutron by a nucleus which then emits a gamma ray rather than fissioning.
Another possible reaction involves the neutron simply bouncing or scattering off of
a nucleus. After several such scattering reactions, the neutron might eventually leak
out of the uranium core of the reactor. Such processes remove neutrons from the
reactor and tend to inhibit the chain reaction.
Therefore one o the primary tasks of the nuclear engineer is to follow the
neutron "economy" in a nuclear reactor in order to monitor and control the
behavior of the fission chain reaction. That is, he must learn how to design the
reactor so that there is a balance between the production of neutrons in fission
reactions and the loss of neutrons due to capture or leakage. The study of such
p r o c e s s e s is k n o w n a s either nuclear
reactor
theory,
nuclear
reactor
physics
or
sometimes simply as neutronics. It is essentially the subject of this text.

However the achievement of a stable chain of fission reactions is only a part of
the responsibility of the nuclear engineer. In addition he must learn how to extract
and use the energy liberated in these fission reactions. This task involves the
subjects of heat transfer, fluid flow, structural and materials analysis, and power
systems analysis and interacts strongly with the nuclear analysis of a reactor core.
It is discussed in the latter chapters of the text.
We first turn our attention to a development of the fundamental concepts
involved in predicting the distribution of neutrons in a nuclear reactor in order to
understand and design a fission chain reaction system. We need to consider
essentially two different subjects: (a) the determination of the probabilities of
occurrence of various neutron-nuclear reactions and (b) the derivation and solution of an equation that uses these probabilities to determine the neutron density
and fission reaction rate in a nuclear reactor core.
The above discussion clearly indicates the importance of being able to determine
the rate at which various types of neutron-nuclear reactions occur within the
reactor. However it is important to keep in mind that there are enormous numbers
of neutrons (typically 108 per cm 3 ) and even larger numbers of nuclei (1022 per cm3)
in the reactor core. Hence we really need concern ourselves only with the average
behavior of the neutrons and nuclei in the reactor in a statistical sense. That is, we
wish to calculate the probabilities that various types of neutron-nuclear interactions
will occur. These reaction probabilities are expressed in terms of parameters called
nuclear
cross
sections.
These cross sections represent the fundamental data utilized by the nuclear
engineer in his analysis of a nuclear reactor, much in the same way that thermal or
structural data are used by the mechanical engineer or circuit device parameters
are used by the electrical engineer. Hence some familiarity with the physics
underlying the determination and behavior of such cross sections is necessary for
effective nuclear reactor analysis.
In this chapter we will review those aspects of nuclear physics that are particularly relevant to the study of fission chain reactions. It should be stressed that this
12
presentation is not intended to be complete. Indeed we would anticipate that most

engineering students will have had some exposure to modern atomic and nuclear
physics in earlier courses. (Students who find most of the material in this chapter to
be totally alien territory would be well advised to consult one of the several
excellent standard references on introductory nuclear physics1^4 containing substantially more thorough discussions of these topics.) Unfortunately, however, most
conventional treatments of these subjects do not place sufficient emphasis on the
study of nuclear reactions in general, or neutron-nuclear reactions in particular, for
our purposes (although there are several notable exceptions 5 " 6 ).
We will begin with a brief introduction to spontaneous nuclear radioactive decay
as an example of a nuclear reaction. We then consider nuclear collision reactions
and introduce the concept of a nuclear cross section. Here we will devote particular
attention to a qualitative discussion of cross sections characterizing neutronnucleus reactions. Our final topic will be that of the nuclear fission reaction itself
and the radiation emanating from such reactions.
I. NUCLEAR REACTIONS
There are essentially two types of nuclear reactions of importance in the
study of nuclear reactors: (a) spontaneous disintegrations of nuclei and (b) reactions resulting from the collision between nuclei a n d / o r nuclear particles. An
example of the first type of reaction would be the radioactive decay of fission
products, since these are frequently unstable. Such disintegration reactions depend
only on the properties of an individual nucleus. The neutron-nucleus collision
events involved in the fission chain reaction are an example of the second type of
reaction. These collision reactions depend not only on the properties of the
colliding particles, for example, the neutron and the nucleus, but also the relative
velocity with which they strike one another.
Before diving off into a discussion of nuclear reactions, let us first introduce
some notation. We will denote the number of protons in an atomic nucleus by Z
(the atomic number), the number of neutrons by N, and the total number of
nucleons (protons plus neutrons) by A (the mass number). A specific nucleus will be
denoted by a symbol such as ^ X , where X is the chemical symbol for the atom of
interest. For example, }H, ^C, and ^ U are notations for three such nuclei. We will
refer to various species of nuclei as nuclides. Nuclei characterized by the same
atomic number Z but different mass numbers A are referred to as isotopes (e.g.,
2
92^> 2 92^, 2 92^, and ^ f U ) . Since the nucleus is a quantum mechanical system, it
may be found in any of a number of possible energy states. The general notation
refers to a nuclear ground state, while an asterisk is used to denote a nucleus in
an excited state,
Long lived excited states of nuclei are referred to as nuclear
isomers or isomeric states and are denoted by a superscript m (e.g., ^ ' " I n ) .
A. Radioactive Decay
Certain nuclei are unstable in the sense that they may spontaneously undergo
a transformation into a different nuclide, usually accompanied by the emission of
energetic particles. Such a spontaneous nuclear transformation is referred to as
radioactive decay. The three most common types of radioactive decay found in
THE NUCLEAR PHYSICS OF FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS /
13
naturally occurring nuclides include alpha decay, in which the nucleus emits a
helium nucleus 4 He; beta decay, which corresponds to the conversion of a neutron
in the nucleus into a proton, generally accompanied by the emission of an electron
and a neutrino; and gamma decay, the transition of a nucleus from one excited
state to a lower excited state with the accompanying emission of a photon.
However other types of radioactive decay are possible in a nuclear reactor since
many unstable nuclides are produced in fission which do not occur in nature. For
example, certain nuclei such as f^Kr may decay by emitting a neutron. (We will
later find that this particular type of decay process is extremely important for
reactor operation.)
The fundamental law describing radioactive decay is based on the experimental
observation that the probability that a nucleus will decay in a given time interval is
essentially constant, independent of the age of the nucleus or its environment,
dependent only on the type of the nucleus itself. Hence the time rate of change of
the number of original nuclei of a given type must be proportional to the number
of nuclei present at that time. Let us call the proportionality constant A. Then if
N(t) is the number of original nuclei left at time ty we find
(2-1)
Here X is referred to as the radioactive decay constant characteristic of the nucleus
and has units of inverse time. If we initially have N0 nuclei present, then at any
later time t the number of nuclei present will be given by an exponential law:
N(t)-N0e~\
(2-2)
The rate at which nuclei are decaying is given by

Rate = AN0e~Xt.
(2-3)
From this time behavior, it is apparent that the probability that a given nucleus will
decay in a time interval t to t + dt is just
p{i)dt
= Xe~Kt dt.
(2-4)
Since radioactive decay is a statistical phenomenon, we cannot predict with any

certainty precisely when a given nucleus will decay. However we can calculate the
mean lifetime t of the nucleus before decay using our expression for p(t) from Eq.
(2-4)
r oo
t= /
r cc
dttp(t)
ô
=X I
J
o
dtte
= ^ .
X
(2-5)
Hence on the average a given nucleus will decay after a time 1 /X.
A closely related quantity is the length of time necessary for half of the original
number of nuclei present to decay away. Such a time Tl/2 is referred to as
radioactive half-life for the nucleus and can be calculated from its definition by
noting
N(Tl/2)
= N0/2
N0e
(2-6)
14
or
^1/2
In 2
0.693
(2-7)
It is common practice to tabulate such radioactive half-lives of various unstable

nuclei in preference to their mean lifetime t or decay constant A.8
Yet another definition of some importance is that of the activity characterizing a
sample of radioactive material. This quantity is simply the total number of
disintegrations occurring per second XN(t). Activities are usually measured in units
of curies, where one curie (Ci) is defined to be that quantity of radioactive nuclei
for which the number of disintegrations per second is 3.70 X 1010. (This is roughly
the activity of 1 g of radium.)
Actually it is more common and far more useful to regard the dependent
variable N(t) as the atomic number density ( # / c m 3 ) of the nuclide of interest
rather than the total number of nuclei present in the sample. We will adhere to this
practice in our subsequent discussion.
Most radioactive decay processes are somewhat more complicated than those
described by Eq. (2-1). For example, the decaying nuclide may itself be produced
by some type of source, say, R(t) nuclei/cm 3 -sec. Then the nuclide balance
equation becomes
^ - = - X N ( t ) + R(t).
(2-8)
We can also write similar equations describing several nuclides, each of which
decays into another. Consider, by way of example, the radioactive decay chain:
\
^z
Then the appropriate equations describing the number of nuclides of each type
present are
dNx
dt
= -A XXNx X x +
'
"
RX,
dN
dt
- = - A YNY + \XNX
+ RY,
(2-9)
dNz
dt
^ =
-\ZNZ+\yNy+RZ,
where Rx(t) is the production term for the X-nuclide, and so on. Since this is just a
system of linear first-order differential equations with constant coefficients, it can
easily be solved using standard techniques, and hence we will defer further
discussion to the problems at the end of the chapter.
Very similar considerations also hold for the transition of nuclei between
different excited states. Such states represent the quantum levels available to the
nucleus. We can again characterize the probability that the nucleus will "decay"
out of one excited state into a lower state by a decay constant A, and once again
also develop the concept of a mean lifetime for the excited state t. A useful related
15
concept here is the uncertainty or width T of the energy level characterizing the
excited state. This width is related to the mean lifetime of the state by the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle:
AtAE>h.
(2-10)
Hence the width of the state can be expressed in terms of its decay constant by
T = AE^h/At
= h\.
(2-11)
B. Nuclear Collision Reactions

The study of nuclear collision reactions can be formulated in a manner very
similar to that used to describe chemical reactions. Indeed, the familar notation for
a chemical reaction
(2-12)
a + b-*c + d
is frequently adopted to describe nuclear reactions. However since in nuclear

reactions, one particle is usually considered to be a projectile while the other
particle is taken as a target, one sometimes uses the more detailed notation
a (b, c) d
Target""
^ ^ Projectile
As an example, the reaction

1 , 235tj
236TJ,
u U +
0n-r
92
92
Y>
would be written as
U(n,yy%U.
The general class of such reactions would be simply denoted as (, y) reactions.

Nuclear reactions are generally accompanied by either the absorption or emission of energy. One can calculate the energy released by (or required for) a given
nuclear reaction by using the important result from the theory of relativity:
E = mc2,
(2-13)
where c is the speed of light and m is the mass converted into energy in a reaction.
The appropriate quantity to use for the variable m that appears in this formula is
the mass difference between the interacting particles before and after the collision.
16
For the reaction a{b,c)d we would calculate the reaction energy as

Q = [{Ma + Mb)-{Mc
+ Md)}c\
(2-14)
If Q > 0, then we say the reaction is exothermic, which corresponds to a release of

energy in the reaction. If Q<0, then the reaction is said to be endothermic, and
energy must be supplied to the colliding nuclei in order to stimulate the reaction to
occur. Obviously, nuclear fission is an example of an exothermic reaction.
There are a wide variety of possible nuclear reactions. The reactions of most
interest in the analysis of a nuclear fission reactor involve interactions between
neutrons and nuclei and include
Nuclear fission (n,fission):
Radiative capture (n,y):
Scattering (n,n) or (n,n'):

on + z X ^ n + z X
[elastic scattering (n,n)]
' (zx)*
>^n + zX+
[inelastic scattering (n,n')]

y
[inelastic scattering
(2-17)
(n,n )].
We have already discussed the nuclear fission reaction. In radiative capture the
incident neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus to form a new nuclide of mass
number ^4 + 1. As we will see later, this "compound" nucleus is formed in an
excited state. In a radiative capture reaction, it will eventually decay to its ground
state by emitting a high-energy photon, that is, a gamma ray. An alternative type of
capture reaction of some importance in reactor control is the (n,a) reaction which
occurs in
for example.
The third reaction of importance is scattering. In this reaction the neutron simply
scatters off of the nucleus (n,n), although in some cases, it may first combine with
the nucleus to form a compound nucleus for a short time before being reemitted
and will frequently leave the nucleus in an excited state from which it later decays
by gamma emission.
The importance of the fission reaction to nuclear reactor operation is obvious.
Both radiative capture and scattering are also extremely important since they
influence the neutron economy and hence the chain reaction. We will concentrate
specifically on neutron-nuclear reactions as we turn to a more quantitative treatment of nuclear reactions of importance in fission chain reactions.
1. MICROSCOPIC CROSS SECTIONS
The probability that a neutron-nuclear reaction will occur is characterized by

a quantity called a nuclear cross section. Let us first define this quantity operation-
17
ally by considering a beam of neutrons, all traveling with the same speed and
direction, which is incident normally upon and uniformly across the face of a target
of material. If the target is sufficiently thin (say, one atomic layer thick), then no
nuclei in the target will be shielded by other nuclei from the incident neutron beam
(see Figure 2-1). In this case we would expect that the rate of neutron-nuclear
reactions in the target will be proportional to both the incident neutron beam
intensity I (in units of number of neutrons/cm 2 -sec) and the number of target
atoms per unit area NA ( # /cm 2 ). If we call the constant of proportionality a, we
can write the rate at which reactions occur per unit area on the target as
Rate =
R
#
2
. cm -sec .
a
[cm 2 ]
/
na
#
#
2
. cm -sec . . cm 2
We have indicated the units of each of these quantities since they imply that the
proportionality factor a must have the units of an area.
If the incident neutrons and target nuclei could be visualized as classical
particles, o would quite naturally correspond to the cross sectional area presented
by each of the target nuclei to the beam. Hence a is known as the microscopic cross
section characterizing the probability of a neutron-nuclear reaction for the nucleus.
We might continue to think of a as the effective cross sectional area presented by
the nucleus to the beam of incident neutrons. Since the nuclear radius is roughly
10" 1 2 cm, the geometrical cross sectional area of the nucleus is roughly 10~ 24 cm 2 .
Hence we might expect that nuclear cross sections are of the order of 10" 2 4 cm2. In
fact microscopic cross sections are usually measured in units of this size called
barns (b). However this geometrical interpretation of a nuclear cross section can
frequently be misleading since o can be much larger (or smaller) than the geometrical cross section of the nucleus due to resonance effects which, in turn, are a
consequence of the quantum mechanical nature of the neutron and the nucleus.
For example, the absorption cross section of ^ X e for slow neutrons is almost one
million times larger than its geometrical cross section.
18
We can give a slightly more formal definition of the microscopic cross section by
rearranging Eq. (2-18) to write
a
Number of reactions/nucleus/sec
Number of incident neutrons/cm / s e c
(^/â)
1
(2-19)
In this sense, then, if the target has a total cross sectional area &, all of which is
uniformly exposed to the incident beam, then
_a_ _ Probability per nucleus that a neutron
& in the beam will interact with it
^ 20)
Thus far we have been discussing the concept of a nuclear cross section in a
rather abstract sense without actually specifying the type of reaction we have in
mind. Actually such cross sections can be used to characterize any type of nuclear
reaction. We can define a microscopic cross section for each type of neutronnuclear reaction and each type of nuclide. For example, the appropriate cross
sections characterizing the three types of reactions we discussed earlier, fission,
radiative capture, and scattering, are denoted by a f , a y , and a s , respectively. We can
also assign separate cross sections to characterize elastic scattering a e in which the
target nucleus remains in its ground state, and inelastic scattering a i n in which the
target nucleus is left in an excited state. Since cross sections are related to
probabilities of various types of reactions, it is apparent that
In a similar sense we can define the absorption cross section characterizing those
events in which a nucleus absorbs a neutron. There are a number of possible types
of absorption reactions including fission, radiative capture, (n,a) reactions, and so
on. (Actually one could argue that fission is not really an absorption reaction since
several neutrons are created in the fission reaction. It has become customary,
however, to treat fission as an absorption event and then add back in the fission
neutrons released in the reaction at another point, as we will see later.) Finally, we
can introduce the concept of the total cross section at characterizing the probability
that any type of neutron-nuclear reaction will occur. Obviously
A schematic diagram 9 of the heirarchy of cross sections along with their conventional notation is shown in Figure 2-2. Notice that in general one would define the
absorption cross section to characterize any event other than scattering
In a similar fashion, one occasionally defines a nonelastic cross section as any event
other than elastic scattering
Thus far we have defined the concept of a microscopic cross section by

considering a beam of neutrons of identical speeds incident normally upon the
19
a t (total)
os (scattering)
(elastic
scattering)
(inelastic
scattering)
a f (fission)
FIGURE 2-2.
(absorption)
2/i
n,3n
a
.p
n,a
0 7 {radiative
capture)
Neutron cross section heirarchy.
surface of a target. However it is certainly conceivable that such cross sections will
vary, depending on the incident neutron speed (or energy) and direction. Indeed if
the microscopic cross section for various incident neutron energies is measured, a
very strong energy dependence of the cross section is found. The dependence of
neutron cross sections on the incident beam angle is usually much weaker and can
almost always be ignored in nuclear reactor applications. We will return later to
consider in further detail the dependence of cross sections on incident neutron
energy. First, however, it is useful to develop a quantity closely related to the
microscopic cross section, that of the macroscopic cross section.
2. MACROSCOPIC CROSS SECTIONS
Thus far we have considered a beam of neutrons incident upon a very thin
target. This was done to insure that each nucleus in the target would be exposed to
the same beam intensity. If the target were thicker, the nuclei deeper within the
target would tend to be shielded from the incident beam by the nuclei nearer the
surface since interactions remove neutrons from the beam. To account for such
finite thickness effects, let us now consider a neutron beam incident upon the
surface of a target of arbitrary thickness as indicated schematically in Figure 2-3.
We will derive an equation for the "virgin" beam intensity I(x) at any point x in
the target. By virgin beam we are referring to that portion of the neutrons in the
beam that have not interacted with target nuclei. Consider a differential thickness
of target between x and x + dx. Then since dx is infinitesimally thin, we know that
the results from our study of thin targets can be used to calculate the rate at which
neutrons suffer interactions in dx per cm 2 . If we recognize that the number of
target nuclei per cm 2 in dx is given by dNA = N dx, where N is the number density
of nuclei in the target, then the total reaction rate per unit area in dx is just
dR = otI dNA = otI N dx.
(2-21)
20
x = 0
FIGURE 2-3.
x + dx
A monoenergetic neutron beam incident normally on a thick target.
Notice that, consistent with our prescription that any type of interaction will
deflower an incident neutron, we have utilized the total microscopic cross section a t
in computing dR.
We can now equate this reaction rate to the decrease in beam intensity between
x and x + dx
- dl (x) = - [I (x + dx) -1 (jc)] = oJNdx.
Dividing by dx we find a differential equation for the beam intensity
=
NatI(x).
(2-22)
I(x)
(2-23)
If we solve this equation subject to an incident beam intensity of / 0 at x = 0, we

find an exponential attenuation of the incident beam of the form
I (x) = J 0 exp ( - Notx).
(2-24)
The product of the atomic number density N and the microscopic cross section
a t that appears in the exponential term arises so frequently in nuclear reactor
studies that it has become customary to denote it by a special symbol:
2 t = 7 V a t = [ # / c m 3 ] [ c m 2 ] = [cm - 1 ].
(2-25)
One refers to 2 t as the total macroscopic cross section characterizing the target
material. The term "macroscopic" arises from the recognition that 2 t characterizes
the probability of neutron interaction in a macroscopic chunk of material (the
target), whereas the microscopic cross section characterizes the probability of
interaction with only a single nucleus.
It should be noted that 2 t is not really a "cross section" at all, however, since its
units are inverse length. A more appropriate interpretation can be achieved by
reexamining Eq. (2-22) and noting that the fractional change in beam intensity
occurring over a distance dx is just given by
21
Hence, it is natural to interpret 2 t as the probability per unit path length traveled
that the neutron will undergo a reaction with a nucleus in the sample. In this sense
then
exp( 2 t x ) = probability that a neutron moves a distance dx without
any interaction;
exp (
dx = probability that a neutron has its first interaction in dx

=
p(x)dx.
With this interaction probability, we can calculate the average distance a neutron
travels before interacting with a nucleus in the sample
(2-27)
It is customary to refer to this distance as the neutron mean free path since it
essentially measures the average distance a neutron is likely to stream freely before
colliding with a nucleus.
The reader has probably noticed the similarity of this analysis to our earlier
treatment of radioactive decay. The spatial attentuation of a neutron beam passing
through a sample of material and the temporal decay of a sample of radioactive
nuclei are similar types of statistical phenomenon in which the probability of an
event occurring that removes a neutron or nucleus from the original sample
depends only on the number of neutrons or nuclei present at the position or time of
interest. It should be stressed that both the mean free path and the mean lifetime
for decay are very much average quantities. There will be statistical fluctuations
about these mean values.
If we recall that 2 t is the probability per unit path length that a neutron will
undergo a reaction, while the neutron speed v is the distance traveled by the
neutron in a unit time, then evidently
(2-28)
This quantity is usually referred to as the collision frequency for the neutron in the
sample. Its reciprocal, [ r 2 t ] _ 1 , is therefore interpretable as the mean time between
neutron reactions.
Thus far our discussion has been restricted to total macroscopic cross sections
that characterize the probability that a neutron will undergo any type of reaction.^
We can generalize this concept by formally defining the macroscopic cross section
for any specific reaction as just the microscopic cross section for the reaction of
interest multiplied by the number density N characterizing the material of interest.
For example, the macroscopic fission cross section would be defined as
2f =
Nof.
(2-29)
In a similar fashion we can define

2 a = iVaa,
Ss. s t f o ,S'
(2-30)
22
Notice also that

(2-31)
It should be stressed that while one can formally define such macroscopic cross
sections for specific reactions, our earlier discussion of neutron penetration into a
thick target applies only to the total macroscopic cross section 2 t . We could not
extend this discussion, for example, to the calculation of the probability of neutron
penetration to a depth x prior to absorption by merely replacing 2 t in Eq. (2-24) by
2 a , since it may be possible for the neutron to undergo a number of scattering
reactions before finally suffering an absorption reaction. We can calculate these
specific reaction probabilities only after a more complete consideration of neutron
transport in materials (Chapters 4 and 5).
The concept of a macroscopic cross section can also be generalized to homogeneous mixtures of different nuclides. For example, if we have a homogeneous
mixture of three different species of nuclide, X, Y, and Z, with respective atomic
number densities Nx, Ny> and Nz, then the total macroscopic cross section
characterizing the mixture is given by
2t=Nxo?+NYot+Nzof,
(2-32)
where of is the microscopic total cross section for nuclide X, and so on. It should
be noted that such a prescription for determining the macroscopic cross section for
a mixture arises quite naturally from our interpretation of such cross sections as
probabilities of reactions.
As we mentioned earlier, all neutron-nuclear reaction cross sections (fission,
radiative capture, scattering, etc.) depend to some degree on the energy of the
incident neutron. If we denote the neutron energy by E, we acknowledge this
dependence by including a functional dependence on E in the microscopic cross
section o(E) and hence by inference also in the macroscopic cross section 2 ( ) .
However the macroscopic cross section can depend on additional variables as
well. For example, suppose that the target material does not have a uniform
composition. Then the number density N will depend on the position r in the
sample, and hence the macroscopic cross sections themselves will be spacedependent. In a similar manner, the number densities might depend on time
suppose, for example, that the nuclide of interest was unstable such that its number
density was decaying as a function of time. Therefore in the most general case we
would write
2(T,E,t)
N(T,t)o(E)
(2-33)
to indicate the explicit dependence of the macroscopic cross section on neutron

energy E, position r, and time t.
In summary then, nuclear cross sections can be used to characterize the probability of various types of neutron-nuclear reactions occurring. They obviously will be
a very basic ingredient in any study of fission chain reactions. The determination
of such cross sections is the task of the nuclear physicist and involves both
experimental measurement and theoretical calculations. The enormous amount of
cross section information required for nuclear reactor analysis is gathered by
numerous nuclear research centers throughout the world. These cross section data
23
are compiled, evaluated, and then organized into data sets to be used by nuclear
engineers. We will return in a later section to discuss in further detail such nuclear
cross section data sets. For convenience, however, we have included in Appendix A
a table of some of the more important cross sections characteristic of "thermal"
neutronsthat is, of neutrons whose energies are comparable to the thermal energy
of atoms in a reactor core at room temperature, " = 0.025 eVwhich serves to
illustrate typical orders of magnitudes of these quantities.
EXAMPLE: As a specific illustration, let us calculate the mean free path for a
thermal neutron in graphite. According to the table in Appendix A, carbon is
nearly a pure scatterer with microscopic cross sections a s = 4.8 b and a a = 4.0x 10" 3
b. If we assume a mass density of 1.60 g/cm 3 , we can calculate the atomic
number density in graphite as N = .0803 X 1024 c m - 3 . Consequently the macroscopic scattering and absorption cross sections are
2 S = Nos = 0 . 3 8 5 c m " M r
= 3.2x l O ^ c m " 1 ,
and the total cross section is

S ^ O ^ c n r
- ^ .
The mean free path is therefore

\ = A- =2.6 cm.
Notice how small the absorption cross section in graphite is compared to its
scattering cross section. Indeed since 2 s / 2 a = 1.2 X 103, one can infer that a thermal
neutron in graphite will make some 1200 scattering collisions on the average before
being absorbed. This very low absorption cross section makes graphite an ideal
material for nuclear reactor applications.
C.
Characteristics of Neutron-Nuclear Cross Sections
Before considering in detail the various types of neutron-nuclear reactions

significant in nuclear reactor analysis, it is useful to give a brief discussion of some
of the relevant physics underlying the behavior of these cross sections. There are
two aspects involved in the analysis of neutron cross sections:
(a) the kinematics of two-particle collisions and
(b) the dynamics of nuclear reactions.
The kinematics of two-body collisions, that is, the application of the laws of
conservation of momentum and energy to such collisions, should be very familiar
to the reader from introductory courses in mechanics or modern physics. However
consistent with our attempt to make this presentation as self-contained as possible,
and being well aware of the short half-life of this type of information in the fast
core memory of most students, we will review such kinematic calculations in
Section 2-I-D.
The dynamics of nuclear reactions is concerned with the fundamental physical
mechanisms involved in such collision events. The two mechanisms of most interest
in nuclear reactor applications are those of potential scattering, in which the
24
neutron merely bounces off of the force field of the nucleus without actually
penetrating the nuclear surface, and compound nucleus formation, in which the
incident neutron is actually absorbed by the nucleus to form a new nucleus of mass
number A + 1 which then decays by emitting a gamma, a neutron, or perhaps
fissioning.
We will give a brief discussion of both of these interaction mechanisms, and then
turn our attention to a specific survey of the various types of cross section behavior
encountered in the more common materials utilized in nuclear reactors.
1. M E C H A N I S M S O F N E U T R O N - N U C L E A R I N T E R A C T I O N
The simplest type of nuclear reaction occurring in a nuclear reactor is

potential scattering, in which the neutron scatters elastically off the nuclear potential without ever penetrating the nucleus itself. This type of collision event is very
similar to that which would occur between two hard spheres (e.g., billiard balls),
and the cross section for such a reaction is essentially just the geometrical cross
section of the nucleus. Potential scattering cross sections are characterized by a
rather flat energy dependence from about 1 eV up to the MeV range.
Another common type of reaction encountered in a nuclear reactor is that in
which the incident neutron is first absorbed by the nucleus
to create a new
compound nucleus A^lX. This compound nucleus subsequently decays by emitting
an energetic particle. Compound nucleus formation occurs in many neutronnuclear reactions of interest to the reactor engineer, including fission, radiative
capture, and certain types of scattering.
That such a mechanism must be involved in these reactions can be inferred from
the relatively long times (at least on a nuclear time scale) for such events to occur.
Whereas it would take a slow neutron (traveling at 105 cm/sec) some 10" 1 7 sec to
cross the nucleus, neutron-nuclear reactions such as fission occur on a time scale
of some 10" 1 4 secor some 1000 transit times. Hence the incident neutron must
first be absorbed by the original nucleus and rattle around a bit, distributing both
its kinetic energy and the additional binding energy supplied by the added neutron
to the other nucleons in the nucleus, before the compound nucleus finally decays.
The long lifetime of the compound nucleus implies that the disintegration process
is essentially independent of the original mode of formation; that is, the compound
nucleus lasts long enough to "forget" most of the characteristics of the incident
neutron (such as which direction it came from).
The formation of a compound nucleus actually corresponds to a so-called
resonance reaction, in which the incident neutron energy matches one of the energy
levels in the compound nucleus. To be more specific, consider a neutron incident
upon a nuclide
As we will see later when we develop the topic of collision kinematics, the energy
availably for such a reaction is the center of mass (CM) energy EC = (M/m + M)E,
where m is the neutron mass, M is the nuclear mass, and E is the neutron kinetic
energy in the laboratory system. The actual energy of the excited level of the
25
compound nucleus is much higher due to the additional binding energy of the
added neutron Eh. If Ec+Eh
is very close to a nuclear energy level of the
A
compound nucleus
one expects that the probability for compound nucleus
formation will be much larger than if Ec +Eh does not "match" this energy level.
Hence we expect that the cross sections for such compound nuclear reactions will
exhibit sharp peaks or resonances at those neutron energies E for which this energy
matching occurs. By way of illustration, we have shown the resonance structure in
the low-energy cross section behavior of a number of nuclei in Figure 2-4.
Energy
FIGURE 2-4.
(eV)
Low-energy cross section behavior of several important nuclides. 12
26
The second stage of a compound nucleus process is the decay of the compound
nucleus. This decay may occur in a variety of ways, as indicated schematically
below:
^
ln+AzX->(A
Resonance elastic scattering
j* \n + (iX )*
+l
z X)*
V Z
on-\-zX
VZ
+
^
Inelastic scattering
(2-34)
Radiative capture
+ y
i\X + i\X + 2-3
0n
Fission
Since we have argued that the final disintegration mode is essentially independent
of the neutron absorption process which creates the compound nucleus, we might
expect that the cross section energy dependence for compound nucleus reactions
will exhibit certain similarities. These similarities will become apparent as we
consider in more detail the specific neutron-nuclear reactions of importance in
nuclear fission reactors.
2. A QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION OF NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS
(a.) RADIATIVE
CAPTURE
Radiative capture reactions are quite significant for reactor analysis since they
remove neutrons from the chain reaction. Such reactions proceed via compound
nucleus formation in which the incident neutron is first absorbed to form the
compound nucleus of mass number A + 1, and then this nucleus subsequently
decays by emitting a cascade of high-energy gammas. For this reason, the functional dependence of the capture cross section on the neutron kinetic energy E
exhibits a resonance behavior at those energies at which the CM energy Ec plus the
neutron binding energy Eb match an energy level of the compound nucleus. We
have shown this resonance situation schematically for neutron capture in 238 U in
Figure 2-5. In particular, we have indicated the energy level diagram for the
compound nucleus 239 U for one of the low lying resonances at is = 6.67 eV. This
resonance has a very narrow width of 0.027 eV and an extremely high peak (several
thousand barns). The subsequent radiative decay of the compound 239 U nucleus is
usually a cascade process, with the new nucleus jumping down through a number
of energy levels accompanied by the emission of several gamma rays. Since the
excited levels are typically in the MeV range, the total energy of the emitted
gammas will be quite large.
For resonances (i.e., energy levels) which are spaced widely apart, it is possible to
describe the energy dependence of the absorption cross section by a very simple
e x p r e s s i o n k n o w n as t h e Breit-Wigner
/M
1 / 2
single-level
resonance
formula:1"*
Here E0 is the energy at which the resonance occurs (that is, the energy Ec at which
Ec + Eh matches the energy level of the compound nucleus), T is the so-called total
line width of the resonance that essentially characterizes the width of the energy
level and the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the resonance, while Ty is
27
E 4
100
Incident
neutron
10
^
Neutron
6.67 eV
kinetic energy
i
m<? + M23qC2
1
10
2381
92
100
OY(E)
(t>)
7 Cascade
239
92
FIGURE 2-5.
An energy-level diagram of the capture resonance in U 2 3 8 at E = 6.67 eV.
the radiative line width essentially characterizing the probability that the compound
nucleus will decay via gamma emission. Here CT0 is the value of the total cross
section ot(E) at the resonance energy E0 and can be written in terms of the reduced
neutron wavelength
at E0 as
a
2
r
(a. -hi) T
6
o~47rXQ-prg = 2.608 X10
' -^g,
(2-36)
while g = (2J + l ) / 2 ( 2 / + 1) is a statistical spin factor given in terms of the nuclear

spin / and total spin J. Tn is the neutron line width and varies in energy as
Tn=vnVE.
(2-37)
We have sketched the Breit-Wigner resonance shape versus the CM kinetic energy
Ec in Figure 2-6. It should be noted that since resonance absorption is primarily of
importance in heavy nuclei, one can usually approximate EcE. For low energies
E<Ê0, the cross section behaves as essentially 1/.E 1 / 2 or \/v. For large energies
o , the cross section drops off quite rapidly as E ~ 5 / 2 . It is also important to
note that such absorption cross sections are largest at low energies. (A list of
several of the lower lying resonances of 238 U is given in Table 8-2.) The energy
levels in heavy nuclei become relatively more closely spaced at higher energies.
Indeed for energies above roughly 1 keV in heavy nuclei such as 238 U, the
absorption resonances become so closely spaced that they cannot be resolved by
experimental measurements. The treatment of neutron absorption in such unresolved resonances is a very difficult but important task in nuclear reactor analysis.
28
(b.) NUCLEAR
FISSION
Nuclear fission is yet another reaction that proceeds by compound nucleus

formation. Once again a compound nucleus is first formed by neutron absorption.
This compound nucleus then decays by fissioning into two lighter nuclei. Since the
mode of disintegration is relatively independent of the formation mechanism, we
might again expect the cross sections for nuclear fission to exhibit a resonance
structure very similar to that characterizing radiative capture. This is certainly the
case for fission cross sections characterizing nuclei such as 233 U, 235 U, and 239 Pu.
However the fission cross sections for other heavy nuclei such as 232 Th and 238 U
exhibit a somewhat different structure in that they are essentially zero until the
incident neutron energy exceeds a threshold of roughly an MeV. To understand
this latter behavior, we must examine in more detail the fission process itself, a task
we shall defer until Section 2-II.
(c.)
SCATTERING
i.) Inelastic scattering

In an inelastic scattering reaction, the incident neutron is first absorbed by the
nucleus to form a compound nucleus. This nucleus then subsequently decays by
reemitting a neutron. However the final nucleus is left in an excited state. Such
reactions usually occur only for relatively high neutron energies, say above 10 keV,
since the neutron kinetic energy must exceed a certain threshold energy in order to
excite the first excited state of the compound nucleus. We have depicted this
reaction schematically in Figure 2-7.
Since much of the kinetic energy of the incident neutron may be converted into
the energy of excitation of the target nucleus, it is possible for a neutron to lose a
large amount of energy in an inelastic scattering reaction. It should be noted in
particular that kinetic energy is not conserved in such an inelastic reaction.
ii.) Elastic resonance scattering
A very similar compound nucleus reaction involves first the absorption of the
incident neutron, followed by the reemission of the neutron with the target nucleus
FIGURE 2-7.
29
A schematic of the energy-level diagram characterizing inelastic scattering.
returning to its ground state (see Figure 2-8). In contrast to inelastic scattering,
kinetic energy is conserved in elastic events. As one finds with most compound
nucleus reactions, there is again a resonance behavior in the corresponding scattering cross section. In this case, however, the cross section energy dependence is
somewhat different from that observed in radiative capture or fission. The cross
section may actually decrease before rising to a resonance maximum.
This structure arises because the process of resonance elastic scattering may
interfere (in a quantum mechanical sense) with potential scattering. The
appropriate modification of the Breit-Wigner formula to account for scattering
interference is
r.
1
l+>>
resonance
scattering
AO 1 + 7
interference
scattering
potential
scattering
where R is the nuclear radius (given approximately by R~ 1.25 X 10"
1/3
cm),
iii.) Potential scattering

The simplest type of nuclear interaction is potential scattering, in which the
incident neutron scatters elastically off of the nuclear potential without penetrating
the nuclear surface. Such "billiard-ball" collisions are characterized by an essen-
30
FIGURE 2-8.
+ 1
The energy-level diagram for resonance elastic scattering.
tially energy-independent cross section a p which is of the order of magnitude of the

geometric cross section of the nucleus for intermediate energies, 4ItR 2.
(d) TOTAL
NEUTRON
CROSS
SECTIONS
Recall that we defined the total cross section for neutron-nuclear reactions as
the sum of the cross sections for each type of reaction
x = o% + oy + o f + . . .
(2-39)
Such cross sections can be measured by performing transmission experiments such

as those we used to operationally define the concept of a cross section. That is, one
shoots a monoenergetic beam of neutrons of energy E at a thin target and then
measures the fraction of the incident beam that penetrates the sample.
It is of interest to see if we can understand the energy dependence of total cross
sections in terms of the various different reactions and reaction mechanisms we
have discussed earlier. To be specific, let us consider the total cross section of a
common reactor material, graphite (^C), which is shown over the energy range
from 10~ 3 eV to lOMeV in Figure 2-9. One can distinguish essentially five different
regions of cross section behavior for this material. For very low energies, the cross
section behaves as E A t about 10~ 3 eV the cross section becomes very jagged
and irregular. These spikes in the cross section smooth out by an energy of 10 _ l eV,
and the cross section from this energy up to 10 5 eV is essentially constant. Above
10 5 eV the cross section begins to show a detailed structure once again, until it
eventually drops off above 107eV.
31
III I I I I
10
lii
I
10"
1/
I III
1.0
10~2
10 - 3
11
1 1 1 1 111
10"
Neutron energy, eV
10
1 1 1 1
0.5
1111
1.0
0.1
10 4
1 11 1 1 1! 1
1 1 II 1 li
10 s
10'
1 1 1 II 1 1
108
Neutron energy, eV
FIGURE 2-9.
The total scattering cross section of
12
C.
In an effort to explain each of these different types of behavior, let us begin with
the smooth cross section variation for intermediate energies (region (7)). In this
energy range, the cross sections of most nuclei are dominated by potential scattering (except for heavy nuclei in which both resonance scattering and absorption
may be dominant effects because of low-lying energy states). The cross section
magnitude is essentially just the geometric area presented to the neutron by the
nucleus ( ~ 5 b ) and depends very little on neutron energy.
The jagged behavior in the MeV region ( 4 ) corresponds to resonance reaction
mechanisms since now the incident neutron energy is comparable to that of the
lowest energy levels in the compound nucleus ^C. Since the nuclear energy levels
lie closer to the ground state for heavier nuclei, we would expect that such
resonance structure would appear at progressively lower energies for the heavier
nuclides. For example, we have already noted that a pronounced resonance occurs
in 238 U at 6.67 eV.
The falloff in the cross section at very high energies (region ( ? ) ) is easily
understandable in terms of the neutron wavelength
2.86X 10~9
P
V2mE
VE
(eV)
cm.
(2-40)
32
Since this wavelength decreases with increasing neutron energy, it is apparent that
for sufficiently high energies, the probability of neutron interaction with the
nucleus will similarly decrease. Such very high energy behavior has little relevance
to nuclear reactor analysis, since neutrons in fission chain reactions rarely exceed
lOMeV in energy.
The irregular, jagged behavior at low energies in region ( ? ) is also a wavelength
effect. For sufficiently small energies, the wavelength becomes comparable to the
interatomic spacing, and the neutron interacts not with a single nucleus but rather
with an aggregate of nuclei. If the material has a regular structure (such as the
crystalline structure of graphite), the neutron will be diffracted, just as X-rays are
diffracted when passing through a crystal. This is accompanied by a sensitive
energy dependence as the neutron wavelength becomes comparable to multiples of
the spacing between various crystal lattice planes. For sufficiently small energies,
the wavelength becomes so large that diffraction becomes impossible, and the cross
section becomes smoothly varying again.
There are two other important effects which influence the neutron cross section
behavior at very low energies (regions ( T ) and ( 2 ) ) . If the neutron energy is less
than the chemical binding energy of atoms in the sample
1 eV), the neutron will
no longer be interacting with a free nucleus, but rather with an aggregate of bound
nuclei. It can interact and excite the internal modes of the sample, such as crystal
lattice vibrations or molecular rotations. For these low energies, the thermal motion
of the nuclei also becomes very important. If we recall that these thermal motions
are essentially characterized by the sample temperature T and that the atoms in
thermal equilibrium at this temperature are characterized by a thermal energy kT,
where k is the Boltzmann constant, & = 8.6173x 1 0 ~ 5 e V / K , then for neutron
energies comparable to this thermal energy (at room temperature, E = 0.025 eV), the
motion of the nuclei must be considered. We will return in the next section to
discuss the modifications this requires in the neutron cross section. Suffice it to say
at this point that such considerations imply that for small neutron energies, the
cross section will behave as l / E 1 / / 2 .
Similar features are found in most neutron cross sections of interest in reactor
analysis, although the particular energy regions in which such behavior arises will
vary from nuclide to nuclide. For example, we have summarized the characteristics
of nuclei of different mass numbers in Table 2-1. 10
We will return later from time to time to discuss more specific features of
neutron cross section behavior which are of particular significance for nuclear
reactor applications.
3. N U C L E A R D A T A SETS
The key ingredient in all reactor calculations is a knowledge of the various

relevant neutron-nuclear cross sections. The complicated dependence of such cross
sections on neutron energy and angle of incidence, combined with the large
number of isotopes involved in nuclear reactor analysis implies that neutron cross
section data can be quite massive. Such data have been accumulated over the past
few decades by both experimental measurements and theoretical calculations. The
tabulation of these data has grown from a single volume, BNL-325 11 (the so-called
"barn book") in the 1950s to a six-volume set 12 in the 1960s to the point where
nuclear data are most conveniently kept on magnetic tape or in computer memory.
(Although it should be mentioned that a new third edition 13 of BNL-325 has
recently been issued.)

TABLE 2-1
33
A Summary of Cross Section Behavior for Nuclei of Various Mass Number 10
Slow
neutrons
E < 1 eV
Epithermal
neutrons
1 e V < < . 1 MeV
Fast
neutrons
.1 M e V < E < 2 0 M e V
Separated resonances
Light
nuclei
A <25
Potential scattering
Resonance scattering, (n>2n), (n,p)
Separated
resonances
Intermediate
nuclei
25<^<80
Overlapping Continuum
resonances I resonances
Resonance scattering, radiative capture

Potential scattering
Separated
resonances
Heavy
nuclei
>80
Overlapping
resonances
Continuum
resonances
Radiative capture
Inelastic scattering, (n,2n)
Basic nuclear data appear in a wide variety of forms. For example, raw cross
section data are usually provided by a variety of experiments, each characterized by a different degree of accuracy. Multiple sets of experimental data may
exist giving different values for the same cross sections. Data may be provided by
different theoretical calculations of varying accuracy. There are also numerous
gaps where no cross section measurement or theory is available or applicable. The
enormous volume of such varied nuclear data would overwhelm the nuclear
engineer in his efforts to extract those cross sections of relevance to his particular
needs.
Hence a number of years ago it was decided to consolidate and standardize all of
the cross section information into one data set. To this end the Evaluated Nuclear
Data File (ENDF) 1 4 was established to consolidate, organize, and present these
data in a form convenient for nuclear applications. The E N D F system contains
both neutron and photon cross section data along with data-processing computer
programs which can manipulate the data into the most convenient form for the
user. These data are stored in three computer library systems:
(1) CSISRS (Cross Section Information Storage and Retrieval System): This
data set contains essentially unevaluated raw data from experimental
measurements.
(2) E N D F / A : This data set contains both complete and incomplete sets of
nuclear data as soon as they become available. For each isotope there
34
may be more than one data set for a particular reaction, or there may be
none at all for certain reactions of interest.
(3) E N D F / B : The E N D F / B data set contains only complete, evaluated sets
of nuclear data presented in a form that can be most conveniently utilized
by the nuclear designer. Data for approximately 80 isotopes are included
for all significant neutron-induced reactions in the energy range 10~ 5 eV
to 20MeV. In particular, cross section data are provided for the reactions
( n , y ) , (, fission), ( n , p ) , ( , a ) , (n,n),
(n,n%
(n,2p)
a n d (n,2n\
a s well a s
for the differential scattering cross sections (described in Section 2-I-D).

E N D F / B is therefore regarded as the standard source of nuclear data for use in
nuclear reactor analysis in the United States. (There are comparable data sets in
Europe and the Soviet Union.) The E N D F / B data set is continually being
reevaluated and updated as new cross section measurements become available.
Revised versions of the data set are issued at one- or two-year intervals.
The effort involved in preparing the E N D F / B set is enormous. It not only
involves collecting and organizing the massive amount of nuclear data available
from an enormous variety of sources, but evaluating these data, checking them for
consistency, filling in the gaps in the data using existing theories (or educated
guesses), testing the data against experimental measurements, and arranging the
data in a convenient form for use.
The actual data contained in the E N D F / B set are usually not contained in
tabular form, but rather in the form of numerous fitting parameters that can be
assembled by a processing code into a fully evaluated set of cross section data for
any material of interest. For example, the set contains resonance parameters such
as level widths, resonance energies, and cross sections at resonance rather than a
tabulated set of cross section data for various energies (which would require a
prohibitively large storage). The resonance cross section can then be generated
using these parameters in a Breit-Wigner type resonance formula.
We will return to discuss further details of how such data sets are manipulated
into the forms useful for reactor calculations when we have developed a more
complete understanding of the various methods used in nuclear reactor analysis. At
the end of this chapter we have provided a list of the most useful sources of current
neutron cross section data. 15
D. Some Generalizations of the Concept of the Cross Section

1. D I F F E R E N T I A L S C A T T E R I N G CROSS SECTIONS
Neutron cross sections provide a quantitative measure of the probability that

various types of neutron-nuclear reactions will occur. For example, we have
introduced oa(E) to characterize the probability that a neutron with kinetic energy
E incident upon a nucleus will be absorbed. Similar cross sections have been
introduced to describe reactions such as scattering.
It is frequently useful to introduce a generalization of the concept of a neutron
cross section characterizing the scattering reaction. In such reactions the incident
neutron will usually experience a change in both direction of motion and energy in
the scattering event. (Just imagine a billiard-ball collision.) The microscopic scattering cross section will describe the probability that such a scattering collision occurs.
However it provides no information about the change in neutron direction or
35
energy that occurs in such a collision. This latter information is very important in
certain types of reactor studies. To characterize it, we must introduce the concept
of t h e differential
scattering
cross
section.
Before we develop these generalizations, let us offer both an explanation and an

apology for the mathematical detail that follows. It has been our intent to keep the
level of mathematics in these introductory chapters as low as possible. Unfortunately, however, to describe cross sections characterizing changes in neutron
energy and direction, one must utilize a bit of vector notation. Frequently students
tend to become somewhat intimidated by the notation customarily used to describe
the treatment of the direction of neutron motion. We wish to reassure the reader
that regardless of appearance, the actual level of mathematical analysis we will use
is very rudimentary and essentially includes only vector algebra with an added
dash of volume integration.
First we must introduce variables that characterize the motion of the incident
neutron. The natural choice would be the neutron velocity v. Then the cross section
we wish to define would describe the probability that a neutron incident with a
velocity v would be scattered by a nucleus to a new velocity v'.
However in reactor analysis it will be more convenient to describe the neutron
motion with slightly different variables. We will essentially decompose the neutron
velocity vector into two components, one variable characterizing the neutron speed
and a second variable for the neutron direction of motion. We use the kinetic
energy of the neutron E = \ m v 2 instead of the neutron speed itself. Then to specify
A
the direction of neutron motion, we introduce a unit vector S2 in the direction of the
neutron velocity vector v:
= v/|v| = ex sin 9 cos <j> + ey sin 9 sin <j> + ez cos 9.
(2-41)
where we have chosen to represent this direction unit vector in spherical velocity-
FIGURE 2-10.
The neutron direction unit vector 12 in spherical coordinates.
36
space coordinates (6,<p) (see Figure 2-10). Notice that to describeA the incident
neutron velocity we now specify both its energy E and its direction 0 .
At this point it is convenient to consider how one integrates over these variables
(as we shall have cause to do later in this section). Suppose we wished to integrate
over all possible neutron velocities. This integration could then be performed in
either Cartesian or spherical velocity coordinates:
yÔO
3
/ d vf(\)=
I 00
dvx
r 00
00
dvJ
00
* 00
* 2?r
2
dvj(v)=
00
dvv
A)
d<j> d0 sin 0f(v).
(2-42)
However we have defined the unit vector in the direction of the velocity vector v as
B. Hence we can identify the angular portion of the integration in Eq. (2-42) as just
the integration over this direction:
= f27d<t> f'$in0d.
(dCl
IT
(2-43)
A.
In this sense we see that the differential dil of the unit vector il corresponds to a
differential solid angle
d& = sin8dBd<t>.
(2-44)
One final modification is useful here. W e will usually choose to work with the
neutron energy E rather than the neutron speed. Hence rather than choosing to
integrate functions of v over all neutron velocities, we will integrate functions of E
and fi over all possible neutron energies and directions:
f d3vf(v)->
CdE
0
f dttf(E9&).
4ir
(2-45)
So much for mathematical preliminaries. We will now proceed to introduce the

concept of a cross section that characterizes the probability that a neutron is
scattered from an initial energy E and direction of motion Q to a final energy E'
and direction of motion
To make life simple, we will first do this for the
situation in which we are only interested in the change in neutron energy in
scattering. Imagine a beam of neutrons of incident intensity / , all of energy E,
incident upon a thin target of surface atomic density NA. Then the r a t e / c m 2 at
which neutrons will be scattered from their original energy E to a final energy E' in
the range E' to Ef + dEf is proportional to the beam intensity / , the target surface
density NA,t and the differential range dE' of final energies. We will define the
microscopic
differential
scattering
cross section
os(EÊ')
as t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o p o r -
tionality parameter
Rate / cm 2 = a s ( E-> Ef)dE' INA.
Hence we find that o (E->E')
y g
(2-46)
characterizes the probability that a scattering
37
collision changes the original neutron energy from E to Ef in dE\ It is important to

notice that this differential scattering cross section is a "distribution" in the sense
that it is associated with a certain range of final energies, Ef to E' + dEf. Hence its
dimensions are cm 2 /eV.
There is a very simple relationship between the differential scattering cross
section a s { E ^ E f ) and our earlier definition of the microscopic scattering cross
section os(E). If we recognize that the latter quantity is just related to the
probability that a neutron of energy E will suffer a scattering collision, regardless
of the final energy E' to which it is scattered, then it is apparent that os(E) is just
the integral of the differential scattering cross section o s (E^>E') over all final
energies E '
os(E)
r
= /
'o
00
dE'ot(E^>E'l
(2-47)
Of course this relationship explains the origin of the term "differential."

It should be mentioned that occasionally one encounters a somewhat different notation for the differential scattering cross section which may be written as
do/dE. We find the convention of denoting differential cross sections by a multiple
variable argument [such as (E^>E')] to be more convenient for our purposes, and
hence will use this notation throughout.
We can similarly introduce the concept of a differential scattering cross section
describing the probability that a neutron scatters from an incident direction fi to a
final direction fi' in a very similar manner:
Once again, CT (0-S2') is related to our earlier microscopic scattering cross section
by an integration over all final directions
S
<Rs(fi)= f
d&os(tt-fr)=os.
(2-48)
Two comments are useful here. First, it should be mentioned that the dependence
of the scattering cross section a s (fl) on the incident neutron direction is usually
ignored. Indeed very few microscopic scattering cross sections in reactor applications depend on the incident neutron direction because the nuclei in any macroscopic sample are usually randomly oriented, and thus any directional dependence
averages out when averaged over all possible nuclear orientations. (One could
imagine a sample in which most of the nuclei could be alignede.g., a ferromagnetic materialbut such situations can safely be ignored in reactor analysis.)
In this case, however, even though the differential scattering cross section
2') will not depend on the incident neutron direction, it will depend on the
change in neutron direction. This is most conveniently expressed in terms of a
functional dependence on the angle through which the incident neutron is scattered
the so-called scattering angle 6, or more conveniently, the cosine of this scattering
38
FIGURE 2-11.
Definition of the scattering angle 0.
angle, /xo = cos0, which can be conveniently expressed as the dot product between
the unit direction vectors
=
(Again, the dependence on azimuthal angle <f>
does not arise for materials in which the nuclei have a random orientation.) One
occasionally denotes this functional dependence by writing
=
(2-49)
A
We will continue to use the somewhat more formal notation by writing a s (S2-0'),
even though we know that this differential cross section usually depends only on
Mo-
Thus far we have developed the concept of differential scattering cross sections
that characterize the probability of scattering from one energy to another or one
direction to another. We can combine these concepts by defining a double differential scattering cross section that characterizes scattering from an incident energy Ey
direction S2 to a final energy E' in dEf and 0 ' in dQ'
a s (->',S2-fi').
E, n
e\ a'
Again, alternative notations are occasionally used such as a
( E , S 2 ' )
or
d2as/dEdtt.
We can again relate the double differential scattering cross section to the
differential scattering cross section or the scattering cross section by integration
over energy or angle:
os(EÊ')=
f
'4 m
dd'oÊÊ',*}^'),
(2-50)
or
.(,->$2')=
(^dE'olEÊ'M^W),
(2-51)
39
or
r
da'
/ CO
yv
dE'os(E^>E',a^>W).
(2-52)
4t7
The concept of a differential scattering cross section can also be applied to
macroscopic cross sections by merely multiplying by the atomic number density N:
2b(E-*E'9
Q->0')
2,(EÊ')
Nas(EÊ\
= Nat(E^>E')
(2-53)
Such differential cross sections are quite important in nuclear reactor analysis
since they determine the manner in which neutrons move about in a reactor core,
as well as the rate at which they leak out of the reactor. The measurement or
calculation of such cross sections can become quite involved, and the amount of
data necessary to adequately represent differential cross sections is usually rather
voluminous. Such data are contained in evaluated cross section files such as
E N D F / B , as well as in cross section compilations such as BNL-400. 16
Although the calculation of such differential scattering cross sections is usually
formidable, there is one instance of considerable importance to nuclear reactor
analysis in which such cross sections can be calculated in a straightforward fashion
merely by using the laws of conservation of energy and momentum. This is the
situation in which neutrons scatter elastically from stationary nuclei. To prepare
the way for the calculation of such cross sections, let us first decompose the
differential scattering cross section into two factors:
os(EÊ')
= os(E)P(EÊ').
If we recall our earlier definition of the scattering cross section, os(E),

becomes apparent that we can identify
f
P (E->E'\dE
v
}
(2-54)
then it
Probability that a neutron scattering with

initial energy E will emerge with a new energy
E' in the interval E' to E' + dE'.
We can explicitly calculate this quantity for the situation in which neutrons of
moderate energies (E < 1 MeV) scatter elastically via potential scattering from
stationary nuclei of low mass number A.
2. K I N E M A T I C S O F N E U T R O N S C A T T E R I N G F R O M
STATIONARY N U C L E I
The kinematics of any two-body collision process is simplified very considerably when analyzed within the center-of-mass (CM) coordinate frame. We
have sketched the collision event before and after the collision in both the LAB
and CM coordinate frames in Figure 2-12. Here, lower-case notation corresponds
40
Neutron
V'
Target
nucleus
COM
L"
Scattering
angle LAB
system
O
M
'CM
LAB -
Before
LAB -
After
Scattering
angle - C M
system
CM -
FIGURE 2-12.
Before
CM -
After
Definition of collision coordinates in LAB and center-of-mass (CM) systems.
to the neutron and upper-case notation to the nucleus. The subscripts L and C refer
to LAB or CM frames, respectively.
The velocity of the CM frame is defined by
V c m = 7 ^ ( (m + M )
l +
M V
) =(
^ ) V
(2-55)
where we have assumed that the initial nucleus velocity V L is zero and noted that
the nucleus-neutron mass ratio M/m is essentially just the nuclear mass number A.
If we note that the neutron and nucleus velocities in the C M frame are given by
A
V
C ~~ V L
CM ^
T|
v Ll >,
V
(2-56)
then it is apparent that the total momentum in the CM frame is zero, as it must be.
We can relate the total kinetic energies in the LAB and CM frames by
computing
LAB: E h = m v l + \ i f 0 l 9
CM: E c = \ m v 2 c + ^ M V l = \
(2-57)
41
where we have introduced the reduced mass (i = mM/(m + M). Hence we find the
important relation between the energy in the CM and the LAB frames as
Ecc
EiL
m +M
-El.L
\+A
(2-58)
7
In particular it should be noted that the total energy in the CM system is always
less than that in the LAB system. The energy difference is taken up by the center of
mass motion itself.
Using conservation of momentum and energy, it is easy for one to demonstrate
that the magnitudes of the CM velocities do not change in the collision:
V c = V c =
A
a T \
V l
'
(2-59)
only their velocity vectors are rotated through the CM scattering angle 0C. This fact
allows one to relate the scattering angles in the LAB and CM frames. Consider the
vector diagram in Figure 2-13 illustrating the velocities and scattering angles in
these two frames.
If we note from this diagram that
v'L
sin 0 L =
V q
sin
v'L
cos e =
vCM
(2-60)
cos
v'c
then we can relate the scattering angles in the CM and LAB frames by
t?rsin0 r
sin0 r
tan0L=
,
=
.
V
C M
CM
VCCOS0C
c
,
+
/)
S 0
C O
(2-61)
This relationship is particularly useful since cross sections are usually calculated
in the CM frame, but are measured and used in the LAB frame. If we denote the
differential scattering cross sections characterizing scattering through angles 0 and
0
in the LAB and CM frames, o ( 0 ) and o ( 9 ) respectively, we can use
L
s m 9
FIGURE 2-13.
d 0
c m
= a
C M
( O
sin 8 dO
c
Relation between the scattering angles in the LAB and CM frames.
(2-62)
42
to relate the LAB and CM differential scattering cross sections by

>
\3/2
+ cos0 c + II
=
J
1 + cos 0 r
A
(2-63)
Returning to our vector diagram in Figure 2-13 and using the law of cosines, we
can find
cos (180 - 9C) =
Z V
(2-64)
C M
but using Eqs. (2-55) and (2-59), we can rewrite this as

1 /Imv'l
E'
1 / 2 mvt
+1A
cos
(2-65)
(^ + 1)
It is useful to introduce a parameter related to the nuclear mass number A

a
Kttt)
<- )
2
Then we can rewrite the final neutron energy after collision, Ef~E\
incident neutron energy, E{=E as
f=
(1 + ) + (! - a ) cos0 c
E,
66
in terms of the
(2-67)
Let us study this very important relation in more detail. First notice that it
implies that the energy transfer from the neutron to the nucleus is directly related
to the scattering angle in the CM frame. For example, if 9C = 0, then the neutron
would lose no energy
This corresponds, of course, to no collision at all (a
"miss"). The maximum energy loss occurs in a backscattering collision in which
0 C = 180. In this case, E f = a E i t Hence the maximum energy that a neutron can
lose in an elastic scattering collision with a stationary nucleus is (1 a)E { . For
example, in scattering collisions with hydrogen nuclei (A = 1), the neutron could
conceivably lose all of its energy, while in a collision with a heavy nucleus such as
238
U it could lose at most 2% of its incident energy.
In summary, then, we have discovered two very important facts. First, a neutron
cannot gain energy in an elastic collision with a stationary nucleus (E{ is always
less than E{). Second, the neutron cannot emerge from an elastic scattering collision
with an energy E{ less than aEv
We can now go one step further and actually calculate the scattering probability
distribution, P(E-^>E'), or in our present notation, P(E{-Ê{),
for the case of
elastic scattering from stationary nuclei. First we note from our preceding discussion that P(Ei-Ê{) must vanish if the final energy Ef does not fall within the range
OLE: < E{ < E{. To calculate P(Ei-Ê{) in this range, we will utilize the relationship
Eq. (2-67).
43
If we recall that there is a one-to-one relationship between the neutron energy

transfer and the scattering angle, we can infer that there must similarly be a
relationship between the probability of the neutron experiencing a given energy
transfer Ex-Ef and the probability that it will be scattered through a given
scattering angle 9C. Yet the probability of scattering through an angle 9C into dOc
about 9C is just given by
g
CM(gc)
P(9c)2ttsm9cd9c=
2<irsm9cd9c.
(2-68)
Hence we can equate

- GM^0c)
P(EÊ{)dEf=
27rsin9cd9c.
(2-69)
(2-70)
If we now differentiate Eq. (2-67)

E:(l-a)sm9cd9c
dE(=
and substitute this into Eq. (2-69), we find the very important result
P{E--Êt)=
(l-a);as'
0,
^ .
(2-71)
otherwise
To complete the determination of P ( E X - ^ E ^ we still need to know the differential scattering cross section in the CM frame. This knowledge must come from both
a consideration of quantum mechanics and the detailed nuclear physics of the
interaction. Fortunately, however, we can avoid such considerations since the CM
potential scattering cross sections characterizing neutrons of interest in reactor
applications (with energies E < lOMeV) do not depend on 9C for light nuclei (say
A < 12). That is, the scattering in the C M frame is isotropic such that
Ocm(0C)=^
(2-72)
Such behavior is known as "s-wave" scattering (a term which arises from quantum
mechanics) and is the most common form of elastic scattering in nuclear reactors.
For heavier nuclei, there will tend to be some mild angular dependence of
ocm(9c\
but since elastic scattering from such nuclei does not contribute appreciably to
neutron energy loss in most nuclear reactor types, we will confine our attention
here to s-wave elastic scattering from stationary nuclei. Then, using Eq. (2-72) in
Eq. (2-71), we find that the scattering probability distribution for elastic s-wave
scattering from stationary nuclei takes the form
(2-73)
0,
otherwise
44
Notice in particular that the probability of scattering from an energy E{ to a final

energy E{ is independent of the final energy Ef.
Using this probability distribution, we can compute the average final energy of a
neutron suffering an elastic scattering collision as
E,=f^dE,EtP
=( ) i s ,
(2-74)
Hence the average energy loss in such collisions is

AE=E-E
=( ^ ) E
(2-75)
For example, neutrons suffering scattering collisions in hydrogen (a = 0) will lose

on the average half of their original energy in each collision. By way of contrast, in
a scattering collision with a 2 3 8 U nucleus, they will lose on the average less than 1%
of their original energy.
We can now write the differential scattering cross section characterizing elastic
(s-wave) scattering from stationary nuclei by substituting Eq. (2-73) into Eq. (2-54)
aM(EÊf)
= ( T ^
0,
'
<E <E
' *
(2-76)
otherwise.
This is about as far as we can go in determining the explicit form of a s (j> f )

since the elastic scattering cross section os(E) itself depends on the details of the
nuclear potential and is generally obtainable only by measurement. Fortunately
<JS(E) characterizing potential scattering is only weakly dependent on energy and
can frequently be taken as constant over a wide range of neutron energies.
Such elastic scattering plays a very important role in nuclear reactor behavior
since it tends to slow the fast fission neutrons down to thermal energies. However
inelastic scattering processes are also important, particularly in fast reactors where
neutron moderation by light isotopes is minimized. Since kinetic energy is not a
conserved quantity in an inelastic scattering collision (the nucleus is left in an
excited state), we can no longer use simple kinematical arguments to determine
P(E{-Êf) for such processes. Rather one must rely on measurements of the
differential scattering cross section or on nuclear models. Although such models
are useful for qualitative estimates of neutron scattering, most detailed reactor
studies simply use the measured cross section in essentially tabular form for the
various different energy transfer combinations E { -Ê f .
One final comment should be made concerning the "other half" of a scattering
event, namely the nuclear recoil. Although this is of little concern to the neutron
economist, it is of very considerable concern to the reactor designer since the recoil
energy of a nucleus suffering a collision with a fast neutron will be sufficient to rip
it completely out of its crystalline lattice. To be more specific, the average recoil
energy of a nucleus suffering an elastic scattering collision with a neutron is just
^(1 a)Ei [recall Eq. (2-75)]. For fast neutrons, this recoil energy will be in the keV
to low MeV range. Hence the recoiling nucleus will not only be torn out of its own
45
lattice position by the collision, but will possess sufficient recoil energy to dislocate
other nuclei in the lattice, leading to significant radiation damage to the material.
This is an extremely important process in materials exposed to the high radiation
environment of a nuclear reactor core and must be taken into account in nuclear
reactor design. We will return to consider it in more detail in Chapter 11.
3. E F F E C T S O F N U C L E A R MOTION
Thus far we have studied neutron cross section behavior under the assumption that the target nuclei are at rest; but of course the nuclei are always in a state of
thermal motion. Fortunately the speeds characterizing nuclear motions are often
very much less than those of the neutrons, and for many purposes this nuclear
motion can be neglected entirely.
There are two instances in which such thermal motion of the nuclei must be
taken into account, however. If the neutron speeds are comparable to the nuclear
speeds, then of course one can no longer treat the nuclei as stationary. This will
occur when the neutron energy becomes comparable to the thermal energy of the
nuclei, that is v^ Vth = (kT/M)1^2
or E^ kT. Such a comparison indicates that for
neutron energies less than roughly 1 eV, one must specifically account for the
thermal motion of the nuclei. As we mentioned earlier, such low-energy neutrons
are referred to as thermal neutrons.
There is also a situation in which the effects of nuclear motion must be taken
into account even when the neutron speed is much larger than that of the nuclei.
This arises when considering processes in which the cross sections exhibit sharp
resonances. Since the width of these resonances may be quite narrow, much less
than leV in most cases of interest, even the modest speeds of nuclear thermal
motion can significantly affect the energy dependence of the neutron cross section
in the vicinity of the resonance. Such a phenomenon is known as the Doppler effect,
since it is closely akin to the familiar frequency shift that accompanies variations in
relative motions between source and receiver in sound propagation.
In this section we will first examine the effects of nuclear motion on neutron
cross section behavior for both thermal neutrons and cross section resonances. We
will then briefly discuss the modifications that occur in the differential scattering
cross section when the thermal motion of the nuclei is taken into account.
(a) THERMALLY AVERAGED INTERACTION
RATES
Let us begin by considering an interaction between a neutron of velocity v

and a nucleus moving at a velocity V. If the atomic number density of such nuclei
is N9 then the interaction frequency for such reactions is given by
|v-V|a(|v-V|)iV,
(2-77)
where we have noted that it is the relative speed, |v V|, that occurs in this
interaction frequency.
Of course not all of the nuclei in the target sample will be moving with the same
velocity V. In general they will have a distribution of velocities, and in fact, the
interaction frequency we are really interested in is the average of Eq. (2-77) over
these various nuclear velocities. Suppose we define the distribution of nuclear
46
velocities
= Number of target atoms/cm 3 with velocities
(2-78)
V in d*V about V.
Then the probability of a neutron interaction per neutron per second with a
nucleus of any velocity is obtained by averaging Eq. (2-77) over 91 (V)
vNa(v)=
f J3K|v-V|a(|v-V|)9l(V).
(2-79)
Notice that we have essentially used this expression to define an averaged cross
section d(v) depending only on the neutron speed v. That is, we can write the
appropriately averaged cross section characterizing neutrons moving with a speed v
through a sample of nuclei with a velocity distribution 91 (V) as
*(<,)==-L J
Vj<r(|v
V|) <f)L('V).
(2-80)
It is important to remember that this is the cross section that would be measured in
an experiment (such as the transmission experiment we described earlier). N o
experiment looks directly at the true neutron-nuclear reaction cross section, but
rather measures an average of <j(|v V|) over the distribution of nuclear velocities.
The same is true for applications of such cross sections to nuclear reactor analysis.
Since any reactor is at a finite temperature, the nuclei comprising its core will be in
thermal motion, and hence one must take care to always use cross sections that
have been appropriately averaged over these nuclear velocities. Since this distribution function depends on the temperature characterizing the material of interest,
the "thermally averaged" cross sections will similarly depend on temperature.
It is useful to consider the application of this result to two particularly simple
examples of cross section behavior. We mentioned earlier that many nuclear cross
sections behave essentially as l/v (e.g., below a capture resonance). If nuclear
motion is to be included, we would express such behavior as
"(I'-vD-i^rvr
(2-81)
If we substitute this form into Eq. (2-80) and note that the nuclear velocity
distribution function is normalized such that
J d3V<X(V,T)
= N,
(2-82)
then we find the averaged cross section becomes just

o(v,T)=.
(2-83)
Hence in this instance the observed cross section depends on neutron speed v in
exactly the same way as the true cross section depends on relative speeds.
Furthermore the observed cross section is independent of temperature.
47
A second example of interest is that in which the cross section a(|v V|) is a very
slowly varying function of relative speed. Since the nuclear velocity distribution is
rather sharply peaked around V= F th , we can approximate Eq. (2-80) by neglecting
V in the relative speed in the integrand for neutron speeds
VTH. In this case, we
again find that
d(v,T)~o(v)
(2-84)
such that the true cross section and the observed cross section are again the same,
and the observed cross section is temperature-independent. This behavior is
frequently exhibited by the scattering cross section for many reactor materials.
It is also of interest to examine the behavior of the averaged cross section for
small neutron speeds
Vth. Then we can replace |v V| by V in the integrand to
find
Hv>T)^fd*VVo(V)?IL(V,T).
(2-85)
Since the integral is now just a constant, independent of the neutron speed u, we
find that the behavior of a(v, T) as the neutron speed v becomes very small is just
o(v,T)
v
as v
-0.
(2-86)
This explains the low-energy behavior we observed earlier in the total cross section
for graphite. Of course this result can be explained physically by simply recognizing that for small neutron velocities, the neutron appears to be essentially
stationary to the more rapidly moving nuclei. Hence the collision rate ceases to
depend on the neutron speed and depends only on the nuclear speed distribution
(i.e., the temperature of the scattering material).
Such averages over the thermal velocity distribution of the nuclei in a material
must always be performed in measuring or utilizing cross sections characterizing
thermal neutrons. However such an average is also extremely important in determining the correct effective cross sections to use when describing resonance
behavior.
Life could become exceedingly complex indeed if a detailed estimate of the
nuclear velocity distribution function 91 (V) were required, since this depends on
the complicated microscopic dynamics of atoms in the reactor (e.g., atomic
vibrations in crystalline lattices or atomic motions in liquids). Fortunately it is
sufficient for most purposes to represent the nuclear velocity distribution by the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution characterizing an ideal gas in thermal equilibrium
at a temperature T:
9 l ( V ) = NM (V, T ) = N (
/ 2
e x p ( - MV2/2kT).
(2-87)
Then one can write the thermally averaged cross section as

a(v,T)=-
f^3K|v-V|a(|v-V|)M(V,r).
t) J
We will make use of this particular average in the next section.
(2-88)
48
(b) THE DOPPLER EFFECT ON CROSS SECTION
RESONANCE
BEHAVIOR
We have seen that the actual or true cross section depends on the relative
speed between the neutron and the target nucleus. However since the nuclei
themselves are in thermal motion, this relative speed may be either greater or less
than the neutron speed. This difference in relative speeds gives rise to a "Doppler
shift" effect in resonance cross section behavior.
We can take account of this effect by merely substituting the Breit-Wigner
resonance cross section formulas into our expressions for the thermally averaged
cross sections in Eqs. (2-80) or (2-88). For the purposes of this calculation it is
usually adequate to assume that the nuclear velocities are described by a MaxwellBoltzmann distribution M(W).
Now recall that the single-level Breit-Wigner formula for a capture resonance
gives the cross section
Oy(Ec)
0 T
F
\ -
\l 1 / 2
+1
(2-89)
in terms of the center of mass energy Ec. Our task is to express Ec in terms of the
nuclear velocity vector V and then perform the integration over nuclear velocities
indicated in the averaging formula Eq.(2-88). There is really nothing particularly
complicated about this task, except for a bit of vector algebra and the fact that the
integral that arises cannot be explicitly performed (rather, it must be performed
numerically or tabulated).
Since this manipulation is not particularly enlightening, we will only outline the
major steps here and refer the interested reader to more exhaustive treatments that
exist in numerous places throughout the literature. 18 " 21 We begin by noting that for
the case of a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of target nuclei, one can partially
perform 2 0 the integration over nuclear velocity V to rewrite Eq. (2-88) as
' d v r v?0 y (v r
0
exp
(v~vrf
2u
exp
2v
5.
(2-90)
where t;r = | v - V | while

=
/ m ) l / 1 . If we substitute the Breit-Wigner formula
(2-30) for o (vr) into this integral, we find an exact expression for the averaged
crefes section
Or
r v
_i
f ^ w
exp
(v-vrf
exp
(u + vr)2
2vi
(2-91)
Here we have defined y=2(Ec E0)/T where we recall that the CM energy is
Ec=\\xvf.
However this is where we get stuck, because unfortunately this integral
cannot be evaluated analytically. Fortunately it is rather easy to compute the
integral numerically. However before discussing such calculations, it is useful to
49
cast Eq. (2-91) into a slightly different form by defining the variables
x = 2(E-E0)/T
and f = r / r
(2-92)
where r D is the so-called Doppler width of the resonance
4E0kT\l/2
A>
(2-93)
Then one can write

T
iE
\l/2
(2-94)
where
4f
J-2E/T
dy
l+y-
exp
(v vr)2^
2vi
exp
(U+Ur)21
2t2h
(2-95)
In practice, the
would be calculated for each value of f and x of interest
using straightforward numerical integration techniques. To better understand the
implications of such calculations, we have sketched the thermally averaged capture
cross section as determined by Eq. (2-94) in Figure 2-14.
In particular, we have sketched the dependence of this cross section on energy
for several different temperatures T. It should first be noted that as the temperature
T increases, the resonance broadens, while its peak magnitude decreases. For this
reason, one frequently refers to resonance cross sections that have been averaged
over the distribution of nuclear velocities as "Doppler-broadened" cross sections.
It should be stressed that we still have not introduced any additional assumptions or approximations into this derivation of the Doppler-broadened resonance
cross section form Eq. (2-94). And in several modern computer codes, Doppler-
FIGURE 2-14.
Doppler-broadening of a resonance with increasing temperature.
50
broadened cross sections are calculated directly from this expression. 19 However
there is an alternative approximate expression for the Doppler-broadened BreitWigner resonance cross section first derived many years ago by Bethe and
Placzek 18 which is more commonly found in textbooks. If one introduces the
following approximations into
(a) Neglect the second exponential in the integrand of
(b) Replace v' v'r by ( t / 2 - t / 2 ) / 2 t / w h i c h is equivalent to approximating
Er--E\^
1+
(2-96)
IE
(c) Extend the lower limit of integration to y = - oo;

then one finds
00
exp [ - i (
2V
-y)
(2-97)
dy
1 +y
^ 00
while
1/2
(2-98)
The Bethe-Placzek cross section Eq. (2-98) is used very frequently in reactor
m
calculations and for convenience we have tabulated
Table 2-2. The
approximations used to obtain the Bethe-Placzek form break down for hightemperature target distributions and for low energy resonances. For example, a
comparison for the 0.296 eV fission resonance of 239 Pu at r = 2 0 0 0 C shows a
difference in broadening of 50% between the exact and approximate formulations. 22
However since it is still traditional to utilize the Bethe-Placzek form in analyzing
resonance behavior, we will include a brief analytical study of its behavior along
with that of the exact expression. First notice that for low temperatures T>0 we
can see from Eqs. (2-92) and (2-93) that f-oo. Hence the integrand of both
and
will vanish except in the neighborhood of y~x.
We can therefore
replace y by x in the denominator of the integrands to write
l^rr
r0êxp[-i(x-^)2r2] = -
00
+xzJ-
L
^ .
1 T^
(2-99)
Hence for low temperatures we arrive at the usual Breit-Wigner form
r w\
-l
1/2
+1
which is a comforting, although certainly expected, result.
(2-100)
T H E NUCLEAR PHYSICS O F FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS
51
Tabulations of the Doppler Broadening Functionst
TABLE 2-2
The
Function
0.5
10
20
40
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.04309
0.08384
0.12239
0.15889
0.19347
0.22624
0.25731
0.28679
0.31477
0.34135
0.04308
0.08379
0.12223
0.15854
0.19281
0.22516
0.25569
0.28450
0.31168
0.33733
0.04306
0.08364
0.12176
0.15748
0.19086
0.22197
0.25091
0.27776
0.30261
0.32557
0.04298
0.08305
0.11989
0.15331
0.18324
0.20968
0.23271
0.25245
0.26909
0.28286
0.04267
0.08073
0.11268
0.13777
0.15584
0.16729
0.17288
0.17359
0.17052
0.16469
0.04216
0.07700
0.10165
0.11540
0.11934
0.11571
0.10713
0.09604
0.08439
0.07346
0.04145
0.07208
0.08805
0.09027
0.08277
0.07042
0.05724
0.04566
0.03670
0.03025
0.04055
0.06623
0.07328
0.06614
0.05253
0.03880
0.02815
0.02109
0.01687
0.01446
0.03380
0.03291
0.01695
0.00713
0.00394
0.00314
0.00289
0.00277
0.00270
0.00266
0.01639
0.00262
0.00080
0.00070
0.00067
0.00065
0.00064
0.00064
0.00064
0.00063
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
The x Function
0.5
10
20
40
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.00120
0.00458
0.00986
0.01680
0.02515
0.03470
0.04529
0.05674
0.06890
0.08165
0.00239
0.00915
0.01968
0.03344
0.04994
0.06873
0.08940
0.11160
0.13498
0.15927
0.00478
0.01821
0.03894
0.06567
0.09714
0.13219
0.16976
0.20890
0.24880
0.28875
0.00951
0.03573
0.07470
0.12219
0.17413
0.22694
0.27773
0.32442
0.36563
0.40075
0.01415
0.05192
0.10460
0.16295
0.21909
0.26757
0.30564
0.33286
0.35033
0.35998
0.01865
0.06626
0.12690
0.18538
0.23168
0.26227
0.27850
0.28419
0.28351
0.27979
0.02297
0.07833
0.14096
0.19091
0.22043
0.23199
0.23236
0.22782
0.22223
0.21729
0.04076
0.10132
0.12219
0.11754
0.11052
0.10650
0.10437
0.10316
0.10238
0.10185
0.05221
0.05957
0.05341
0.05170
0.05103
0.05069
0.05049
0.05037
0.05028
0.05022
T . D. Beynon and I. S. Grant, Nucl Sci. Eng. 17, 547 (1963).
At the other extreme, the high temperature limit T ^ o o implies that

case we find
r
(i) J T
r f M "
T I ô \ '
r dy
exp
vV
T2 D
In this
r 2^2
x
(2-101)
which is a Gaussian shape characterized by the Doppler width T D rather than the
"natural" line width T. Hence as the temperature increases, the resonance broadens
out from its natural width to eventually approach a width that depends on the
temperature as 7^.
52
One other observation is important. If the Bethe-Placzek form is examined in

greater detail, it becomes apparent that regardless of the temperature, the area
under the resonance remains constant. We can demonstrate this by simply integrating over the resonance
f
dE5y(E,T)
'resonance
= o
r
0
f
d x ^ x ) .
'resonance
(2-102)
However since the contribution to the integral from the "wings" of the resonance
(far-off resonance) are so small, we can approximately extend the range of
integration to oo so that we can explicitly perform the integral to find
fdEa
J
(E
T)â
^ f
i J qq j ~hy
dx e x p [ - \{x-y)2$2]
=o0Ty%,
oo
(2-103)
a result which is temperature-independent.

It should be pointed out that such behavior is a consequence of the BethePlaczek approximation. More generally, the area under the Doppler-broadened
resonance given by the exact expression Eq. (2-94) will in fact change with
temperature. 22 However for the temperature range and resonances of interest in
most reactor applications, this change is relatively small, and one can essentially
assume that the area under the resonance is relatively insensitive to temperature
changes. This fact will prove of some importance in our later study of reactor
behavior, since it will imply that an increase in the temperature of the absorbing
material will increase the rate at which neutrons are absorbed in the resonance
range of the cross section.
Thus far we have only examined the effect of thermal nuclear motions on a
capture resonance. However we could of course have also substituted in our
expression for scattering cross sections in the vicinity of a resonance, Eq. (2-38),
into the expression for thermally averaged cross sections Eq. (2-88) and labored
through some algebra to again arrive at Doppler-broadened cross sections which
again involve integrals that cannot be performed explicitly. We will avoid the
agony of such manipulation and only state the result of such labors here:
(2-104)
where we have defined another tabulated function 21 x(f> x ) ( s e e Table 2-2) to

characterize the interference term:
S
f00
I
-
yexp[-tf
dy
00
(x-y)
(2-105)
We will later utilize these expressions to study the absorption of neutrons in

nuclear reactors. Although we have consistently denoted the thermally averaged
cross sections with an over-bar, for instance, ds(E,T\
we will usually omit this
notation in future discussions and simply regard all resonance cross sections as
having been Doppler-broadened.

(c) DIFFERENTIAL
SCATTERING
CROSS SECTIONS WITH
53
UPSCATTERING
We will now discuss the modifications necessary in our study of the differential scattering cross section characterizing elastic potential scattering when effects
of nuclear motion must be taken into account. Recall that in our earlier discussion
we found that the neutron could not gain energy in an elastic collision with a
stationary nucleus. It can only lose energy in such a collision. It is customary to
refer to such a process as "downscattering," since the neutron will scatter down in
energy.
We can make this more explicit by considering a particularly simple example in
which an incident neutron scatters elastically from a stationary hydrogen nucleus
(a proton). Then the scattering probability distribution is just
1 IE-,
o,
Ef<
E.
<2-106>
E[>E\
That is, the scattering probability is independent of the final energy E{ and
vanishes for Ef > E{ (corresponding to upscattering in energy).
Let us now consider the situation in which the neutron suffers elastic scattering
collisions in a hydrogen gas at finite temperature T in which the nuclei are in
motion with a Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution M (V, 71). It is necessary to
repeat our earlier consideration of two-body kinematics to include the motion of
the target nucleus. One would then have to average the cross section characterizing
such scattering over the nuclear velocity distribution M (V, T% just as we did in the
previous sections. Since these tasks are rather tedious, we will simply note that the
results of such calculations 23 are that for such a proton gas at temperature T, the
scattering probability is given by
Ef<E{
(2-107)
Ef>E{
where the error function is defined by
erf x = f
W
dte-l\
(2-108)
We have plotted P(E{-Êf) for several incident neutron energies E{ in Figure 2-15.
, It should first be noted that unlike the situation in which the hydrogen nuclei were
initially at rest, the scattering probability now depends on the final energy Ef.
Furthermore this probability is not zero for Ef> E{ for a finite temperature gas,
hence implying that it is possible for the neutron to gain energy in a scattering
collision. Such "upscattering" events are significant for incident neutron energies
up to about 10kT. Above this energy, the scattering probability begins to resemble
that characterizing stationary nuclei (i.e., a T=0 hydrogen gas).
54
FIGURE 2-15.
The scattering probability distribution
ing from a proton gas at temperature T.
characterizing neutron scatter-
One could repeat this calculation for a free gas of arbitrary mass number
but
the expressions for the scattering probability and differential scattering cross
section become quite complicated. Since there are also other effects important in
low-energy neutron scattering such as chemical binding and diffraction, we will
defer a more detailed discussion of thermal neutrpn cross section behavior until
Chapter 9. However even this brief discussion should indicate the importance of
accounting for the thermal motion of the target nuclei in measuring or using
low-energy neutron cross sections.
II. NUCLEAR FISSION

A. Fission Physics
The binding energy per nucleon in atomic nuclei reaches a maximum of
8.7 MeV for nuclei mass numbers of about 50 (see Figure 2-16). Hence it is possible
to produce more tightly bound nuclei and thereby release energy by either fusing
together lighter nuclei (nuclear fusion) or inducing a heavy nucleus into fissioning
into two nuclei of intermediate mass number (nuclear fission). The observed
stability of heavy nuclei against spontaneous fission is due to the short-range
nuclear forces within the nucleus giving rise to a potential energy barrier that must
be overcome before the nucleus will fission. The size of this fission barrier is
typically 6-9 MeV in most heavy nuclei of interest. Hence to induce nuclear fission,
one must add a sufficient amount of energy to the heavy nucleus to overcome this
fission barrier.
This can be done in a variety of ways. One could simply slam an energetic
particle (with kinetic energy greater than the fission barrier) into the nucleus. An
example of such a reaction would be photofission, in which a high-energy gamma
strikes a heavy nucleus, thereby inducing fission. An alternative scheme would be
to let the heavy nucleus capture a neutron. Then the binding energy of the added
neutron itself might be sufficient to overcome the fission barrier and induce fission.
This later process can in fact occur in certain heavy nuclei such as 233 U, 235 U,
t
8
_
>
c
o
gU
55
/
I
_a>
o

CO
f 3
c
CO
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
J
160
180
I
200
L
220
240
Mass number
FIGURE 2-16.
Binding energy per nucieon versus mass number.
239
Pu, and 241 Pu. Such nuclides that can be induced to fission with neutrons of
essentially zero kinetic energy (or of more relevance to nuclear reactor applications,
thermal neutrons having very small kinetic energies, at least compared to nuclear
energies) are referred to as fissile nuclides. We will see later that such fissile
nuclides represent the principal fuels used in fission chain-reacting systems.
With most heavy nuclides, the additional binding energy provided by a captured
neutron is not sufficient to push the heavy nucleus over the fission barrier.
Frequently, however, one can add a dash of extra energy to the neutron, for
instance by giving it a kinetic energy of an MeV or so, and this is sufficient to lift
the nucleus the rest of the way over the barrier to cause fission. Nuclides that can
be fissioned with such "fast" neutrons are referred to as fissionable. Examples are
232
Th, 238 U, and 240 Pu (as well as fissile nuclei such as 235 U). Although such
fissionable nuclides do play an important role as nuclear fuels they are unable to
sustain by themselves a stable fission chain reaction and hence must always be
used in combination with a fissile nuclide such as 235 U or 239 Pu.
There is also a small possibility that certain heavy nuclei will fission spontaneously via the barrier penetration mechanism familiar from q u a n t u m
mechanics. However the probability for such an event is quite low in most nuclides
of interest as nuclear fuels. For example, the half-life for spontaneous fission in
238
U is some 6.5 X 1015 years. However even this very slow spontaneous fission rate
can be of importance in nuclear systems, since even a few neutrons can be rapidly
multiplied to appreciable numbers in a growing chain reaction.
B. Fission Cross Sections

We noted earlier that nuclear fission is a process that proceeds via compound
nucleus formation, much as does radiative capture. Hence it is not surprising that
fission cross sections show considerable resonance structure. In Figure 2-17 we
Fission
neutron cross section
Energy ev
Uranium 235
H|jiii|ii!i|iiir|Mi|
10
10
i Mi|iiii|i!ii|nii|im|iin|
10'
Fission
neutron cross section
Energy ev
59
have shown the fission cross sections characterizing the principal fissile nuclides,
233
U, 235 U, and 239 Pu, taken from E N D F / B - I V .
The indicated cross section behavior is very similar to that of radiative capture
cross sections. However this would be expected since we have seen that compound
nucleus formation via neutron absorption is essentially independent of the mode of
compound nucleus disintegration or decay, for example, via fission or gamma
emission. It is particularly important to note that the fission cross section is over
two orders of magnitude larger for low-energy or thermal neutrons than for
high-energy fast neutrons (above 1 keV). The thermal neutron fission cross sections
are indeed enormous for these fissile isotopes, ranging up to thousands of barns in
magnitude. Such behavior will prove of very considerable importance in our later
studies of nuclear reactors.
We have also indicated the fission cross sections characterizing the principal
fissionable nuclides of interest, 232 Th, 238 U, and 240 Pu (see Figure 2-18). This
cross section behavior is somewhat different than that characterizing fissile nuclides since fissionable nuclides can only be fissioned by sufficiently high-energy
neutrons. This implies that their fission cross sections will have a threshold energy,
below which the cross section drops to zero. Even above this threshold energy
(roughly 1 MeV), the fission cross sections are quite low, being less than two barns.
When a neutron is absorbed by a fissile isotope such as 235 U, it may induce that
isotope to fission. Yet it is also possible that the compound nucleus formed by the
neutron absorption, 236 U*, might simply decay to its ground state by gamma
emission. The relative balance between the probability of fission and radiative
capture is an extremely important factor in nuclear reactor applications. We
characterize this balance by the capture-to-fission ratio, defined by
(2-109)
Neutron energy, Mev
FIGURE 2-18.
Fission cross sections of principal fissionable isotopes. 12
60
This ratio depends not only on the isotope of interest, but as well on the incident
neutron energy E. It is plotted in Figure 2-19 for the three primary fissile nuclides.
It can be seen that most neutron absorption in such isotopes leads to fission events
(with the exception of a small range of a > 1 for 235 U). It should be noticed that a
decreases quite appreciably above 0.1 MeV. This latter fact will prove to be of
considerable importance when we discuss the concept of a fast breeder reactor.
C. Nuclear Fission Reactions

A typical nuclear fission reaction such as
ow + 2 9 2 u ^ ( 2 9 2 u * ) ^ f i s s i o n reaction products
(2-110)
spews out a variety of reaction products, including the fissioned nuclei or fission
products and several neutrons as well as numerous gammas, betas, and neutrinos.
And of course it also releases a very considerable amount of energy. Indeed a
glance at the binding energy per nucleon before and after the fission reaction from
Figure 2-16 suggests that energy on the order of 200 MeV will be released in each
fission reaction.
The fission fragment nuclei produced by the fission reaction are both highly
charged and highly energetic. They slow down via collisions with adjacent atoms,
losing energy and charge (picking up electrons) in the process. This is in fact the
principal mechanism by which the fission energy eventually appears as heat
generated in the fuel material. However these fission products are usually quite
unstable as well, being somewhat neutron-rich, and will subsequently decay,
usually via beta emission. The energy released in such radioactive decay reactions
can amount to as much as 4-5% of the total energy released in the fission reaction.
Since such "decay heat" will appear with an appreciable time delay corresponding
to the half-lives of the various nuclei involved, it can lead to difficulties unless
properly anticipated in fission reactor design.
U-235
A U-233
X PU-23 9
( DATA IN CL05 :LY-SPflC iQ
RES0N 1NCE REG ION SUPF RESSED 1
cc
cc
o O
CO ^
CO
x*
I
G
I o
LU
CC
x X XXXX*
O [i
f* a
*X
Pi pii''imifiii
A - /
n
rr:
XE.
cc
LJ
fc,
n ri 'X
o
O
io"
icr
FIGURE 2-19.
icr
io
io
+1
io
+2
io
+3
io
+4
io
NEUTRON ENERGY, EV
Variation of with energy for
233
U,
235
U, and
239
Pu.
+5
+6
10
*?,
61
Yet just as significant as the energy released in the fission reaction is the fact that
several neutrons are also produced in the reaction. These neutrons can be used to
propagate a fission chain reaction. Most of these fission neutrons appear essentially
instantaneously (within 10" 1 4 sec) of the fission event. These neutrons are referred
to as prompt. However a very few neutrons (less than 1%) appear with an
appreciable time delay from the subsequent decay of radioactive fission products.
Although only a very small fraction of the fission neutrons are delayed, these
delayed neutrons are vital for the effective control of the fission chain reaction.
The total number of neutrons (both prompt and delayed) released in a fission
reaction will vary. However in most nuclear applications we only need concern
ourselves with the average number of neutrons released per fission, which we
denote by v. This quantity will depend on both the nuclear isotope involved and
the incident neutron energy, generally tending to increase with increasing neutron
energy. We have shown v(E) as a function of energy for the principal fissile
isotopes in Figure 2-20.
The neutrons produced in the fission reaction emerge with a distribution of
energies, with the average fission neutron energy being roughly 2MeV. As with
other fission parameters, this distribution will depend on the nuclear isotope
involved, to a lesser degree on the incident neutron energy, and will differ for
prompt and delayed neutrons. To characterize this variation in fission neutron
energy, it is convenient to define the fission neutron energy spectrum, or more
s i m p l y , t h e fission
spectrum,
x(E)dE
x(E)> d e f i n e d as
= Average number of fission neutrons emitted with

energy E in E to E + dE per fission neutron.
L
10
FIGURE 2-20.
15
(MeV)
:
Average neutron number per fission v as a function of energy.24
(2-111)
62

0.5
0.4
0.3
x
0.2
0.1
0
3
2
E
FIGURE 2-21.
(MeV)
Fission spectrum for thermal neutron induced fission in
235
U.
A typical prompt neutron fission spectrum is shown in Figure 2-21. One can also
represent the fission spectrum by a simple empirical expression; for example, the
prompt neutron fission spectrum of 235 U is given by
x(E) = 0.453 e~1 m 6 E s i n h V229E
(2-112)
This proves useful in performing simple estimates of fission chain reaction behavior. However more elaborate studies would simply use the fission spectra
tabulated in a nuclear data set such as E N D F / B .
Because of the importance of delayed fission neutrons to nuclear reactor control,
it is useful to introduce a few related concepts useful for their description. By way
of example, consider a typical fission product decay scheme leading to the emission
of a delayed neutron as sketched in Figure 2-22. It should be noted in particular
that the decay sequence leading to the delayed neutron emission is first the beta
decay of 87 Br to 87 Kr*, followed by the subsequent decay of 87 Kr* to 86 Kr via
neutron emission. The effective time delay of this process is controlled by the
beta-decayin this case, the half-life is some 55 sec. We refer to the fission
fragment whose beta-decay yields a daughter nucleus which subsequently decays
via delayed neutron emission as a delayed neutron precursor. Of course a very large
number (at least 45) of different delayed neutron precursor isotopes will be
produced in a fission chain reaction. It has been customary (and found to be
adequate) in reactor analysis to group these precursors into six classes
characterized by approximate half-lives of 55, 22, 6, 2, 0.5, and 0.2-sec, respectively.
Each precursor group will contain a number of different isotopes. For example,
while the 55-sec precursor group is due almost entirely to one precursor, 87 Br, there
are at least two major contributors, 88 Br and 137I, to the 22-sec group. The
composition of the remaining groups are considerably more complex.

87
Br
63
55s
(87Kr)*
87
Kr
87
Rb
Neutron
emission
FIGURE 2-22.
Decay of the 87 Br delayed neutron precursor.
Since the relative isotopic yield per fission will vary for different fuel isotopes,
the detailed characteristics of the precursor groups will similarly be isotopedependent. To this end, let us define:
Xi = Decay constant (/?-decay) of ith precursor group
f}j = Fraction of all fission neutrons (both prompt and delayed) emitted per
fission that appear from ith precursor group
/? =2,-/?, = Total fraction of fission neutrons which are delayed.
In Table 2-3 we have listed the half-lives, relative yield fractions
/?, and total
delayed neutron yields v d =vfi, for the precursor groups characterizing the principle
fissionable isotopes recommended by ENDF/B-IV 2 5 . Although dependent on the
fuel isotope, these data do not depend sensitively on the incident neutron energy
below about 4MeV and hence can be used for either thermal or fast reactor
analysis.
The energy spectrum of delayed fission neutrons is considerably lower than that
of prompt fission neutrons and again depends on both the delayed neutron group
and fissioning isotope. We have given a rough composite delayed neutron fission
spectrum in Figure 2-23 along with typical measured spectra for the 55-sec and
22-sec groups of 235 U. More detailed spectrum data can be found in the review
article of Cox. 25
Actually there are additional processes that can contribute delayed neutrons to
the chain reaction. Photoneutron reactions (y,n) are particularly important in
reactors containing appreciable amounts of deuterium or beryllium. The decay
times of these processes are even longer than those characterizing delayed fission
neutrons (ranging up to 125 m). 25 However these photoneutrons can usually be
accounted for in reactor analysis by simply including one or more additional
groups of delayed neutrons such as those tabulated above. Furthermore one can

TABLE 2-3
Delayed Neutron Yield and Half-Life Data 25
233U: yd = 0.0074 0.0004
232
Th: f d = 0.0527 0.0040 w / /

Group
7\L (sec)
Relative Yield
1
2
3
4
5
6
56.030
20.750
5.740
2.160
0.571
0.211
Group
0.034
0.150
0.155
0.446
0.172
0.043
1
2
3
4
5
6
235 U: d ^ 0 . 0 1 6 6 8 0.00070 n/f

Group
T\ (sec)
Relative Yield
1
2
3
4
5
6
54.51
21.84
6.00
2.23
0.496
0.179
0.038
0.213
0.188
0.407
0.128
0.026
52.38
21.58
5.00
1.93
0.493
0.172
1
2
3
4
5
6
53.56
22.14
5.14
2.08
0.511
0.172
Pu: pd = 0.01570.0015
Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.013
0.137
0.162
0.388
0.225
0.075
^ P u : r d = 0.0090 0.0009 n/f

Group
T i (sec)
Relative Yield
0.038
0.280
0.216
0.328
0.103
0.035
241
0.086
0.274
0.227
0.317
0.073
0.023
U: r d = 0.0460 0.0025 n/f

Group
T\ (sec)
Relative Yield
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pu: v d = 0.00645 0.00040 n / /

Group
Ti (sec)
Relative Yield
53.75
22.29
5.19
2.09
0.549
0.216
55.110
20.740
5.300
2.290
0.546
0.221
Relative Yield
238
0.004
0.007
0.024
0.010
0.012
0.004
239
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ti (sec)
T i (sec)
54.0
23.2
5.6
1.97
0.43
0.2
n/f
Relative Yield
0.010
0.229
0.173
0.390
0.182
0.016
0.028
0.273
0.192
0.350
0.128
0.029
Neutron energy E
FIGURE 2-23.
65
(MeV)
Composite delayed neutron spectrum.
also find delayed neutrons generated by neutron-absorption processes such as

certain (n,p) reactions, for example, 1 7 0(n,p) 17 N, since 17 N decays by neutron
emission with a half-life of 4.165 sec.
The energy released in a nuclear fission reaction is distributed among a variety
of reaction products. We have classified these reaction products as to both range
and emission time, and have indicated the approximate percentage of the fission
energy (some 200 MeV) carried by each:
TABLE 2-4
Energy Release in Nuclear Fission
Reaction Product
Energy (%)
Range
Time Delay
Kinetic energy of
fission fragments
80
< .01 cm
instantaneous
Fast neutrons
10-100 cm
instantaneous
Fission gamma energy
100 cm
instantaneous
Fission product
short
delayed
Neutrinos
nonrecoverable
delayed
Nonfission reactions
due to neutron
capture
100 cm
delayed
decay
66
The majority of the fission energy appears as the kinetic energy of the fission
fragments and is deposited essentially at the point of fission in the nuclear fuel.
Note, however, that some of the fission energy appears as kinetic energy of
neutrons (3%) and gammas (4%) with relatively long ranges. This energy will be
distributed over the core of the reactor and adjacent material such as shielding. In
Figure 2-24 we have noted the types of emergent radiation. 27,28
Furthermore it should be noted that some 4% of the fission energy appears in the
form of heat generated by the decay of radioactive fission products. If the nuclear
reactor were to be suddenly shut down, this decay heat would continue to be
produced and would have to be removed; otherwise the reactor core temperature
would rise dramatically, causing fuel element melting and failure. The removal of
such decay heat is one of the most serious problems in reactor safety studies.
Notice also that a sizable amount of energy (as much as 20 MeV per fission) may
be liberated by the high-energy gammas produced in radiative capture (n, y)
reactions.
It is customary to use an effective energy release per fission in determining the
portion of the total energy of fission that can be recovered by a coolant and hence
contributes to the thermal power output of the reactor. Although this energy will
vary somewhat with the type of reactor and the detailed core composition, it is
typically of the order of 192 MeV. (A more detailed tabulation of useful energy
release per fission has been calculated using atomic mass data by James 25 and is
given in Table 2-5.) Of this 192 MeV, some 168 MeV appears as fission fragment
energy, while 7 MeV appears as beta energy. These short-range contributions
deposit their energy in the nuclear fuel. If we also take into account the energy
deposited in the fuel ( ~ 7 % ) due to fast neutrons and gammas, we find that some
Prompt
fission 7's
Inelastic
scattering 7's
Fast
neutrons
Fission
fragment
Neutron
slowing
down
Capture 7's
Radiative
capture
Radioactive
decay of
fission
fragment
Bremsstrahlung
Decay P's
Decay 7's
FIGURE 2-24.
Types of radiation produced in a fission chain reaction.
67
97% of the recoverable fission energy is deposited directly in the fuel material. The
remainder is deposited in the coolant or structural materials by neutrons and
gamma radiation, with less than 1% typically being deposited in shielding due to
gamma radiation. Actually as we will see in Chapter 12, the energy deposited in
other regions of the reactor is usually reassigned to the fuel in order to simplify the
thermal analysis of the reactor.
TABLE 2-5 25
Effective Energy Released in Fission
The effective energy released in and following fission of the principal fissile isotopes by thermal
neutrons are:
233
U:
235
U:
192.9 0.5 M e V / f
239
Pu:
198.5 0.8 M e V / f
241
Pu:
200.3 0.8 M e V / f
190.0 0.5 M e V / f
The effective energy released following fission of the major fissionable isotopes by
neutrons are:
232
Th:
184.20.9 M e V / f
234
U:
188.9 1.0 M e V / f
236
U:
191.4 0 . 9 M e V / f
238
U:
193.9 0 . 8 M e V / f
237
Np:
193.6 1.0 M e V / f
238
Pu:
196.9 0.8 M e V / f
24o Pu .
196.9 1.0 M e V / f
242
200.0 1 . 9 M e V / f
Pu:
235
U fission spectrum
These values include all contributions except from neutrinos and very long-lived fission products.
D. Fission Fuels
Our previous discussion has indicated that there are a number of possibilities
available for fueling a fission chain-reacting system. In particular, we have noted
that the principal nuclides"*" of concern in nuclear reactor applications are:
Fissile nuclides:
233
U,
235
U,
239
241
Pu
Pu,
242
Pu,
while those susceptible to fast neutron fission are:

Fissionable nuclides:
232
Th, 238 U,
240
Pu
Because of both the energy threshold that neutrons must exceed in order to induce
fission in fissionable nuclides and the relatively large value of a characterizing such
nuclides, only the first class of nuclides are capable of sustaining a fission chain
reaction. Of these isotopes, only 235 U is found in natureand then, only as 0.711%
of natural uranium (which is composed primarily of 238 U). Although reactors can
be fashioned out of natural uranium with even this low concentration of 235 U if one
Â bit of conventional notation 2 6 for such nuclides remains as debris from the secrecy of the
atomic weapons program during World War II. Two-digit code numbers are used to identify
each isotope where the first digit is the atomic number minus 90 and the second digit is the last
digit of the mass number. Hence 2 3 5 U is denoted as "25," 2 3 8 U as "28," 2 3 9 Pu as "49," and so on.
68
is sufficiently clever, most present-day reactor types are fueled with uranium in
which the percentage of 235 U has been increased or enriched above its natural
value. As we will see later, such uranium enrichment is an extremely complicated
and expensive process.
There is yet another way to obtain fissile isotopes, however. It is found that when
certain nuclides absorb neutrons, they then undergo a sequence of radioactive
disintegrations that eventually result in the formation of a fissile isotope. The two
most important examples of such neutron transmutation reactions are:
238
232
U(*,y) 2 3 9 U
239
23 min
Th(, y) 233 Th ^
Np^~
239
2.3 d
233
22 min
Pa^
Pu
233
27 d
Isotopes that can be transmitted into fissile nuclides via neutron capture are
referred to as fertile. The fertile isotopes of most interest are 238 U and 232 Th, which
are in abundant supply throughout the world.
Yet where does one find the neutrons necessary for this process? In a nuclear
reactor. Indeed since most present-day reactors are fueled with low-enrichment
uranium that may contain as high as 98% 238 U, such transmutation processes will
occur quite naturally as the fertile nuclei capture excess neutrons from the fission
chain reaction. The key parameter in such processes is the number of neutrons
produced in each fission reaction per neutron absorbed in the fuel nuclei. (Here we
must remember that not all neutron absorptions in the fuel lead to fissionsome
result in radiative capture.) We will define
7] = Average number of neutrons produced per neutron
absorbed in fuel.
For a fuel composed of a single fissile isotope, we can write
v
= wf/oa=i>/(l
+ a).
(2-113)
Most fuels, however, contain a mixture of isotopes. In this case, we would use the
macroscopic fission and absorption cross sections characterizing each isotope to
write
r}-
(2-114)
The dependence of this very important quantity on energy E is shown for the
four principal fissile isotopes in Figure 2-25. It should be noted that 17(E) is
generally of the order of 2 for low-energy neutrons, but increases with energy
above 0.1 MeV as the capture-to-fission ratio a falls off. If we are to attempt to
utilize the neutrons "left over" from the chain reaction to convert fertile isotopes
into fissile material, it is apparent that we require r}(E) to be at least greater than 1,
since one neutron per fission is needed to sustain the chain reaction. Of course, a
69
4.5
4.0
3.5
//'/
3.0
A
/
/ y
2.5
LU
ST
2.0
llri
Ni
I
239
Pu
'
1.5
235U
0.5
0
10"2
I,
1.0
\
\
/
\\a k! //
,'Lv'M m
M*
/ /!
if/
//
241pu
[ Eft
233y
10~1
FIGURE 2-25.
10
101
102
103
Neutron energy (eV)
Variation of ij with energy for 2 3 3 U,
235
U,
104
239
Pu and
105
241
106
107
Pu.
certain fraction of the fission neutrons will be absorbed in nonfuel materials, and
others will leak out of the reactor and be lost to the chain reaction. Nevertheless it
is apparent that i\{E) is sufficiently greater than unity to enable appreciable
conversion using any of these isotopes.
Indeed it might even be possible to produce more fissile material than one
depletes in maintaining the fission chain reaction. For this to occur, one would
have to operate with fissile isotopes and neutron energies for which r}(E) was
greater than two, since one neutron would be needed to maintain the chain
reaction, while one neutron would be used to produce a new fissile nucleus to
replace the one destroyed in the fission reaction. Any excess over this (and over the
number of neutrons lost to the chain reaction via nonproductive capture or
leakage) could then be used to produce or breed new fissile material.
It is apparent from Figure 2-25 that the most favorable situation for accomplishing this would involve relatively fast neutrons in the 0.1-1 MeV range. The most
suitable fuel would be 239 Pu. Such is the motivation behind the development of the
70
fast breeder reactor which operates with a chain reaction in a 2 3 9 Pu/ 2 3 8 U fuel
mixture maintained by fast neutrons in order to achieve this large value of tj.
However if we recall the energy dependence of the fission cross section itself, it is
apparent that it is more difficult to use fast neutrons to sustain the chain reaction,
since the cross sections for fast fission are some two orders of magnitude smaller
than those characterizing thermal neutrons. This suggests that it might be easier to
achieve a sustained chain reaction using slow neutrons, since then the probability
of fission is appreciably larger. Yet we must remember that the neutrons produced
in the fission reaction are quite energetic with average energies in the MeV range.
Hence in order to take advantage of the large fission cross sections for slow
neutrons, one must slow down the fast fission neutrons to thermal energies
( < 1 eV). As we will see in the next chapter, this can be accomplished rather easily
by using elastic scattering collisions.
REFERENCES
1. I. Kaplan, Nuclear Physics, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. (1963).
2. O. Oldenberg and N. C. Rasmussen, Modern Physics for Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New
York (1966).
3. M. G. Bowler, Nuclear Physics, Pergamon, New York (1973).
4. A. H. Foderaro, The Elements of Neutron Interaction
Theory, M. I. T. Press, Cambridge
(1971).
5. A. M. Weinberg and E. P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron
Chain
Reactors,
University of Chicago Press (1958).

6. J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
(1966).
7. A. deShalit and H. Feshbach, Theoretical Nuclear Physics, Wiley, New York (1974).
8. C. M. Lederer, J. M. Hollander, and I. Perlman, Table of Isotopes, 6th Edition, Wiley,
New York (1968).
9. H. Goldstein, in Fast Neutron
Physics, Vol. II ed. J. B. Marion and J. L. Fowler,
Interscience, New York (1963), p. 2227.

10. K. H. Beckurts and K. Wirtz, Neutron Physics, Springer, Berlin (1964).
11. D. J. Hughes, et al., Neutron Cross Sections, BNL-325 (1955).
12. D. J. Hughes, et al., Neutron Cross Sections, 2nd Edition and Supplements, BNL-325
(1958,1960,1964,1965).
13. Neutron Cross Sections, 3rd Edition, BNL-325 (1975).
14. H. C. Honeck, ENDF/BSpecifications for an Evaluated Nuclear Data File for

Reactor Applications, BNL-50066 (1966); P. B. Heming, Development of ENDF/B
System, in Proceedings of 3rd Conference on Neutron Cross Sections and Technology,
USAEC CONF-71031 (1971), pp. 348-353.
15. A partial list of sources of neutron cross section data is given in the following references:
C I N D A 74 (and succeeding years), An Index to the Literature
of Microscopic
Neutron
Data, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (1974).

R. J. Howerton, S. T. Perkins, C. P. Altamirano, and K. L. Hill, A Bibliography of the
Experimental
Data of Neutron-Induced
Reactions, UCRL-50400, Vol. 2 (1970).
16. D. I. Garber, L. G. Stromberg, M. D. Goldberg, D. E. Cullen, and V. M. May, Angular

Distributions in Neutron Induced Reactions, BNL-400, 3rd Edition (1970).
17. D. Okrent, R. Avery, and H. H. Hummel, Proceedings of the International Conference

on Peaceful Application of Atomic Energy, Vol. 5 (1955), p. 357.
18. H. A. Bethe and G. Placzek, Phys. Rev. 51, 450 (1937).
19. W. G. Pettus, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 31, 168 (1968).
71
20. R. L. Murray, NucL Sci. Eng. 26, 362 (1966).

21. L. Dresner, Resonance Absorption in Nuclear Reactors, Pergamon, (1960).
22. D. E. Cullen, NucL Sci. Eng. 54, 498 (1974); D. G. Lindstrom, U. of Michigan, M.S.
Thesis (1960).
23. E. P. Wigner and J. E. Wilkins, Jr., AECD-2275 (1944); M. M. R. Williams, The Slowing
Down and Thermalization of Neutrons, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1966), p. 75.
24. G. R. Keepin, Physics of Nuclear Kinetics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. (1965).
25. S. A. Cox, USAEC Document ANL/NDM-5 (1974); L. Tomlinson, UKAEA AERER6993 (1972); R. J. Tuttle, NucL Sci. Eng. 56, 37 (1975).
26. M. F. James, NucL Energy 23, 517 (1969); 25, 513 (1971).
27. S. Glasstone and M. C. Edlund, The Elements of Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand,
Princeton, N. J. (1952).
28. N. M. Schaeffer, Reactor Shielding for Nuclear Engineers, USAEC Document TID-25951
(1973).
PROBLEMS
2-1. What target isotope must be used for forming the compound nucleus ffNa when the
incident projectile is: (a) a neutron, (b) a proton, or (c) an alpha particle?
2-2. A very important type of radioactive decay process in nuclear reactors is one in which
fission products decay by neutron emission since such processes strongly influence the
time behavior of the fission chain reaction. The slowest such decay process in most
reactors is one characterized by a decay constant of 0.0126 sec - 1 . Assuming that such
a process controls the rate at which one can decrease the power level of a reactor,
calculate the tin*e necessary to decrease the reactor power level from 3800 MW
(thermal) to 10 MW (thermal).
2-3. Consider an initially pure sample of radioactive material whose successive decay
products are themselves radioactive with differing half-lives. Write the isotopic rate
equations characterizing the concentration of various isotopes in the sample if the
decay chain is of the form l-2>3>4->...N. Solve this set of equations in a stepwise
fashion for the isotopic concentrations Nl(t),N2(t)>... In particular, determine the
long-time composition of the sample if the half-life of one of the isotopes is very much
longer than those characterizing other isotopes in the chain.
2-4. A fission product of very considerable importance in thermal reactor operation is
i35
Xe, which has an enormous thermal absorption cross section of 2X106 b. This
nuclide can be produced either directly as a fission product or by beta decay of 135I, as
indicated by the radioactive chains below:
135
Cs
135i
135
Xe
fission
fission
+n
' 36 X e
Write the rate equations describing the concentration of 135I and 135Xe in a nuclear
reactor. Then assuming a constant production rate of these isotopes from fission and
transmutation rate by neutron capture, determine the steady-state or saturated concentration of 135Xe.
2-5. The measured line width of the gamma-ray resonance of 57Fe is 3.4xl0~ 8 eV.
Determine the lifetime of this excited state.
72
2-6. Boron is a common material used to shield against thermal neutrons. Estimate the
thickness of boron required to attenuate an incident thermal neutron beam to 0.1% of
its intensity. (Use the thermal cross section data in Appendix A.)
2-7. Suppose we consider a beam of neutrons incident upon a thin target with an intensity
of 1012 neutrons/cm 2 -sec. Suppose further that the total cross section for the nuclei in
this target is 4 b. Using this information, determine how long one would have to wait,
on the average, for a given nucleus in the target to suffer a neutron interaction.
2-8. A free neutron is unstable against beta decay with a half-life of 11.1 $'. Determine the
relative probability that a neutron will undergo beta-decay before being absorbed in
an infinite medium. Estimate this probability for a thermal neutron in HjO.
2-9. Determine the number of scattering collisions a thermal neutron will experience on the
average before being absorbed in H 2 0, D 2 0, 238U, and cadmium, respectively.
2-10. How many mean free paths thick must a shield be designed in order to attenuate an
incident neutron beam by a factor of 1000?
2-11. Using the data from BNL-325, compute the mean free paths of neutrons with the
following energies in the specified materials: (a) 14MeV neutrons in air, water, and
uranium (characteristic of thermonuclear fusion neutrons), (b) IMeV neutrons in air,
water, and uranium (fast breeder reactor neutrons), and (c) 0.05 eV neutrons in air,
water, and uranium (thermal reactor neutrons).
2-12. Determine the kinetic energy at which the wavelength of a neutron is comparable to:
(a) the diameter of a nucleus, (b) an atomic diameter, (c) the interatomic spacing in
graphite, and (d) the diameter of a nuclear reactor core. (Only rough estimates are
required.)
2-13. Suppose that the total cross section of rhodium has been measured and the following
values have been obtained for the resonance parameters of a well-isolated resonance at
E 0 = 1.26 eV: a o =5000 b, T = 0.156 eV, and a s = 5.5 b. Plot the value of the total cross
section for values of the energy between 0.2 and 40 eV. Calculate the thermal
absorption cross section and compare this with the measured value of 156 b. (Assume
that resonance scattering can be neglected.)
2-14. At higher energies, the differential elastic scattering cross section in the CM system
exhibits anisotropy (so-called "p-wave" scattering) of the form
aCM((h ft') = a C M ( 0 G ) =
(1 + a c o s 9 C ) .
Plot the scattering probability P{E~>E^) against final energies Ef for this more general
cross section behavior for the three cases a>0, a = 0, and a < 0 . Give a physical
interpretation of your sketches.
2-15. Using the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution M(V, T), calculate the most probable
energy of the nuclei characterized by such a distribution. Also calculate the average
thermal energy of these nuclei.
2 - 1 6 . The partial widths of the first resonance in 236U at 5.49 eV are Ty = . 0 2 9 eV and
r = . 0 0 1 8 eV. Plot the Doppler-broadened capture cross section at the temperature of
0K, 20C, and 1000C. [Use the tabulated \p(,x) function.]
2-17. Show that the total area under a Doppler-broadened resonance is essentially independent of temperature.
2-18. Using the differential scattering cross section characterizing a proton gas at temperature T, compute the corresponding macroscopic scattering cross section 2 s (is). In
particular, determine the behavior of this cross section for low energies E.
2-19. A neutron is absorbed in a 235U nucleus at r = 0. Describe a probable life history of the
resulting 236U and its successors on the assumption that it undergoes fission. Give
order of magnitude estimates of characteristic times at which various events occur.
Describe the various particles injected into the system as a result of this fission.
r t
73
2-20. Determine the fission-rate density necessary to produce a thermal power density of
400 kW/liter (typical of a fast breeder reactor core). Assume that the principal fissile
isotope is 239Pu.
2-21. An indium foil is counted at 5:00 p.m. Tuesday and found to yield 346,573 CPM in a
counter with a 50% efficiency for the 54-min In-116m activity. What is the probability
that none of these radioactive In-116m nuclei will remain in the foil at 2:00 p.m.
Thursday, the same week? (Note: ln(l x)
[Victims working this problem
can thank Dr. Ronald Fleming.]
2-22. Compute and plot the parameter 17 for uranium enriched in 235U as a function of its
enrichment (atom percent 235U) at thermal neutron energies.
3
Fission Chain
Reactions and
Nuclear Reactors
- a n Introduction
In order to sustain a stable fission chain reaction and thereby achieve a constant
production rate of fission energy, one must design a nuclear reactor in such a way
that the rates of neutron absorption and leakage are balanced by the rate of fission
neutron production. In this chapter we will develop a very simple model of nuclear
reactor behavior based on such a neutron balance principle in order to introduce a
number of the concepts involved in studying fission chain reactions. General
aspects of the design and operation of nuclear fission reactors can then be
understood in terms of this model, and the principal components of such systems
and their functions can be discussed (although, of course, the analysis and design
of these components will require more elaborate models developed in later chapters
of this text). We will be able to introduce and compare the various major types of
nuclear reactors being utilized for electrical power generation throughout the world
today. Finally the simple discussion in this chapter will allow us to outline the
principal design functions of the nuclear engineer in order to lay an appropriate
foundation for our further development of the more sophisticated methods required in modern nuclear reactor analysis.
I. THE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR AND NUCLEAR

CRITICALITY
A. The Multiplication Factor
In Chapter 2 we indicated that an essential idea involved in tapping the
energy released in nuclear fission was to use the fission neutrons from one fission
reaction to induce yet another reaction. In this way one could propagate a chain of
74
FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS AND NUCLEAR REACTORS AN INTRODUCTION
75
such reactions by using the neutron as a chain carrier. It should be apparent that if
we wish to maintain a stable or steady-state chain reaction, that is, one that does
not grow or decay away with time, we must arrange things so that precisely one
neutron from each fission will induce another fission event. The remaining fission
neutrons will then either be absorbed in capture reactions or will leak out from the
system. We must design the nuclear reactor to achieve this very delicate balance
between fission reactions and neutron capture and leakage, as we indicate schematically in Figure 3-1.
We can express this requirement in mathematical form. Since the neutrons play
the central role in maintaining the fission chain reaction, let us focus our attention
on them for a moment. A given neutron will be "born" in a fission event and will
then usually scatter about the reactor until it meets its eventual "death" in either an
absorption reaction or by leaking out of the reactor. Certain numbers of these
neutrons will be absorbed by fissile or fissionable nuclei and induce further fission,
thereby leading to the birth of new fission neutrons, that is, to a new "generation"
of fission neutrons. Suppose that we could somehow measure the number of
neutrons in two successive fission neutron generations. We would then define the
ratio of these numbers as the multiplication factor k characterizing the chain
reaction
Number of neutrons in one generation
k = Multiplication factor =
:
: .
Number ot neutrons in preceding generation
Actually since the number of fission neutrons in any generation is proportional to
the number of fission events spawning that generation (recall that each fission
reaction releases, on the average, v fission neutrons), we could have just as easily
defined k using the number of fission events in each generation. However since we
are primarily concerned with monitoring the number of neutrons present in the
reactor in order to study the chain reaction, we will find it more convenient to use
the definition above.
Now notice that if k = 1, the number of neutrons in any two consecutive fission
generations will be the same, and hence the chain reaction will be timeindependent. We refer to a system characterized by k = 1 as being critical.
Incident
neutron
FIGURE 3-1.
A simple schematic of a fission chain reaction.
76
Obviously if we have been fortunate enough to have chosen just that reactor
configuration and composition so that the reactor is critical with k 1, then the
number of neutrons in the reactor will always remain the same.
By a similar argument, we can conclude that if k < 1, the number of neutrons
decreases from generation to generation, and hence the chain reaction dies out. We
then refer to the system as being subcritical. Finally, if > 1 , then the chain
reaction grows without bound as the number of neutrons in each successive
generation is larger. Such a system is said to be supercritical.
In summary:
k<1
subcritical
k1
critical
k> 1
supercritical.
Hence the primary objective of the nuclear engineer is to design the nuclear reactor
so that it is critical. One possible approach would be to choose a particular reactor
material composition and configuration, then calculate k for this choice, and if k is
not unity (and of course it usually won't be on the first try), readjust the reactor
design until the criticality condition, k 1, is achieved.
Actually life is a bit more complicated than this. Some method has to be
provided by which the neutron population can be built up to appreciable levels in
the core (about 109 neutrons/cm 3 ) to yield the required power generation. In
principle this could be done by merely inserting a source of neutrons into a critical
assembly. Then any source neutrons appearing in the reactor would tend to induce
fission reactions, thereby producing fission neutrons, which would have their
progeny maintained by the chain reaction. However most neutron sources are
sufficiently weak that it would take a very long time to build up an appreciable
neutron population in a reactor using this method. Instead one can simply make k
temporarily greater than unity so that the reactor is supercritical, say by withdrawing some absorbing material to alter the balance between fission and absorption.
The neutron population in the reactor will then grow. Once the desired neutron
population has been reached, the reactor can be returned to critical, for example,
by reinserting the absorbing material. A very similar procedure can be used to
lower the neutron population in the reactor. The reactor is taken subcritical until
the desired neutron population is reached and then restored to critical once again.
Altering the multiplication factor k characterizing a reactor in this way is known as
nuclear reactor control. It is a very important aspect of nuclear reactor analysis.
It should now be apparent that the multiplication factor k plays an extremely
important role in determining nuclear reactor behavior. The calculation of the
multiplication factor k characterizing a given reactor configuration and composition is one of the primary objectives of nuclear reactor analysis, and much of our
attention in this text will be devoted to developing various procedures for performing this calculation.
The definition of the multiplication constant k in terms of successive fission
neutron generations is sometimes known as the "life-cycle" point of view1 because
of its similarity to biological population growth. This definition is a bit awkward,
however, since it is usually rather difficult to determine the neutron generation
time. For example, some neutrons may induce fission immediately after their birth
in a fission reaction. Others may first slow down to thermal energies before
77
inducing fission. Some neutrons may not induce fission reactions at all, but will
instead be absorbed in nonproductive capture or leak out of the system.
A somewhat more practical definition of the multiplication factor k can be given
in terms of a neutron balance relation by defining
Rate of neutron production in reactor
Rate of neutron loss (absorption plus capture) in reactor
P{t)
L(t)
Here we have explicitly noted that the production and loss rates may change with
time (e.g., due to fuel consumption).
We will find the "neutron balance" definition of multiplication a somewhat more
useful concept, since it is consistent with the approach that we will use to develop
more elaborate models of nuclear reactor behavior in later chapters. In particular,
we can then define the neutron lifetime, /, in an unambiguous fashion as
N(t)
/ s
(3 2)
7(0
"
where N(t) is the total neutron population in the reactor at a time t. This latter
approach is also particularly convenient for studying the time behavior of the
neutron population in a reactor.
B. Simple Kinetics of Chain Reactions

Imagine that we could somehow count the number of neutrons N (J) in a
nuclear reactor at a time t. Then obviously the time rate of change of N(t) is given
by
dN
= Production r a t e - L o s s rate= P(t) L(t).
(3-3)
However if we use our definition of the multiplication factor k as given by the

neutron balance relation, we can write
dN
dt
L(t)
L(t)
=(k-\)L(t).
(3-4)
To proceed further we can use our definition of the neutron lifetime / to write
dN
dt
N{t).
(3-5)
If we assume that both k and I are time-independent (of course they will not be in
general), then we can solve this simple ordinary differential equation for the
neutron population at any time t, assuming that there are initially N0 neutrons in
the reactor at time / = to find
N (/) = 7V0exp
(3-6)
78
In particular, note that this very simple model of nuclear reactor kinetics agrees with
our earlier definition of reactor criticality in terms of k (see Figure 3-2). Yet this
model also tells us that the growth or decay of the neutron population in a reactor
obeys an exponential growth law. Such exponential growth is quite commonly
found in the study of population dynamics. Indeed the study of the "neutron"
population in a reactor core is mathematically rather similar to the study of
biological populations, and hence the terminology of the latter field is frequently
adopted in reactor physics (e.g., generation, birth, life, death, virgin, daughter).
We will later find that the power level of a nuclear reactor is essentially
proportional to its neutron population. Hence we can also regard the time behavior
of the reactor power level as being exponential with a time constant or reactor
period
T given b y
I"
<3-7)
In particular it should be noted that as the multiplication factor k approaches

unity, the reactor period T approaches infinity which corresponds to a timeindependent neutron population or reactor power level.
However suppose that k is not equal to unity. Then how rapidly might we expect
the power level of the reactor to change? Suppose, for the sake of illustration, we
increased k to make the reactor ever so slightly supercritical by an amount of
k 1.001. Since the neutron lifetime in a typical power reactor is about 10~ 4 sec,
we find this corresponds to a reactor period of r = 0 . 1 sec. Hence in one second the
power level of the reactor will increase by a factor e 1 0 = 22,000. Thus it appears that
the reactor will respond very rapidly to changes in the multiplication factor. In fact,
if a power reactor did indeed respond this rapidly, then it would be difficult to
FIGURE 3-2.
Time behavior of the number of neutrons in a reactor.
79
control the reactor power level, for a 0.1% change in the multiplication factor is
rather common. Fortunately we have omitted something from this simple model
which tends to greatly increase the neutron lifetime / and hence T, thereby slowing
down the reactor time response. This is the effect of delayed neutrons on the chain
reaction. However this is a tale for another time, so we will leave our study of
reactor kinetics with the promise of returning later to patch up this model in order
to provide a more optimistic picture of nuclear reactor time behavior.
C. A Formal Calculation of k: The Four-Factor Formula

Let us now turn our attention to the calculation of the multiplication factor
for, say, a pile of uranium that one wishes to make into a nuclear reactor. We
probably should add some coolant to remove fission heat and perhaps some
structural material to hold the core together. However we will assume that we can
treat these materials as intimately and homogeneously mixed so that the composition of the reactor is uniform.
Now to calculate k we must determine the possible fate of neutrons in a given
fission generation. Fortunately this is rather easy to do since there are only two
possible alternative destinies available to the neutron. First it might leak out of the
reactor and be lost to the chain reaction. If it does not leak out, then it must
eventually be absorbed.1" This absorption may correspond to a nonproductive
capture event in either the fuel or other materials, or the absorption may induce a
fission reaction, in which case a new fission neutron generation is produced. We
can represent these destinies schematically, as shown below:
To make this more formal, suppose we define the probabilities for each of these
possible events as follows:
Probability that neutron will not leak out of system before
absorption
Conditional probability that if neutron is absorbed, it
will be absorbed in the fuel
Conditional probability that if neutron is absorbed in
fuel, it will induce a fission reaction.
course, yet a third alternative would be a decay of the neutron into a proton, electron, and
neutrino, but since the half-life for decay of a free neutron is 11.7 minutes, and the typical
neutron lifetime / in the reactor is less than 10" 3 sec, we can safely ignore this alternative.
80
These latter two conditional probabilities are easily calculated. The conditional
probability for absorption in the fuel PAF can be expressed simply as the ratio of
the macroscopic absorption cross sections for the fuel 2 a , and for the fuel plus the
rest of the material in the core 2 a . (We will usually indicate with a superscript the
material to which we are referring. The absence of the superscript will imply that
the macroscopic cross section is the total for all of the materials in the system.)
Thus we can write
(3-8)
a
It should be kept in mind that this expression has been introduced only for the
situation in which the reactor has a uniform composition. Unfortunately for the
reactor analyst all modern reactors have nonuniform compositions varying from
point to point (e.g., due to fuel elements, coolant channels, support structure). In
this more general case one can still use Eq. (3-8) if the macroscopic cross sections
2 a are regarded as spatial averages over the reactor. It should also be noted that we
have not yet specified the neutron energy at which these cross sections are to be
evaluated. Again, we will later find that the cross sections appearing in Eq. (3-8)
must be appropriately averaged over energy, just as they are over space.
It is customary in reactor terminology to refer to this probability as the thermal
utilization of the reactor and denote it by P A F = / . This term arose in the early
analysis of thermal reactors in which essentially all fissions in the fuel were induced
by thermal neutrons. In this case the cross sections in / would be evaluated at
thermal neutron energies and would represent the effectiveness of the fuel in
competing with other materials in the reactor for the absorption of thermal
neutrons, that is, the effectiveness with which the reactor utilized the thermal
neutrons in the fuel. The expression in Eq. (3-8) actually applies to any type of
reactor. However we will fall in line with convention and refer to it as the thermal
utilization and denote it by "/."
The conditional probability for inducing a fission reaction in the fuel can also be
expressed in terms of cross sections. In this case we simply take the ratio of the
fission cross section to that of the absorption cross section (due to both fission and
radiative capture) in the fuel material:
We are now ready to utilize these probabilities to determine the multiplication

factor k. The general scheme is to play a game of "follow the neutron." Suppose we
start with NY neutrons present in the reactor in a given fission generation. Then
with the help of the above probabilities and our diagram, we can compute the
number of neutrons in the next generation as:
r
r
N2=rPfPAFf P
LN
AF
NL2
(3-10)
or
(3-11)
81
where we have recalled that rj v ( o f / a a ) is the number of fission neutrons

produced per absorption in the fuel. We can now use our definition of the
multiplication factor k as being the ratio of the number of neutrons in two
successive fission generations to write
The nonleakage probability P N L appearing in Eq. (3-12) and characterizing neutron

leakage from the core is much more difficult to compute. It will require more
elaborate mathematics (and in a realistic calculation, the use of a digital computer),
and hence we will defer a discussion of it until later.
As a momentary detour, however, suppose our reactor were of infinite extent.
Then since no neutrons could leak out, we immediately conclude that we must set
the nonleakage probability /* N L = 1. The corresponding multiplication factor is then
k n o w n as t h e infinite
medium
multiplication
factor
kao = 'nf
and denoted by
(3-13)
Now of course no reactor is of infinite size. Nevertheless k ^ is a useful parameter

in reactor analysis since it essentially characterizes the multiplication properties of
the material in the reactor as distinct from the geometry of the reactor core. Of
course since P N L < 1 more generally for a finite reactor from which some neutron
leakage can occur, we must have k ^ > 1 in order to have any chance of achieving a
critical chain reaction.
There are a couple of important modifications that must be introduced into this
simple development in order to understand how the present generation of so-called
"thermal" reactors works. We must account for the fact that the neutrons in a
nuclear reactor have a distribution of energies. As we saw in Chapter 2, the fission
neutrons are born at very high energies in the MeV range. However the fission
cross section is largest at very low energiesindeed, at those energies corresponding to neutrons in thermal equilibrium with the reactor core at a temperature T,
e.g., for r = 3 0 0 C , E=kT= 0.05 eV. Hence it is obviously to our advantage to try
to slow down, or in the language of reactor physics, "moderate," the fast fission
neutrons to take advantage of the fact that slow neutrons are more likely to induce
fission reactions. This can be accomplished rather easily, simply by letting the fast
neutrons collide with light nuclei, thereby losing some of their kinetic energy in
elastic scattering collisions. The lighter the nucleus involved, the more kinetic
energy per collision will be lost on the average by the neutron and hence the more
effective the slowing down or moderation. In fact the best nucleus to use is
hydrogen, which is fortunately quite commonly available in the form H 2 0 . Hence
if we just let the fast neutrons rattle around in water for a bit, they will quickly slow
down to the desired thermal energy. In this sense, we refer to water as a neutron
moderator. Numerous other materials can be used as moderators in nuclear
reactors, and we will discuss these in greater detail later.
The presence of such neutron moderation in a reactor suggests several modifications to our earlier calculation of the multiplication factor k. Suppose we first
modify our diagram of the various possible neutron destinies to take into account
neutron energy as shown in Figure 3-3. Now since most fissions will be induced by
thermal neutrons, we will regard / and t] as being evaluated at thermal neutron
82
M e V fission
neutrons
A
Slowing d o w n
via scattering
collisions w i t h
light nuclei
(Resonance
absorption
or
leakage)
Fission
FIGURE 3-3.
SubeV thermal
neutrons
{leakage or
parasitic capture)
Processes characterizing a neutron generation in a thermal reactor.
energies. For example, / would now refer to the ratio of thermal neutron absorptions in the fuel to total thermal neutron absorptions and thereby become more
deserving of its designation as the "thermal" utilization. Similarly, t) is now
identified as the average number of fission neutrons produced per absorption of a
thermal neutron in the fuel.
Then to account for processes that occur while the neutron is slowing down to
thermal energies, we will introduce two new quantities. We first define a factor that
takes account of the fact that, although most fissions will be induced in fissile
material by thermal neutrons, some fissions will be induced in both fissile and
fissionable material by fast neutrons. Hence we will scale up our earlier expression
f o r k b y a fast fission factor
c:
Total number of fission neutrons (from both fast and thermal fission)
~~
Number of fission neutrons from thermal fissions
83
The fast fission factor is usually quite close to unity in a thermal reactor with
typical values ranging between e = 1.03 and c = 1.15.
The second factor we will introduce will characterize the possibility that the
neutron might be absorbed while slowing down from fission to thermal energies.
Since most absorptions occurring during the slowing down process correspond to
resonance capture in heavy nuclei such as 238 U, we refer to this factor as the
resonance
escape probability
p:
Fraction of fission neutrons that manage to

p == slow down from fission to thermal energies
without being absorbed.
(3-15)
Finally it is useful to modify our definition of the nonleakage probability to take

account of the fact that there will be two distinct phases of neutron leakage that
will require two rather different types of analysis in our later work. First the
neutron may leak out while slowing down. Indeed since the neutron mean free path
is relatively large for high energies, such fast neutron leakage may be quite
appreciable. A second leakage process may occur after the neutron has managed to
slow down to thermal energies. After slowing down, the neutron may continue to
scatter and eventually leak out before it has had an opportunity to be absorbed. To
take account of these two processes, we will break up our earlier nonleakage
probability as follows:
^ N L = ^FNL^TNL
where
p
FNL
p
TNL
_ Probability that fast neutron will not leak out

(fast nonleakage)
__ Probability that thermal neutron will not leak out
(thermal nonleakage).
If we now insert these new definitions into our earlier expressions (3-12) and
(3-13), we find that the infinite medium multiplication factor becomes
k^vfpz-
(3-17)
This is known as the four-factor formula. Moreover one now writes

k = rifpe
(3"18)
/ V n i A n l '
which is known, surprisingly enough, as the six-factor
formula.
EXAMPLE: To more vividly illustrate these ideas, we can list the values of each
of the factors in the six-factor formula for a typical thermal reactor: 17 =1.65,
/ = 0 . 7 1 , = 1 . 0 2 , ^ = 0.87, P f n l = 0.97, 7 ^ = 0 . 9 9 = ^ = 1.04==>&= 1.00.
Hence provided we can
k = 1 can then be easily
parameters a bit to yield
factors is quite difficult in
calculate each of these factors, our criticality condition

checked (in the above example we fudged up the
a critical system). Of course, the calculation of these
general. Indeed one cannot really separate the various
84
conditional probabilities as was done in these formulas. Instead alternative schemes

based on iterative numerical methods must be used in practice to arrive at a
criticality condition.
Nevertheless the four-factor and six-factor formulas are quite useful because
they provide insight into the various mechanisms involved in nuclear fission chain
reactions and on rare occasions may actually be of use in making crude estimates
in nuclear design. They are also useful in illustrating the trends of parameter
variation in a core design.
For example, although rj and c are essentially fixed once the fuel has been
chosen, the thermal utilization / and resonance escape probability p can be varied
considerably by changing the ratio of fuel density to moderator density. All of
these parameters can be varied by using a heterogeneous lattice of fuel elements
surrounded by moderator rather than a uniform, homogeneous mixture of fuel and
moderator.
One can also vary the nonleakage probabilities by simply making the reactor
core larger, or surrounding the reactor by a material with large scattering cross
section so that some of the neutrons leaking out will be scattered back into the
reactor. Actually when leakage is changed, there will be some change in the
parameters in the four-factor formula as well since these are actually averages over
the various neutron energies in the reactor, and this distribution of energies will
vary with the amount of leakage. Such considerations have given rise to a
somewhat different notation for the multiplication factor characterizing a finite
system which is occasionally referred to as the effective multiplication factor and
denoted by k eff
êff = ôo^FNL^TNLThere are other prescriptions for defining the multiplication factor. In particular we
will introduce one of these schemes later when we consider the analytical treatment
of the neutron energy dependence in more detail. However for now we will
continue to regard the multiplication factor as the ratio between either the number
of neutrons in two successive fission generations or the neutron production and
loss rates in the reactor.
We can use the six-factor formula for the multiplication factor to gain a bit more
insight into the goals of reactor design and operation. There are several ways to
adjust k in the initial design of the reactor. One could first regard the size of the
reactor as the design variable. Since the ratio of surface area to volume decreases as
the reactor geometry is enlarged, one can control the relative importance of the
leakage factors by adjusting the reactor size. For a given core composition (with k ^
greater than 1, of course) there will be a certain critical size at which k = 1. An
alternative way to achieve the same reduction in leakage is to surround the reactor
with a scattering material that acts as a neutron reflector. Most thermal reactor
cores are so large that leakage represents a rather small loss mechanism (typically
about 3% of the neutrons leak out from the core in large thermal reactors).
Usually the core size and geometry for a power reactor are dictated by thermal
considerations, for instance, the size of the core necessary to produce a given power
output while being provided with sufficient cooling so that the temperature of the
reactor materials will not become excessively high. The primary design variable at
the disposal of the nuclear engineer is the core composition. In particular he can
vary the composition (enrichment) and shape of the fuel, the ratio of fuel to
85
moderator density, the type of moderator, coolant, and structural materials used, or
the manner in which reactor multiplication is controlled. One would refer to the
amount of fuel required to achieve a critical chain reaction as the critical mass of
fuel.
In reality, however, a nuclear reactor is always loaded with much more fuel than
is required merely to achieve k=l. For example the LWR is typically loaded with
sufficent fuel to achieve a multiplication of about k = 1.25. This extra multiplication
is required for several reasons. First if the reactor is to operate at power for a
period of time, one must provide enough excess fuel to compensate for those fuel
nuclei destroyed in fission reactions during the power production. Since most
contemporary reactors are run roughly one year between refueling, a sizable
amount of excess fuel is needed to compensate for fuel burnup. A second
motivation arises from the fact that the multiplication of a reactor tends to
decrease as the reactor power level and temperature increase from ambient levels to
operating levels. Additional multiplication is needed to compensate for this effect.
Finally one must include enough extra multiplication to allow for reactor power
level changes. For example, we have seen that if we wish to increase the reactor
power level, we must temporarily adjust A; to a value slightly greater than 1 so that
the reactor is supercritical. The reactor can then be returned to critical when the
desired power level has been reached.
Of course when this excess multiplication is not being used, some mechanism has
to be provided to cancel it out to achieve reactor criticality. This is the function of
reactor control mechanisms. Such control is usually achieved by introducing into
the reactor core materials characterized by large absorption cross sections. They
will then tend to eat up the excess neutrons produced in the chain reaction. In
terms of our six-factor formula such absorbing materials lower the value of the
thermal utilization /, since they compete with the fuel for neutron absorption. A
variety of types of reactor control are used in power reactors. For example, the
neutron absorber might be fabricated into rods which can then be inserted into or
withdrawn from the reactor at will to vary multiplication. Sometimes the absorber
is fabricated directly into the fuel itself. Or it may be dissolved in the reactor
coolant. When such control absorbers are used to hold down the excess multiplication introduced to compensate for fuel burnup, one refers to them as shim control.
They may also be used to force the reactor subcritical in the case of an emergency;
then they are known as scram control. Finally they may just be used to regulate the
power level of the reactor; then they are referred to as maneuvering control
elements.
The ease with which such control elements can control the fission chain reaction
will depend on how rapidly the reactor responds to variations in multiplication.
Since fuel burnup occurs over very long periods of time (typically weeks or
months), a rapid response of shim control is not requiredwhich is fortunate,
because rather large amounts of multiplication must be manipulated (typically
changes of 10-20% in k). The normal power variations in the reactor are due to
much smaller changes in multiplication (<0.1%) and are characterized by essentially the reactor period T which in turn is proportional to the neutron lifetime /.
However we saw earlier that the lifetime of prompt fission neutrons was quite
short, typically about 10~ 4 sec. The effective neutron lifetime is greatly increased
by the presence of delayed neutrons, however. We recall that about 0.7% of the
neutrons produced in fission are delayed anywhere from 0.6 to 80 sec since they
arise from fission product radioactive decay. Hence the effective neutron lifetime is
86
actually the average of the prompt neutron lifetime and the average decay time of
these delayed neutrons, properly weighted, of course, by their relative yield fractions. When this is taken into account, one finds that the effective neutron lifetime
is almost two orders of magnitude longer, /eff 10 1 seconds. Hence a multiplication of 0.1% would now correspond to a reactor period of T= 10 seconds, well
within the control capability of a reactor control system.
D. Conversion and Breeding

If we recall our earlier expression for the multiplication factor k in Eq. (3-12),
it is evident that since the thermal utilization / and the nonleakage probability P N L
are both less than 1, we require 17 to be substantially greater than 1 if a critical
fission chain reaction is to be possible. Fortunately as we can see from Figure 2-25,
this condition is not only satisfied, but in fact for many energies one finds that
r} > 2 . Hence we in fact appear to have an extra neutron. This "bonus" neutron can
be put to good use if we recall that certain fertile isotopes can be transmuted into
fissile material via neutron capture. In particular, 2 3 8 U can be transmuted into
239
Pu, while 232 Th can be transmuted into 233 U. Hence if we load the core of a
reactor with such fertile material, we can use the extra neutron to produce a new
fissile fuel material. This process is frequently referred to as conversion, and nuclear
reactors whose principal j o b is to produce 239 Pu or 2 3 3 U are known as converter
reactors.
Actually all modern power reactors are converter reactors in a sense, although
this is not their primary function, since they contain substantial amounts of 238 U
which will be transmuted into 239 Pu via neutron capture during normal operation.
For example, a LWR will contain a fuel mixture of roughly 3% 235 U and 97% 238 U
in a freshly loaded core. After a standard operating cycle (usually one year), this
core will contain roughly 1% 2 3 5 U and 1% 239 Pu which can then be separated out of
the spent fuel and refabricated into fresh fuel elements for reloading (so-called
"plutonium recycling").
These considerations suggest that it might in fact be possible to fuel a reactor
with 239 Pu and 2 3 8 U and then produce directly the fuel ( 239 Pu) needed for future
operation. Indeed it might even be possible to produce more 239 Pu than is
burnedthat is, to "breed" new fuel. This is the essential idea behind the concept
of a breeder
reactor.
To discuss this concept in more detail, it is useful to define the conversion ratio
Average rate of fissile atom production
Average rate of fissile atom consumption '
This quantity is also referred to as the breeding ratio (BR) if it is greater than one.
If we have conversion then, consuming N atoms of fuel during reactor operation
will yield CR-7V atoms of the new fissile isotopes. For example, most modern
LWRs are characterized by a conversion ratio of C R ^ 0 . 6 . By way of contrast,
HTGRs are characterized by somewhat higher conversion ratios C R ^ 0 . 8 and
hence are sometimes referred to as advanced converter reactors.
For breeding to occur we require that the conversion ratio be greater than unity,
CR = B R > 1. Of course for this to happen we must have rj > 2 since slightly more
than one fission neutron is needed to maintain the chain reaction (some neutrons
87
will leak out or be absorbed in parasitic capture) while one neutron will be needed
to replace the consumed fissile nucleus by converting a fertile into a fissile nucleus.
If we return to Figure 2-25 we can see that the only attractive breeding cycle for
low-energy (i.e., thermal) neutrons would involve 233 U, that is, the 2 3 2 Th/ 2 3 3 U
process. To breed using 2 3 8 U/ 2 3 9 Pu requires that we use fast neutrons with energies
greater than 100 keV. And of course this is the motivation behind the development
of t h e fast breeder
reactor.
At this point, it is useful to digress a bit and discuss the average energy of the
neutrons sustaining the chain reaction in various types of nuclear reactors. As we
have seen, the energies of neutrons in a reactor span an enormous range, from 10
MeV (usually the maximum energy of fission neutrons) down to as low as 10~3 eV
after having suffered a number of scattering collisions with nuclei and slowing
down. Furthermore the neutron cross sections depend sensitively on the neutron
energy. As the examples in Chapter 2 indicated, the general trend is for cross
sections to decrease with increasing energies. This feature is particularly true of
absorption cross sections such as capture or fission.
The fact that the fission cross section o{ is largest at low energies implies that it is
easiest to maintain a fission chain reaction using slow neutrons. Hence early
nuclear reactors used low mass number materials such as water or graphite to slow
down or moderate the fast fission neutrons. Such moderating materials slow the
neutrons down to energies comparable to the thermal energies of the nuclei in the
reactor core. Reactors characterized by an average neutron energy comparable to
such thermal energies are referred to as thermal reactors. Such reactors require the
minimum amount of fissile material for fueling and are the simplest reactor types
to build and operate. Most nuclear power plants in this country and abroad utilize
thermal reactors.
However we have also seen that there is a very definite advantage in keeping the
neutron energy high, since the number of neutrons emitted per neutron absorbed in
the fuel 7] is largest for fast neutrons. Hence one can use the "extra" neutrons
available in a fission chain reaction maintained by fast neutrons to convert or
breed new fuel. However since o{ is smaller, one also needs much more fuel to
sustain the chain reaction. Furthermore to keep the neutron energy high, one wants
to utilize only high mass-number materials in the core to keep neutron slowing
down to a minimum. Such reactors characterized by average neutron energies
above 100 keV are known as fast reactors. It is felt by many that fast reactors will
eventually replace the current generation of thermal power reactors because of
their ability to breed fuel.
To make some of these ideas a bit more precise, we have compared the
important nuclear parameters v, tj, and of for typical nuclear fuels at energies
characterizing both thermal and fast reactors. (To be more precise, these quantities
have been calculated by averaging the energy-dependent nuclear parameters v(E),
t](), a n ( i a f ( ) o v e r ^ e neutron energy distributions found in typical LWRs and
LMFBRs.) One should first note that the fission cross sections in fast reactors are
some two orders of magnitude lower than those in thermal reactors. Hence even
though fast reactors exhibit considerably higher conversion ratios (typically, CR
= BR1.2-1.5) due to a larger value of rj, their fissile inventory requirements may
run as much as 30-40 times those required by thermal reactors just to maintain a
critical chain reaction with fast neutrons. This table also indicates that while 235 U
will yield a slightly higher conversion ratio than 239 Pu in thermal reactors, the use
88
of 239 Pu does exhibit a sizable advantage in fast reactors since the capture-to-fission
ratio a 4 9 falls off quite markedly for large neutron energies. In Table 3-1 we have
only indicated the nuclear fission properties of 238 U in fast reactors, since this
isotope is fissionable and hence contributes only a modest fraction of the fissions
occurring in thermal reactors ( ~ 2 - 5 % ) in contrast to its rather large contribution in
fast reactors (20%).
TABLE 3-1
Energy-Averaged Fission Parameters Characterizing

Thermal and Fast Reactors
Thermal Reactor
(.LWR)
235
239
U
Pu
V
V
*f(b)
2.4
2.0
280
2.9
1.9
790
235u
Fast Reactor
(LMFBR)
239
Pu
23 8 U
2.6
2.1
1.9
3.1
2.6
1.8
2.6
0.3
0.06
We have mentioned only a few of the considerations involved in comparing the

nuclear behavior of thermal versus fast reactors. As we develop more sophisticated
methods of reactor analysis, we will return frequently to contrast the application of
these methods for thermal and fast systems.
II. AN INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS

A. Nuclear Power Plants
The schematic illustration 4 of a typical large nuclear power plant appears in
Figure 3-4. It is apparent from this illustration that the nuclear reactor itself is only
one of a great many components in such a plant. Actually aside from the nuclear
reactor and its associated coolant system, such power plants are remarkably similar
to large fossil-fuel fired plants. Only the source of the heat energy differs, that is,
nuclear fission versus chemical combustion. Hence most of the components of
large central-station power plants are common to both nuclear and fossil units.
A very crude diagram of the major components of an electrical power plant is
given in Figure 3-5. As we have sketched it in this diagram, the steam supply
system could be either a fossil-fuel fired boiler or a nuclear reactor and its
associated coolant loops.
All of the current large power plants operate on a steam cycle (a so-called
Rankine cycle) in which the heat generated by combustion or nuclear fission is
used to convert water into high-pressure, high-temperature steam. This steam is
then allowed to expand against the blades of a turbine. In this way the latent energy
of the steam is converted into the mechanical work of turning the turbine shaft.
This shaft is connected to a large electrical generator that converts the mechanical
turbine energy into electrical energy which can then be distributed to an electrical
power grid. The low-pressure steam leaving the turbine must then be recondensed
in a steam condensor into water so that it can be pumped back to the steam supply
system to complete the cycle. The condensor requires large quantities of ambient
Steam generators.
FIGURE 3-4.
A schematic diagram of a nuclear power plant.4
Containment building
Fuelhandling
building
BWR
Fossilfired boiler
Steam
X//,
Primary loop ( H 2 0 )
VJ
Feedwater
Primary
loop
(He)
Steam
PWR
CM
Feedwater
HTGR
Steam
Feedwater
LMFBR
Steam
FIGURE 3-5.
90
Comparison of different steam-supply systems.
91
temperature cooling water which is usually obtained from artificial cooling ponds or
cooling
towers.
This is of course a very oversimplified description of the major components of a

power plant, but it does serve to illustrate that these components are quite similar
for both nuclear and fossil-fueled stations. Actually as far as the steam cycle itself
is concerned, the primary difference between the two types of plant is that the
fossil-fueled boiler supplies slightly higher temperature, higher pressure steam,
thereby reducing the design requirements on the turbine (although it should be
mentioned that more advanced reactor types such as the H T G R supply system
steam at conditions quite comparable to those of modern fossil-fueled units). Of
course there are numerous other differences in the various subsystems of the plants,
as well as in their operation. However the major features of the plants, aside from
their steam supply system, are quite similar.
B. The Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS)

The NSSS consists essentially of three major components: (a) a nuclear
reactor supplying the fission heat energy, (b) several primary coolant loops and
primary coolant pumps that circulate a coolant through the nuclear reactor to
extract the fission heat energy, and (c) heat exchangers or steam generators that use
the heated primary coolant to turn feedwater into steam. Several very simplified
diagrams of NSSS components are given in Figure 3-5.
A variety of possible coolants can be used in the primary loops of the NSSS.
Indeed nuclear reactor types are usually characterized by the type of coolant they
use, such as LWRs or gas-cooled reactors. There are also a variety of possible
NSSS configurations. For example, one may actually produce the steam in the
reactor core itself. Or one may use a single-phase primary coolant such as water or
helium to transfer the fission heat energy to a heat exchanger where it is used to
produce steam (see Figure 3-5). In the liquid metal-cooled NSSS, an intermediate
coolant loop must be utilized to isolate the steam generator from the very high
induced radioactivity of the primary coolant loop passing through the reactor.
The most "common coolant used in power reactors today is ordinary water, which
serves as both coolant and moderating material in the reactor. There are two major
types of LWR: pressurized water reactors (PWR) and boiling water reactors
(BWR). In a PWR the primary coolant is water maintained under very high
pressure (155 bar) to allow high coolant temperatures without steam formation
within the reactor. The heat transported out of the reactor core by the primary
coolant is then transferred to a secondary loop containing the "working fluid" by a
steam generator. Such systems typically contain from two to four primary coolant
loops and associated steam generators.
In a BWR, the primary coolant water is maintained at a sufficiently low pressure
(70 bar) for appreciable boiling and steam formation to occur within the reactor
core itself. In this sense the reactor itself serves as the steam generator, thereby
eliminating the need for a secondary loop and heat exchanger. In both the PWR
and BWR, the nuclear reactor itself and the primary coolant are contained in a
large steel pressure vessel designed to accomodate the high coolant pressures and
temperatures. In a PWR, this pressure vessel must be fabricated with thick steel
walls to contain the very high primary coolant pressures. By way of contrast, the
BWR pressure vessel need not be so thick, but must be much larger to contain both
92
the nuclear reactor and steam moisture-separating equipment.

A very closely related class of reactors utilizes D 2 0 as moderator and either D 2 0
or H 2 0 as primary coolant. The most common type of such heavy water reactors,
the C A N D U - P H W , utilizes the pressure tube concept in which each coolant
channel in the reactor is designed to accommodate the primary system pressure
which is again kept high to prevent boiling. As with a PWR, the primary coolant
thermal energy is transferred via a steam generator to a secondary loop containing
light water as the working fluid. More recently, heavy water pressure tube reactors
have been designed (e.g., the CANDU-BLW or SGHWR) which produce H 2 0
steam directly in the core similar to a BWR.
Yet another type of reactor uses gas coolants. Although C 0 2 has been used as
the coolant in the M A G N O X class of natural uranium fueled, graphite moderated
reactors for many years in the United Kingdom, most present interest is directed at
HTGRs using helium under high pressure to cool a reactor fueled with enriched
uranium and moderated by graphite. The helium coolant is then passed through
steam generators to transfer the thermal energy on to a secondary loop containing
water as a working fluid. It should also be mentioned that such H T G R s have the
potential of being combined with gas turbines (rather than steam turbines), thereby
eliminating the steam cycle altogether.
Gas coolants have also been proposed for use in fast breeder reactors (GCFRs).
Because of the very high power densities required by such reactors, extremely high
coolant flow rates would be required. Nevertheless the rather large breeding ratios
( B R ~ 1.5) achievable in the G C F R make it appear a very promising alternative to
other fast reactor designs.
The final class of nuclear reactors utilizes liquid metals such as sodium as a
primary coolant. Although sodium could be used in thermal reactors if alternative
moderation were provided, its primary advantages occur in fast breeder reactors
which require a primary coolant with low moderating properties and excellent
heat-transfer characteristics. The LMFBR NSSS actually uses two sodium loops. A
primary sodium loop is used to remove fission heat from the reactor; this coolant is
then passed through an intermediate heat exchanger in which it transfers its heat
energy to a secondary sodium loop, which, in turn, carries heat to a steam
generator. The intermediate loop isolates the steam generator from the radioactivity induced in the primary sodium coolant.
The NSSS of a modern nuclear power plant is completely contained within a
reactor containment structure designed to prevent the release of radioactivity to the
environment in the even of a gross failure of the reactor coolant system. This
nuclear island within the plant is usually fabricated out of steel-lined concrete and
contains not only the reactor itself (and its associated pressure vessel), but also the
primary coolant system including the primary pumps, steam generators, piping,
and auxiliary systems. A glance back at the schematic diagram of a nuclear power
plant in Figure 3-4 can quickly identify the containment building and the NSSS
contained within it.
C. The Nuclear Reactor Core

At the heart of the NSSS is the nuclear reactor. Far from being just a
relatively simple "pile" of fuel and moderator a la Fermi, a modern power reactor
is an enormously complicated system designed to operate under the most severe
conditions of temperature, pressure, and intense radiation. To introduce the general
FIGURE 3-6.
93
A large pressurized water reactor.'4
components of a typical power reactor, we will consider the specific example of a

modern large PWR as illustrated in Figure 3-6.4 The reactor proper consists of a
core containing the fuel, coolant channels, structural components, control elements,
and instrumentation systems. In this particular example, the core is a cylindrically
shaped lattice roughly 350 cm in diameter by 370 cm in height consisting of long
fuel assemblies or bundles. These assemblies consist of a large number of long,
narrow fuel rods or fuel elements, which are metallic tubes containing the nuclear
fuel in the form of ceramic pellets. Individual fuel elements and assemblies for such
a PWR are shown in Figure 3-7.
In the reactor core one induces and maintains the nuclear fission reactions that
produce the desired heat. The core itself is enclosed in a much larger container, a
reactor pressure vessel, designed to withstand the enormous pressures of the coolant
(up to 155 bar) as well as to isolate the reactor core from the remainder of the
NSSS.
Most of our attention in this text will be directed at the nuclear analysis of the
reactor core itself, since this is the principal responsibility of the nuclear engineer.
However as we have mentioned earlier, we will try to develop this nuclear analysis
within the context of other considerations influencing the design of the nuclear
steam supply system.
Before we conclude this brief introduction to nuclear reactors, however, it is
useful to make a short list of the various components of nuclear reactor systems as
well as to introduce some of the standard nomenclature used in nuclear reactor
engineering.
94
End cap
Expansion spring
Insulatorwafer
Fuel cladding
Fuel element
Fuel assembly
FIGURE 3-7.
Fuel element; fuel assembly.
(1) Fuel: Any fissionable material. This can be either fissile material such as
233
U, 235 U, 239 Pu, or 241 Pu or fissionable material such as 232 Th, 238 U, or
240
Pu. Most modern power reactors utilize this fuel in a ceramic form
either as an oxide such as U 0 2 , a carbide such as UC, or a nitride, UN.
(2) Fuel element: The smallest sealed unit of fuel. In an LWR or LMFBR
the fuel element is a metal tube containing ceramic pellets of fuel (such
as U 0 2 ) . (See Figure 3-7.) In an H T G R the fuel element can be regarded
as either a tiny (300 /xm diameter) particle of uranium carbide coated
with pyrolytic graphite layers, or as a cylindrical fuel pin composed of
these fuel particles bound together with a graphite binder.
(3) Fuel assembly or bundle: The smallest unit combining fuel elements into
an assembly. For example, in a LWR the fuel assembly is composed of
several hundred fuel elements fastened together at top and bottom with
coolant nozzle plates and with several spring clip assemblies along the
length of the fuel (see Figure 3-7). In an H T G R the fuel assembly is a
hexagonal block of graphite with holes into which the cylindrical fuel
pins are inserted. Fuel is usually loaded into a reactor core or replaced
one fuel assembly at a time. A typical power reactor core will contain
hundreds of such fuel assemblies.
95
(4) Moderator: Material of low mass number which is inserted into the
reactor to slow down or moderate neutrons via scattering collisions.
Typical moderators include light water, heavy water, graphite, and
beryllium.
(5) Coolant: A fluid which circulates through the reactor removing fission
heat. The coolant can be either liquid, such as water or sodium, or
gaseous, such as helium or carbon dioxide. It may also serve a dual role
as both coolant and moderator, such as in the LWR.
(6) Coolant channel: One of the many channels through which coolant flows
in the fuel lattice. This may be an actual cylindrical channel in the fuel
assembly, as in the HTGR, or an equivalent channel associated with a
single fuel rod, as in a LWR.
(7) Structure: The geometry and integrity of the reactor core is maintained
by structural elements such as support plates, spacer grids, or the
metallic tubes used to clad the fuel in some reactor designs. The
structural materials may also serve a dual role by moderating neutrons
such as the graphite in an HTGR.
(8) Control elements: Absorbing material inserted into the reactor to control
core multiplication. Although most commonly regarded as movable rods
of absorber, control elements may also consist of fixed absorbers or
absorbing materials dissolved in the coolant. Common absorbing
materials include boron, cadmium, gadolinium, and hafnium.
(9) Reactor core: The total array of fuel, moderator, and control elements.
(10) Reactor blanket: In a breeder or high conversion reactor the core is
usually surrounded by a blanket of fertile material that more effectively
utilizes the neutrons leaking out of the core.
(11) Reflector: A material characterized by a low absorption cross section
used to surround the core in order to reflect or scatter leaking neutrons
back into the core.
(12) Shielding: The reactor is an intense source of radiation. Not only must
operating personnel and the public be shielded from this radiation, but
reactor components must as well be protected. Hence absorbing material
is introduced to attenuate both neutron and gamma radiation. Thermal
shielding is used to attenuate the emergent core radiation to levels that
do not result in significant heat generation and hence damage in reactor
components. Biological shielding reduces the radiation still further to
acceptable levels for operating personnel.
(13) Support structure: The support plates that serve to maintain the core
geometry.
(14) Reactor pressure vessel: The high pressure containment for reactor and
associated primary coolant system.
It is also useful to introduce at this point several quantities which are used to
describe reactor performance. The units in which these quantities are usually
expressed are denoted in brackets.
(1) Reactor thermal power [MWt]: The total heat produced in the reactor
core.
(2) Plant electrical output [MWe]: Net electrical power generated by the
plant.
96
(3) Net plant
efficiency
(4) Plant capacity factor
[%]:
Total energy generated over time period

(Plant rating) X (time)
Average plant electrical power level

Peak power level
(5) Plant load factor
[%]:
(6) Plant availability
factor
(7) Core power density
Plant electrical output

Reactor thermal power'
[%]:
[%]:
Integrated electrical energy output capacity

Total rated energy capacity for period
[kW/liter]:
Reactor thermal power

Total core volume
(8) Linear power density [kW/m]: Thermal heat generated per unit length of
coolant channel.
(9) Specific power
[kW/kg]:
Reactor thermal power

Total mass of fissionable material'
(10) Fuel loading [kg]: Total mass of fissionable material.
. ,
(11) Fuel enrichment
rC71
[%]:
Mass of fissile material

, t.
..
r-r.
Mass of fissile and fertile material

(12) Fuel burnup [Megawatt-days/metric ton uranium = M W D / T U ] :
Energy generated in fuel during core residence
Total mass of fuel
(13) Fuel residence
time:
Fuel burnup
(Specific power) X (capacity factor)
These are the more common terms used in characterizing nuclear plant performance. We will introduce other more specific concepts and terminology later as we
develop the more detailed theory of nuclear reactor behavior.
III. NUCLEAR REACTOR DESIGN

A. General Design Functions of the Nuclear Engineer
The design of a large nuclear power plant is an enormously complex task and
involves the coordination of a remarkably diverse range of disciplines. Each major
component of the plant requires a separate and distinct design analysis and is
usually the responsibility of a specific engineering design team. For example, the
design of the reactor pressure vessel or steam generators is usually performed by
the reactor supplier, while the turbogenerator and switchgear design is the responsibility of the electrical equipment manufacturer. The coordination among
these different design projects is extremely important, however, since the designs
frequently interact to a very high degree.
The primary responsibility for the nuclear design of the reactor core rests with
the nuclear engineer. This design must be accomplished within numerous con-
97
straints imposed on the reactor operation. The nuclear analysis and design of a
reactor core is highly dependent on other areas of core design, including thermalhydraulic design, structural analysis, economic performance, and so on. The
criteria for a design effort are quite varied, encompassing considerations of performance, reliability, economics, and safety. These criteria are frequently contradictory in nature, and hence require optimization.
The complete nuclear design of a given core configuration is performed many
times, initially to survey design parameters, identify constraints, then to refine the
design while interacting with other facets of the plant design, and finally, to
establish a reference design that provides a calculational base against which
optimization calculations can be compared. 5
This design process is very similar to that utilized in other fields of engineering.
One first must attempt to define the various design constraints that include
considerations of system performance in terms of both system reliability and
economic performance and safety criteria. Next a preliminary design is proposed,
drawing on available information such as plants already in operation, experimental
mockups, and frequently, old-fashioned intuition. Such a design includes a set of
specifications involving quantities such as fuel enrichment, coolant flow rates and
temperatures, core configurations, reload patterns, and so on. A detailed analysis
of this preliminary design is then performed in order to evaluate its predicted
performance and ascertain whether it conforms to the constraints imposed on the
system. For example, one would want to calculate the core power and temperature
distribution, the pressure drop of the coolant as it passes through the core,
coolant-flow conditions, and the fuel lifetime. When possible, these calculations are
compared against experiments in order to validate the computational models used.
A detailed evaluation of the preliminary design will then lead to more detailed
designs and analyses as one attempts to optimize the tradeoff between system
performance and design constraints. As a final design is approached, one attempts
to define detailed system specifications.
The above procedures emphasize the importance of adequate models of a
nuclear reactor in order to carry out the required parameter and optimization
studies. These models must be realistic since nuclear reactors are fai too expensive
to be built without detailed and accurate design information. Unfortunately any
calculation sufficiently realistic to be of use in reactor design is far too complex to
be carried out by hand. Hence the digital computer plays a very key role in nuclear
reactor design. 6
A key task of the nuclear reactor engineer is to develop models of nuclear
reactors that can then be analyzed on the computer. Such models result in large
computer programs or "codes" which can then be used by other nuclear engineers
in reactor design. Most of our emphasis in this text is on learning how to synthesize
such approximate models of reactor behavior and then cast them in a form suitable
for reactor design. In the language of nuclear engineering, then, this text should be
r e g a r d e d as a p r i m e r o n nuclear
methods
development.
A word of caution should be inserted here, however. In the early days of reactor
development it was hoped that one would eventually be able to accurately model
nuclear reactor behavior utilizing only fundamental principles and measured
nuclear data. However over the past three decades of reactor development experience it has become apparent that the accuracy of nuclear data and computationally feasible analytical methods are simply not sufficient to allow this.6 Instead
98
nuclear reactor analysis has relied heavily on that very basic ingredient utilized in
most other areas of engineering design known as the "enlightened fudge." That is,
most nuclear analysis methods or computer codes contain empirical parameters
that have been adjusted or calibrated by comparing the predictions of the methods
with actual experimental measurements. While such empirical input is usually very
successful in yielding accurate nuclear design information with a minimum amount
of effort, the novice nuclear engineer should approach any existing nuclear analytical method or computer code with a high degree of skepticism, since methods
calibrated to work well for one range of parameters may fail miserably when
applied to new situations in which only limited experience is available.
The intimate relation between computers and reactor design cannot be overstressed. It is almost impossible for the present-day nuclear engineer to function
without a reasonable background in computer techniques (both in programing and
numerical analysis). Nevertheless the increasingly heavy reliance of the nuclear
reactor industry on elaborate computational models of reactor performance makes
it even more imperative that the nuclear engineer possess a very thorough
background in the fundamental physical and mathematical concepts underlying
these models, as well as a healthy dose of skepticism when he attempts to utilize
their predictions in reactor analysis.
B. Some Concluding Remarks

In these last three chapters we have attempted to introduce several simple but
important concepts involved in nuclear fission chain reactions. We have also
provided a brief overview of nuclear reactor systems and the function of the
nuclear engineer in the design of such systems. With this background we now turn
our attention to a development of the theory underlying the nuclear analysis of
fission reactors. We have seen that the neutron plays the central role as the chain
carrier perpetuating the chain reaction. The key problem of reactor theory, then, is
to determine the distribution of neutrons in a reactor core. This will not only allow
one to study the chain reaction process itself, but, as we will later find, since the
neutron density is proportional to the rate at which fission reactions occur and
hence proportional to the core power density, the neutron density is also the key to
the subsequent thermal and mechanical analysis of the reactor. As we have
mentioned earlier, there are essentially two aspects to this problem.
One must study the interaction of neutrons with matterspecifically, with the
nuclei that make up the matter. This amounts to either experimental or theoretical
determination of the probabilities that various neutron-nuclear interactions will
occurthat is, a determination of the appropriate neutron-nuclear cross sections.
This, however, is not the principal concern of the theory we will develop in this text
but is more properly the domain of the nuclear physicist. Hence we tend to take
microscopic cross section data as given (in a form to be discussed later), and turn
our attention instead to the manner in which these data are utilized in nuclear
reactor analysis.
Of comparable importance is the study of the transport or diffusion of neutrons
within a nuclear reactor core as they stream around inside the core, suffering
collisions with nuclei, occasionally being absorbed, inducing fission reactions, or
leaking out through the surface of the core. It is this latter study that will allow us
to develop models for calculating the distribution of neutrons within the reactor
core.
99
Our theoretical approach is to begin with an essentially exact description of the

neutron density in the reactor based on the so-called neutron transport equation.
This equation, while relatively easy to derive, is extremely difficult to solve, and
hence we will be concerned with developing various approximations to it that lend
themselves more readily to practical application. We begin our actual study of
nuclear reactor theory by using the simplest such approximation, that in which the
neutron energy dependence is neglected by assuming all neutrons to be
characterized as having a single speed, and describing their transport from point to
point as a simple diffusion process. This very simple model suffices to develop most
of the concepts, as well as to illustrate most of the practical computational
techniques used in more detailed reactor analysis.
We next develop a more sophisticated model of the neutron density behavior
based on breaking up the range of neutron energies into intervals or "groups" and
then describing the diffusion of neutrons in each of these groups separately,
accounting for the transfer of neutrons between groups caused by scattering. Such
multigroup diffusion models are the principal tools used in modern reactor analysis,
and we consider them in some detail.
In the final section of the book we illustrate these models by applying them to
analyze several typical problems encountered in nuclear reactor design. In particular, we explore the relation between such nuclear analysis methods and the other
types of analysis required in nuclear reactor core design.
REFERENCES
1. A. M. Weinberg and E. P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors, The
2. S. Glasstone and A. Sesonske, Nuclear Reactor Engineering, 2nd Ed., Van Nostrand,
Princeton, N.J. (1975).
3. M. M. El-Wakil, Nuclear Energy Conversion, Intext, Scranton (1971).
4. There are a number of other useful sources on nuclear power systems. Each of the major
suppliers of NSSS prepare detailed systems descriptions. For example, a very informative
reference is
Systems Summary of a Westinghouse Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power Plant,
Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1971).
The most detailed descriptions of modern nuclear power plants can be found in the
multivolume set of Preliminary Safety Analysis Reports (PSARs) or Final Safety Analysis
Reports (FSARs) prepared for each nuclear plant. Of particular interest are the standard
safety analysis reports prepared for each of the major NSSS types. For example:
Babcock and Wilcox Standard Nuclear Steam System, B-SAR-241 (1974).
B W R / 6 Standard Safety Analysis Report, General Electric Company (1973).
CESSAR, Combustion Engineering Standard Safety Analysis Report, System 80,
Combustion Engineering (1973).
GASSAR 6, General Atomic Standard Safety Analysis Report, GA-A13200 (1975).
Clinch River Breeder Reactor Plant, Reference Design Report, Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, 1974; PSAR (1975).
RESAR-3, Reference Safety Analysis Report, Westinghouse Nuclear Energy Systems
(1973).
5. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, USAEC Document TID-26241 (1973).
6. J. Chernick, Reactor Technol 13, 368 (1971).
100
PROBLEMS
3-1 What is the maximum value of the multiplication factor that can be achieved in any
conceivable reactor design?
3-2 Using the alternative definition of the multiplication factor based on the concept of
neutron balance, repeat the derivation of the six-factor formula.
3-3 A spherical reactor composed of 235U metal is operating in a critical steady state.
Discuss what probably happens to the multiplication of the reactor and why, if the
system is modified in the following ways (treat each modification separately, not
cumulatively): (a) the reactor is rapidly compressed to one-half its original volume, (b)
a large, fat reactor operator accidentally sits on the reactor, squashing it into an
ellipsoidal shape, (c) a thick sheet of cadmium is wrapped around the outside of the
reactor, (d) the reactor is suddenly immersed in a large container of water, (e) a source
of neutrons is placed near the reactor, (f) another identical reactor is placed a short
distance from the original reactor, and (g) one simply leaves the reactor alone for a
period of time.
3-4 One defines the doubling time for a breeder reactor as the amount of time required for
the original fissile loading of the reactor to double. Find an expression for the doubling
time td in terms of: (a) the original fissile loading MF, (b) the power level of the reactor
P wsFf where F{ is the fission rate occurring in the reactor core, (c) and the breeding
ratio BR.
3-5 A detailed comparison of typical power reactor core parameters is given in Appendix
H. Choose one of the reactor types in this Appendix and perform the following
calculations: (a) verify that the average linear power density, power density, and
specific power given in the table are consistent with the core volume, thermal power
rating, and fuel loading, (b) determine the discharge fuel burnup when the capacity
factor of the nuclear unit is 80% and the fuel residence time is three years, (c)
determine a range for core height and core diameter and sketch a core cross-section for
one array of assemblies using the tabulated core data.
3-6 Calculate and plot k^ as a function of enrichment from 0.7% 235U to 100% 235U. Use
the thermal cross section data of Appendix A and assume p = c 1.
3-7 Derive a relationship between the waste heat rejected from a plant of a given output
and the thermal efficiency of the plant. (Several years ago such waste heat was referred
to as "thermal pollution." In a countermove, several of the more optimistic spokesmen
for the nuclear power industry coined the phrase "thermal enrichment.") Using this
expression, estimate the waste heat rejected by: (a) a modern fossil-fuel plant, (b) a
LWR plant, (c) a HTGR plant, (d) an LMFBR plant, and (e) a fusion reactor plant,
assuming that all of these plants are rated at 1000 MWe. Treat the efficiency of the
plant as that for an ideal (Carnot) heat engine.
3-8 Consider an infinitely large homogeneous mixture of 235U and a moderating material.
Determine the ratio of fuel-to-moderator density that will render this system critical for
the following moderators: (a) graphite, (b) beryllium, (c) water (H 2 0), and (d) heavy
water (D 2 0). Use the thermal cross section data given in Appendix A.
3-9 Modify the simple description of the time behavior of the neutron population in a
reactor given by Eq. (3-5) to account for the presence of a source in the reactor
producing
neutrons per second. In particular, determine the time behavior of the
neutron population for each of the three cases: k < 1, k=\9 and k> 1.
2
The One-Speed
Diffusion Model
of a
Nuclear Reactor
4
Neutron Transport
We now turn our attention to the central problem of nuclear reactor theory, the
determination of the distribution of neutrons in the reactor. For it is the neutron
distribution that determines the rate at which various nuclear reactions occur
within the reactor. Furthermore by studying the behavior of the neutron population
we will be able to infer the stability of the fission chain reaction. To determine the
distribution of neutrons in the reactor we must investigate the process of neutron
transport, that is, the motion of the neutrons as they stream about the reactor core,
frequently scattering off of atomic nuclei and eventually either being absorbed or
leaking out of the reactor. Most reactor studies treat the neutron motion as a
diffusion process. In effect one assumes that neutrons tend to diffuse from regions
of high neutron density to low neutron density, much as heat diffuses from regions
of high to low temperature, or even more analogously, as one gas of molecules
(corresponding to the neutrons) would diffuse through another (the nuclei) to
reduce spatial variations in concentration.
Unfortunately, however, while the treatment of thermal conduction and gaseous
diffusion as diffusion processes is usually found to be quite accurate, the treatment of neutron transport as a diffusion process has only limited validity. The
reason for this failure is easily understood when it is noted that in most diffusion
processes the diffusing particles are characterized by very frequent collisions that
give rise to very irregular, almost random, zigzag trajectories. However, we have
seen that the cross section for neutron-nuclear collisions is quite small (about 10" 24
cm 2 ). Hence neutrons tend to stream relatively large distances between interactions
(recall that the mean free path characterizing fast neutrons is typically on the order
of centimeters). Furthermore, the dimensions characterizing changes in reactor core
composition are usually comparable to a neutron mfp (e.g., a reactor fuel pin is
typically about 1 cm in diameter).
103
104
THE ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION MODEL OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
Hence one frequently requires a more accurate description of neutron transport

that takes into account the relatively long neutron m f p and neutron streaming.
Such a description has been borrowed from the kinetic theory of rarefied gases
(which are also characterized by long mfp)more precisely, the kinetic theory of
gas mixtures. The fundamental equation describing dilute gases was first proposed
more than one century ago by Boltzmann, and even today the Boltzmann equation
remains the principal tool of the gas dynamicist. 1 Its counterpart for the neutron
"gas," the so-called neutron transport equation, is far younger (less than 40 years
old), far simpler (e.g., it is a linear equation in contrast to the Boltzmann equation,
which is nonlinear), but usually strikes far more terror in the hearts of fledgling
nuclear engineers who are intimidated by its frightening reputation within the
nuclear reactor community. Neutron transport theory has come to be associated
with a hideous plethora of impenetrable mathematics, unwieldy formulas, and
(eventually) the expenditure of enormous amounts of money on computer numbercrunching.
This is most unfortunate because the neutron transport equation is much simpler
to derive (requiring only the concept of neutron conservation plus a bit of
vector calculus) and to understand than the neutron diffusion equation that we
shall utilize in most of our development of reactor analysis. It is also a far more
fundamental and exact description of the neutron population in a reactorindeed,
it is the fundamental cornerstone on which all of the various approximate methods
used in nuclear reactor analysis are based.
It does have one major drawback, however. It is usually very difficult to solve
the transport equation for any but the simplest modeled problems (and even these
require an inordinate amount of analytical work). However that is quite all right,
since it is not our intent to attack the transport equation head on. Rather the j o b of
the reactor analyst is to develop suitable (i.e., calculationally feasible and accurate)
approximations to it. Usually, however, only by comparing these various approximate theories to the transport equation from which they originated can one really
assess their range of validity.
There is another reason for including an introduction to the neutron transport
equation in even an elementary discussion of nuclear reactor analysis. Although
neutron diffusion theory is usually found adequate for reactor applications, it owes
its accuracy to various schemes that have been developed to "patch it u p " using
results from more accurate transport equation solutions. For example, we will find
that the neutron diffusion equation is quite invalid near the boundary of a reactor,
or near a highly absorbing material such as a fuel rod or a control element.
Nevertheless we can continue to use diffusion theory to describe the reactor
provided w^ fudge it a bit by inserting so-called "transport corrections" into the
boundary conditions accompanying the diffusion equation.
So hopefully we have made a case for our inclusion of a very introductory
discussion of neutron transport theory within an elementary text. We would
caution the reader not to be intimidated by the notation or the apparent
strangeness of the equation we will develop. He should find it rather easy to
understand the derivation and interpretation of this equation.
Furthermore the effort he expends in understanding the material in this chapter
will provide him with a much deeper and more thorough understanding of the
approximate methods we will develop in later chapters.
With this strong note of encouragement, let us now add a qualification. We have
attempted to develop these later approximations in a manner independent of this
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
105
chapter since we recognize that many nonnuclear engineers reading this text may
not really need (or care) to understand the limitations and ranges of validity of
nuclear analysis methods. Therefore if the reader is faint of heart in confronting the
transport equation, and strong in faith in being able to accept the rather heuristic
arguments necessary to develop these approximate theories (e.g., the neutron
diffusion equation) without recourse to the transport equation, or perhaps just
disinterested, he can proceed immediately to the development of neutron diffusion
theory in the next chapter.
The more formal discussion in this chapter will also serve to introduce the
standard numerical approximation schemes used to analyze the neutron behavior
in nuclear reactors. As in other areas of physical analysis, we will find that the
usual maxim applies: that the "brute force" numerical approach (i.e., discretize
everything in sight and slap in on a computer) is conceptually the simplest
approach to understand and computationally the most expensive calculation to
perform. The more elegant approximate methods require far less computational
effort but far more in the way of mental gymnastics in order to understand the
significance and reliability of their predictions.
I. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
A. Neutron Density and Flux
Our ultimate goal is to determine the distribution of neutrons in a nuclear
reactor core. This requires accounting for the neutron motion about the core and
neutron interactions with nuclei in the core. We will begin by defining the neutron
density N (r, /) at any point r in the reactor core by
N (r,t)d3r = expected number of neutrons in
d3r about r at a time t.
(4-1)
The word "expected" has been inserted into this definition to indicate that this will
be a statistical theory in which only mean or average values are calculated. (The
actual neutron density one would obtain from a series of measurements would
fluctuate about this mean value, of course.) The neutron density N(x,t) is of
interest because it allows us to calculate the rate at which nuclear reactions are
occurring at any point in the reactor. To understand this, let us suppose for
convenience that all the neutrons in the reactor have the same speed v. Now recall
that one can express the frequency with which a neutron will experience a given
neutron-nuclear reaction in terms of the macroscopic cross section characterizing
that reaction 2 and the neutron speed v as
vlt = interaction frequency.
(4-2)
Hence we can define the reaction-rate density F(r,t) at any point in the system by
merely multiplying the neutron density N(r,t) by the interaction frequency
expected rate at which
F(r,*)rf r = t;2iV(r,/)rf r = interactions are occurring
3
in d r about r at time t.
(4-3)
106

-iV(r, t)d3r
FIGURE 4-1.
The neutron density N(r, t).
For example, if we consider a thermal neutron density of 7V=10 8 c m - 3 in a

graphite medium then using the total cross section tabulated in Appendix A of
2 , = 0.385 c m " 1 and a corresponding neutron speed of 2.2X 105 cm/sec, we would
find a reaction rate density of 8.47 X 1012 reactions/cm 3 /sec. In this particular
case, most of these reactions would consist of scattering collisions.
These concepts can easily be extended to the case in which the neutron density is
different for various neutron energies E by defining
expected number of neutrons in d3r
N (r, E, /) d3rdE = about r, energies in dE about E, at
time t.
(4-4)
Notice that this "density" is defined with respect to both space and energy. One
can also generalize the concept of reaction rate density to include energy dependence as
F( r, E, t)d3rdE=v^(E
)N (r, E, /) d3r
dE.
(4-5)
The product vN{x,t) arising in Eqs. (4-3) and (4-5) occurs very frequently in
reactor theory, and therefore it is given a special name:
<f>(r, t) = vN (r, /) = neutron flux
[cm
* sec
(4-6)
Although it will certainly prove convenient to work with <(r, /) rather than N (r, /)
(since then one does not have to worry about including the neutron speed v in the
reaction rate densities), the tradition in nuclear engineering of referring to this
quantity as the neutron "flux" is very misleading. For <(r, t) is not at all like the
fluxes encountered in electromagnetic theory or heat conduction, since these latter
fluxes are vector quantities, whereas <J>(r,/) is a scalar quantity. Actually the
"neutron current" J(r,/), which we shall introduce momentarily, corresponds more
closely to the conventional interpretation of a "flux." To avoid unnecessary
confusion over this unfortunate convention, the student would probably do best at
this point to think of the neutron flux as simply a convenient mathematical variable
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
107
(speed x density) to use in computing reaction rates:

F(r,E9t)
= 2(E)4>(r9E,t).
(4-7)
A bit later we will introduce a physical interpretation of the neutron flux.
B. Angular Densities and Currents

The significance of the neutron density N(r,t) or flux </>(M) in determining
nuclear reaction rates leads us to search for an equation that describes these
quantities. Unfortunately there is no exact equation that is satisfied by N(r,t) or
<f>(r,f)only approximate equations. To understand why, we must generalize the
concept of the neutron density somewhat.
First let us determine just which variables characterize the state of an individual
neutron. Certainly these include the neutron position r, energy E (or speed
u = (2'/m) 1 / 2 ), and the time t at which the neutron is observed. Yet notice that to
specify the state of the neutron, we must also give its direction of motion
characterized by the unit vector fi = v/|v|. (Actually one could worry about
specifying other variables such as the neutron spin; but for reactor calculations, the
variables r, E, fi, and t provide a sufficient description of the state of the neutron.)
Let us now generalize the concept of density by defining the angular neutron
density that depends on all of these variables
expected number of neutrons in
/
r n a /3 j r j o d3r about r, energy dE about E,

=
.
moving in direction fi in solid
A
angle di2 at time t.
n(r9E,ll9t)d*rdEdll
/A
(4-8)
[The term "angular" arises from the fact that n(r9E9l9t) depends on the velocity
spherical coordinate angles 0 and <j> specifying the neutron direction fl (see Figure
4-2).] This is the most general neutron density function we need to define since it
happens that one can derive an essentially exact equation, the neutron transport
equation, for the angular neutron density n(r9E9t9 ?)
However before deriving this equation, it is useful to introduce several other
definitions. We will first define the angular neutron flux in a manner similar to that
in which we earlier defined the neutron flux, simply by multiplying the angular
density by the neutron speed v:
<p (r, E9St9t)
= vn (r, E9 fl, /).
(4-9)
A related concept is the angular current density, defined by

j(r,
6 , t) = v&n (r, E, S2, /) = fi<p(r, E9 fi, t).
(4-10)
Notice that since $2 is a unit vector, the angular flux is actually nothing more than
the magnitude of the angular current density
(4-11)
108
The angular current density has a useful physical interpretation. Consider a small
area dA at a point r. [Here we will use the convention that dA = esdA where es is
the unit vector normal to the surface.] In particular note that if we consider a small
area dA at a point r, then
expected number of neutrons passing
j(r,A0Â^6 =
through a n area dA per un l time with
i
.
energy E in dE, direction 12 in d $2
at time t.
(4-12)
We can also define an angular interaction rate

f(r,E,ti,t)
= v2(r,E)n(r,E,{i,t)
= ^r,E)<p(T,E,a,t).
(4-13)
All of these angle-dependent quantities can be related to our earlier definitions in

Section 4-I-A by simply integrating over the angular variables. For example:
N(ryE,t)=
dQ,n(r,EM,t)
477
(4-14)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
109
or
r
N(r,t)=
r cc
r
A
A
dE
dSln(r,E,S2,t)
J
'O
4ir
oo
dEN (r, E, t)
'O
(4-15)
A
Sometimes quantities such as N(r,t) and <f>(r,t) which do not depend on 2 are
referred to as scalar or total densities and fluxes, to distinguish them from
n(r9E9l9t) and <p(r9E9 fi,/). We find this nomenclature cumbersome and will avoid
it in our development.
Notice that if the angular density is independent of 0 (i.e., it is isotropic) then we
find that Eq. (4-14) demands the presence of a 4tt normalization factor in the
angular density
n{r9EM9t)=-^N(r9E9t).
(4-16)
More generally, however, n(r9E9Sl9t)

will have a directional dependence
particularly if we are near a boundary or a source of neutrons, as a little
geometrical reasoning applied to Figure 4-4 should indicate.
In a similar fashion, we find
4>(r,E,t)=
JQ<p(T,E,a,t)
(4-17)
4it
and
Je oodE${x E t)
9 9
0
r dS2<p(r
A
A
= /codE 4lT
9E9to9t)
(4-18)
Finally, we can define the neutron current density J(r, E, *) in terms of the angular
current density j(r,i?,S2,/) as
J ( r , E , t ) =J f
(4-19)
4lT
and
J(r,0=l
r co
dEJ(r9E9t)
=/
r oc
r
dE
daj(r9E,a,t)
FIGURE 4-4.
Anisotropies in the angular density n(r,E,l,t)
a neutron source.
near a boundary or
(4-20)
110
Notice that J(r,f) is actually what would be referred to as the "flux" in other fields
of physics, since if we have a small area dA at a position r, then
J(r, t)-dA =
net rate at which neutrons pass

through a surface area dA.
(4-21)
The units of both J(r,f) and <#>(r>0 are identical [ c m - 2 s e e - 1 ] . However J is a

vector quantity that characterizes the net rate at which neutrons pass through a
surface oriented in a given direction, whereas
simply characterizes the total rate
at which neutrons pass through a unit area, regardless of orientation. Such an
interpretation would suggest that J is a more convenient quantity for describing
neutron leakage or flow (e.g., through the surface of the reactor core), while
is
more suitable for characterizing neutron reaction rates in which the total number of
neutron interactions in a sample (e.g., a small foil) is of interest. Although the
angular flux and current density are very simply related, we will find that there is
no simple analogous relationship between J and </>. These concepts may appear a
bit confusing at first, but they will become more familiar after we have illustrated
their application in both our further theoretical development and the problems at
the end of the chapter.
A closely related concept is that of the partial current densities, J{r,/) which
correspond to the total rates at which neutrons flow through a unit area from left
to right ( J + ) or right to left ( / _ ) . If we recall our earlier definition of j(r, is, J2, f),
then it becomes apparent that
(4-22)
where 277 is merely a convenient notation to indicate that the angular integration
is performed only over directions with components along the surface normal (2it+)
or in the opposite direction (27r~). For example, if we choose to define the polar
coordinates that specify fi along the normal to the surface, then in the integration
for J+, <t> would range from 0 to In, while 0 would range only from 0 to m / 2,
It is evident from this definition that
e,-J(r,/) = [ / + ( r , 0 - / _ ( r , / ) ] .
Hence J is sometimes referred to as the net current density,
constructed as the sum of the partial current densities.
FIGURE 4-5.
Partial and total current densities.
(4-23)
since it can be
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
134
II. THE NEUTRON TRANSPORT EQUATION

We will now derive an exact equation for the angular neutron density in a
system by simply balancing the various mechanisms by which neutrons can be
gained or lost from an arbitrary volume V within the system. That is, we will
consider mechanisms that will change the number of neutrons in this volume that
are characterized by a specific energy E and are traveling in a specific direction 2.
It is convenient to use a bit of vector calculus here, but hopefully this will not
obscure the simple physics behind this equation (which is just the mathematical
expression of a "count-the-neutrons" game).
To this end, consider any old arbitrary volume A V. The number of neutrons in V
with energy E in dE and traveling in a direction S2 in dSl within this volume is just
f
J\/
n(r9E9(l9t)d
dEdto
(Since w(r,,S2, /), is a "density" in E and 2 space, we must multiply it by dE and

dQ, in order to get a number.) The time rate of change of this number, then, is
given by a balance relation
/V
d_
(
31 , J j/y
n(x9E9(l9t)d
d<iS2 = gain in V loss from V.
(4-24)
If we assume that the arbitrary volume V is chosen not to depend on time, we can
bring the time differentiation inside the spatial integration
d_
dt
f
Jy
n(r9E,fl,t)d3r
dEdil
dEdto.
(4-25)
We will now classify the various ways that neutrons can appear or disappear from
V, and then we will try to write mathematical expressions for each of these
mechanisms in terms of the angular density n(r9E,(l9t).
Gain mechanisms:
(I) Any neutron sources in V (e.g., fissions).
N e u t r o n s streaming into V through the surface S.
(3)Neutrons of different E\ 2' suffering a scattering collision in V that changes
E\
into the E,Q of interest.
FIGURE 4-6.
An arbitrary volume V with surface area S.
112
Loss mechanisms:
(?) Neutrons leaking out through the surface S.
N e u t r o n s in V suffering a collision. (It is obvious that an absorption interaction removes a neutron from V; and since by definition a scattering collision
changes E, 12 and since we are only keeping track of neutrons in V with this
specific energy and direction, a scattering collision also amounts to a loss of
neutrons.)
We can now write a mathematical expression for each of these contributions. We
will work progressively from the easiest to the more difficult:
(!) Source terms: If we define
rate of source neutrons appearing
= \nd3r about r, dE about E, and,
dl about fl
s(r,E,l9t)d3rdEdl
(4"26)
then obviously
Q
= \ f
.Jv
s(r,E,ti,t)d3r dEdQ.
(4-27)
[This term was really easywe only needed to define a source density,
s(r,E,fi,t).]
L o s s due to collisions in V: The rate at which neutrons suffer collisions at a
point r is
ft (r,E 9 i2,/) = t?2,(r,E)n(r,E,S2,/).
(4-28)
Hence integrating this collision rate over the volume V, we find
= ff
v2((r,E)n(r,E,Q9t)d
dEdQ.
(4-29)
(2) Gain due to neutrons scattering into dE about E, dfl about fi from other
energies E' and directions J2': If we recall from Chapter 2 that the probability
of scattering from E\t2' to E,Q is given in terms of the double-differential
scattering cross section, then the rate at which neutrons scatter from E',Q' to
E,a is
dEdQ.
Jv
However we must consider contributions from any E\ttf.
<3>-
f d3r f d&
Jy
J
J
(4-30)
Hence
dEfv'2s(Ef-*E,&^Si)n(r,Ef,&,t) dEdQ.
(4-31)
This is known as the inscattering term since it characterizes neutrons scattering

from other energies or directions into d E d Q .
Q ) Leakage into or from the volume V: We will combine these terms together and
calculate the net leakage through the surface S. If we use the concept of the
angular current density j(r,,J2,/), we can write the rate at which neutrons of
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
113
E, 0 leak out of a piece of the surface, dS, as

j(r, E9 6 , t)-dS =
(r, E, 6 , f )-</S.
(4-32)
Hence the leakage contribution over the entire surface area S is

= (dS-van(r,E,a,t).
J
s
(4-33)
We can rewrite this in terms of a volume integral if we use Gauss's theorem

f dS* A(r) = f d3rV-A(r),
JS
(4-34)
Jy
to find
JdS-vSin(T9E,a9t)
f d3rV-vtin(r9E9il9t)
dEd(l=^
=
dEdSL
d3rvti-Vn(r9E9ti9t) 1dEdtt.
(4-35)
Here we have noted that

(4-36)
V-vSi=vSt'V
since 2 does not depend on r.

If we now combine all of these terms such that
rate of change of number
of neutrons in V
+ ( 2) +
(3)_@_(5),
(4-37)
then we find
f d3r
J y
/CO
/*
9n
91
A
dE' I
A.
dWv'Y>JI<E'-+E9W-+to)n{r9E'9W9t)-s(r9E9to9t) dEdl = 0.
(4-38)
However we now apply the fact that the volume V was quite arbitrarily chosen.
Hence the only way for the integral to vanish for any V is for its integrand to be
identically zerothat is,
f
d3rf(r)
= 0 = > / ( r ) = 0.
(4-39)
any V
Hence we arrive at a balance relation

dn
31
+ ufl Vn + v~2,n (r, E, SI, t)

/*
/* 0 0
dil'
J
4tt
dE'c'2B(E'->E,a'->a)n(r9E'9a'9t)
J
+ s(r9E9a9t).
(4-40)
114
This is known as the neutron transport equation. Several general features of the
equation should be noted: First, it is a linear equation in the unknown dependent
variable n(x,E,St,t)
with seven independent variables (r x,y,z\ E',St = 9,<^\t).
Since it contains both derivatives in space and time as well as integrals over angle
and energy, it is known as an "integrodifferential" equation.
However the presence of the derivatives suggest that we must also specify
appropriate initial and boundary conditions for the angular density. Since only a
single time derivative appears in the equation, we can simply choose the initial
condition to be the specification of the initial value of the angular density for all
positions, energies, and directions:
A
Initial condition: n (r, E, fi, 0) = 0 (r, E, SI), all r, E, SI.
(4-41)
The boundary conditions will depend on the particular problem of interest.

Suppose for purposes of illustration, that we consider the reactor to be surrounded
by an infinite vacuum so that if a neutron leaks out, it can never be scattered back
into the system. Actually to be more precise, we should also assume that the system
geometry is characterized by a nonreentrant surface such that a neutron streaming
out through the surface will never reenter the surface at another point (see Figure
4-7). Then our appropriate boundary condition would simply express the fact that
there can be no neutrons entering the system from the outside. That is, we require
the angular neutron density on the surface to vanish for all inward directions
n(rs,E,tt,t) = Q
if S2-e s <0 ? for all r s on
(4-42)
where r s denotes a point on the surface S. There are. other possible boundary
conditions, but we will discuss these later.
It is convenient to rewrite the neutron transport equation along with its initial
and boundary conditions in terms of the angular flux
= f
dSl'
dE'^lE'Ê,SL'^St)y(r,E\St\t)+s(r,E,Sl,t),
A
(4-44)
Initial condition: <p(r, E,Sl, 0) = <p0(r, E, S2),

A
Boundary condition:
Reentrant surface
FIGURE 4-7.
<p(rs, E, SI, /) = 0 if SI e s < 0 ,

all r0 on S.
Nonreentrant surface
Examples of reentrant and nonreentrant surfaces.
(4-43)
(4-45)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
115
EXAMPLE: Suppose we try to make this equation a little bit less abstract by
applying it to the special case in which there is plane symmetry, that is, where the
neutron flux depends only on a single spatial coordinate, say, x (as shown in Figure
4-9). Then the directional derivative V reduces to
For convenience, we will choose our angular coordinate system with its polar
coordinate axis in the x-direction. Then flx = cos0. The assumption of plane
symmetry also implies that there is no dependence on the azimuthal angle <p. Hence
FIGURE 4-9.
symmetry.
Coordinates characterizing plane
116
the one-dimensional form of the transport equation becomes

1 9<p
3<p
- -r1 + c o s 0 ^ v dt
dx
= CdO'sin0'
'
f dE'^(E'-*E,0'^0)q)(x,E\0\t)+s(x9E,09t).
'O
(4-47)
'O
A final modification of the angular variable is useful. It is customary to rewrite this

equation in terms of a new variable, /a = cos0. Note that as 0 ranges between 0 and
77, jx ranges from 1 to - 1 . Hence the usual form of the one-dimensional transport
equation is written as
1 3<p
3qp
= f
J-1
f dE'2s(E'Ê,n'-+ii)<p(x,E\n',t)
J0
+ s(x,E,fi,t).
(4-48)
We can easily generalize Eq. (4-43) to include nuclear fission by including a

component in the source term to account for fission neutrons. The rate at which
neutrons with energy E' and direction B' induce fission events is just 2 f ( " )
< p ( r ^
is the average number of fission neutrons produced by a
fission induced by a neutron of energy E\ then the total rate at which fission
neutrons are born at a position r is just
f d& f"dE'v(E')2f(E')q>(r,',&',/)
A TT "A)
(4-49)
These fission neutrons will have an energy distribution given by the fission
spectrum x(E)- If we assume that they are emitted isotropically, then the fission
source term we should include in the transport equation is just
A
X( ^
/*
/*CO
^ I da* I
477 J4n
Jq
dE,p(E,)î(E,)<p(r,E,,Q\t)
(4-50)
Actually we should qualify this argument a bit by admitting that we have assumed
all of the fission neutrons to appear instantaneously at the time of fission. Hence s{
is actually the source term corresponding to prompt fission neutrons. We will
develop the modifications necessary for delayed fission neutrons in Chapter 6.
The neutron transport equation provides an essentially exact description of the
neutron distribution within the reactor (at least, provided one is supplied with
appropriate cross section information). Its solution would yield the angular flux
containing essentially all the information (actually considerably more)
we require concerning the nuclear behavior of the reactor. All we have to do is
solve this equation.
Yet notice that: (a) the neutron transport equation has seven independent
variables: x, y, z, 0, <f>, E, t, (b) the dependence of the macroscopic cross sections
on position r is extremely complicated because of the complex, nonuniform
structure of most reactor cores, and (c) as we have seen in Chapter 2, the cross
section dependence on energy is also extremely complicated including resonance
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
117
structure, threshold effects, and so on. These considerations would immediately

suggest that any attempt to solve the transport equation for a realistic system will
involve heavy use of digital computers. Unfortunately no computer is sufficiently
large enough (yet) to solve this equation in the general form in which we have
derived it. This recognition implies that the major task of nuclear reactor analysis
will be to introduce suitable approximations to the neutron transport equation
which will allow us to solve it (at least on a computer), and yet still preserve enough
reality that we can obtain a useful description of the nuclear reactor.
We will begin our discussion of such approximations to the transport equation
by first briefly outlining the various "brute-force" procedures that can be used to
reduce this equation to a discretized form more suitable for digital computation.
We then will develop in a consistent fashion the principal approximations to the
transport equation (such as neutron diffusion theory) used in nuclear reactor
analysis.
III. DIRECT NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE TRANSPORT

EQUATION
Let us consider how one would attempt to solve the neutron transport
equation directly using the aid of a digital computer. First we must recognize that
digital computers are terrible at calculus (e.g., handling derivatives or integrals or
such). Their real talent is in solving very large systems of algebraic equations.
Hence our first task is to convert the transport equation into a system of algebraic
equations more suitable for a digital computer. This is accomplished by
"discretizing" each of the variables in the transport equation, that is, by replacing
functions of continuous variables by a discrete set of values at a discrete set of
points. The derivatives and integrals appearing in the transport equation must also
be replaced by a corresponding discrete representation. In this way one arrives at a
set of algebraic equations for the discrete representation of the dependent variable
(in our case, the neutron flux <p).
The discretization of the transport equationor, indeed, any such differential
equationcan be accomplished by using either discrete ordinates methods or
function expansions.7'8 To illustrate these approaches, suppose we have an equation
for a function, s a y / ( x ) , which contains derivatives and integrals:
(4-51)
In the discrete ordinate approach, one begins by representing the unknown / ( x )
only by its values at a discrete set of points xi of the independent variable x. That
is, one first discretizes the domain of variation of x into a mesh of discrete points,
each of which is labeled by a subscript i. Then we r e p l a c e / ( x ) by its value at each
of these meshpoints
(4-52)
(Of course, these values f are still unknown.) Notice that what we have actually
d o n e is to replace a function
f ( x ) b y a column vector f
/ ( * ) - / = col U\J2,
JN)-
(4-53)
118
In this sense then, the system of algebraic equations we will arrive at for the
unknown components of / can be written as a matrix equation.
We must next replace the various operations in the original equation by their
discretized counterparts. For example, we would represent derivatives by finite
difference formulas such as
/(*/)"/(*,-!)
fi-fi-X
dx
Mi
-i-1
(4-54)
'
Integrals would be represented as sums or numerical quadrature formulas such as
("dxfix)-
",/(*/) =
if>
(4-55)
where the wt are known as the quadrature weights. A thorough description of such
procedures can be found in any elementary textbook on numerical analysis, 7 ' 8
although frequently it is more useful to derive such numerical approximations
directly for the specific equation under investigation (as we will have occasion to
do in Chapter 5).
Such procedures lead eventually to a set of coupled algebraic equations for the
components
that can be solved on a digital computer. Frequently these discrete
values of the unknown f ( x ) provide an adequate representation. However occasionally one wishes to reconstruct the original unknown f ( x ) for all values of x
from the discrete values i n / . Then one must interpolate between the point values/,
at xif for example by using polynomials. (See Figure 4-10.)
A n alternative way to arrive at a discrete representation of an equation is to
write the unknown function as an expansion in a finite number of known functions
(frequently polynomials). If we call these expansion functions Pf(x) 9 then we would
write
(4-56)
/= 1
Hence once again we find that the function f ( x ) is represented by a vector
/(*)->
col ( f v f 2 J
3 >
-.,/*)=/,
(4-57)
although in this case, the components of the vector are just the unknown expansion
coefficients fr Notice that if we can determine these expansion coefficients, then we
can easily reconstruct the unknown function f ( x ) by merely using Eq. (4-56).
Interpolation is not required as it is with the discrete ordinates approach.
E X A M P L E : When the dependent variable ranges between 1 and + 1 , a very
convenient choice of expansion functions are the Legendre polynomials:
P0(x)
= 1 ,/>,(*) = x, P2(x)
= (3 - x2)/2,...
(4-58)
This choice of expansion functions is frequently used to represent the angular

dependence of the neutron flux in one-dimensional problems in which /x = cos 9 is
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
fix)
119
Actual function
fi
fix)
Discrete representation
Interpolated representation
/
x
FIGURE 4-10.
-\
Discrete ordinate representation of a function.
the natural independent variable:

N
<p(x,iA,E,t)=
vfaEtOPtiiL).
(4-59)
/=i
(Here we might recall Eq. (4-48) as an example in which such an expansion would
prove suitable.)
There are a variety of techniques one can now use to obtain a set of algebraic
equations for the expansion coefficients from the original equation for f(x). For
example, it is frequently possible to substitute the expansion Eq. (4-56) into the
original equation, multiply by each of the expansion functions pt(x), integrate over
the independent variable x9 and then use various properties of t h e P / ( x ) (such as the
property of orthogonality, which we will discuss later) to arrive at a set of algebraic
120
equations for the fr One can also use more elaborate schemes such as the calculus
of variations
o r s o - c a l l e d weighted
residual
methods
t o a r r i v e a t t h e set of a l g e b r a i c
equations. Since we will make only very limited use of such function expansions in
our elementary development of numerical analysis methods in this text, we will
refer the interested reader to several detailed descriptions 9,10 of these techniques for
more information.
A. Discretization of the Angular Dependence

Let us first consider how these techniques can be used to discretize the
direction variable 12 in the neutron transport equation. In the discrete ordinate
approach, 1 1 we would first represent the independent variable by a discrete set of
directions or rays
= 1,..., TV.
W e then represent functions of Q by only their values at each of these mesh
directions:
/(n)^/(S2)=/,
n=l,...,N.
(4-60)
A
In such a discrete ordinate treatment of angle, the integral over S2 becomes a

summation:
f da/(a)
(4-6i)
where the wn are appropriately chosen quadrature weights for the particular
numerical integration scheme used to handle the angular integrals. In this scheme,
the transport equation reduces to a coupled set of N equations of the form:
r co
w j
n' = 1
dE'Zs(E'Ê,Sln^Sln)cpn,(r,E',t)
+ S(r,E,t)
(4-62)
where n = 1,..., TV while

q>,,(T,E,t) = q>(r,E,aH,t).
(4-63)
11,15
This set of equations is commonly referred to as the SN equations

after early
one-dimensional treatments utilizing trapezoidal quadrature corresponding to treating the angular variation of the flux as N straight line segments.
One can also use functional expansions as an alternative scheme to discretize the
angular variables. In the general case, this corresponds to expanding the angular
dependence of the flux in a finite series of the spherical harmonics 3 Ylm{l)
= Y/m(8,<j>) familiar from quantum mechanics: 1 2 ' 1 3
<p(r,,O,0= 2
<Plm(Ê,t)Ylm(Q).
(4-64)
/= 0
Then by substituting this expansion into the original transport equation, multiplying by spherical harmonics of different order, y / w ( Q ) , and integrating over the
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
121
angular variables, one can use orthogonality to obtain a coupled set of equations
for the expansion coefficients <plm(r,E, t). Since this set of equations is rather
complicated when written out for general geometries, we will refer the interested
reader to other sources for the general form of the equations. 3,4
In one-dimension, an expansion in spherical harmonics corresponds to an
expansion in Legendre polynomials, -P/(ju), where ju = cos0:
N
<p(x9E9li,t)=
(4-65)
/-o
In this case the general form of the equations for the expansion coefficients is
somewhat simpler and can be written as
1 d<p,
( / + 1 ) 8qp/+1
3<P/_i
= f0dE,i:8(E/-Ê)<p/(x9E,,t)
+ s/(x,n,E)9
(4-66)
where one defines the angular components of the differential scattering cross
section as
+1
\ { E
^ E )= 2irfyd
^s(E,Ê
9 N
)Pl(ii0)
9 N=a'-a.
(4-67)
This set of equations is known, naturally enough, as the PN equations:3 , 4

In the particular case in which the expansion in spherical harmonics is truncated
after two terms, that is N = 1, the expansion for the angular flux takes the form:
1
y(r9E9l9t)^
<pQO{r9E9t)+
"5
[<plx{r9E^
(4-68)
We will find in the next section that this Px approximation to the angular flux is
very closely related to neutron diffusion theory.
Hence we find that both discrete ordinate and functional expansion methods can
be used to discretize the angular variables, giving rise to the SN or PN equations
respectively. It might be mentioned that although the Pl equations are used very
frequently in nuclear reactor analysis (indeed, we shall have occasion to use them
several times in our ensuing development), the higher order PN equations are rarely
used in practical calculations. Rather one usually relies on the discrete ordinate
approach if a more detailed treatment of the neutron directional dependence is
required.
B. Treatment of the Energy Variable

Very similar techniques can be used to discretize the energy variable E. Here,
however, the discrete ordinate approach is far more common than function
expansions. This can be easily understood when it is recognized that for the latter
technique to be effective, the expansion functions must bear some resemblance to
122
the actual functional dependence of the neutron flux on the independent variable.
The dependence of the angular flux on the neutron direction
is usually rather
weak, hence a set of general functions such as the spherical harmonics will provide
an adequate description.
However, the neutron energy E spans an enormous range from 10" 3 eV up to
7
10 eV. The dependence of the neutron distribution on energy is determined by
quite different processes in different regions of energy. For example, at high
energies the neutron energy dependence is dominated by the fission spectrum. At
intermediate energies, neutron slowing down and resonance absorption are the
dominant processes, while at low energies, neutron thermalization is important. To
expand the neutron flux in a set of functions that adequately describe all of these
processes is clearly hopeless. Indeed such function expansions are capable of
describing neutron energy behavior only for a restricted range of neutron energies
or a specific reactor type. (An example of such an expansion known as energy or
spectrum
synthesis
is given in C h a p t e r 13.)
One must be careful even when applying the discrete ordinate approach to the
energy variable. The difficulties involved become quite apparent when the very
detailed dependence of the neutron cross sections on energy is recalled. It clearly
would be unthinkable simply to consider these cross sections tabulated at several
discrete points as an adequate representation of this detailed structure.
Instead one first breaks up the neutron energy range into intervals or so-called
energy
groups:
ir
-G-1
Vl
(Don't worry about the fact that these subscripts appear to run in the wrong
directiontowards decreasing energy. It turns out that this is a more convenient
labeling since neutrons tend to slow down in energy.) The neutron transport
equation (or diffusion equation) is then integrated over each energy group in order
to define appropriate average values of the various cross sections characterizing
each group. For example, one would define the absorption cross section
characterizing a group g as
f
^ d E 2
( E ) < p ( E )
~'dE<p(E)
Je
Of course these are only formal definitions of the cross sections characterizing the
group, since the flux itself appears in their definition. However they do form the
basis for the practical calculation of these quantities since one can insert approximations to the flux in order to calculate the group cross sections 2 . If we apply
this scheme to the SN equations derived in the previous section, we find the
c o u p l e d set of e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e group fluxes
0t
+an- V t i + =
cpff:
2
n'
n=\,...,N
n' 2 K Z S
g'
g=l,...,G.
v a : + ( 4 - 7 0 )
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
123
Such sets of equations are known as the multigroup equations (in this case, the
multigroup SN equations) and play a very important role in nuclear reactor analysis.
We will return in Chapter 7 to discuss their derivation in the case in which the
angular flux is treated within the diffusion approximation.
C. Treatment of Space and Time

The final step is to discretize the space and time variables. Although this can
be done using function expansions (more specifically, expansions in the spatial or
temporal modes of the system), such modal expansions are rarely used in general
studies (although they are occasionally used in certain types of specific calculations
in which the modes can be easily calculated). Instead one utilizes a direct discrete
ordinate treatment in most cases. First the spatial variables r = (x,y,z) are decomposed into an appropriate spatial mesh. The various derivative terms are then
replaced by finite difference equations defined on this mesh.
Finally the time variable is broken into discrete time steps, say t0, tv r 2 ,... and the
corresponding time derivatives are replaced by suitable difference formulas. The
detailed mesh structure and difference formulas one utilizes depends on the type of
problem one is investigating and will not be discussed here, since we will consider
such topics in much greater detail in later chapters.
D. Solution of the Discretized Equations

After using one scheme or another to discretize all of the variables in the
neutron transport equation, we are left with a large system of algebraic equations
for the components of the discretized representation of the flux, for example,
q)(xi,yJ,zk,Eg,tln,ts).
Such algebraic equations can then be solved using routine
numerical methods on a digital computer.
Unfortunately such a calculation becomes an immense undertaking if only a
"brute force" discretization of the transport equation is applied. For example,
consider "typical" mesh sizes of 1 0 0 x 1 0 0 x 1 0 0 space points, 10 energy groups,
and 10 angle points. Then for each time step we wish to calculate, we must solve
108 simultaneous algebraic equationsa rather formidable task, even on a modern
computer.
Hence the nuclear engineer cannot blindly depend on the computer to solve his
problem, but rather he must first rely on physical insight (rather than brute force
mathematics) to reduce the transport equation to more manageable form. He may
be able to eliminate one or more of the independent variables in the transport
equation. For example, one is usually interested in time-independent problems so
that the time variable can be ignored. Frequently the reactor geometry can be
modeled by a one- or two-dimensional calculation. The most useful class of
approximations to the transport equation eliminate the angular variable S2. The
most popular (and useful) scheme for accomplishing this is to introduce the
neutron diffusion approximation. Since neutron diffusion theory will constitute our
primary tool in our study of nuclear reactor behavior, just as it does for the nuclear
reactor industry, we will take some care in our derivation of the neutron diffusion
equation.
124
IV. THE DIFFUSION APPROXIMATION

A, The Neutron Continuity Equation
For most reactor calculations, the details of the angular dependence of the
flux are not necessary, and we really only need to calculate the angle-integrated
flux:
<Hr,E,t)=(
d&q>(r9E9&9t)
(4-71)
Ma-
in order to calculate nuclear reaction rates and hence study the chain reaction (e.g.,
by calculating the multiplication factor k).
Surely we can formulate an equation for <#>(r,E,t) by simply integrating the
transport equation over angle. Let's try and see what happens. That is, we will
integrate each term of the transport equation (4-43) over the direction variable 0 :
/
J
dti
J 4 t t
d&
4w
^ *
d& v 8/ + ( d&(i-V<p
* *
+ J </22t<p
( J )
dEf 2 s ( " - i i , S2'^0)<p(r,
JAiT
S2', t) + J
di2
s(r,E9(t9t).
( 5 )
(4-72)
We can simplify each of these terms somewhat by the straightforward manipulations indicated below:
477"
( 5 ) = f dQ2t<p - 2 t f
Mw
f dtis(r E to t)
9 9
dti(p
= 2t<,
=S(r9E9t).
(4-74)
(4-75)
M 77
Here we have used our earlier expression Eq. (4-16) for the neutron flux in terms
of the angular flux <p and also simply defined a source^term S(r,E9t). To evaluate
the inscattering term we first recall that 2 S (
usually depends only
on the scattering angle cosine ju0 =
This implies that
Mat
'-l
where 2 S ("is) is just the "single" differential scattering cross section defined in
Eq. (2-46). Hence we can interchange the order of integrations over fi and 0 ' to
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
125
write:
= f
4tt
dE'\
JO
f
L
d62t(E'->E,&'->a)
9E',tt',t)
4 77
= /r ood E ' \ ( E f ^ E ) Jr
-'O
r
<p(r
(4-77)
4tt
00
'o
So far everything is straightforward; but unfortunately the last term Q) cannot be
evaluated in terms of <(r 9 E 9 t). In fact we find that Q) must be evaluated in terms
of the neutron current J by using Eq. (4-19):
( 2 ) = f dO
QV(r9E9t)
= f " d E ' S ^ E ^ E ^ r , E'9t)

Jo
+ S
(r9E9t).
(4-79)
This is known as the neutron continuity equation, since it is just the mathematical
statement of neutron balance.
It is important to note that this equation contains two unknowns, <j>(r9E9t) and
J(r, E,t)y unlike the neutron transport equation, which only contained one unknown, the angular flux <p(r,is,fi, /). Hence by removing the angular dependence
we have in the process introduced another unknown, J(r,E 9 t) 9 and hence we now
have an insoluble problem (i.e., one equation in two unknowns). The moral of this
story is that you don't get something for nothingthat is, merely integrating out
the angular dependence doesn't remove the complexities of the angular variation. It
just shifts them by demanding that one obtain yet another equation relating
4>(r9E9t) a n d J ( r 9 E 9 t ) .
It is impossible to express J ( r 9 E 9 t ) in terms of <tfr,E,t) in a general and exact

manner. This is more apparent if we recall the definitions Eqs. (4-17) and (4-19):
<f>(r9E9t)=f
d&<p(r9E9to9t)9
(4-17)
J ( r , E , t ) = f dSta<p(r9E,Q9t).
Mtt
(4-19)
4tt
It is obvious that these two quantities are entirely different functions, although they
can both be expressed in terms of an angular integral of the angular flux
<p(r,.E,S2,/). Hence there is no reason why one would expect these functions to be
simply related.
Undaunted by our failure to find a simple equation for <J>(r9E,t)9 suppose we shift
our attention instead to developing an equation for the current density J(r, E,t). By
comparing the definitions in Eqs. (4-17) and (4-19) above, we are tempted to try
126
multiplying the transport equation by S2 and then integrating once again over
angle. Actually since the direction variable 2 is a vector,
A
fl = e^ sin 8 cos <J> + e sin 9 sin <p + ez cos
0,
(4-80)
a.
0.
a.
we should multiply the transport equation by each component separately and

integrate. For example, the 2 component would yield
A
I:
= f
dtotif
d&
iJ
dt
J 4
[00dE'^XE'-*E,Q'-*Q)fp(r,E',a',t)
+ f
dQQxs(r,E,a,t)
(4-81)
Each of these terms can be simplified in a manner similar to that used in deriving
the neutron continuity equation [Eq. (4-79)]:
= I-|7r
(4-82)
d n a ^ I - i
v at J4w
at
(4-83)
47T
(4-84)
Ait
Now to handle the inscattering term (?), write
= f
dt2'
<p(r,',Q',f)-
AIT
(4-85)
Next we do something a bit sneaky. Since 2 is a unit vector, we can write

J2'J2' = 1. We will insert this into Eq. (4-85) so that we can rewrite it as:
= C
J0
dE'
f dQ'\ f
h*
L Ait
daaxa'2B(E'->E,(i'->Si)
A
D'(p(r,',D',0.
(4-86)
Now we recall again that 2 S ( " > 1 2 ) depends only on the cosine of the
scattering angle /x0 = 2'*J2. Thus we can write
=3
f da
^ ^ ( ^ ' ^ f l ' - f i ) C2;<p(r,',O',0.
We will define
/ +
(4-87)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
127
so that @ finally becomes

=
fdE/'St(E,->E)f
1
0 '
f
0
4ir
dE'2s(E'Ê)Jx(r,E\t).
'
(4-89)
We are almost finished. Thus far each of our terms has been expressed in terms of
the current density Jx, except for the source term Slx which is a known term. But
wait! We still haven't considered the streaming term:
= f
d!2Qxti-V<p
TT
= V- f dQ
^ 4m
(4-90)
A quick glance at the integral term confirms our fears; once again the streaming
term has kicked out yet another new unknown. To see this more clearly, we can
combine these results along with similar results for Q and 2Z to write Eq. (4-81) as
an equation for the current density J :
- ^ r + V - f
v
dt
J47T
dO
r 00
= JI
(4-91)
However just as with the neutron continuity equation [Eq. (4-79)], we find that
integrating over 0 yields one equation but two unknowns, J ( r , E , t ) and
ft(r,,f)=
dSiaa<p(r,E,Si,t).
(4-92)
[Here we have taken the luxury of using a symbolic notation of writing two vectors
together, fifi. If this bothers you, just interpret this as a convenient notation for
taking each of the various combinations of components fl^ftÔ^fi ,
separately to construct a quantity with nine components, Uxx,Uxy,...,Hzz.
Such
quantities are referred to as tensors (or, in this case, dyadics), but we won't need to
get so formal here.] It should be evident that we
can get a new equation for
A A
**
n ( r , , 0 by multiplying the transport equation by S2S2 and integrating, but this new
equation will contain yet another unknown,
Mtt
A
Hence all we are doing by multiplying by [S2]rt and integrating is generating an

infinite set of coupled equations (which we can't solve). [Incidently, it should be
apparent that the culprit is the "streaming" or "leakage" term S2-V<p which
contains a factor of S2 and hence generates the new unknowns in each equation.]
The only way to cut off this chain of equations is to introduce an approximation.
We shall do this by assuming that the angular flux is only weakly dependent on
angle, and in so doing, we will generate the neutron diffusion equation. However it
is useful to first discuss several simplifications that can frequently be introduced
into the neutron transport equation.
128
B. Common Simplifications to the Neutron Transport Equation

1. THE ONE-SPEED APPROXIMATION
It is frequently convenient to suppress the neutron energy dependence by
assuming that one can characterize the neutrons by a single energy or speed. We
will find in Chapter 7 that if one chooses the appropriate effective cross sections,
such a representation will in fact frequently yield a reasonable description of the
reactor. However for now we will introduce the one-speed approximation in a rather
artificial manner by simply assuming that the neutron energy does not change in a
scattering collision. This can be inserted into the transport equation [Eq. (4-43)] in
a rather convenient manner by simply assuming a differential scattering cross
section of the form
2 S ( " f l ' - > 0 ) = 2S(,
8(E' - E),
(4-93)
where 8(E' E) is the Dirac S-function defined by the property

f dx'f(x')8(x-x')=f(x)
(4-94)
for any sufficiently well-behaved function f(x). [See Appendix C for a more
detailed discussion of animals such as the S-function.] Using this definition, the
inscattering term in Eq. (4-43) becomes
/*
CO
/ A
Mt7
J^TT
(4-95)
Since all of the terms in the transport equation are now evaluated at the same
energy, we may as well eliminate the explicit dependence on energy to write the
one-speed
1
neutron
vffl
Ot
transport
equation
A
+ Sl-Vtp + 2t(r)<p(r,S2,/) =
as
/*
( 4 ~ 96 )
This equation is still far too complicated to solve (even using brute force numerical
techniques) in realistic geometries. So we'll introduce yet another simplification.
2. ISOTROPIC SOURCES AND SCATTERING
One major simplification that can be introduced into the transport equation
arises when one assumes both isotropic neutron sources
s(r,Q9t)=^S(r9t)
(4-97)
and isotropic scattering (in the LAB system)

(4-98)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
129
The assumption of isotropic neutron sources is usually not too restrictive since
most sources such as fission are indeed essentially isotropic. Unfortunately
although neutron scattering is usually isotropic in the CM system, it is far from
isotropic in the LAB system, particularly for low mass number scatterers such as
hydrogen. Undeterred by such physical considerations, we will assume for the
moment that isotropic scattering is present. Then the one-speed transport equation
simplifies still further to
1 3cp
a _
j^+a>V<p
a
+ 2t<p(r,a,t)=4J
a
dQ'<p(r,S2',/)
S(rft)
+
(4-99)
However even this equation is extremely difficult to solve in general.

3. OTHER SIMPLIFICATIONS
Thus far we have mutilated the energy and angular dependence of the
transport equation in the interest of mathematical expediencyand still have not
arrived at anything we can hope to solve (at least analytically). So in frustration we
now turn our attention to the remaining time and spatial variables. First we will
completely eliminate the time variable by agreeing to consider only steady-state
transport problems. Then Eq. (4-99) simplifies to
(4-100)
Next, we will assume that the system under study has uniform composition such
that the cross sections do not depend on position. Finally we will simplify the
system geometry, for example, by considering only planar or spherical symmetry.
In the case of planar symmetry we arrive at a rather simple-looking equation
aw
2S
JLt-^+Et<p(x,/x)=yJ
+\
S(x)
(4-101)
This equation can actually be solved analyticalty6but

only with rather sophisticated mathematical techniques beyond the scope of this text. So even after a
number of rather questionable approximations, one arrives at an equation that can
still only be solved with great difficulty.
After this rather pessimistic glance at the difficulties involved in solving the
transport equation, let us remark that there is one very important class of transport
problems that can be solved exactly with only a minimal expenditure of effort
those involving neutron transport in a purely absorbing medium.
4. NEUTRON TRANSPORT IN A PURELY ABSORBING MEDIUM
Frequently we are interested in neutron transport in a medium in which
scattering can be ignored. This might occur in a vacuum, for example (or more
realistically, a gas-filled region of a reactor). Or it might apply in a very highly
absorbing medium such as a fuel element or a control rod. In these cases, the
130
transport equation becomes
12V <p (r, E, 12) + 2a(r, E )<p (r, E,&) = s (r, E, 12).
(4-102)
We have omitted the time dependence here since it is rarely of relevance when such
transport problems are of interest.
This equation can be solved exactly for any source distribution since it can be
converted into a simple first-order differential equation. Consider first the case of
neutron transport in a vacuum in which 2 a = 0:
12 V<p (r, E,(t) = s (r, Ey 12).
(4-103)
However 12 V is just the directional derivative in the direction 12. If we define a

variable R that measures distance along this direction (see Figure 4-11) then
a - v - - - ^ ,
(4-104)
where R is measured in the 12 direction, and we find

||=-J(r,,a).
(4-105)
If we now integrate with respect to this variable, we find

A
<p(r, E, 12)= I
OO
dRs(j
12,^,12).
(4-106)
Notice that this expression simply equates the neutron angular flux at position r in
direction (l to the total number of source neutrons emitted in this 12 (obtained by
integrating back along -12).
EXAMPLE: Consider an isotropic point source located at the origin (for convenience, we will suppress the energy dependence for this example). The math-
FIGURE 4-11.
Neutron transport in a vacuum.
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
131
ematical representation for such a source is just

s(r,ti)=^8(r),
(4-107)
where 5(r r') is just the three-dimensional version of the Dirac 5-function (see
Appendix C) defined by
J</V/(r')S(r-r')=/(r).
(4-108)
Hence we find
(r,O)S0J
(4-109)
This still looks a bit strange. [Actually it can be shown that <p(r,(t) vanishes unless
one is looking along the direction r, as one would expect from Figure 4-12.]
Suppose we compute instead the neutron flux itself:
/*
<f>(r)=
A
a
Sn r cc
r
A
d&2<p(r,S2) = - M
dR
d&8(r-RSl).
4t7
4-77 J0
A
(4-110)
4ir
If we multiply the integrand by R2/R2,

we can identify a volume integration (in
spherical coordinates) over the dummy vector R:
S0
r
J 0
~ S(r-R)
S0
(r-R)
^477
Yet using the definition of 5(r r') given by Eq. (4-108), we find that the flux
resulting from an isotropic point source at the origin is just
<Hr)=
47rrl
(4-H2)
that is, <p falls off with distance as 1 / r 2 because of the ever increasing surface area
(477r2) over which the S0 source neutrons/sec must be isotropically distributed.
132
Now return to Eq. (4-102), which characterizes transport in a purely absorbing

medium. Suppose this medium is homogeneous, that is, 2 a is not a function of
position. Then we can use an integrating factor exp[2 a r*0] to rewrite Eq. (4-102) as
0 V[ 0 1 ,
'o
(4-114)
or canceling out the integrating factor from both sides

<p(r,E,Q) = f dRs(r-Rto9E9fl)exp('o
2 a * ).
(4-115)
This solution again has a very plausible interpretation when it is recognized that
exp( 2 a i?) is just the attenuation that would occur between the source point and
the observation point r. Notice that this immediately reduces to our vacuum result
for the case in which 2 a = 0 .
We can also obtain an exact solution for the situation in which 2 a depends on
position. We need only use a slightly more complicated attenuation factor
exp( - 2 a t f )
exp[ - a (r, r ^- R 6 ) ] ,
w h e r e a ( r , r ' ) is k n o w n a s t h e optical thickness
(4-116)
o r optical depth of t h e m e d i a a n d is
defined by
a ^ O ^ j f ^ ^ S ^ r - ^ ) ,
R = r' r.
(4-117)
Note that a is essentially a measure of the effective absorption between points r'
and r.
E X A M P L E : Consider once again our point source, only this time assume that it
is imbedded at the origin of an infinitely large medium characterized by a uniform
absorption cross section 2 a . Then repeating our earlier analysis using Eq. (4-115)
yields
')-
SQ exp( 2 r)
/ a
47jr1
(4-118)
which is similar to our vacuum result, with the exception of an additional attenuation factor e x p ( - 2 a r ) due to the absorption.
This very important result can be easily generalized to the situation in which the
source is located at an arbitrary point r' by merely shifting the coordinate system
origin to find
H r )=
S0exp(-Salr-r'l)
r n ^
47r|r-r'
(4"119)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
133
Field point
FIGURE 4-13.
Coordinates characterizing a disturbed source s(r, E, 12).
We can finally use this result to synthesize the neutron flux resulting from an
arbitrary distribution of isotopic sources, S (r), in an infinite absorbing medium as
(4-120)
C. The One-Speed Diffusion Equation

We now turn our attention toward the development of an approximate
description of neutron transport more amenable to calculation than the neutron
transport equation itself. To make life simple, we will first work within the
one-speed approximation represented by Eq. (4-96). Let us first note the explicit
forms taken by the neutron conservation equation and the corresponding equation
for the current density J in the one-speed case:
^ + V - J + Et<J>(r,0 = 2 s <#>(r,0+5(r,/),
V
f dO fiS2(p(r,(l,t) + 2 t J(r,) = /x 0 2 s J(r,t) + Sj(r,t).
(4-121)
(4-122)
Here we have noted explicitly the simplifications that occur in the inscattering term
when the one-speed approximation is introduced. More specifically,
(4-123)
and
(4-124)
o
But
(4-125)
134
where we have defined the average scattering angle cosine jCt0 as

2tt r
= -47TZ.
r V f
+ l
d t Jf
4l7r
rfsro-Q's^s2-no-
(4-126)
As an aside, it should be noted that one can easily calculate /x0 for the case of
elastic scattering from stationary nuclei when s-wave scattering is present. For then
w e k n o w t h a t in t h e C M s y s t e m , ocm(0c)
= oL(0L)d(lL,
we find
= os/4tt.
H e n c e if w e use
oCM(0c)dtlc
sm0cd0ccos0Li:CM(0c)
s
= \ f %in 0C cos 0L d0c.

2 Jn
(4-127)
But recall
1 + A cos 0 C
cos 0L =
2
'\Ja -\-2A
(4-128)
cos0c+l
If we substitute this into Eq. (4-127) and perform the integration, we find the very
simple result
Po=37-
(4-129)
Now that we have justified the forms of Eqs. (4-121) and (4-122) let us consider
howA A A we might
eliminate the annoying appearance of the third unknown,
A
We will accomplish this by assuming that the angular flux is only
weakly dependent on angle. To be more specific, we will expand the angular flux in
angle as
=
(4-130)
and neglect all terms of higher than linear order in S2. Actually a slightly different
notation for the unknown functions <p0, <plx, <ply, <plz is useful. Write Eq. (4-130) as
<p(r,O,0
(4-131)
Notice that we have labeled the unknown expansion coefficients as the flux and
current. That this notation is perfectly consistent can be seen by noting from Eq.
(4-131) that
jf
daq>(T,a,t)
= 4>(r9t)
JT < / f l + ^ J ( r , r ) - J ^ f a = ^(r9t)9
(4-132)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
135
and
J
d(ia<p(r9a,t)
=<Kr,0^~/
+ j
dM
+ \j
rfnn^n+j^r,/)
( T , t )J[
(r
t ) f dQQSl
Jf
(4-133)
However one can easily demonstrate (see Problem 4-14) that the integral of the
product of any two components of 2 gives
4 77
3
0
477
i,J
x,y,z.
(4-134)
i=j
Hence
f dti S2cp(r,S2,?)=J(r,?).
477
(4-135)
Of course Eqs. (4-132) and (4-135) are identical to our original definitions of the
flux and current earlier in Eqs. (4-17) and (4-19).
We will now use the approximate form of the angular flux in Eq. (4-131) to
evaluate the second term in Eq. (4-122):
v- f
da
aa<p(r,a9t)=V'
f
AIT
4t7
da
1
^
T"<f>+ -r-J*2
477
4 77
(4-136)
a
Next note that the integral of the product of any odd number of components of 12
vanishes by symmetry:
f d
An
if l9m9 or n is o d d .
(4-137)
If we use both Eqs. (4-134) and Eq. (4-137) we can evaluate

V- f
Att
da aticp = |V<f>(r,t).
(4-138)
Hence by assuming that the angular flux depends only weakly on anglemore
specifically, that the angular flux is only linearly anisotropicwe have managed to
express the third unknown appearing in Eq. (4-122) in terms of the neutron flux
<J>(r, /). We have now achieved our goal of obtaining a closed set of two equations
for two unknowns, <Mt>0 and J(r,f):
I ^
+ V J + Za(r)Kr, 0 = 5 (r, /),
(4-139)
We have noted here that

2 a (r) = 2 t ( r ) - 2 . ( r ) ,
(4-141)
136
a n d d e f i n e d t h e macroscopic
transport
cross
section
2 t r (r) = 2 t (r)-Mo2 s (r).
(4-142)
(We will comment on this definition in a moment.) These two equations are known
in nuclear reactor analysis as the Px equations (in the one-speed approximation)
since the approximation of linearly anisotropic angular dependence in Eq. (4-131)
in one-dimensional plane geometry is equivalent to expanding the angular flux in
Legendre polynomials in ju, = cos0 and retaining only the / = 0 and / = 1 terms
q>(x9ii3t)^(x9t)^P0(ii) + J(x9t)\Px(ii)9
(4-143)
hence the name P t approximation. Notice that this could be easily generalized to
o b t a i n t h e PN
approximation.
In principle we could now use the Pl equations to describe the distribution of

neutrons in a nuclear reactor. However it is customary to introduce two more
approximations in order to simplify these equations even further. First we will
assume that the neutron source term ^(r,!^,*) is isotropic. This implies, of course,
that the source term Sj(r,/) vanishes in the equation for the current density. As we
mentioned earlier, this approximation is usually of reasonable validity in nuclear
reactor studies.
As our second approximation, we will assume that we can neglect the time
derivative v~l 3 J / 9 / in comparison with the remaining terms in Eq. (4-140). This
would imply, for example, that
1
9|J|
that is, that the rate of time variation of the current density is much slower than the
collision frequency t>2 r Since t?2t is typically of order 105 s e c - 1 or larger, only an
extremely rapid time variation of the current would invalidate this assumption. We
will later find that such rapid changes are very rarely encountered in reactor
dynamics. Hence we are justified in rewriting Eq. (4-140) as
V<j>(r, t) + 2 t r (r)J(r, t) = 0.
(4-145)
We can solve Eq. (4-145) for the neutron current density in terms of the neutron
flux
(4-146)
If w e d e f i n e t h e neutron
diffusion
coefficient
D by
D (r) = [32*00]" 1 = [ 3 ( 2 t -
~\
(4-147)
then we can rewrite Eq. (4-146) as
J(r, /) = D (r)V<>(r, /).
(4-148)
Hence we have found that in certain situations the neutron current density is
proportional to the spatial gradient of the flux. This very important relation arises
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
137
quite frequently in other areas of physics where it is known as Fick's law. It is also
o c c a s i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e diffusion
approximation.
Before we consider the physical implications of this relationship, let us use it to

simplify the P l equations. If we substitute this into Eq. (4-139) we find
i
^-V-Z)(r)V<f. + 2a(r)<>(r,0=5(r,0.
(4-149)
This very important equation is known as the one-speed neutron diffusion equation,
and it will play an extremely significant role in our further studies of nuclear
reactors. We will discuss its solution in considerable detail in Chapter 5, and we
will use it as the basis of a very simple but very useful model of nuclear reactor
behavior.
Let us now return to consider the diffusion approximation [Eq. (4-148)] in more
detail. Notice that it implies that a spatial variation in the neutron flux (or density)
will give rise to a current of neutrons flowing from regions of high to low density.
Physically this is understandable since the collision rate in high neutron density
regions will be higher with the corresponding tendency for neutrons to scatter more
frequently away toward lower densities. The rate at which such diffusion occurs
y
FIGURE 4-14.
A schematic representation of Fick's law.
138
depends on the diffusion coefficient which, in turn, is inversely proportional to the

transport cross section 2 t r .
It is c o n v e n i e n t t o i n t r o d u c e t h e c o n c e p t of a transport
\ x =(2tr) ~
= ( 2 t ~ /*02s) ~ 1
mean free
path
(4-150)
The transport mfp can be regarded as a corrected mfp accounting for anisotropics
in the scattering collision process. Since Jl0 is almost always positivethat is, biased
in the direction of forward scatteringthe transport m f p Atr will always be
somewhat larger than the actual mfp, A = (2 t )~ 1 . This essentially accounts for the
fact that neutrons experiencing forward scattering tend to be transported somewhat
further in a sequence of collisions than those being isotropically (or backward)
scattered.
Hence since Z) = X t r /3, we see that diffusion is also enhanced in a material with
pronounced forward scattering (e.g., hydrogen), although this of course also depends on the magnitude of the macroscopic cross sections.
It is important to keep in mind that the diffusion approximation is actually a
consequence of four different approximations: (a) the angular flux can be
adequately represented by only a linearly anisotropic angular dependence [Eq.
(4-131)], (b) the one-speed approximation, (c) isotropic sources, and (d) the neutron
current density changes slowly on a time scale compared to the mean collision time
[Eq. (4-144)]. Actually only the first of these approximations is really crucial. The
remaining approximations can be relaxed provided we are willing to work with the
Pl equations rather than the neutron diffusion equations (as one frequently is).
It is natural to ask when the angijlar flux is sufficiently weakly dependent on
angle so that the diffusion approximation is valid. More detailed studies of the
transport equation itself indicate that the assumption of weak angular dependence
is violated in the following cases: (a) near boundaries or where material properties
change dramatically from point to point over distances comparable to a mean free
path, (b) near localized sources, and (c) in strongly absorbing media. In fact strong
angular dependence can be associated with neutron fluxes having a strong spatial
variation. Usually if one is over several mean free paths from any sources or
boundaries in a weakly absorbing medium, the flux is slowly varying in space, and
diffusion theory is valid.
D. The Energy-Dependent Diffusion Equation

Let us now try to repeat this analysis for the case in which the neutron energy
dependence is retained. Again we will approximate
(4-151)
so that we can evaluate
V f
d&
M TT
(4-152)
If we now use this in the pair of Eqs. (4-79) and (4-91), we arrive immediately at
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
the energy-dependent
Pl
139
equations
1 9<f>
f 00
JQ
a t
dE"2s(E'-+E
)<>(r, ' , * ) + S (r,E, t),
(4-153)
r00
j_ 9J . 11
v
+ |V*
+ 2t(r,)J(r,J?,0=
dE'2-(E'^>E)J(T,E'9t)
Sl(r9E9t).
(4-154)
Continuing our analogy with the derivation of the one-speed diffusion equation, we
will again assume: (a) isotropic source S j = 0 (b) | J | _ 1 9 | J | / 8 f < t ; 2 t ( r , i s ) so that Eq.
(4-154) can be rewritten as
r cc
2 t ( r , " ) J ( r , E , t ) \ dE'2
(E'^>E)J(r9E'9t)
'o
i
= - W(r9E9t).
(4-155)
However we can now see a problem that appears to prevent a straightforward

generalization of Fick's law to include energy dependence. For we cannot bring
J(r,", t) out of the scattering integral since it depends on the integration variable
E'.
Of course, if we were allowed to assume isotropic scattering in the LAB system,

then 2 S i ( , / - ^ ) = 0 and we could find
(4-156)
But the assumption of isotropic scattering is far too gross for most reactor
calculations.
We could proceed formally by merely defining an energy-dependent diffusion
coefficient
r 00
jô
2t(r >)
d E ' ^ E ' ^ E y ^ E ' j )
|
Ji(r,E,t)
(4-157)
which would automatically yield

J(r,,/)=
-D(r,E)V<f>(r,E9t).
(4-158)
Of course, this approach is highly artificial because as defined in Eq. (4-157)

D(r,E) still depends on J(r,E,t).
One common procedure for avoiding this difficulty is to neglect the anisotropic
contribution to energy transfer in a scattering collision by setting
(4-159)
so that
/* 0 0
d E ' ^ E ' ^ E y ^ E ' ^ J L ^ i E y ^ E j ) .
(4-160)
140
Then we find a natural generalization of the diffusion coefficient:

D ( r , E ) = | [ Z t ( r , E ) - ji0Zs(r,E)]~'.
(4-161)
Actually none of these derivations of an energy-dependent diffusion equation are

particularly satisfying because we have ignored the fact that in neutron transport
processes, spatial transport, directional changes, and energy changes are intimately
mixed. We can only provide a more satisfactory derivation of Eq. (4-158) after we
have discussed comparable approximations characterizing neutron energy transfer
in scattering collisions. Such a derivation must await our discussion of neutron
slowing down in Chapter 8.
For the present, we will simply assume that the generalization of Fick's law to
include energy-dependence is given by Eq. (4-158) with an energy dependent
diffusion coefficient as defined by Eq. (4-161). If we now substitute this into Eq.
(4-153), w e a r r i v e a t t h e energy-dependent
= /
diffusion
equation
00
dEf^(Ef->E)<$>(
r9E'9t)
+ S{r9E9t).
(4-162)
This equation plays a very important role in nuclear reactor analysis since it is
frequently taken as the starting point for the derivation of the multigroup diffusion
equations. These latter equations represent the fundamental tool used in modern
nuclear reactor analysis.
E. Diffusion Theory Boundary Conditions

Since the neutron diffusion equation has derivatives in both space and time, it
is apparent that one must assign suitable boundary and initial conditions to
complete the specification of any particular problem. Since the diffusion equation
itself is only an approximation to the more exact transport equation, we might
suspect that we can use the transport theory boundary conditions as a guide in our
development of appropriate diffusion boundary conditions. It will suffice to consider this development within the one-speed approximation.
Recall that the transport theory boundary conditions we discussed earlier were:
A
Initial condition: <p(r,Q,0) = <p0(r,2),
(4-163)
Boundary condition: <p(rs,S2,f) = 0 for S2-e s <0, all rs on 5.
(4-164)
We can obtain the appropriate initial condition for the diffusion equation by
merely integrating the transport condition over angle to obtain:
Initial condition: <J>(r, 0) = 4>0(r)
(4-165)
The boundary conditions are a bit harder to come by. Actually we will require
several types of boundary condition, depending on the particular physical problem
of interest. W e will group these boundary conditions into one of several classes:
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
141
1. GENERAL MATHEMATICAL CONDITIONS ON T H E FLUX
Although strictly speaking they are not boundary conditions, we should first
mention those mathematical properties that the function </>(r, t) must exhibit in
order to represent a physically realizable neutron flux. For example, <J>(r, t) must be
a real function. Furthermore since both the neutron speed v and density N cannot
be negative, we must require that </>(M) be greater than or equal to zero. In most
cases we can also require that <f>(r, t) be bounded. However we should add here that
one occasionally encounters pathological models of physical neutron sources that
cause <f>(M) to diverge. An example would be the familiar point source. Another
situation is the so-called Milne problem, in which one studies the behavior of the
flux near a vacuum boundary fed by a source of infinite magnitude located at
infinity. There will also be certain symmetry conditions that we can place on <j>(r, t)
resulting from geometrical considerations, such as plane or axial symmetry. These
conditions will become more understandable as we consider specific examples later
in Chapter 5.
2. BOUNDARIES AT INTERFACES
Consider next an interface between two regions of differing cross sections.

N o w clearly the correct transport boundary condition is that
<Pi(rs, Q , f ) = <P2(h> 0 > 0
f o r a11
(4-166)
where cpj is the angular flux in region 1, while <p2 is the angular flux in region 2.
This condition ensures conservation of neutrons across the boundary and can
easily be derived directly from the transport equation.
Unfortunately we cannot satisfy this boundary condition exactly using diffusion
theory. At best, we can only ensure that angular moments of Eq. (4-166) are
satisfied. A n d since diffusion theory yields only the first two moments of the
angular flux, <>(r, t) and J(r, /), at best we can demand
da<px( r s , 6 , / ) =
d 6 <p2(rs> 6 , f) => j (rs, t) = <f>2(rs> 0>
FIGURE 4-15.
An interface boundary.
(4-167)
142
and
f dM<Pl(rs,&,t)
= f
= J 2 (r s ,r).
(4-168)
Hence the interface diffusion theory boundary conditions are simply those corresponding to continuity of flux and current density across the interface:
- Z)1V</>l(rs,/)= - D2V $ 2 (r s ,f).
(4-169)
We will occasionally find it mathematically expedient to imagine an infinitestimally

thin source of neutrons S at an interface boundary. Then the interface boundary
conditions are modified to read:
J2(rs> 0 -
' J i( r s> 0 = S (0>
(4-170)
where e s is the unit normal to the surface.

3. VACUUM BOUNDARIES
Recall that our transport theory boundary condition was merely a mathematical statement that there could be no incoming neutrons at a free or vacuum
boundary
<p(r s ,Q,f)=0
for 0 * ^ S < 0 ,
all r c on S.
(4-171)
FIGURE 4-16.
A vacuum boundary.
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
143
Once again diffusion theory will only be able to approximate this boundary
condition. Notice in particular that the boundary condition is given only over half
of the range of solid angle (corresponding to incoming neutrons). Hence suppose
we again seek to satisfy the transport boundary condition in an "integral" sense by
demanding
f
dOet>a<p(TB9it,t)=
2it-
j(r s , &,t) = J_ (r s , /) = 0.
(4-172)
2TT~
where we have recognized that this integral condition is equivalent to demanding

that the inwardly directed partial current J _ vanish on the boundary.
Unfortunately diffusion theory is capable of only approximating even this
integral condition, since it cannot yield the exact form for J . Indeed if we use the
Px approximation [(4-131)] for the angular flux, we find that the partial current
densities J + are approximated in diffusion theory by
J + (r, t) = f
(4-173)
Hence our diffusion theory approximation to the transport boundary condition

Eq. (4-171) is just
/ _ ( r s , / ) = ^ ( r s , / ) + | e s - ^ ( r s , r ) = 0.
(4-174)
For convenience consider this boundary condition applied to a one-dimensional

geometry with the boundary at * = x
1
d<b
=0
or
1
<H*S)
dx
Yd
<4"175)
Notice that this relation implies that if we "extrapolated" the flux linearly beyond
the boundary, it would vanish at a point
x s = x s + 2 D = x&+I\tr
(4-176)
For this reason, one frequently replaces the vacuum boundary condition
/ _ ( * , ) = o,
(4-177)
<H*S) = 0>
(4-178)
by the slightly simpler condition
where xs is referred to as the "extrapolated" boundary. More advanced transport

theory calculations of the extrapolated boundary indicate that one should choose
s = * s + z0,
(4-179)
144
T H E O N E - S P E E D D I F F U S I O N M O D E L O F A NUCLEAR REACTOR
JJ*%>
J+(XS)
^ d i f f u s i o n theory
Linear extrapolation
J
H
F I G U R E 4-17.
The behavior of approximate and exact representations of the neutron ftux
near a vacuum boundary.
where the "extrapolation length" z 0 for plane geometries is given by

z 0 = 0.7104Atr.
(4-180)
More complicated extrapolation length formulas can be derived for curved

boundaries, 14 although they are rarely necessary since Eq. (4-180) suffices unless
the radius of curvature of the boundary is comparable to a mean free path.
It should be remembered that the true flux does not vanish even outside the
boundary. The diffusion theory flux is a poor representation of the true flux near
the boundary (as we saw earlier, diffusion theory is not valid near a boundary).
The boundary conditions we have derived are intended to yield the proper flux
only in the interior of the reactor, that is, several mean free paths away from the
reactor boundary.
These boundary conditions complete our description of neutron transport within
the diffusion approximation. The neutron diffusion equation will play a very
fundamental role in our development of nuclear reactor analysis methods. We will
begin our study of nuclear reactor behavior using one-speed diffusion theory, since
while this description has only limited quantitative validity, it does allow us to
illustrate rather easily the principal concepts of nuclear reactor theory, as well as to
develop the mathematical techniques used in more sophisticated models. With this
background, we will then develop and apply the principal tool of the nuclear
reactor designer, multigroup diffusion theory.
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
145
REFERENCES
1. W. G. Vincenti and C. H. Kruger, Jr., Introduction to Physical Gas Dynamics, Wiley,
New York (1965); K. Huang, Statistical Mechanics, Wiley, New York (1963).
2. P. F. Zweifel, Reactor Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York (1973).
3. A. M. Weinberg and E. P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors,
4. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N. J.
(1970).
5. K. M. Case, F. de Hoffmann, and G. Placzek, Introduction to the Theory of Neutron
Diffusion, Vol. I, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report (1953).
6. K. M. Case and P. F. Zweifel, Linear Transport Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass., (1967); B. Davison, Neutron Transport Theory, Oxford University Press, (1958).
7. E. Isaacson and H. B. Keller, Analysis of Numerical Methods, Wiley, New York (1966).
8. B. Carnahan, H. A. Luther, and J. O. Wilkes, Applied Numerical Methods, Wiley, New
York (1969).
9. W. M. Stacey, Jr., Modal Approximations: Theory and an Application to Reactor Physics,
M.I.T. Press, Cambridge (1967).
10. M. Becker, The Principles and Applications of Variational Methods, M.I.T. Press,
Cambridge (1964).
11. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N. J.,
(1970), pp. 214-249.
12. L. I. Schiff, Quantum Mechanics, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1968).
13. A. Messiah, Quantum Mechanics, Vol. I., North-Holland, Amsterdam (1958).
14. Reactor Physics Constants, USAEC Document ANL-5800, 2nd Edition (1963).
15. K. D. Lathrop, Reactor Technol. 15, 107 (1972).
PROBLEMS
4-1
4-2
4-3
We have defined the angular neutron density /i(r,

in terms of the neutron
energy E and the direction of motion fi, but one could as well define an angular
density that depends instead on the neutron velocity v, n(r,\,t).
Calculate the
relationship between these two dependent variables.
Two thermal neutron beams are injected from opposite directions into a thin sample
of 2 3 5 U. At a given point in the sample, the beam intensities are 1012 neutrons/cm 2 sec from the left and 2X10 1 2 neutrons/cm 2 sec from the right. Compute: (a) the
neutron flux and current density at this point and (b) the fission reaction rate density
at this point.
Suppose that the angular neutron density is given by
An
n( r , f i ) = ^ ( l - c o s 0 ) ,
4-4
where 9 is the angle between S2 and the z-axis. If A is the area perpendicular to the
z-axis, then what is the number of neutrons passing through the area A per second:
(a) per unit solid angle at an angle of 45 with the z-axis, (b) from the negative z to
the positive z direction, (c) net, and (d) total?
In a spherical thermal reactor of radius R, it is found that the angular neutron flux
can be roughly described by
*(T,E9G)-
4êxp(-
Compute the total number of neutrons in the reactor.
146
4-5
Demonstrate that in an isotropic flux, the partial current density in any direction is
given by /+=<#>/4.
4-6 One of the principal assumptions made in the derivation of the neutron transport
equation is that there are no external forces acting on the neutrons, that is, that the
neutrons stream freely between collisions. Suppose we were to relax this assumption
and consider such a force acting on the neutrons (say, a constant gravitational force
in the z-direction). Then we might expect additional terms to appear that involve this
force. Derive this more general transport equation.
4-7 Explain briefly whether or not the transport equation as we have derived it adequately
describes the spatial and angular distribution of neutrons: (a) in a flux of the order of
100/cm 2 -sec, (b) scattering in a single crystal, (c) passing through a thin pure
absorber, and (d) originating within a very intense nuclear explosion in which the
explosion debris are moving outward with very high velocities.
4-8 Develop the particular form of the transport equation in spherical and cylindrical
geometries. To simplify this calculation, utilize the one-speed form of the transport
equation (4-100) in which time dependence has been ignored.
4-9 A n interesting model of neutron transport involves transport in a one-dimensional
rod. That is, the neutrons can move only to the left [say, described by an angular
density n_(x9E9t)]
or to the right [n+{x,E,t)\.
One need only consider forward
scattering events described by 2 S + ( " - ) or backward scattering events described by
2~(.E") Perform the following: (a) derive the transport equations for n+ and n_,
(b) make the one-speed approximation in this set of equations, that is,
'S
4-10
and (c) describe the boundary and initial conditions necessary to complete the
specification of the problem if the rod is characterized by a length L.
Consider the following differential equation:
^ +
4-11
'
x2f(x)
2x(4-x),
where / ( x ) is defined on the interval 0 < JC < 4. Discretize this equation by first
breaking up the independent variable range into four segments of equal length. Next
use a finite-difference approximation to the d2f/dx2
term to rewrite the differential
equation as a set of algebraic equations for the discretized unknown f i x ^ f . For
convenience, assume boundary conditions such t h a t / ( 0 ) = 0 = / ( 4 ) . Solve this set of
equations for the ft and then plot this solution against x using straight-line interpolation.
Consider the steady-state one-speed transport equation assuming isotropic scattering
and sources in a one-dimensional plane geometry
S(x)
2
Expand the solution to this equation in the first two Legendre polynomials
< p ( x , ju,) s
<Po(x)\P0( n)
+ <pj(jc)f
Px(
/i),
Substitute this expansion into the transport equation, multiply by Pq(/i) and P x { ju)
respectively, and integrate over /A to obtain a set of equations for the unknown
expansion coefficients <Po(x) and <pj(;e). (These are just the Px equations.)
NEUTRON TRANSPORT
4-12
4-13
4-14
147
Use Simpson's rule to write a numerical quadrature formula for the angular integral
f 1 \diup(x,fi) for N equal mesh intervals.
Develop the multigroup form of the transport equation as follows: First break the
energy range 0 < "< 10 MeV into G intervals or groups. N o w integrate each of the
terms in the transport equation, Eq. (4-43), over the energies in a given group, say
EG < E < EG_ (Remember that the group indexing runs backwards such that 0 EG
< EG_ j < EG < EG_! < EX< E0= 10 MeV.) Now by defining the group fluxes as
the integral of the flux over each group, and the cross sections characterizing each
group as in Eq. (4-69), determine the set of G equations representing the transport
equation.
By writing out the components of the direction unit vector
in polar coordinates,
demonstrate explicitly that
f 477
f
d & f y
=0
and
dtitifij
Jaw
i=j
Demonstrate that f 4ljrd(iQlxSlSlnz = 0 if /, m, or n is odd.

Verify Eq. (4-138) using the identity in Problem 4-15.
Explicitly demonstrate by integration that ju0 = 2 / 3 A for elastic scattering from
stationary nuclei when such scattering is assumed to be isotropic in the CM system.
4-18 Consider an isotropic point source emitting SQ monoenergetic neutrons per second in
an infinite medium. Assume that the medium is characterized by an absorption cross
section 2 a s but only by negligible scattering. Determine the rate at which neutron
absorptions occur per unit volume at any point in the medium.
4-19 Compute the neutron flux resulting from a plane source emitting neutrons isotropically at the origin of an infinite absorbing medium. Hint: Just represent the plane
source as a superposition of point sources.
4-20 In a laser-induced thermonuclear fusion reaction, a tiny pellet is imploded to super
high densities such that it ignites in a thermonuclear burn. In such a reaction some
1017 14 MeV neutrons will be emitted essentially instantaneously (within 10" 1 1 sec).
Compute the neutron flux at a distance of 1 m from the reaction as a function of time,
assuming that the chamber in which the reaction occurs is evacuated.
4-23 Compute the thermal neutron diffusion coefficients characterizing water, graphite,
and natural uranium. Then compute the extrapolation length z 0 characterizing these
materials.
4-24 Assuming that the diffusion approximation [Eq. (4-131)] is valid, compute the partial
current densities in the z direction defined by Eq. (4-22). Use the one-speed
approximation.
4-25 Consider the time-dependent one-speed Px equations assuming isotropic sources and
plane symmetry. Eliminate the current density J(xJ) to obtain one equation for the
neutron flux <#>(*,/). Compare this equation with the one-speed neutron diffusion
equation and indicate what differences you might expect in solutions to the two
equations.
4-26 Try to construct solutions to the one-speed transport equation in an infinite sourceless
medium:
4-15
4-16
4-17
0<p
M -fa +2t<p(x,/i)=
+1
~Y J ^
dfl'<p(x,fi')
by seeking solutions of the form <p(x, ju.) = x( ju) exp( x/v)

determined.
where v and x( m)
are
to be
148
4-27 Consider the time-independent one-speed transport equation under the assumption of
isotropic sources and scattering
+
4tt J
f d&<p(r,SV) +
4 i t
hit
By regarding the right-hand side of this equation as an effective source, use the result
[Eq. (4-120)] to derive an integral equation for the neutron flux <>(r).
5
The One-Speed
Diffusion Theory Model
In this chapter we will develop the one-speed diffusion model of neutron

transport. This model plays an extremely important role in reactor theory since it is
sufficiently simple to allow detailed calculations and also sufficiently realistic to
allow us to study many of the more important concepts arising in nuclear reactor
analysis. Of course any model characterizing all of the neutrons in a reactor by a
single speed (or energy) and treating their transport from point to point as a
diffusion process cannot be expected to yield accurate quantitative estimates.
Nevertheless if the cross sections appearing in this theory are properly chosen, one
can use the one-speed diffusion model to make preliminary design estimates.
Moreover many of the mathematical techniques we will use to solve and analyze
this model are in fact identical to those applied to the more sophisticated models
(e.g., multigroup diffusion theory) used in modern nuclear reactor design.
The rigorous mathematical derivation of the one-speed diffusion model from the
neutron transport equation has been given in Chapter 4. In this chapter we will give
a more heuristic physical derivation of the one-speed diffusion equation and then
apply this equation to study nuclear reactor behavior. The solution of the diffusion
equation draws upon many familiar topics from a field that has become known as
mathematical physics, including methods for solving boundary value problems
involving both ordinary and partial differential equations. 1-3 For most problems of
practical interest in nuclear reactor studies, one must employ methods from
numerical analysis as well to allow the solution of the diffusion equation on a
high-speed computer. We would expect that many of these topics (e.g., separation
of variables methods in the solution of partial differential equations or Gaussian
elimination for solving systems of algebraic equations) are already quite familiar to
the advanced undergraduate. However we will continue our effort to make this
149
150
presentation as self-contained as possible by briefly reviewing such methods when

they arise (although numerous references will also be provided). Throughout this
development we would again caution the reader to avoid letting the smokescreen
generated by these various mathematical techniques obscure the fundamental
physical concepts governing the behavior of the neutron population in the reactor.
I. THE ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION EQUATION

A. Derivation of the Diffusion Equation
We will suppress the neutron energy dependence by assuming that all of the
neutrons can be characterized by a single kinetic energy. Such a one-speed (or
one-group) approximation greatly simplifies the mathematical study of nuclear
reactor behavior. Of course such an approximation is also highly suspect, particularly in light of the fact that neutron energies typically encountered in a reactor
span a range from 10" 3 to 107 eV, and neutron cross sections depend sensitively on
energy over most of this range. We will later be able to show, surprisingly enough,
that if one regards the one-speed approximation as an average description and
chooses the appropriate average cross sections, then in fact the one-speed model
can actually be used to obtain a quantitative description of a nuclear reactor.
As yet a further justification for our exhaustive study of the one-speed approximation, we would remark that most energy-dependent theories (e.g., multigroup
diffusion theory) are solved by performing a sequence of one-speed calculations for
each successive energy group. Hence the methods we develop for analyzing our
one-speed model will later be extended directly to more sophisticated descriptions.
We will characterize the neutron distribution in the reactor by the neutron
density N(r,t) which gives the number of neutrons per unit volume at a position r
at time t. Actually we will find it more convenient to work with the neutron flux,
4>(r, t) vN (r, t), since then we can compute the rate at which various types of
neutron-nuclear reactions occur per unit volume by merely multiplying the flux by
the corresponding macroscopic cross section. For example, the rate at which fission
reactions occur per cm 3 at a point r would be given by 2f(r)<J>(r,/)We will derive an equation for the neutron flux by merely writing down a
mathematical statement of the fact that the time rate of change of the number of
neutrons in a given volume must be simply the difference between the rate at which
neutrons are produced in the volume and the rate at which they are lost from the
volume due to absorption or leakage.
THE ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION THEORY MODEL
151
To be more precise, consider an arbitrary volume V of surface area S located

anywhere within the reactor. We will examine this "control" volume carefully to
determine how the neutron population within it changes. Evidently the total
number of neutrons in V at a time t can be obtained by simply integrating over the
volume
f d3rN{x,t)
= f d3r
J y
(5-1)
Hence the time rate of change of the number of neutrons in V must be just
= Production in F absorption in F
net leakage from F.
(5-2)
We can easily write down mathematical expressions for the gain and loss terms. If
we define a neutron source density S(r,t), then
Production in F = fd3rS(r,t).
(5-3)
Jy
Since the absorption rate density at any point in F is just 2 a (r) <J>(r>0> it i s obvious
that the total rate of neutron loss due to absorption in F is just
A b s o r p t i o n in V=
f d3râ(r)<j>(rtt).
Jy
(5-4)
The term describing neutron leakage out of or into F is a bit more difficult. If
J(r, /) is the neutron current density, then the net rate at which neutrons pass out
through a small surface element d S at position rs is J ( r s , t ) - d S . Hence the total net
leakage through the surface of F is just
Net leakage from V= f dS-J(r,/).
(5-5)
Js
Now we could combine all of these terms back into Eq. (5-2) as they stand, but first
it is convenient to convert Eq. (5-5) into a volume integral similar to the other
terms. The common way to convert such surface integrals into volume integrals is
to use Gauss's theorem to write
f
JC
rfS-J(r,/)= f d3rV * J(r,/).

J1/
(5-6)
If we now substitute each of these mathematical expressions into Eq. (5-2), we find
d3r
3<f>
- ^ - - S +
v 31
S^+V-J
= 0.
(5-7)
152
But recall that we chose our volume V to be arbitrary. That is, Eq. (5-7) must hold
for any volume V that we would care to examine. However the only way this can
occur is if the integrand itself were to vanish. Hence we find we must require
1
7
Of course this equation is still quite exact (aside from the one-speed approximation), but it is also quite formal since it contains two unknowns, <f>(r,t) a n d J(r,f).
To proceed further, we need yet another relationship between these two variables.
Unfortunately there is no exact relationship between <J>(r,/) and J(r,t). One must
resort to an approximate relation. N o w it is well known from other fields of physics
such as gaseous diffusion that the current density is approximately proportional to
the negative spatial gradient of the density, or in our case, the flux. That is,
particles will tend to flow from regions of high to low density at a rate proportional
to the negative density gradient. Stated mathematically, one finds that
J(r,0^-Z>(r)V<HM),
(5-9)
where the constant of proportionality Z>(r) is known as the diffusion coefficient,

while Eq. (5-9) is referred to as Fick's law. Of course to postulate such a
relationship between current density and flux implies nothing about its range of
validity. Indeed we do not even know what the diffusion coefficient D is. This
situation is very common in macroscopic descriptions of physics, and relationships
such as Eq. (5-9) are usually referred to as "transport laws" (not to be confused
with the transport equationwe are talking the language of the physicist now)
while the proportionality coefficients are known as "transport coefficients." Examples are numerous a n d include Fourier's law of thermal conduction (thermal
conductivity), Stokes' law of viscosity (shear viscosity), Ohm's law (electrical resistivity), to name only a few. In all cases, one is forced to go to a microscopic
description in order to evaluate the transport coefficient and examine the range of
validity of the transport law.
However this is of course exactly what we did by deriving the diffusion approximation [Eq. (5-9)] from the neutron transport equation in Chapter 4. There we
found that
D = (32 t r ) ~ 1 = [3(2, /X0^s) ] ~ \
(5-10)
where
is the average cosine of the scattering angle in a neutron scattering
collision. Furthermore, we found that Eq. (5-9) was valid provided it was used to
describe the neutron flux several m f p away f r o m the boundaries or isolated
sources, the medium was only weakly absorbing, and provided the neutron current
was changing slowly on a time scale comparable to the mean time between
neutron-nuclei collisions. It is important to keep these limitations in mind as we
apply this approximation in nuclear reactor analysis.
Henceforth we will accept the diffusion approximation [Eq. (5-9)] as providing a
valid expression for the neutron current density in terms of the neutron flux. If we
substitute Eq. (5-9) into Eq. (5-8), we arrive at the one-speed neutron diffusion
153
equation
(5-11)
This equation will form the basis of much of our further development of nuclear
reactor theory.
B. Initial and Boundary Conditions

We must augment this equation with suitable initial and boundary conditions.
Although these conditions have been developed in a more rigorous fashion from
neutron transport theory in Chapter 4, we will remotivate them here using plausible
physical arguments.
The appropriate initial condition involves specifying the neutron flux
for
all positions r at the initial time, say / = 0:
Initial condition: <J>(r,0) = </>0(r),
all r.
(5-12)
The boundary conditions are a bit more complicated and depend on the type of
physical system we are studying. The principal types of boundary conditions we
will utilize include the following:
1. V A C U U M B O U N D A R Y
At the outside boundary of a reactor, one would like to construct a boundary

condition corresponding to the fact that no neutrons can enter the reactor through
this surface from outside. Implicit in this fact is the assumption that the reactor is
surrounded by an infinitely large vacuous region. Of course no reactor is
surrounded by a vacuum, but rather by air, concrete, and a host of other materials.
It is frequently convenient to assume that the reflection of neutrons back into the
reactor from such materials is negligible so that nonreentrant boundary conditions
apply.
There is only one problem; diffusion theory is incapable of exactly representing
a nonreentrant boundary condition. The closest one can come would be to demand
that the inwardly directed partial current
M's) =
+ ês-V<Krs)
(5-13)
vanish on the boundary (clearly an approximation, since this expression for J _

already is approximate). Actually we really shouldn't worry much about a consistent free surface boundary condition within the diffusion approximation, for we
have already indicated that diffusion theory is not valid near the boundary anyway.
It can only be expected to hold several mfp inside the boundary.
Hence what we should really look for is a "fudged-up" boundary condition
which, although it may have little physical relevance at the boundary, does in fact
yield the correct neutron flux deep within the reactor where diffusion theory is
valid. More detailed transport theory studies indicate that the proper boundary
154
condition to choose is one in which the diffusion theory flux </>(r, t) vanishes at a
distance
z o = 0.7104A tr
(5-14)
outside of the actual boundary of the reactor. This extrapolated boundary is usually
denoted symbolically with a tilde. For instance, if the physical surface is at rs, then
the flux will be taken to vanish on the extrapolated boundary </>(rs, t) = 0.
A side comment here is appropriate. For most reactor materials, Atr is quite
small, usually being of the order of several centimeters or less. When it is
recognized that most reactor cores are quite large (several meters in diameter), then
it is understandable that one frequently ignores the extrapolation length z0 and
simply assumes the flux vanishes on the true boundary.
Furthermore few realistic reactor geometries are surrounded by a free surface.
Rather they are surrounded by coolant flow channels or plenums, structural
materials, thermal shields or such. Hence while the concept of a free surface is
useful pedagogically for painting a picture of an idealized reactor geometry
surrounded by a vacuum of infinite extent, it is rarely employed in modern nuclear
reactor analysis.
2. INTERFACES (MATERIAL DISCONTINUITIES)
The structure of a nuclear reactor core is extremely complex, containing
regions of fuel, structural material, coolant, control elements, and so on. Hence
while one rarely encounters situations in which the material cross sections 2(r)
depend continuously on position, one frequently is faced with what might be
termed "sectionally uniform" cross sections that change abruptly across an interface separating regions of differing material composition. Our usual procedure in
treating such discontinuities in material properties will be to solve the diffusion
equation in each region separately and then attempt to match these solutions at the
interface using appropriate boundary conditions.
Once again the diffusion equation is not strictly valid within several mfp of the
interface. However in this case one can argue that conservation of neutron
transport across the interface demands continuity of both the normal component of
the neutron current density J(r,/) and the neutron flux 0(r,/).
This condition is occasionally modified to account for the physically fictitious
but mathematically expedient convenience of including an infinitesimally thin
neutron absorber or source at the interface. Then while the neutron flux is still
continuous across the interface, the normal component of the current experiences a
jump:
e s -[J(r s + )-J(r s ")]=5,
(5-15)
where e s is the interface surface normal, while S would represent a source term (if
positive) or an absorption term (if negative). (See Figure 4-15.)
3. OTHER TYPES OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
It is frequently convenient to impose other types of boundary conditions
upon the neutron flux. For example, we know the flux must be nonnegative, real,
and finite. Actually in our mathematical modeling of neutron sources we will
155
occasionally encounter a situation in which the neutron flux becomes singular at a

localized source (e.g., a point source). However since such sources are mathematical idealizations, this singular behavior doesn't bother us, and in general we will
demand that the flux be finite away from such sources. This condition is particularly useful in geometries in which certain dimensions are infinite.
We will also occasionally be able to use symmetry properties to discard physically irrelevant solutions of the diffusion equation. For example, in onedimensional slab geometries, we can choose the coordinate origin at the centerline
of the slab, and then use symmetry to eliminate solutions with odd parity [i.e.,
Other types of boundary conditions are encountered in practice. A very common
problem in reactor calculations involves the determination of the flux in a small
subregion of the reactor fuel lattice, a so-called unit cell repeated throughout the
lattice. For example, such a cell might contain a single fuel rod surrounded by
coolant (a fuel cell) or several fuel assemblies along with a control element (a
control cell). Since these unit cells are repeated in a regular fashion throughout the
core lattice, one can argue that there should be no net transfer of neutrons between
cells, that is, that the neutron current density J(r) vanish on the cell boundaries.
This is an example of a boundary condition on the current. In such cell calculations it is also frequently necessary to obtain a diffusion theory solution in the
vicinity of a strong absorber (e.g., a fuel rod or control element). The appropriate
boundary condition at the interface between the diffusing medium and the absorber is handled much like that characterizing a free surface. That is, one uses a
transport-corrected boundary condition on the flux or current to yield the proper
diffusion theory solution at a distance of several mfp from the interface. We will
Equivalent fuel cell
1 o
O 1
o
o
Moderator
Ci iat n I A
Pa
Fuel e l e m e n t
C o n t r o l cell
Fuel cell
FIGURE 5-2.
Typical unit fuel and control cells.
RR\A
Fuel assembly
156
give explicit examples of such boundary conditions when we consider cell calculations in Chapter 10.
We should reemphasize that the application of neutron diffusion theory in
reactor analysis is successful in large part because the diffusion equation and its
boundary conditions have been modified using more exact transport theory corrections. For example, Z> = [3(2 t jw 0 2 s )] -1 contains a correction to account for
anisotropic scattering. Furthermore the boundary conditions on the flux or current
at a free surface or adjacent to a highly absorbing region contain transport
corrections to yield the proper neutron flux deeper within the diffusing region.
Such transport corrections frequently yield diffusion theory estimates that are far
more accurate than one would normally expect, especially when we recall the
rather strong approximations required to derive the neutron diffusion equation.
C. A Summary of the One-Speed Diffusion Model

To summarize then, the model we will initially use to describe the neutron
population in a nuclear reactor consists of the neutron diffusion equation:
^-V-D(Tysr* + \(rWT,t)-S(r,t)
(5-16)
along with suitable initial conditions:

<Hr,0)=<?>0(r),
all r
(5-17)
and boundary conditions:

(a) Free surface: <f>(rs,/) = 0 [or /_(r s ,?) = 0]
(b) Interface: <f> and normal component of J continuous across interface,
(c) 0<<(r,/)<oo (except in the neighborhood of localized sources).
(5-18)
Here the diffusion coefficient Z>=A t r /3 = [3(2 t /IqEJ] - 1 while the extrapolation
length characterizing a free surface boundary condition is z 0 = 0.7104 Atr.
The neutron diffusion equation [Eq. (5-16)] may be classified as an example of a
linear partial differential equation of the parabolic type. 4 This type of equation has
been thoroughly studied by mathematicians and physicists alike for years, since it
also describes processes such as heat condition, gas diffusion, and even a wave
function (notice, if we stick an
in front of the time derivative, we have
essentially just the Schrodinger equation familiar from quantum mechanics). As we
proceed to apply this equation to nuclear reactor analysis, we will review several of
the more popular schemes available for solving such equations.
In many cases we will deal with situations for which the medium in which the
neutrons are diffusing is uniform or homogeneous such that D and 2 a do not
depend on position. Then the one-speed diffusion equation simplifies to
+
(5-19)
The explicit form taken by this equation will depend on the specific coordinate
system in which we choose to express the spatial variable r. For convenience, we
have included the explicit forms taken by the Laplacian operator, V2, in the more
common coordinate systems in Appendix B.5
157
W e will frequently consider situations in which the flux is not a function of time.
Then Eq. (5-19) becomes
D V2<f>(r) + 2a<|>(r) = S (r).
(5-20)
This equation is known as the Helmholtz equation and is also a very familiar beast
in mathematical physics. It is useful to divide by D to rewrite Eq. (5-20) as
s
w h e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e neutron
diffusion
length
(r)
(5-21)
L = Vi>/2a .
(5-22)
W e will later find that L is essentially a measure of how far the neutrons will
diffuse from a source before they are absorbed.
W e now turn our attention to the application of this model to some important
problems in nuclear reactor theory. W e will first study neutron diffusion in
"nonmultiplying" mediathat is, media containing no fissile material. Then we
will turn to the study of the neutron flux in fissile material and begin our
investigation of nuclear reactor core physics.
II. NEUTRON DIFFUSION IN NONMULTIPLYING MEDIA

W e will first apply Eq. (5-20) to study the diffusion of neutrons from a
steady-state source in a nonmultiplying medium. All of the mathematical techniques we will use are standard methods which arise in the solution of ordinary or
partial differential equation boundary value problems and are discussed in any text
on mathematical physics or applied mathematics. 1 " 3
A. Elementary Solutions of the Diffusion Equation

1. P L A N E S O U R C E IN A N I N F I N I T E M E D I U M
Perhaps the simplest problem in neutron diffusion theory is that of an

infinitely wide plane source located at the origin of an infinite, homogeneous
medium. The source is assumed to be emitting neutrons isotropically at a rate of S0
neutrons/cm 2 *sec. Since both the source plane and the medium are of infinite
extent, the neutron flux <>(r)^<f>(x) can only be a function of the distance x from
the source plane. Hence the diffusion equation [Eq. (5-21)] reduces to the onedimensional form
d2<t>
S(x)
S0
where we have mathematically modeled the source by a Dirac S-functiom Hence

we just have an inhomogeneous ordinary differential equation to solve with a
158
slightly weird source. Note that if we restrict XtÔ, the source term disappears from
Eq. (5-23):
d2<f>
z
dx
LL
Our approach will be to solve this homogeneous equation for x ^ O , and then use a
boundary condition at x = 0 to "fix u p " these solutions.
We could obtain this boundary condition directly by integrating Eq. (5-23) from
x = 0 e to x = 0 + across the source plane and then taking the limit as e ^ O to
find
Dd<$>
d<t>
dx
dx
= Jx(Q+)-Jx(
0~) = So.
(5-25)
[See Problem 5-2]. However we might also merely note that this is just a special
case of the more general interface boundary condition [Eq. (5-15)]. If we use the
symmetry of the geometry to assert that Jx(0+)= -Jx(0~) = J(0), then our
boundary condition at the source plane becomes just
lim
(5-26)
This source boundary condition makes sense physically, since it merely says that
the net neutron current at the origin on either side must be just half of the total
source strength.
We are not through with boundary conditions yet. Since we have a second-order
derivative, d2/dx1, we need another boundary condition. We will use the boundary
condition of finite flux as x ^ c o .
Hence the mathematical problem to be solved is
dxL
Lr
with boundary conditions:
(a)
v 7
(b)
lim
d<t>
S0
dx
2
lim <|>(x)<oo.
(5_27)
159
We will then use symmetry to infer the solution for x < 0 .

To solve this equation, we note the general solution
4>(x) = A exp( - j-) + B exp ( j-).
(5-28)
Applying the boundary conditions, we find
or
A =
S0L
2D
Hence our solution is

<K*)=fêxp(-^),
,>0,
(5-29)
and by symmetry we can infer

<H
svx
ê
x ) =
X p
(l)'
*<0.
(5-30)
Hence the neutron flux falls off exponentially as one moves away from the source
plane with a characteristic decay length of L. As one might expect, the larger L
(i.e., the smaller 2 a ), the less the neutron flux is attenuated as we move into the
medium. Notice also that the magnitude of the flux is proportional to the source.
That is, doubling the source strength will double the neutron flux <f>(x) at any
position jc, but this should have been anticipated since the neutron diffusion
equation is linear and hence the principle of superposition holds.
The reader should be reminded that, while this solution may provide a reasonable description of the neutron flux in a medium (provided it is not too highly
absorbing), it is certainly not valid within several m f p of the source plane itself.
Indeed more accurate transport theory studies 6 ' 7 indicate that the neutron flux does
not look at all exponential near the source. In fact there are additional components
to the solution. Fortunately if absorption is not too strong, these transport theory
"transients" rapidly diminish as one moves several m f p away from the source
plane, and the simple exponential behavior predicted by diffusion theory is found,
with one mild modification. Transport theory predicts that the "relaxation length"
characterizing the exponential decay is not L = (Z)/2 a ) 1 / 2 , but rather is given by
the root of the transcendental expression
-4 In
2tL+ 1
2tL- 1
l + 3L 2 2 s 2 aJ Ei 0
'
1+ 3L 2 t 2 Ji0
(5-31)
Fortunately if 2 a < 2 t (as it must be for diffusion theory to be valid), one can
160
T H E ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION M O D E L OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
\
\
Transport theory
\
Diffusion
theory
FIGURE 5-4.
A comparison between the diffusion theory and transport theory solutions of the
plane source problem.
expand Eq. (5-31) to find
(5-32)
V 3 2 X
For example, in graphite 2 t = . 3 8 5 c m " 1 while 2 a = . 0 0 0 3 2 . Hence 2 a / 2 t = 8.3x
10~ 4 , which implies that the correction to L given by higher terms in this expansion
(that is, by transport theory) is only about 0.03% in this material.
2. POINT SOURCE IN AN INFINITE MEDIUM
As a variation on this theme, let us repeat this calculation for the case of an
isotropic point source emitting S0 neutrons/sec at the origin of an infinite medium.
Since the source is isotropic, there can be no dependence of the neutron flux on
angle. Hence the diffusion equation in spherical coordinates reduces to
1
2d$
1 ,/ x
r >0.
(5-33)
We will use our previous problem as a guide, and seek solutions such that the
boundary conditions are
(a)
l i m Airr2J
(/*) =
r> 0
(b)
v
'
S0,
lim <2>(r)<oo.
r>00
One can readily verify that the fundamental solutions to Eq. (5-33) are of the form
r _ 1 e x p ( r/ L); hence we are led to seek
exp(-r/L)
^>(r) =
A
r
exp(r/L)
+
B
r
(5-34)
Applying the boundary conditions, we find that (b) implies that we choose 50,
while (a) implies that A = S0/4itD.
161
Hence the solution is

S0exp(-r/L)
A n interesting application of this result is to calculate the mean-square distance

to absorption in a nonmultiplying medium. Note the number of neutrons absorbed
between r and r + dr is just
S0cxp(-r/L)
4tirD
)(4^Vr)(2a)
(5-36)
and thus the probability that the neutron is absorbed in dr is just

P ( r ) d r - j j e x p ( - j - ) d r .
(5-37)
We can then calculate

/ 00
=
ô
drr^p (r) = 6L2.
(5-38)
Hence the neutron-diffusion length L has the interesting physical interpretation as

being 1 / V6 of the root mean square (rms) distance to absorption
L2=i<r2>.
(5-39)
That is, L measures the distance to which the neutron will diffuse (on the average)
away from the source before it is absorbed. It should be stressed that we have
calculated the rms distance from the source to the point of absorption, not the total
path length traveled by the neutron. This path length will be very much longer
since the neutron suffers a great many scattering collisions before it is finally
absorbed. For example, in graphite the thermal diffusion length is 59 cm. Hence
the rms distance to absorption from a point source is / 2 1 / / 2 = V6 L = 144 cm. If
we recall that the m f p characterizing thermal neutrons in graphite is 2.5 cm and
also recall that the average number of scattering collisions suffered by the neutron
before absorption is 1500, then it is apparent that the average path length or track
length traveled by the neutron is about 3700 cm, considerably larger than V 6 L .
One can actually use Eq. (5-39) to define the neutron diffusion length in
situations in which diffusion theory would not apply (e.g., strongly anisotropic
scattering or large absorption). Then one would first determine the flux </>(r)
resulting from an isotropic point source using transport theory (or whatever
description is relevant) and then calculate L by using
f d3rr2<f(r)
L
= W > = - r 6
J d r <j>(r)
(5-40)
162
where the integral is taken over all space.

The cylindrical geometry problem of a line source at the origin of an infinite
medium can be worked out in a very similar way. However to do so here would
"deprive" the reader of an opportunity to try his own hand at such diffusion theory
problems. Hence we have left the line source as an exercise in the problem set at
the end of the chapter. We will instead turn our attention to problems in finite
geometries.
3. FINITE SLAB GEOMETRIES
Let us now modify our isotropic plane source by assuming that it is imbedded
at the center of a slab of nonmultiplying material of width a surrounded on both
sides by a vacuum (see Figure 5-5). We will set up this problem in a manner very
similar to that for infinite plane geometry, except that we will add vacuum
boundary conditions on either end of the slab.
d2<t>
L'
dx

d<\>
SQ
(a)
lim - D = ,
dx
2
(b)
*()-o.
Here we have replaced the boundary condition at infinity by the vacuum boundary
conditionin this case, using an extrapolated boundary a/2 = a/2 + z0. If we again
seek a general solution of the form of Eq. (5-28), then applying the boundary
condition (b) implies
= -all
FIGURE 5-5.
X =
= a/2
A plane source at the origin of a finite slab.
163
Then boundary condition (a) implies
Our final solution is therefore

- ( a - x )
exp
SL
<f>0) = 2D
l+exp(-f)
$S-2\x$i
sinh
SL
2D
2 L
(5-42)
cosh
(fi)
This solution is sketched in Figure 5-5. It looks somewhat similar to the infinite
medium result [Eq. (5-29)], except for dropping off more rapidly near the
boundaries due to neutron leakage. We should caution the reader once again that
the solution is not valid within several mfp of the vacuum boundary (just as it is
not valid near the source plane at the origin).
A variant on the above problem involves replacing the vacuum by a material of
different cbmposition than the slab itself (as sketched in Figure 5-6). The general
procedure for attacking such multiregion problems is to seek solutions of the
diffusion equation characterizing each region, and then match these solutions using
interface boundary conditions. Once again we can use geometrical symmetry to
allow us to restrict our attention to the range 0 < x < oo.
In region ( l ) we will seek a solution of
d2<Pi
2
0<x<
(5-43)
dx
where L 1 = y / ) 1 / E a i
region (5)
is the diffusion length characterizing region (T). Similarly in

d2<f>2
dx'
FIGURE 5-6.
A multiregion or reflected slab.
<X<00.
164
Now we will need several boundary conditions. We can use our earlier conditions
[Eq. (5-27)]
(a)
(b)
So
lim / , ( * ) =
</>2(.x)<oo
as
In addition we will use the interface conditions
(C) .(f)-fc(f)
(d)
A(f) =^(f)
or
-D,
dd><j
dfa
dx
Using our earlier work as a guide, we can seek general solutions

<f>l(x)=Alcosh
-j- + .Bjsinh
i
in region (7)
i
in region ( 2 )
and apply the boundary conditions to find (after a bit of algebra)

B2 = 0,
SL
2D,
A2 =
slxL2
B{=-
SLX
2D x
DXL2 cosh ^ - 1 - j + D2L{ sinh ^
j
(5-44)
^ e o s h ^ j + ^ ^ s i n h ^ )
CXP
(4)
iCosh +DiL2Sinli
DL
2
(2t)
(2z:)
We have sketched the form of this solution in Figure 5-6. Several features of this
solution are of some interest. Note that while the neutron flux is continuous across
the interface, the derivative of the flux is not. This later discontinuity is, of course,
a consequence of the fact that the diffusion coefficients in the two regions differ;
hence to obtain continuity of current J, we must allow a j u m p in d/dx across the
interface.
We have compared the solution for this problem with that obtained earlier for
the slab surrounded by a vacuum. It should be noted that the flux in the central
region falls off somewhat more slowly when the vacuum is replaced by a diffusing
material. This can be readily understood by noting that the material surrounding
the slab will tend to scatter neutrons back into the slab that would have otherwise
165
been lost to the vacuum. Such materials used to reduce neutron leakage are known
as reflectors. Any material with a large scattering cross section and low absorption
cross section would make a suitable neutron reflector. For example, the water
channels surrounding LWR cores act as reflectors. In the HTGR, graphite blocks
are added to the top and bottom of the reactor core to serve as neutron reflectors.
A concept very closely related to that of neutron reflectors is the reflection
coefficient or albedo, defined as the ratio between the current out of the reflecting
region to the current into the reflecting region:
(5-45)
To make this concept more precise, suppose we want to attach a reflecting slab of
thickness a to a reactor core (or perhaps a medium with a neutron source in it such
as the slab geometry we have just considered). If we are given a current density
Jm = J+ entering the reflecting slab surface, which we locate at x = 0 (see Figure
5-7) for convenience, then we can solve the diffusion equation characterizing the
reflecting region:
(5-46)
subject to boundary conditions / + ( 0 ) = 7 i n , <j>(a) = 0. We can then solve for the flux
</>(x) in the reflecting slab and use this solution to compute the albedo a as (see
Problem 5-11):
"(Mi)
" +(Mf)'
(5-47)
It is of interest to plot the albedo for the slab reflector versus slab thickness as
shown in Figure 5-8. For thin reflectors, very few of the neutrons are reflected and
hence the albedo is small. As the reflector becomes very thick, the albedo
x = 0
x = a
FIGURE 5-7.
The albedo problem.
166
1.0
1 - 2D/L
1 + 2D/L
FIGURE 5-8. The albedo for a finite slab plotted

versus slab thickness.
approaches an asymptotic limit dependent only upon the material properties D and
L:
(5-48)
For example, the albedos characterizing infinitely thick reflectors of graphite, H 2 0 ,

and D 2 0 are 0.93, 0.82, and 0.97 respectively.
The albedo can be used to replace the detailed solution in the reflecting region
by an equivalent boundary condition at the edge of the core using Eq. (5-45). That
is, if we use our earlier definitions of the partial current densities J , then the
effective boundary condition on the flux in the region x < 0 is just
(5-49)
Used in this manner, the albedo becomes a very useful device for obtaining
boundary conditions for reactor core calculations.
One can continue this game of solving the diffusion equation in various onedimensional geometries indefinitely. As we mentioned earlier, it is simply an
exercise in ordinary differential equations. A variety of two- and three-dimensional
problems can also be studied. However since these latter problems involve partial
differential equations, we will defer their treatment until after we have introduced
the separation of variables approach for solving such equations in Section 5-III-C.
If we really want to get masochistic, we can remove some of the symmetry in our
earlier problems so that the original partial differential equation (5-20) would have
to be solved directlyfor example, a point source set off-center in a sphere.
However there is very little in the way of new physics to be learned from such
exercises. Hence we will bypass further examples in favor of moving directly to
more general problems. In particular, we will study how our previous solutions for
plane and point sources can be used to determine the neutron flux resulting from
an arbitrary distribution of neutron sources.
167
4. GENERAL DIFFUSION PROBLEMS

Recall that the neutron flux resulting from an isotropic point source of
strength S0 located at the origin of an infinite medium was found to be
o e x p ( T")
w
< 5 - 50 >
Suppose this source was located at the point r' instead. Then the flux could be
found by a simple coordinate translation as
exp
< 5 - 51 >
4ttI) |r r
Next suppose we have several point sources at positions rj, each of strength S r
Then we can use the fact that the diffusion equation is linear to invoke the
principle of superposition and write
Distributed source
T1T\
AttD
FIGURE 5-9.
r r-7\
Superposition of several point sources.
(5"52)
168
Finally suppose we have an arbitrary distribution of sources characterized by a

source density S(r). Then the flux resulting from this distributed source is just
f
I d V
r').
47tZ>|r~r |
(5-53)
This is frequently rewritten as

<l>(r)=fd3r'Gpt(r,r')S(r'),
(5-54)
where
(5
4<nD [r r'|
is k n o w n a s t h e point
diffusion
kernel for an infinite
medium.
[The expression
"55)
kernel8
is a mathematical term used to denote a function of several variables (including the

variables of integration) in an integral of the form
f dx'K(x,x')f(x').
(5-56)
Here K(x,x') would be the known kernel, while f ( x ) might either be known [as the
source density S(r)] or unknown as the flux <p in the inscattering term of the
transport equation
/*
/ 00
/ dW \
/V
/S
dE'2,s(E'Ê,W-^to)<p(r,E\$l\t)
(5-57)
IT
A.
where 2 S ( " i s known as the scattering kernel.]

As a second example of such kernels, consider the flux resulting from a plane
source at the origin
<#,(*) = f e x p ( - M ) .
(5-58)
If this had been located at x\ then the flux at a position * would be

* W - e x p ( - ! i ^ l ) .
Hence in general, for S^>S (x')dx',
(5-59)
we find
<t>(x)
00m-.
= f
00
J 00
dx'Gpl(x,x')S(x'),
(5-60)

w h e r e w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e plane
source diffusion
kernel for an infinite
Gpl(x,x')=2êxp(-iî).
169
medium
(5-61)
Once again we will allow the reader the privilege of deriving the line source
diffusion kernel. Actually both the plane source and line source kernels could have
been superimposed from the point source diffusion kernel.
Notice that these kernels all depend only on the difference in spatial coordinates,
that is, r r' or x-~ x'. Such displacement kernels arise because we have assumed an
infinite, homogeneous medium. For such infinite geometries we can use these
kernels to compute the neutron flux arising from any source distribution.
Unfortunately most geometries of interest are not uniform and are certainly not
infinite. Hence we must generalize this discussion to determine the diffusion
kernels characterizing other geometries and boundary conditions. Before attempting this generalization it is useful to step back a moment and try to obtain a general
mathematical perspective of just what problem it is that we really wish to solve.
Actually all we are doing is trying to solve an inhomogeneous differential
equation of the form
M<j>(x) = S(x),
w h e r e M is a differential
operator
(5-62)
s u c h as
(We will leave it as understood that one must also apply suitable boundary
conditions.) There are a variety of techniques available to solve such inhomogeneous problems. The approach we have been using thus far is known as the
Green's function method: 9
(a) GREEN'S FUNCTION
METHODS
In this technique we first construct the solution to

M<$>g(x) = 8 ( x - x f ) .
(5-64)
Then if we call <t>g(x) = G(xix/) the "Green's function" for the operator M, we find
that the general solution to Eq. (5-64) is just
<f>(x) = fdx'G(x9x')f(x%
(5-65)
[Proof:
M<f>= f d x ' M G ( x , x ' ) f ( x ' ) = f ( x ) ]
S(x-x')
EXAMPLE:
Consider
Id2
1 \
(x)
(5-66)
170
for an infinite medium, oo < x < + oo. Now define G by

d2G
S(x-x')
However we have just solved this for

G (x,x')
= Gpl(x,xf)
exp( - ^
(5-69)
Hence the plane source kernel is just the Green's function for this operator, and we
find
oo
/
(xf).
dx' GpX(x,x')S
(5-70)
- OO
It should not take much contemplation to convince the reader that this is just the
scheme we have been using to construct infinite medium solutions by first determining the appropriate diffusion kernel or Green's function. The construction of
the Green's function characterizing a finite geometry is not much more difficult,
although one can no longer simply solve for the flux resulting from a source
conveniently located at the origin, and then perform a coordinate translation to
arrive at the Green's function. This latter complexity should be easily understood
when it is recognized that shifting the source "off-center" in a finite geometry will
destroy the symmetry of the problem. Hence one no longer finds a simple
displacement kernel form for the Green's function. We will provide an alternative
scheme for constructing these kernels later in this section.
(b) VARIATION OF CONSTANTS
Perhaps a more familiar scheme for the solution of inhomogeneous differential equations is variation of constants,10 in which one first determines the linearly
independent solutions
of the homogeneous equation
M ^ m { x ) = 0,
a n d a particular
solution
(5-71)
of t h e i n h o m o g e n e o u s e q u a t i o n
M<t>paTt(x) = S(x).
(5-72)
Since none of these solutions are required to satisfy the boundary conditions
pertaining to the specific problem of interest, they are usually rather straightforward to find. Then one seeks the general solution to the problem as
<j>(x) = A x<t>^m(x) + A7$g>Bl(x)
+ <j>part(x)
(5-73)
and applies the boundary conditions to determine the unknown coefficients of the
homogeneous solutions, Ax and A2.
EXAMPLE:
Consider a uniform source S(x)=
S0 in an infinite medium. Then
171
with boundary conditions such that <^>(x)<oo as x ^ o o . The solutions to the

homogeneous equation are e x p ( j c / L ) , and the particular solution is obviously
<f>(;t)= S0L2/D.
Hence we will seek a general solution
SL
<p(x) = A exp( " f ) + * e x p ( + ) +
(5.75)
Then applying the boundary conditions implies that both A and B must be zero,
and hence the solution is
Usually for the method of variation of constants to be of use in more general

problems, one must be able to guess </>part(x) "by inspection." Hence for most
problems, the Green's function technique or the method we will describe next is
more convenient.
(c) EIGENFUNCTION
EXPANSION
METHODS
One of the most powerful methods available for solving boundary value
problems is to seek the solution as an expansion in the set of normal modes or
eigenfunctions characterizing the geometry of interest. Rather than beginning with a
general description of this very important scheme, we will introduce it by considering a specific example.
EXAMPLE: We will attempt to determine the neutron flux resulting from an
arbitrary distributed source in a finite slab of width a. That is, we wish to solve
d2<f>
S(x)
subject to the vacuum boundary conditions:
(a)
<Kf) =
(b)
*(-f)-o.
Since we have taken the source S (x) to be arbitrary, we cannot assume symmetry
to restrict our attention to the range 0 < x < 5 / 2 .
Our approach to solving this problem may at first seem a bit irrelevant. We begin
by considering a homogeneous problem very similar to Eq. (5-77):
=
(5-78)
dx
Here B 2 is just an arbitrary parameterat least for the moment. Let us now solve
this associated homogeneous problem by noting the general solution
$ (x) = A j cos Bx + A2 sin Bx.
(5-79)
172
Our boundary conditions require

^(f) =Acos(f)^2sin(f).
(5-80)
Adding and subtracting these equations, we find that we must simultaneously

require
Ax
c o s ^ ^ ^ O ,
and
A 2 sm
in(^)=0.
(5-81)
How do we achieve this? Certainly we cannot set Ax and A2 equal to zero since
then we would have the "trivial" solution ^ ( x ) = 0. Instead we must choose the
parameter B such that these conditions are satisfied. Of course there are many
values of B for which this will occur. For example, if we choose A2 = 0, then any
B= Bn=-^,
n = 1,3,5,...
(5-82)
will give rise to a solution

xpn (x) = An cos
n = 1,3,5,...
(5-83)
which obviously satisfies both the differential equation [Eq. (5-78)] and the
boundary conditions. Alternatively, we could have chosen Ax= 0, in which case
B = Bn = i f ,
= 2,4,6,...
(5-84)
yields solutions
t n ( x ) = An sin
/i = 2,4,6,...
(5-85)
Hence our homogeneous problem can be solved only for certain values of the
parameter B. One refers to the values of B2 for which nontrivial solutions exist to
the homogeneous problem as eigenvalues:
Eigenvalues:
B2 = ^ j
n 1,2,...
(5-86)
The corresponding solutions are referred to as the eigenfunctions of the problem:
An c o s ( ^ ) ,
Eigenfunctions:
\pn(x)
=
.
s i. n/
n= 1,3,5,...
fl
;
mrx \
( y y
n =
A
2,4,6,...
(5-87)
'
173
The reader may have already encountered eigenvalue problems in a somewhat

different form:
(5-88)
where \pn is the eigenfunction corresponding to the eigenvalue Xn. However by
comparing this form with Eq. (5-78), one can easily identify Hd2/dx2,
B2,
and ^ - ^ ( x ) .
Notice that in the example Eq. (5-78) we actually find two types of eigenfunctions: the cosine functions corresponding to odd n and symmetric about the origin,
and the sine functions corresponding to even n and antisymmetric about the origin.
Had we restricted ourselves to symmetric sources S(x)= S( x), we could have
eliminated the antisymmetric solutions [Eq. (5-85)] from further consideration. We
have sketched the first few eigenfunctions for the slab geometry in Figure 5-10.
In acoustics these eigenfunctions would be identified as the normal modes or
natural harmonics of the system, and this terminology is frequently carried over to
reactor analysis. Notice that the An are still undetermined and are, in fact,
arbitrary. These can be chosen in a number of ways, but for now we will just set
An = 1 for convenience.
So now this auxiliary problem has given us an infinite set of solutions if^n(x).
What good are they? Well, they have a couple of very useful properties. First notice
that the product of any two of these functions will vanish when integrated over the
slab unless the functions are identical:
0,
iim^n
This property is known as orthogonality and proves to be of very considerable

usefulness, as we will see in a moment.
The second property of the eigenfunctions x(^n(x) is that they form a complete set
in the mathematical sense that any reasonably "well-behaved" 1 function f ( x ) can
be represented as a linear combination of the
00
/(*)- 2
= l
cntH(x).
(5-90)
174
Of course, such a representation is only of formal interest unless some scheme is

available for determining the expansion coefficients c n , but this is where orthogonality comes in handy. Multiply Eq. (5-90) by *pm(x) and integrate over x to find
a
~2
or
a
c
= j f
, d x f ( x ) t j x ) .
(5-91)
Hence given any function f ( x ) , we can evaluate the appropriate expansion

coefficients cm by a simple integration. It should be mentioned that for the specific
example of a finite slab we have been considering, an eigenfunction expansion is
simply a Fourier series expansion and is probably already quite familar to most
students. 1 However, the properties of orthogonality and completeness characterizing such trigonometric functions also hold for much more general eigenfunction expansions.
With this background, we are finally ready to return to solve our original
boundary value problem. As we mentioned, the essential idea is to seek the solution
as an expansion in the eigenfunctions
*(*)= 2
cM*)-
(5-92)
n=1
We will also expand the source term in a similar fashion

00
SW=
smrp(x).
(5-93)
n=1
Notice that since S (x) is known, we can use orthogonality to determine the source
expansion coefficients [as in Eq. (5-91)] as
a
2
r2
n=~
(5-94)
adxS(x)lP(x)
a. J _ _
2
Of course since <(*) is unknown, we cannot determine the cn in a similar fashion,

but that is just what we can use the original equation [Eq. (5-77)] to accomplish. If
we substitute Eqs. (5-92) and (5-93) into Eq. (5-77), we find
00
S i
n=1
dx
1
n= 1
However using Eq. (5-78), we can eliminate d2$n/dx2

00
2
n\
n(Bn +
(5-95)
L2^n
77 2
'
to find
Mv
(5-96)
175
Thus we are left with one equation for an infinite number of unknowns, the cn.
Fortunately orthogonality once again comes to our rescue. Multiply by
integrate over x, and use orthogonality to find
Thus we find the flux for any source distribution as

00
n=1
where i//rt(x) = cos(wrx/<5), n odd and ^ ( x ) = sin( nmx /a), n even.

We can rewrite this in a bit more familiar form if we substitute Eq. (5-94) into
Eq. (5-98) and rearrange things a bit:
a
,/ \
C ' ,
.(*).(*')
S(x
')
a
2
= f_adx'Gplix,x')Six').
(5-99)
Hence we have found an explicit representation of the plane diffusion kernel or

Green's function for a finite slab as an eigenfunction expansion
r
,,
mm
Note in particular that the Green's function for a finite geometry is no longer a
displacement kernel, that is, a function only of x x\ as it was for infinite
geometries.
This intimate relationship between Green's functions and eigenfunction expansions is actually a very general result. Suppose we consider the diffusion
equation characterizing any homogeneous geometry:
1
S(t)
subject to the usual vacuum boundary conditions on the extrapolated boundary:

Boundary conditions: <J>(rs) = 0, rs on surface.
As before, we first construct the eigenfunctions as the nontrivial solutions to the
associated homogeneous problem
V V ^ W - o ,
Boundary condition: i//n(rs) = 0.
(5_io2)
176
One can demonstrate that these eigenfunctions are orthogonal in the sense that
f d 3 r\p m (r)\p n (r) = 0,
jv
(5-103)
Since Eq. (5-102) is homogeneous, any solution ^ ( r ) may be multiplied by a

constant. We will scale each \pn so that the eigenfunctions are normalized such that
(5-104)
J y
[Our earlier slab eigenfunctions \pn(x) would be normalized if we multiplied them

by (2/<J) 1/2 .] The set of orthogonal and normalized eigenfunctions { ^ ( r ) } is said to
be orthonormal. It can also be shown to be complete. Hence we can expand
<Kr)=|<^(r),
(5-105)
n
where
" *
d3r'\pn(r')S
sn=(
(r').
J V
If we substitute these expansions into Eq. (5-101), we can use orthogonality as

before to solve for
n/
"
1+
(5-106)
L2B}
Hence we find
<!>(r)= f d3r'G(r,r')S(r%
(5-107)
J y
where
^(r)^(rQ
a
L2B}
(5-108)
as a general result for any geometry (although the eigenfunctions or spatial modes
$(r) may be very hard to construct in practice).
B. Numerical Methods for Solving the Neutron Diffusion Equation

1. INTRODUCTION
Thus far we have confined our attention to neutron diffusion in homogeneous
(or perhaps regionwise homogeneous) media since in this case the one-speed
diffusion equation could be solved analytically. However in any realistic reactor
177
calculation the heterogeneous nature of the core must be taken into account. One
not only must consider nonuniformities corresponding to fuel pellets, cladding
material, moderator, coolant, control elements, but spatial variations in fuel and
coolant densities due to nonuniform core power densities and temperature distributions as well. Such complexities immediately force one to discard analytical
methods in favor of a direct numerical solution of the diffusion equation. In fact
, even when an analytical solution of the diffusion equation is possible, it is
frequently more convenient to bypass this in favor of a numerical solution,
particularly when the analytical solution may involve numerous functions that have
to be evaluated numerically in any event, or when parameter studies are required
that may involve a great many such solutions.
The general procedure is to rewrite the differential diffusion equation in finite
difference form and then solve the resulting system of difference equations on a
digital computer. It is perhaps easiest to illustrate this approach by a very simple
example (sufficiently simple, in fact, to enable analytical solution). Suppose we
wish to solve
(5-109)
dx
subject to the boundary conditions characterizing a finite slab of width a:

<(0) = 4>(a) = 0.
(For convenience we will ignore the extrapolation length.)
We first discretize the spatial variable x by choosing a set of N + 1 discrete points
equally spaced a distance A = a/N apart (for convenience).
4V
X
We now want to rewrite Eq. (5-109) at each of these discrete points xt, but to do so
we need an approximation for d2^/dx2.
Suppose we Taylor expand <f> at xi1 in
terms of its value at the point xt-:
d<j>
4>i+i = <Kxi+1)
=h + A
dx
d<j>
A
2
+
1
dx
A 2 d2<t>
2
dx2
(5-110)
If we add these expressions, we find

d2<j>
2
<t>i+l~2<}>i + <t>i_l
(5-111)
dx
to within order A2. Hence if A is chosen sufficiently small, this three-point central
178
difference formula should be a reasonable approximation to the value of d2$f dx2 at

the point xr
If we now use this difference formula to write Eq. (5-109) at any mesh point xiy
we find
J+S ^ S , ,
where again we have defined St=S(xWe

to rewrite it as
/ = 1,2,...
(5-112)
can rearrange this difference equation
D
1 =
A:
a
u - \
(5-113)
a,
or
au_
!</>,_! + a ^
+ ait i+ !</>i + 1 = S f
(5-114)
/=1,...,7V-1
Hence we now have reduced Eq. (5-109) to a set of N 1 algebraic equations for
N + 1 unknowns ( ^ o ^ i ' f e - * - ' ^ ) - ^ w e ac*d on the boundary conditions at either
end, say <f>0 = 0, <^ = 0, we can now imagine solving (or imagine the computer
solving) this set of algebraic equations. In this particular case, the system of
algebraic equations can be solved directly using Gaussian elimination. 11 More
generally one must use iterative methods to solve the finite-difference equations.
This very simple example illustrates the two essential tasks involved in the
numerical solution of the diffusion equation: (a) derivation of the corresponding
difference equations and (b) formulation of a suitable algorithm for solving these
equations on a digital computer. The methods used will vary from problem to
problem. For example, whereas a direct solution of the difference equations [e.g.,
Eq. (5-114)] is possible for one-dimensional problems, iterative methods are required for two- and three-dimensional problems. Furthermore one generally desires
to work with nonuniform meshes in reactor calculations, to account for the fact
that the neutron flux may vary much more rapidly in certain regions than in others.
In this section we illustrate several of the techniques that are commonly applied
in reactor analysis to the derivation and solution of difference equations. However
just as in our earlier study of analytical techniques, we do not intend this
discussion to be a detailed discussion of numerical methods in nuclear reactor
calculations. Instead we refer the interested reader to the extensive literature on
this topic. 12 " 16
2. DERIVATION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS FOR
ONE-DIMENSIONAL DIFFUSION PROBLEMS
We will now consider the more general form of the one-dimensional diffusion
equation in plane geometry
(5-115)
179
subject to boundary or interface conditions that we will leave arbitrary for the
moment. Actually we should remark here that this form of the diffusion equation is
even a bit too general for most reactor applications. One rarely encounters reactor
configurations in which the composition varies in a continuous way from point to
point [i.e., D(x) and 2 a (x)]. Rather the system properties are assumed to be
essentially uniform in various subregions of the reactor core (or can be suitably
represented by spatially averaged or "homogenized" properties within each subregion). Hence the far more common situation is one in which the diffusion equation
[Eq. (5-109)] with constant Dj and 2 . must be solved in a number of regions j. We
will develop the difference equations for the general diffusion equation [Eq.
(5-11$)], however, since they are not really any more difficult to derive or solve,
and in certain cases they are useful in avoiding technical difficulties arising in less
general approaches (such as the handling of region interfaces).
As in our simple example we begin by setting up our discrete spatial mesh as
shown below, although we will now allow for nonuniform mesh spacing.
A!
V
A/"
W-1
+1
There are a variety of schemes that can be used to generate a difference equation
representation of Eq. (5-115) on this mesh. We have already considered a simple
problem in which a Taylor series expansion was used to derive a central difference
formula for d1^/ dx1. A more common scheme is to integrate the original differential equation over an arbitrary mesh interval, and then to suitably approximate
these integrals (after an occasional integration by parts) using simple mean values
or difference formulas. By way of illustration, suppose we integrate Eq. (5-115)
over a mesh intervalx t ki/2<x<xi+
A / + lv /2 surrounding the mesh point xr
V*!"]
"x"-
x*+!
Let us choose the simplest scheme to approximate the integrals by expressing them
as the value of the integrand evaluated at the meshpoint xt times the integration
interval. For example,
f
J
A.
dx 2a(x)<t>(x) ss 2a.<k
/T
J V
A.
"l
A-a.
I+
~T
(5-116)
dx S (x) = Sj
i+ 1
(5-117)
180
The derivative term requires a bit more work. First write
+1
2
A,
V m
d<j>
, d
d x - ^ D v( x7 ) ^ = D (v x )
dx
dx
dx
A/ '
(5-118)
To handle d<j>/ dx, we can use a simple two-point difference formula [which can be
derived by subtracting Eqs. (5-110)1:
d<$>
dx
Xi
dx;
Furthermore we will use a centered average for D:

A..^, \
(5-119)
Then we find that Eq. (5-118) can be written as
1
f *,+- 2 ^ Z ) ( X ) d<j>
dx
A;
dx
(5-120)
If we now combine Eqs. (5-116), (5-117), and (5-120), we arrive at a set of
difference equations very similar to our earlier results
a
(5-121)
+ ai,i+ 1& + 1 = Si>
Ui-l<t>i- 1 +
where
a
u-1
A + A->\
A,.
a, . = 2 +
' \
/A,. + A,.+ 1 '
A+i + A +. A-i + A l
A/+1
'
/A + 1 + A \
\
A,.
A,.
(5-122)
/ A , + A, + 1 '
j A , + A, + 1 -
Hence once again we have arrived at a set of N 1 three-point difference equations

for the iV+1 unknown discretized fluxes, $0,<j>v...,4>N. In the particular case in
which the mesh size A(- is constant and the coefficients D(x) and 2 a ( x ) do not
i
181
depend on x, we return to our earlier results [Eq. (5-113)] derived via a Taylor
series expansion. Actually we should note that the coefficients aSJ depend only on a
single subscript, j. However double subscripting is useful, for we will rewrite these
algebraic equations as a matrix equation.
Our final task is to append to these equations two additional equations taking
into account the boundary conditions. Of course we could simply use the vacuum
extrapolated boundary conditions, d>0=0, <pN~0 as before (taking care to place the
mesh points ;e 0 ,and xN on these extrapolated boundaries). More general boundary
conditions (such as nonreentrant current) can be developed by taking the final two
difference equations in the set as
and
J
N,N-\N-
NtNN
(5-123)
S,
"N-
Such sets of three-point difference equations are characteristic of onedimensional diffusion problems (indeed of any ordinary differential equation of
second order). The coefficients a{J will depend upon the scheme used to derive the
difference equations. Fortunately if the mesh spacing A is small, these differences
will be insignificant in actual calculations. Since the spatial variation of the flux is
essentially characterized by the diffusion length L, one generally chooses a mesh
spacing A less than L.
Similar three-point difference equations will also arise in curvilinear geometries
with one-dimensional symmetry. For convenience we will assume regionwise uniform properties. Then in cylindrical coordinates, the diffusion equation becomes
d2
dr2
2
+
(5-125)
dr
Hence we can derive difference equations corresponding to these geometries, using

either of the earlier techniques, to find for uniform mesh spacing 17
a
19,-1 + au$i
+ % + I <h+ I =
(5-126)
where now
D
A2 L
u-\
2D
u+1
D_
A2
2/-1
v
1+
(5-127)
21 1
182
where c = 0,1,2 for plane, cylindrical, or spherical geometries, respectively. To

complete the specification of these difference equations, we will consider the case
of vacuum boundary conditions. For reference we first consider the slab geometry
with uniform mesh spacing A:
Boundary conditions: (p0 = <pN = 0,

(5-128)
S0=SN=
0.
XN
Notice if we were to apply Eq, (5-126) to the case / = 0 (assuming 6 _ j = 0). then this
boundary condition would imply </>, = 0 . However this is inconsistent with the 1= 1
equation. Hence we must ignore the < = 0 (and i=N) cases in applying the
difference equation, and use the boundary conditions to eliminate the unknowns <J>0
and tpN from the i = 1 and i = N\ equations. For example, the i = 1 equation is
.0
(5-129)
Now consider the case of cylindrical geometry. Our boundary conditions are
now somewhat different. At rN we still have the usual vacuum boundary condition
<pv = 0, At the origin, we use symmetry to imply
d<p
= 0=^0 = ^,
(5-130)
Again we ignore the cases /'= 0 and i = N. At 1=1, we find that a 10 = 0 and hence
a , ^ ! + &i2(p2=:
(5-131)
The i= N 1 equation is simplified by <j)N = 0. Very similar considerations hold for

the case of spherical geometry.
Thus we have now derived the general form of the difference equations
characterizing one-dimensional neutron diffusion in plane geometry, and the
difference equations characterizing regionwise homogeneous cylindrical and spherical geometries. (The extension to nonuniform media and mesh intervals for
cylindrical and spherical geometries will be left as an exercise for the reader.) Our
183
next task is the determination of a suitable prescription or algorithm for solving this
system of algebraic equations.
3. SOLUTION OF THREE-POINT DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
Suppose we have developed an appropriate set of difference equations similar
to Eq. (5-121). We must now solve for the discretized fluxes
To be more explicit,
let's first write out these equations in detail
a
u$l
= Si
l2^2
^23^3
22^2
32<f>2 +
S2
= S3
33<t>3 + ^34^4
N- \,N-2N-2+
N - l ^ V - 1
(5-132)
-1
It is useful to rewrite these equations in matrix form
\2
2\'
v*.
^"23
^33
^43
A$=S_,
(5-133)
where A is an (N l)X(jV 1) matrix, and <p and S are (N 1) dimension column

vectors. (For a short review of matrix algebra, the reader should refer to Appendix
F.) In particular the reader should note that the finite difference diffusion matrix A
is tridiagonal. This feature arises only for such one-dimensional geometries in which
three-point difference equations arise. In two- and three-dimensional geometries,
more complicated matrix structures are encountered.
Notice that the solution of this set of algebraic equations is tantamount to
inverting the matrix A to find
A
S_.
(5-134)
Such tridiagonal matrices can be inverted directly using Gaussian elimination (the
"forward eliminationbackward substitution" method). 18 The general scheme is to
subtract au
u _ j times the (/ l)th row from the (/)th row to eliminate the
au,_, element in the (<)th row. At each step, the (/)th row is then divided by its
diagonal element, and the procedure is continued. For example, we have indicated
184
schematically the "forward elimination" on the first two equations in Eq. (5-132):
au
al2
12
a
\\
v
a
2l
22
*I
21
22
21
0
a 23
(5-135)
a
2\a\l\
such that we eventually arive at a system of equations of the form
i
0
0
(
9
\ a
\o 0
0
0
1
g
(5-136)
A
!
where
. _
n,n+l
aa
n,n ^+aan,n-l^n-A
n,n
A
n,n-\An-\
l2
1'
"l|
'
il
We can now substitute back up the matrix to find
<V-1=V l>
^V-2 = ~
=
- / l ,
,V - 2^,V- I +
v
_ 2 V - |
V - 2 <
(5-138)
and so on.
Thus Gaussian elimination consisting of forward elimination and backward
substitution can be used to directly solve the difference equations [Eqs. (5-132)].
This scheme is particularly important since it frequently appears as an integral part
of the iterative methods used in two- and three-dimensional diffusion problems.
For this reason it is useful to formalize Gaussian elimination a bit by noting that
what we have in fact accomplished by forward elimination is the factorization of
185
the matrix A into a product of a lower (L) and upper (U) triangular matrix: 19
(5-139)
Hence our sequence of steps in Gaussian elimination begins with

A9= LUq=S.
(5-140)
First we perform a forward elimination sweep to construct and invert L

U<t>= L~l S_= a_,
(5-141)
followed by a backward substitution to invert U and solve for

= U ~ l l ~ l $ = U~ X
(5-142)
As an aside we should observe that while such methods for solving systems of
linear algebraic equations are most easily understood and analyzed (mathematically) in matrix notation, they are most easily programmed when written as a
simple algorithm such as Eq. (5-138). For example, one could simply construct a
loop to generate and store all An and an using Eq. (5-137) and then evaluate all <pn
using Eq. (5-138).
This algorithm for solving such sets of three-term equations (i.e., inverting
tridiagonal matrices) is easily programmed and executed on a digital computer.
The algorithm would also formally work for solving difference equations
characterizing two- or three-dimensional diffusion problems, however it then encounters some severe computing limitations. To visualize this more clearly, we will
now briefly comment on the numerical solution of multidimensional diffusion
equations.
4. D E R I V A T I O N O F
MULTIDIMENSIONAL DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
Most detailed neutron diffusion calculations characterizing nuclear reactors

require either two- or three-dimensional treatments. Such details are particularly
important in studying power profiles in large reactors subject to nonuniform fuel
loading and depletion. Hence we now must consider the numerical solution of the
more general diffusion equation
~VD
(r)V<P + 2 a (r)*(r) = 5 (r).
(5-143)
Once again the geometry of interest is discretized into a mesh of cells such as the
rectangular grids illustrated in Figure 5-11. Perhaps the most general way to derive
186

J
FIGURE 5-11.
Rectangular two- and three-dimensional grids
difference equations for the mesh is to integrate the diffusion equation [Eq. (5-143)]
over the spatial volume of a given mesh cell, using this to define the spatially
averaged cell properties. In general one can write 20
17
v
(5-144)
i Jvs
(5-145)
,7 i c P r [ - V D ( r ) V ^ L l ( p -
' i Vj
i f
j V s
K
(5-146)
J= 1
(5-147)
'
Here the sum is taken over the adjacent mesh point neighbors j=\
J = 2, 4, or 6 in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional Cartesian geometries, while
,J where
(5-148)
j= i
where the mesh coupling coefficients

are determined by the particular mesh
geometry and finite-difference scheme one chooses. For example, in Cartesian
coordinates using essentially the approximation schemes represented by Eqs. (5116) and (5-120), one would find
(5-149)
where we define
/ = i / n , n i
> ~ 2 1 '
'
distance between mesh

~ points i and j.
(5-150)
The difference equations representing Eq. (5-143) then take the form
D-
I J
Du
(5-151)
where i runs over all of the mesh points.
187
EXAMPLE: As an example, let's derive the difference equations characterizing

the two-dimensional diffusion equations for a uniform medium with a uniform
mesh in rectangular geometry
d2<f>
d2(x,.y) = ^ (xjO-
Our mesh will be defined such that the mesh points are denoted by x 0 , x,, ..., x , . . . ,
xN; y0, y ..., yJr ..., yM with mesh spacing Ax and Ay respectively. The most
direct manner in which to derive the difference equations is to use a central
difference formula to approximate
d2
9, -Lj-
dx
(Ax)
(5-153)
82<j>
frj-i^.-j
+ frj-n
(Av)
--
x., y
N
*
Ji
1!
yo
*N-1
FIGURE 5-12.
The two-dimensional spatial mesh
(We will defer to an exercise at the end of the chapter the more general derivation
for nonuniform media using mesh cell integration.) Substituting these expressions
into Eq. (5-152) evaluated at the mesh point (x^yr) we find
(Ax)
(4k)
+ 2a + 2D
V (Ax)
/ = \ ,...,N
(Ay)2
<t>.
.=s" l
T.i
IJ
(5-154)
As before, we can use boundary conditions to specify $oj>fy.o'
fy\m-
188
5. ITERATIVE SOLUTION OF
MULTIDIMENSIONAL DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
We now turn our attention to the solution of these difference equations. Our
first task is to cast the set of equations into matrix form. This requires first
assigning a single index to each mesh point. For example, in a two-dimensional
mesh we could label the mesh points as
(ij)^k=i+( j - l ) ( N - l ) .
For a two-dimensional problem, the matrix structure takes the following form-in
this case, for a five-by-four mesh point array
I (A7,2)2A (A7,6)2A^
(A7,2)2 +(A7,6)2 +(A7i8)2
<A7,12)2/\ (A7i8)2/\(A7.12)2A V \
(5-155)
Notice that the tridiagonal form we encountered in the one-dimensional case has
now been augmented by two additional side-band diagonalsas we might have
expected, since on closer examination we find the two-dimensional case yields a
five-point difference equation.
Similarly, assigning a single index to each mesh point of a three-dimensional
problem yields the matrix structure which corresponds to a seven-point difference
equation.
Now let's consider how we might solve such systemsthat is, invert such
matrices. Since Gaussian elimination can be applied to any matrix (formally, at
least), we might first consider applying this technique to obtain a direct inversion.
Recall that for a one-dimensional diffusion equation, the forward elimination
189
sweep reduced the original tridiagonal matrix to a form with only two diagonals,
while the backward substitution step completed the matrix inversion
Backward
(5-157)
substitution
After a bit of examination, it becomes apparent that when a similar forward sweep
is conducted on the five-diagonal matrix characterizing two-dimensional problems,
the result is to fill in all of the zero entries between the main and outer diagonal.
(5-158)
This implies that one will require considerably more computer memory to allow
such a direct inversion of the matrix. Such a direct algorithm is also rather
complicated to program and leads to problems resulting from computer round-off
error. For these reasons, it is far more efficient to use an iterative procedure to
invert such matrices when N is large, since such schemes attempt to preserve the
sparse structure of the original matrix in their operations.
Let's illustrate the basic idea with a simple example: Suppose we wish to invert a
matrix Athat is, we wish to solve
(5-159)
S-
d=
We first compose A into its diagonal and off-diagonal elements
B
1
(5-160)
Now D can be easily inverted:
2221
(5-161)
190
Hence suppose we use Eq. (5-160) to rewrite Eq. (5-159) first as

Q=
+ S
(5-162)
and then invert D to find

=
(5-163)
Now is where the iterative philosophy comes in. Suppose we guess </> on the
right-hand sidecall the guess <p(0)and then use it to calculate a new guess, <(1)
as
= D~l J ( 0 ) + D
S_>
(5-164)
We can continue this iteration, calculating the m + 1 guess as

4>(m+1)=
D '
B im)
+D~lS.
(5-165)
Hopefully, then, as m becomes large, we converge to the true solution
<p(mU<j>.
(5-166)
Hence the general idea behind such iterative schemes is to generate improved
guesses or iterates
by solving the original system of equations in an approximate, but efficient, manner. We continue such an iterative process until two
successive iterates
and < (m+1) are sufficiently close together, at which point
the iteration is stopped and <|>(m+1) is regarded as the solution. Notice that
throughout the iterative process, we maintain the sparse structure of the original
five-diagonal matrix A, thereby significantly reducing storage and calculational
requirements.
The particular scheme we have presented is known as the Jacobi-Richardson or
Point-Jacobi method, and although it is a very simple scheme, it has the drawback
that it converges very slowly. The reader might very roughly think of the convergence rate of such iterative processes as being determined by how big a chunk of
the original matrix he is willing to invert on each iteration. (More precisely, the
convergence rate is determined by the size of the matrix norm of D~lB_.) In the
Point-Jacobi method, only a relatively small bit of the matrix, its main diagonal, is
inverted on each step and hence we might expect convergence to be slow. (As an
extreme example, one bites off a much bigger chunk in Gaussian eliminationthe
whole matrix Aand hence only a single iteration is needed.) One can accelerate
this convergence in several ways. First, one could attempt to invert a bigger chunk
of A^ on each iteration. It is also possible to use information about the next flux
iterate during an iterative step. Finally, one can extrapolate from earlier flux
iterates in order to more rapidly approach the true solution.
To understand how to improve the Jacobi iterative scheme, let's write it out
191
explicitly in terms of the algebraic system
= Sx
= SN
(5-167)
Hence we can solve for the m + 1 flux iterate immediately as
(m+l)_ _J_ S..

a,
/ = 1,2, ...,7V.
2 <wm)
7=1
(5-168)
It should be noted here that the Jacobi scheme does not use all of the available
information during each iteration. For example, if the equations are solved in
sequence from / = 1 to / = N, as they would be on a computer, then the solution of
the first equation yields ^>!(m+1); but to find
using the second equation,
is used rather than the improved estimate <f>(m+1). Similarly, solving the third
1)
equation for <f>"+1} makes use of <J>[m) and
rather than
and
which
are known. If these estimates are used as soon as they are generated, a more
e f f i c i e n t i t e r a t i v e s c h e m e k n o w n a s t h e Gauss-Seidel
or successive
relaxation
method
is obtained. In this case, the system of equations in each iteration is solved as

(m+l)
+ axMmy+
*iMm)-+
' * * + *w<t>(Nm) =
+ a23<f>im)+--
(m) = S
+a2N4>T>
2
(5-169)
+ " +V3N<t>(Nm) = S :
= 5N
and the solution is
<#) (m+l) =
2
N
J_
a:
j-t+ijj
From solution of
From previous
previous equations
(mth) iteration
in current (m + 1)
iteration
(5-170)
192
This can be rewritten in matrix form by decomposing A into the sum of an upper
and lower triangular matrix:
Here L contains elements of the main diagonal and below it, while U contains
elements above the main diagonal. Now we write Eq. (5-159) as
L=
JI+
(5-172)
The Gauss-Seidel scheme described above amounts to inverting L by forward

elimination, stepping row by row down the matrix. Hence our iterative scheme is
The fact that the Gauss-Seidel method utilizes the latest iterate elements of <>(m+1)
when solving successive equations yields a factor of two better in error reduction
per iteration than the Jacobi method.
It is possible to accelerate the convergence of the iteration scheme even further
by introducing an acceleration parameter to extrapolate the iterative flux estimate.
This procedure, known as the successive overrelaxation (SOR) method, can be
illustrated by considering how one utilizes the <//m) iteration to determine the <(m+1)
+
estimate. The first step in the calculation of
is to compute the Gauss-Seidel
m+1/2)
estimate, which we will label as <j>/
for convenience.
N
a:
Gauss-Seidel
estimate
S - ' ^ a ^ j
j
(m+l)
j=i +
From SOR in
current iteration
[(m+l)st]
Now <j>f-m+1) is calculated as a linear combination of

iterate
From SOR in
previous iteration
[mth]
+
(5-174)
* ) and the previous SOR
^<+1>-cl)^/m+1) + (l-co)^(M).
(5-175)
Here the extrapolation or acceleration parameter

ranges between 1 and 2. Of
course for o) = 1 we return to the Gauss-Seidel method in which no extrapolation is
used. The iterative algorithm for each element can then be written as
2
= /+ 1
N
(m+l)
CO
a,
1-1
+ (1 -u)<t>jm).
(5-176)
FIGURE 5-13.
193
Flux extrapolation in the S O R method 20
We have sketched in Figure 5-13 how the flux extrapolation can enhance convergence to the true solution
The optimum value of co giving the maximum rate of convergence can be related
to characteristics of the original matrix A . In certain cases one can achieve a
convergence rate as much as two orders of magnitude larger than the Jacobi
method. It should be noted, however, that the estimate used for w can strongly
affect the convergence rate of this method, and it frequently must be determined
by experience.
Very similar methods can be applied to three-dimensional diffusion problems. In
this case the diffusion matrix A has seven diagonal elements as indicated below
(5-177)
Again iterative methods are utilized in which the outer diagonal elements are
handled in a manner similar to those used in two-dimensional problems. However
there is some reduction in iterative convergence rates due to a loss of procedure
implicitness caused by the additional diagonal elements.
Such iterative algorithms for the solution of the finite difference equations
characterizing two- or three-dimensional diffusion problems are frequently referred
to as inner iterations. This terminology arises from the fact that in n u c l e i reactor
criticality calculations, the solution of the diffusion equation is itself imbedded in
yet another iterative schemethe so-called outer or source iterationsnecessary
to
handle the presence of a fission term. We will study this latter scheme in Section
5-IV.
194
6. NODAL METHODS
There are many instances in nuclear reactor analysis in which one requires a
full three-dimensional calculation of the neutron flux, for example, in core fuel
depletion or control rod ejection studies. Although a direct numerical solution of
the diffusion equation can be performed on a modern digital computer, it is
extremely expensive to do so, particularly when a series of such calculations would
be required for a parameter study. We desire a scheme for determining the
three-dimensional core flux distribution that avoids the large storage and execution
time requirements of a direct finite difference treatment of the diffusion equation.
Such a scheme is provided by so-called nodal methods22-23 The general idea is to
decompose the reactor core into relatively large subregions or node cells in which
the material composition and flux are assumed uniform (or at least treated in an
average sense). One then attempts to determine the coupling coefficients
characterizing node cell to node cell leakage and then to determine the node cell
fluxes themselves.
To develop this approach in more detail, consider the neutron diffusion equation
in its general time-independent form given by Eq. (5-143). Now we know that we
can formally write the solution to this equation as
(5-178)
where G(r,r') is the diffusion kernel or Green's function for the particular geometry
of interest that satisfies
VmD (r)VG
(r,r') + 2 a ( r ) G ( r , r ' ) = S (r r').
(5-179)
Notice, in particular, that G(r,r') can be interpreted physically as the flux resulting
at a position r from a unit point source at r'.
Of course we usually cannot construct G(r,r')if we could, we would have
already solved our problem. But suppose we ignore this annoyance for the moment.
We will instead introduce the principal aspect of nodal methods by dividing the
reactor core (or, more typically, one quadrant or octant of the core, since some
symmetry is usually present) into N node cells as shown schematically in Figure
>.
Node cell n'_
FIGURE 5-14.
Nodal cell division of a reactor core
^-Node cell n
195
5-14. We now integrate Eq. (5-178) over the volume Vn of the /?th node cell
f d3r<f>(r)= f d3r f d3r' G ( r , r ' ) S (r')
JV
r
Jv
n
N
= ri^ =f1 dV"3 r fV d V C ( r , r')S(r').
(5-180)
If we define the spatial averages over the nodal cells,

<t>n=y~ f
n
S = y- j
n
(5-181)
d3rS(r),
(5-182)
Vn
d3rf
j r f
^ ^
^H(r),
Vn
"
" ,
d3r'G (r,r')S
V
T ~ J
(r')
,
V
d h f S
(5-183)
then we can rewrite Eq. (5-180) as
*=
Knn,Sn
(5-184)
n'= 1
or in matrix form
KS,
(5-185)
where <p and S_ are A^-dimension column vectors and K is an N X TV matrix.

Notice that the matrix elements Knn, can be interpreted as the probability of a
neutron born in cell n' diffusing to cell n. Hence K is referred to as the nodal
transfer
matrix
while Knn, a r e k n o w as t h e nodal coupling
coefficients.
Thus if we know K, we can easily determine the flux resulting from a given
source S by a single matrix multiplication. But of course we don't know K since we
don't know G(r,r'). The key to such nodal methods therefore lies in our ability to
approximate or guess the coupling coefficients Knn,.
Of course from a formal point of view, if the number of nodal cells N is large,
the nodal method becomes equivalent to the finite difference scheme and hence
loses any calculational advantages. The real power of the nodal approach is
realized only when the number of node cells N is small, since then the cells are
large enough that they become coupled via neutron diffusion only to nearby
cellsthat is, the transfer matrix K is sparse (i.e., it has many zero elements).
However choosing large node cells places the burden of the calculational effort on
an estimate of the coupling coefficients Knn,.
The determination of these coefficients is usually accomplished in a most
empirical fashion (a nice way of saying they are fudged). Typically the Knn, are
determined by assuming a flat nodal source and uniform composition in each cell
196
and allowing neutron transfer to only the six nearest neighbor cells. The transfer
coefficients are represented as linear combinations of several simple trial functions
(e.g., from one-dimensional slab geometry calculations). The blending coefficients
in this representation are then determined by comparison with more accurate finite
difference benchmark calculations and lots of experience, fiddling, and fudging.
If the transfer coefficients are properly chosen, then such nodal methods can be
extremely useful in generating three-dimensional flux distributions when only
limited accuracy is required. Unfortunately such empirical schemes for choosing
the Knn. are quite problem-sensitive and require a good deal of experience on the
part of the reactor analyst.
We will leave numerical methods for solving diffusion equations until later when
we must generalize these methods to account for fission processes and energydependence. The above discussion has been an admittedly curse description of
numerical methods for solving differential equations. There is a vast literature on
this subject that provides the details of the methods we have so briefly outlined. 12-16
And perhaps the most valid argument for presenting only a brief sketch of such
numerical methods lies in the recognition that these topics are of such vital
importance to the practicing nuclear engineer, that he almost certainly will have
had or will take further courses on numerical analysis in any event.
III. ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION THEORY

OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
A. Introduction
Thus far we have studied the diffusion of neutrons in nonmultiplying media
as described by one-speed diffusion theory. We now wish to apply this theory to
the study of nuclear reactors in which fissile material is present. Hence we must
determine how to include nuclear fission in the one-speed diffusion equation (5-16).
To this end, let us first recall the sequence of events involved in a fission chain
reaction. To be specific, we first consider the processes occurring in thermal
nuclear reactors (see Figure 5-15). Fission neutrons are born at high energies in the
MeV range. It is possible that such fast neutrons induce fission in either fissile
( 235 U or 239 Pu) or fissionable isotopes ( 238 U). It is far more likely that the fast
fission neutrons will be moderated to lower energies by elastic scattering collisions
with light moderator nuclei (e.g., }H or ^C). As the fission neutrons are slowed
down, they pass through energies comparable to the absorption resonances in
heavy nuclei such as 238 U and hence experience an appreciable probability of being
absorbed. They may also leak out of the reactor core during this slowing down
process. In a thermal reactor, however, over 85-90% of the neutrons will manage to
slow down to thermal energies. They will then diffuse about the reactor core until
they either leak from the core or are absorbed. If they are absorbed in the fuel,
then they may induce a new fission, thereby repeating the cycle.
The processes involved in fast reactors are somewhat similar (see Figure 5-16). In
such reactors an effort is made to prevent the fission neutrons from slowing down
before they will have had a chance to induce fission. Low mass number material is
avoided to reduce the energy loss via elastic scattering. However some moderation
will occur, due both to elastic scattering from materials such as oxygen (remember,
most fast reactor fuels are oxides) as well as inelastic scattering from materials such
197
107
106
Fission
Scatter
Fission ^
105
\>
104
Moderation
103
Resonance
absorption
Conversion
101
10"1
Thermal
diffusion
AbsorptionFission
10"2
F I G U R E 5-15.
A schematic of the various processes involved in a thermal reactor
as sodium. In particular there will be a tendency for some of the neutrons to slow
down to the energy range in which appreciable resonance absorption may occur,
although most of the fission reactions will be induced by neutrons with energies
above this range. Hence neutron moderation, leakage, and resonance absorption all
play an important role in fast reactor physics, just as they do with thermal reactors.
It should be evident that the various processes occurring during this sequence are
strongly energy dependent. We will apply our one-speed diffusion model to study
such processes, however. Our motivation is partly pedagogical since this model is
by far the simplest description of nuclear reactor behavior and allows us to
introduce many concepts of nuclear reactor analysis in the simplest possible
framework. However as we have noted earlier, the one-speed diffusion model can
also provide a very useful qualitative description of certain reactor types (notably
very thermal or very fast reactors) provided one uses the correct values for the
cross sections ( 2 a , 2 f , 2 t r ) which appear in the model.
B. The Fission Source Term

We now direct our attention toward determining a way to include fission in
the one-speed diffusion equation. We will assume that diffusion, absorption, and
fission all occur at the same energy. Then a term to represent fissions can easily be
derived by noting that if 2f<f>(r,/) is the fission reaction rate density, then the rate at
which fission neutrons appear in the reactorthat is, the "fission source"is given
by
S f (r,/) = f2f<|)(r,0.
(5-186)
198
10 7
106
Scatter
Leakage
Fission
105
Fission^
Fission
Resonance
absorption
Breeding
104
103
FIGURE 5-16.
Neutron processes Involved in a fast reactor
If this is the only source of neutrons in the reactor, + then the appropriate diffusion
equation becomes
dt
- V-DV<t> + 2a<Kr, 0 =
(5-187)
Note here that we can identify the various components of the macroscopic
absorption cross section which appear in Eq. (5-187) as:
^moderator
2structure
2 coo ^ ant +
-J- 2"Vfuel
and
y fuel _ yfuel . y fuel
â
y
f
(5-188)
C. The Time-Dependent "Slab" Reactor

1. GENERAL SOLUTION
We will begin our study of nuclear reactor behavior as described by the
one-speed diffusion equation by considering a uniform slab of fissile material
characterized by cross sections 2 a , 2 t r , and 2 f . This unrealistic appearing "slab
reactor" is chosen to introduce many of the concepts of nuclear reactor analysis,
since its one dimensional geometry greatly facilitates the detailed solution of the
one speed diffusion equation.* The appropriate mathematical description of the
t Actually we should hedge here a bit. Equation (5-187) actually represents only "prompt"
neutrons, that is, those born instantaneously in fission. The "delayed" neutrons arising from
fission product decay require a slightly different treatment. We will defer this modification until
Chapter 6.
1
In this sense it is somewhat akin to the "vibrating string" or "simple harmonic oscillator"
problems in physics that also get beaten to death since they contain most of the interesting
physicsand yet are easy to solve.
FIGURE 5-17.
199
The slab reactor
neutron flux in such a reactor is

1
t; d/ "
T7
with initial condition:
') =
=
(5"189)
and boundary conditions: ^ y , t^ =
(symmetric),
, t^ = 0.
Notice that we have assumed that our initial flux is symmetric. We will find later
that such an assumption will imply similar symmetry for all times, <(*,/) =
<>( x,t). This will simplify our manipulations somewhat.
Unlike our earlier studies of time-independent neutron diffusion, we are now
faced with a partial differential equation to solve. There are a number of ways to
attack such equations, but perhaps the simplest is to use separation of variables1-3
by seeking a solution of the form
<l>(x9t) = $(x)T(t).
(5-190)
If we substitute this form into Eq. (5-189) and divide by ip(x)T(t),

J_
T
d^
_ v_
dt
we find
= constants -X.
(5-191)
Here we have noted that since we have a function only of x set equal to a function
only of t, both terms must in fact be equal to a constant. We have named this
constant A. However X is as yet unknown.
Hence the separation of variables given by Eq. (5-190) has reduced the original
partial differential equation in two variables to two ordinary differential equations:
= -A r(/),
dV
dx
(5-192)
We can easily solve the time-dependent equation

r(0=7X0)e-x',
(5-193)
200
where T(0) is an initial value which must be determined later. To solve the
space-dependent equation, we must tack on the boundary conditions:
J > 0 + ( + 'Zf-z>)iK*)=o,
Boundary condition: ^ ( | ) = t ( - | ) = 0.
(5-194)
Here A is still to be determined. However we recall the eigenvalue problem

d \
dxz
5195
^(fHKH
(- )
has symmetric solutions (we are only interested in symmetric solutions since
is symmmetric):
eigenfunctions:
ipn(x)
eigenvalues:
cosBnx
a?1,3,5,...
If we identify Eq. (5-194) as the same problem, it is apparent that we must choose
X = t>2a + vDBf - vv2f = Xn,
n = 1,3,5,...
(5-197)
These values of Xn are known as the time eigenvalues of the equation, since they
characterize the time decay in Eq. (5-193). The general solution to Eq. (5-189) must
therefore be of the form
(x,t) = 2 A e x p ( - A / ) c o s ^ .
(5-198)
odd
This solution automatically satisfies the boundary conditions. To determine the An,
we use the initial condition to write
Initial condition:
</>(*, 0) = </>0(jt) =
n
odd
(5-199)
Using orthogonality, we find

a
r2
3dx<t>0(x)cos^.
(5-200)
Thus we have found that the flux (for any symmetric initial distribution) can be
represented as a superposition of modes, each mode weighted by an exponential
201
factor:
$ /
adx'4>0(x')cosBnx'
exp( - Xn t) cos Bn x,
(5-201)
odd
where the time eigenvalues Xn are given by

A = t ) 2 a + vDB2-
t2f,
=?f.
(5-202)
Before we proceed to examine this solution in more detail, it is useful to make a

few comments about the separation of variables approach. First notice that the
separation parameter that arose was in fact identified as an eigenvalue. Thus
separation of variables is essentially equivalent to an eigenfunction expansion.
Indeed if we had the foresight to expand the spatial dependence of the flux in the
eigenfunctions for the slab (using symmetry to restrict this expansion to odd n),
*(*,') = 2
Tn(t)cos^,
(5-203)
odd
where we have noted that the expansion coefficients now must be time-dependent,
then we could have immediately arrived at an equation for the Tn
dT
(5-204)
by substituting Eq. (5-203) into the original equation (5-189) and using the
orthogonality property of the eigenfunctions. This alternative approach is
frequently useful when encountering problems in which sources are present, because the separation of variables approach we have presented applies only to
homogeneous equations.
Finally, note that although we initially sought solutions i//(x)r(/) which were
separable in x and /, these solutions were eventually superimposed to yield a
nonseparable function of space and time [cf. Eq. (5-201)]. Hence separation of
variables does certainly not imply a separable solution. Interestingly enough,
however, there is one very important situation in which such separability will occur,
that involving the behavior of the neutron flux for very long times.
2. LONG TIME BEHAVIOR
Notice that one can order B?<B3<
* ** B2 = (nir/a)2- - . Hence the time
eigenvalues must similarly be ordered such that Xl<X3<X5<X1<
. This means
that the modes corresponding to larger n decay out more rapidly in time. If we wait
long enough, then only the fundamental mode remains:
<#>(x,/)~^41exp( A 1 ^)cos5 1 x
as
oo.
(5-205)
This implies that regardless of the initial shape of <f>o(*) the flux will decay into the
202
<p(x)
t =
0
>o
N.
,
X
FIGURE 5-18.
Time decay of higher order spatial
modes in the slab reactor
fundamental mode shape. Of course, we have implicitly assumed that A x will not be
zero. The coefficient of the fundamental mode is just
^
'
a = a~ J f a dx'4>uv0hc')cos^
'
a
(5-206)
Since <t>0(x) must be nonnegative in the slab to represent a physically realizable

flux, then it is apparent that Ax>0.
Actually for sufficiently large 2 f , Xn may be positive corresponding to an
exponentially growing flux. However the same argument will hold since \ x > A3
> * . Hence regardless of whether the flux grows or decays, it will eventually
approach a "persistent" or fundamental cosine distribution.
It is customary to refer to the value of B 1 characterizing this mode as
=
(f f ^
^ S ^ o m e t r i c buckling.
(5-207)
This nomenclature is used since B is a measure of the curvature of the mode

shape
1
Since there will be a larger current density J and hence leakage induced by a mode
with larger curvature or buckling, we might expect that the mode with least
curvature will persist in time the longest.
3. THE CRITICALITY CONDITION
Let us now see what is required to make the flux distribution in the reactor
time-independentthat is, to make the fission chain reaction steady-state. We will
define this situation to be that of reactor criticality:
Criticality = when a time-independent neutron flux can be sustained in the reactor (in the absence of sources
other than fission).
203
Notice that we have qualified this definition by specifically demanding that the flux
be time-independent in the absence of a source. As we have seen in Chapter 3 (and
will see later in the problem set at the end of this chapter), a source present in a
critical system will give rise to an increase in flux that is linear in time.
If we write out the general solution for the flux
00
<j>(x, t) = Ax exp( - X x t ) c o s B x x +
An e x p ( - X n t ) c o s B n x ,
(5-209)
n= 3
n odd
it is evident that the requirement for a time-independent flux is just that the
fundamental time eigenvalue vanish
Xx = 0 = t > ( 2 a - ?2 f ) + vDBf,
(5-210)
since then the higher modes will have negative Xn and decay out in time, leaving
just
<j>(x, t)->Ax
cosBxx
f u n c t i o n of time.
If we rewrite this "criticality condition" using the notation BX=Bg2,

we must require
=
(5-211)
then we find
(5-212)
It has become customary to refer to
=B^=
material
buckling
(5-213)
since it depends only on the material composition of the reactor core (whereas Bg
depends only on the core geometry). Hence our criticality condition can be written
very concisely as
(material composition) B 2 = B 2 (core geometry).
(5-214)
Thus to achieve a critical reactor, we must either adjust the size (Bg) or the core
composition ( B s u c h that B 2 = B2. We also note
&m >
i< 0
supercritical,
critical,
B2<B2^Xx> 0^
(5-215)
subcritical.
In particular notice that by increasing the core size we decrease B g , while by

increasing the concentration of fissile material we increase 2 f and hence B 2 . Both
of these modifications would therefore tend to enhance core multiplication.
Yet recall that in Chapter 3 we expressed the criticality condition in terms of the
multiplication factor h. We can make the connection between these two criteria if
we write the time eigenvalue as
(5-216)
204
Now recall that (t?2) _ 1 is the mean lifetime for a given neutron-nuclear reaction to
occur. Hence ( u 2 a ) _ 1 must be just the mean lifetime of a neutron to absorption
(ignoring leakagethat is, in an infinite medium). Furthermore, we can identify
*>2f
f2fuel 2auel
1
2 a
a
If-*"
Now the only remaining task is to identify (1 + L2B2)~l.

neutron leakage is given by
L e a k a g e = fdS-J=
f d3rV-J=-
rate
Jv
^s
(5
'
"217)
Recall that the rate of
f d3rDV2<f>,
(5-218)
**v
where we have used both Gauss's theorem and the diffusion approximation. Hence
we can write
f
J i/
Rate of neutron absorption

Rate of neutron absorption plus leakage
f
J yv
d3rZa<t>-
d3rDV2<f>
J y
r
1 +
(5-219)
L2
*)
However we can identify this ratio as just

Nonleakage probability = P N L =
1+
L2B2
(5-220)
Therefore we can interpret

1
(t)2 a )(l + L2B2)
_p
nl
/ 1 | / neutron lifetime
\ 2a /
in a finite reactor,
(5 221)
;
^ "
since we have just reduced the lifetime to absorption in an infinite medium to take
account of neutron leakage. If we now combine Eqs. (5-217) and (5-220), we find
that the multiplication factor k for this model becomes just
?2 f /2
<5
-222)
Thus we can identify our fundamental time eigenvalue as just the inverse of the
reactor period
-A, =
(5-223)
If we also recall from Eq. (5-202) that

A l = vD(Bg2-B^),
(5-224)
205
then it is apparent that the various forms of the criticality condition are indeed
equivalent:
\ x = 0 & B 2 = B 2 ^ k = 1.
(5-225)
In particular notice that by using -PNL = (1 + L2B2)~l we can avoid the analysis of
the initial value problem and proceed directly to the criticality condition
k=
r2 f /2 a
rr
= 1.
2 2
1+
(5-226)
LB
We will return later to consider how these results can be applied to reactor
criticality studies, but first we will extend them to more general reactor geometries.
D. The Criticality Condition for More General Bare Geometries

Note that the only quantity characteristic of the reactor size or geometiy that
appears in k or /*NL is the geometric buckling, B2. For the case of a slab reactor of
width a we found B2 = (ir/a)2. We might suspect that for more general geometries
we need only replace this by the geometric buckling characterizing the specific
geometry under consideration. This suspicion is in fact easily verified, but only for
so-called "bare" geometries in which the reactor composition is uniform. For the
more complicated multiregion geometries, such as reactors composed of a core
surrounded by a reflecting material, one can no longer derive simple expressions
for P N L or k in terms of the reactor geometry and composition.
Consider, then, a bare reactor of uniform composition surrounded by a free
nonreentrant surface characterized by vacuum boundary conditions. If the reactor
is critical then the neutron flux must satisfy the steady-state diffusion equation
- D V2<J> + 2a<J>(r) = *>2f<J>(r),
(5-227)
subject to the boundary condition <(fs) = 0 for r s on the extrapolated surface. Of

course in general there will be no solution to this equation unless we have
happened to hit on just the right combination of composition and system size.
To see this more clearly, divide Eq. (5-227) by D so that it can be written as
/i>2*-2 \
V2<f> + L . - j</>(r) = 0,
boundary condition:
(5-228)
</>(rs) 0.
Sometimes Eq. (5-228) is written in a somewhat different form as

V^ + l ^ - ^ r ^ O ,
boundary condition:
(5-229)
</>(?s) = 0.
Now notice that this equation is identical to that which generates the spatial
eigenfunctions for this geometry
V \ + B\( r) = 0,
boundary condition:
^(r s ) = 0.
(5-230)
206
We know that this latter equation has nontrivial solutions t//(r) only for certain
values of the parameter B 2 , the eigenvalues B 2 . Hence by comparing Eqs. (5-228)
and (5-230) we find that the steady-state diffusion equation for the flux <(r) will
only have nontrivial solutions when the core composition is such that (p2 f 2 J / Z >
is equal to an eigenvalue Bn2, and then the flux <J>(r) will be given by the
corresponding eigenfunction i//n(r).
However since there are an infinite number of possible eigenvalues B2, we might
be tempted to think that there are an infinite number of values (?2 f 2 a ) / Z ) = B2
for which the reactor is critical. However it should be recalled that in the case of a
slab geometry, only the lowest eigenvalue B\ = (fn/af=B2
had a corresponding
eigenfunction \pl(x) = cositx/a that was everywhere positive. The eigenfunctions or
spatial modes \pn(x) corresponding to higher eigenvalues oscillated about zero. This
same feature also characterizes the eigenfunctions
of more general geometries.
Only the eigenfunction ^,(r) corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue B 2 is
everywhere nonnegative. Since the neutron flux can never be negative, it is
apparent that the only solution to the eigenvalue problem Eq. (5-230) physically
relevant is that corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue, B2=B2.
Hence for the
reactor to be critical we require
just as for the slab.

Thus we can continue to use P N L = (1 + L2B2)~X and Jk = ( r 2 f / 2 a ) ( l + L2B2)~X
for more general bare geometries provided we identify the geometric buckling B2
as the smallest eigenvalue B2 of the Helmhotz equation
V2<f>+5g2<f>(r) = 0
(5-232)
subject to the boundary conditions that <(r) vanish on the extrapolated boundary
of the reactor. The corresponding critical flux distribution <J>(r) is then given by the
fundamental eigenfunction ^ ( r ) , which is everywhere nonnegative.
It should be pointed out that although the Helmhotz equation (5-232) will
provide us with the flux shape in a critical reactor, it will tell us nothing about the
magnitude of the flux. Since it is a homogeneous equation, if <(r) is a solution, then
any multiple of <>(r) is also a solution. Of course the magnitude of the flux was
determined for us by the initial condition <f0(r) when we studied reactor criticality
by solving the full time-dependent diffusion equation (5-187). However this latter
approach is far too cumbersome to use in practice.
Instead we merely note that a critical reactor can operate at any flux levelat
least mathematically. (Of course one must provide for adequate core cooling,
shielding, etc., but these factors are extraneous to our present model of the reactor
so we won't worry about them here.) Hence we will merely assume that the
magnitude of the flux is determined by the desired thermal power output of the
core. If the usable energy produced per fission event is wf, then the thermal energy
deposited in the core per unit volume per second is just given in terms of the fission
reaction rate density as
?(r) = wf2f<J>(r).
(5-233)
207
This is just the local thermal power density at position r in the core. Hence the total
power generated by the core is just the integral of the power density over the core
volume
f d3rwfZf( r).
(5-234)
Jy
This relation can be used to determine the magnitude of the flux in terms of the
core thermal power level.
Thus we now have developed a rather simple scheme to study the criticality of a
nuclear reactorat least a bare, uniform reactor. The only mathematical effort
required is the solution of the Helmhotz equation characterizing the geometry of
interest for the geometric buckling Bg2 (the fundamental eigenvalue By) and the
critical flux shape <(r) [the fundamental spatial eigenfunction ^ ( r ) ] . To illustrate
how these quantities are determined, we will consider a simple yet very important
example:
EXAMPLE: A Right Circular Cylindrical Core
The most common reactor core shape is that of a right circular cylinder of height
H and radius R. (Actually a sphere would be the more optimum geometry from the
aspect of minimizing neutron leakage, but spheres are very inconvenient geometries
to pass coolants through.) The appropriate form of the Helmholtz equation is then
subject to boundary conditions
Since this is a homogeneous partial differential equation, we can seek its solution
using separation of variables
<t>(r,z)=<3l(r)%(z).
Then if we substitute this form into Eq. (5-235), we arrive at two ordinary
FIGURE 5-19.
Finite cylindrical reactor core
208
differential equations
r f / ^ t
'
^ f - + A2 %(z) = 0,
(5"236a)
= >
%( ^ ) = 0,
(5-236b)
where the separation constants a 2 and A2 are constrained by the relationship

B 2 = a 2 + A2. Each of these equations represents a separate eigenvalue problem that
one can use to determine a and X (and hence B2). The eigenfunctions and
eigenvalues of the axial equation are well known to us
2(z) = c o s ( ^ ) ,
A> = ( f )
-i>3,...
(5-237)
To construct the eigenfunctions of the radial Eq. (5-236a), we first identify its
general solution in terms of zeroth order Bessel functions (see Appendix D)
<&(r) = AJ0(ar)
+ CY0(ar).
(5-238)
Since y0(ar)oo as r>0, we must set C = 0 . Applying our boundary condition at

r R, we find
J? ) = AJ0(aR
) = 0 ^>aR = pn,
(5-239)
where vn are the zeros of J0. In particular, the smallest such zero is v0 = 2.405...
(kind of like m to a Bessel function). Hence we find the eigenfunctions and
eigenvalues generated by the radial equation (5-236a) are just
)2>
^('WO(Y)'
" = 0,1,...
(5-240)
Therefore, consistent with our prescription of seeking the smallest value of B 2 as

our geometric buckling, we find
corresponding to a spatial flux shape

=
(5-242)
Since this is the geometry most frequently encountered in reactor design, it is

useful to calculate the normalization factor A in terms of the core power level P by
noting
3
P = Jd rwslf<(>(r)
= wf2i27TA
drrJJ^)
w^fA4VJ{(v0)
(5-243)
209
Thus we find
^ =
w{zfV
7TR 2 H.
(5-244)
It should perhaps be mentioned that since reactor cores are fabricated from either
square- or hexagonally-shaped fuel assemblies, one can only approximate such
cylindrical geometries. However for most purposes one can assume the reactor core
is essentially a right circular cylinder.
One can proceed in a very similar manner to analyze other bare core geometries.
For convenience, we have tabulated the geometric buckling and critical flux profile
in other common geometries in Table 5-1.
TABLE 5-1
Geometric Ducklings and Critical Flux Profiles Characterizing Some
Common Core Geometries
Geometric Buckling B i
1TX
Slab
Infinite
Cylinder
cos
a
rt
L[i
Finite
Cylinder
m
lsin
Sphere
Rectangular
Parallelepiped
Flux profile
( j ) '
(f)
2+ 2+ 2
i (f) (f) (f) KHFH)
Hjjl
The reader should not be deceived into believing that such criticality calculations
are always so straightforward. For we must remember that the expression we have
derived for the nonleakage probability / > NL = (1 + L 2 B 2 )~ X holds only for uniform,
bare reactor geometries (i.e., single-region cores). As we will find later, it is no
longer possible to derive simple expressions for P N L or k in terms of the reactor
geometry and composition for multiregion (e.g., reflected) reactors.
These results can be used to determine the core geometry or composition that
210 / THE ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION MODEL OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
will yield a critical reactor. For example, if the material composition is specified,
one can compute the material buckling B 2 in terms of the macroscopic cross
sections using Eq. (5-213). Then by using the criticality condition B 2 = B 2 (along
with Table 5-1), one can infer the core dimensions that will yield a critical system.
In the more usual situation the nuclear designer will be given Bg2 (rather than B 2 )
since the core dimensions are determined by limitations on core thermal performance (and not nuclear considerations). That is, the core must be built a
sufficiently large size to avoid excessively high temperatures for a desired power
output. The nuclear designer must then determine the fuel concentration or loading
(i.e., B 2 ) that not only will result in a critical system, but will also allow the core to
operate at a rated power for a given time period.
EXAMPLE: As a specific example we will study the one-speed diffusion model
of a bare, homogeneous cylindrical reactor with material composition representative of that of a modern PWR such as described in Appendix H. We will use
"homogenized" number densities corresponding to a PWR core operating at full
power conditions and containing a concentration of 2210 ppm of natural boron (as
boric acid) dissolved in the water coolant for control purposes. The fuel is taken as
U 0 2 enriched to 2.78% 235 U. In Table 5-2 we have listed the number densities and
microscopic one-speed cross sections for this core. (Here the cross sections are
actually averages over the neutron energy distribution in such a reactor core.)
TABLE 5-2
Material
H
O
Zr
Fe
235u
238u
135
Xe
io B
Number Density and Microscopic Cross Sections

N{\/b-cm)
2.748 x l O " 2
2.757 X l O " 2
3.694 x l O " 3
1.710X10" 3
1.909 x l O " 4
6.592 x l O " 3
0.787
0.554
of(b)
0.650
0.294
0.260
0.000
1.62
1.06
1.21
1.78X10"4
0.190
2.33
484.0
2.11
2.36 XlO 6
0
0
0
0
312.0
0.638
0
0
0
0
0
2.43
2.84
0
1.001 x l O " 5
0.877
3.41 x l O " 3
This data can be used to calculate the macroscopic cross sections tabulated in
Table 5-3. Here we have also included the relative absorption rates in each material
which serve as a measure of neutron balance within the core.
TABLE 5-3
Material
H
O
Zr
Fe
235u
238
U
io B
Macroscopic Cross Sections

^(cm"1)
j2 f (cm~')
1.79 X l O " 2
7.16X10"3
2.91 X l O " 3
9.46 x l O " 4
3.08 x l O " 4
6.95 x l O " 3
8.77 X 1 0 " 6
8.08X10" 3
4.90 X 10" 6
7.01 X l O " 4
3.99X10"3
9.24 X l O " 2
1.39X10"2
0
0
0
0
0.145
1.20X10"2
0
3.62 X l O " 2
0.1532
2tr(cm"1)
3.41 X l O " 2
0.1570
Relative
Absorption
0.053
0
0.005
0.026
0.602
0.091
0.223
1.000
211
It should be noted that the transport cross sections used in this example have
been artifically adjusted (reduced by almost an order of magnitude) to take some
account of fast neutron leakage which would normally not be described by a
one-speed model.
We can use these cross sections to calculate a number of important parameters
characterizing the PWR core:
Diffusion coefficient:
D = 9.21 cm
Infinite multiplication constant:

Material buckling:
k^ =
= 1.025
5 2 = ( r 2 f - 2 a ) / Z ) = 4.13X 10" 4 c m " 2
Extrapolation distance:
z 0 = 0.71X tr = 19.6cm
Leakage fraction for a critical core:
1 PNL 0.025
(5-245)
Next we will compute the critical core dimensions. If we assume that the core
height is fixed at 370 cm by thermal considerations, then we can determine the
radius at which a core with such a composition will be critical. First calculate the
axial buckling
B2
5z2 = ( - | ) 2 = 6 . 0 0 x l 0 - 5 c m - 2 .
(5-246)
Then using Eq. (5-241), we can determine the radial buckling B2

= b2-B2
= 3.53xl0"4cm"2.
(5-247)
Hence we can solve for the critical radius as
R = [^-)-z0=
108 cm.
(5-248)
(It should be noted that this is somewhat smaller than the radius of 180 cm for a
typical PWR core. This illustrates the limitation of such a one-speed model for
obtaining quantitative estimates in reactor analysis.)
E. Reflected Reactor Geometries

To illustrate the complications that arise with multiregion core geometries, we
will return to our slab reactor and add a reflector of nonmultiplying material of
thickness b to either side (see Figure 5-20). For the purposes of this analysis we will
characterize the reactor core by superscript " C " and the reflector by "R." Rather
than repeat our earlier analysis of the initial value problem for this geometry, we
will proceed directly to examine the time-independent diffusion equations that
must be satisfied by the fundamental mode flux shape. As in our earlier analysis of
the nonmultiplying reflected slab, we will seek a solution in each region of the
212
FIGURE 5-20.
Reflected slab reactor
reactor and then use interface conditions to match these solutions. Hence we must
solve
Core:
d2<j>c
-D
+ ( ^ - p % f ) < t > c ( x ) = 0,
dx
a,R
Reflector:
0<x<f,
(5-249)
a
a , r
dx&
subject to the set of boundary conditions:
(a)
^(f)-^(f)
(b)
ytf)-y{f)
(c)
*"(!+t)-0.
Note that we have used the reactor symmetry to narrow our attention to the range
of positive x. As we noted earlier in Section 5-III-D this problem will have no
solution unless we choose the proper combination of core composition and size.
We would anticipate that a criticality condition relating these core characteristics
would emerge in the course of our analysis.
The general approach, as always, is to determine the general solutions in the core
and reflector and then use the boundary conditions to determine the unknown
coefficients. In the core the general solution will be
<J>c(x) = ^ c c o s f i S c ,
(5-250)
where we have utilized the symmetry of the core to discard the sine term. Here the
material buckling characterizing the core is defined by
(5-251)
D
213
while in the reflector we will seek a solution satisfying the vacuum boundary
condition (c)
<j>K(x) =
ARsinh
, r
2+
(5-252)
LK
where the reflector diffusion length L R = ( Z ) R / 2 f ) 2 . We now apply the interface

boundary conditions to find
L ^ F C O S H F I ) .
(5-253)
Dividing these expressions, we can cancel Ac and AK to find
Notice that this equation represents a relation between reactor composition

(DciB^,DK,LK)
and size (a,b) that must be satisfied if a solution to the steadystate diffusion equations (5-249) is to exist. Hence this is just the reactor criticality
condition for this particular geometry. Admittedly, it doesn't look anything like our
earlier condition, B 2 = Bg2, that characterized a bare reactor. In fact the criticality
condition for a reflected reactor is transcendental-one cannot obtain an explicit
solution for the critical size or composition. Instead, either numerical or graphical
techniques must be used. The latter technique is more useful for our present
discussion. Rewrite Eq. (5-254) as
(Bâ
DRa
( g
(5-255)
If we plot the LHS against ( B ^ a / 2 ) , we can then determine the solution of this
transcendental equation graphically by noting where it intersects the value of the
RHS, as shown in Figure 5-21. [Actually since there will be many such intersections, we are only interested in the lowest value of (Bâ/2).] From this graph we
notice that the critical value of B ^ must be such that
BSa
mu
7T
2~<y
or
_->
T\i
B ? <I
in contrast to the bare (unreflected) core in which

= ( t t / 5 ) 2 . Hence we see that
the width a required for criticality is somewhat smaller when a reflector is added,
but we would expect this since a reflector is added primarily to reduce neutron
leakage.
It is conventional to define the difference between bare and reflected core
d i m e n s i o n s a s t h e reflector
savings
8:
8 = a (bare) - a (reflected).
(5-257)
214

I1
r1
i
Z/ 1I
1
J/ |
RHS
/
'
1
1
1
1
7r
2
/
/
/
1
1
/ 1
/ 1
/ 1
1
|
3tt 1
T
/
/
/
'
i
1
1
1
/ Bc a
2
FIGURE 5-21. Graphical solution for
reflected reactor criticality
For example, the reflector savings for our slab reactor can be written as
S=-Ltan
bS
dcbSlr
D
tanh
(5-258)
For a thick reflector 6 > L R this simplifies to

(5-259)
Dk
which is essentially a measure of the maximum reflector savings that can be

realized.
Reflectors serve another function besides reducing neutron leakage. They tend to
flatten the flux and hence the power distribution in the reactor core. Unfortunately
one-speed diffusion theory is not adequate to describe this effect, which results in a
peaking of the thermal flux in the reflector region (see Figure 5-19), so we must
defer a further discussion of reflected cores until we have developed multigroup
diffusion theory.
IV. REACTOR CRITICALITY CALCULATIONS

A. Introduction
Let us now turn to the very important topic of determining the composition
or size of a reactor that will yield criticality. It should be apparent after the last
example that in most practical reactor designs one cannot simply determine the
geometric buckling for a core geometry and then use B 2 = B 2 to arrive at criticality.
One "brute force" procedure would be to determine the lowest time eigenvalue
- V D (r)V<J> + ( 2 a - *2 f )*(r) = ^ *(r),

v
(5-260)
and then keep adjusting things until A = 0. However this is rather awkward, and
215
moreover would tend to introduce errors in an unnatural manner when we

generalize our analysis to include energy dependence.
Instead suppose we write our diffusion equation as
- V DV + 2a<J>(r) =
boundary condition:
(5-261)
0(r s ) = 0
(which, of course, is the steady-state equation we solved analytically in the earlier

simple examples). Unfortunately this equation has no solution in generalunless
we just happen to hit on the exact combination of core composition and geometry
such that the reactor is critical (a highly unlikely possibility on a computer).
What we can do is introduce an arbitrary parameter "k" into this equation as:
-V-Z>V* + 2 a * ( r ) = - ^ ^ ( r ) .
(5-262)
Then for some value of k, we assert that this equation will always have a solution.
The idea is to pick a core size and composition and solve the above equation while
determining A:. If k should happen to be unity, we have chosen the critical size and
composition. If k=?-1, however, we must choose a new size and composition and
repeat the calculation. As one might expect, k turns out to indeed be the multiplication factor we defined earlier in Chapter 3, as we will demonstrate later.
We could give a formal mathematical proof that Eq. (5-262), or its generalizations will always have a solution for some k, but it is more convenient to simply
argue physically that since varying k will vary the effective fuel concentration
NF->N/k,
one can always achieve a critical system by making k sufficiently
small.
Sometimes a slightly different formulation is used in which one pretends that v,
the number of neutrons emitted per fission, is in fact variable. (Of course it isn't,
but it is a useful device to regard it as adjustable for the moment.) Now physically
we know that there must be some value of v, call it v c , that will yield a nontrivial
solution to
- V DV + 2a<?> =
(5-263)
regardless of what composition or geometry we have chosen. Hence the idea is to

determine this vc, then readjust composition and geometry until we have forced
Actual=v-
(5-264)
If we compare this approach to our earlier scheme in which we calculate k, it is

evident that
k=v/vc.
(5-265)
From a mathematical point of view, each of these approaches introduces a new

parameter into the steady-state diffusion equation, either k or vc, which can then
be regarded as an eigenvalue in a subsequent analysis. Once this eigenvalue has
been calculated, one can return and readjust composition and geometry in an effort
to force this eigenvalue to a desired value (e.g., A:> 1 or vc->p). Hence the criticality
216
calculation is converted into a sequence of eigenvalue problems for the criticality

eigenvalue
( s o m e t i m e s a l s o c a l l e d t h e multiplication
eigenvalue).
Of course, in general there will be a set of criticality eigenvalues kn corresponding to the eigenvalue problem represented by Eq. (5-262). For example, our earlier
analysis for the bare slab reactor indicated the existence of the set of eigenvalues:
^ ( f S f / S J O + L 2 ^ 2 ) - 1 where B2 = (mr/a)2, n = 1 , 2 . . . . Only the largest such
eigenvalue (in this case, kx) will correspond to an everywhere-nonnegative flux
distribution <f>(r) and hence to a critical reactor configuration. We will refer to the
l a r g e s t c r i t i c a l i t y e i g e n v a l u e kx a s t h e effective
multiplication
factor
a n d d e n o t e it b y
As we will see below, kejj can be identified as the multiplication factor k for the
reactor core defined earlier in terms of fission neutron generations in Chapter 3.
B. Numerical Criticality Searches

We have seen in Section 5-III how one can obtain a criticality condition for a
bare, uniform reactor. Let us now see how the criticality search is conducted in
practical reactor calculations in which numerical methods must be used to solve the
one-speed diffusion equation. To simplify our manipulations, let us first rewrite the
criticality eigenvalue problem (5-262) in operator notation as
M<t>=
(5-266)
K
where we identify
M = V D (r)V + 2 a ( r ) =
F = p 2 f ( r ) =
Production
Destruction
(leakage
plus operator
absorption)
operator
(fission)
We will leave the boundary conditions on <(r) as understood.
Of course in any numerical solution, finite-difference methods will lead to a
representation of the neutron diffusion equation (5-266) as a matrix eigenvalue
problem for the eigenvalue k~l. The solution of such eigenvalue problems can be
accomplished using a common technique from numerical analysis known as the
power method. We will introduce this scheme using physical arguments.
First notice that if we assumed that the "fission source" term S = F<t> on the R H S
of Eq. (5-266) was known, then the remaining part of the equation would be
effectively just the diffusion equation for the neutron flux resulting from this source
in a nonmultiplying medium. We presumably already know how to solve this
problem (cf. Section 5-II), but we do not really know the fission source
since it
involves <j> itself. Hence we will do the next best thing and try to guess it by making
an initial estimate of
5 (r) = F<f>~ S(0)(r),
k as k(0).
(5-267)
We next solve for the flux <(1) resulting from this source estimate:
(5-268)
217
using our earlier procedures. With this solution, we can now explicitly calculate the
fission source resulting from this flux <f>(1) as
S'(0==F(?)(i)=r2f^(1).
(5-269)
This can then be taken as a new estimate of the fission source and used to generate
a new flux, <j>(2\ and so onprovided we can also generate improved estimates of
k. That is, we can iteratively solve for an improved source estimate S ( n + 1 ) from an
earlier estimate S b y solving
+
(5-270)
for </>(n+1) and then computing

+
(5-271)
However we also need a prescription for generating improved estimates of k^ n \

This prescription can be obtained by returning to our original eigenvalue
problem (5-266). As n becomes large, we would anticipate that (if our fission source
iteration scheme really works), </>(w + 1) will converge to the true eigenfunction <^>(r)
that satisfies Eq. (5-266). That is, for large n
The convergence of </>(n) to <>(r) and k^ to k can be proven mathematically. It can

also be motivated physically by recognizing that if indeed we have adjusted k such
that a steady-state or self-sustaining flux profile were possible, then regardless of
the initial fission source estimate, successive fission neutron generations will
eventually fall into this distribution.
Now for finite n, it is highly unlikely that <(n + 1) and /c (n+1) will satisfy Eq.
(5-266) exactly. Nevertheless if we integrate Eq. (5-272) over all space, we should be
able to obtain a reasonable estimate for k^n + v> as
fd3rF4>(H+1)
k (n
+1) _
(5-273)
<
d3rM<f>(n+1)
However F<j>(n+ is just the (n + l)st estimate of the fission source, while we can use
Eq. (5-270) to write Af</>(rt+1) in terms of the nth estimate of this source to find
J
k (n
+1) _
d3rS(n+l\r)
t
We can now use this relationship to compute a new guess of
(5-274)
from <>(rt + 1) and
218
We should note that this prescription is quite consistent with our earlier interpretation of k as the multiplication factorthat is, the ratio of the number of
neutrons in two consecutive fission generationsif we note that a factor of A:(w)
must be inserted in the denominator since
is in fact the effective fission
source that generates 5 < n + 1).
We can now use Eqs. (5-270), (5-271), and (5-274) as the basis of an iterative
algorithm to determine both k and <f>. For large n, we expect that <f> will converge to
the fundamental eigenfunction of Eq. (5-266) corresponding to the largest eigenvalue keff to which k c o n v e r g e s . (Recall we have agreed to denote this largest
eigenvalue by kejf.) In practice one continues this iteration until the error in k
a n d / o r S decreases below some specified amount:
() _
1)
<Cj
and/or
g(n)
max
gin-I)
< 2.
(5-275)
Notice that by scaling the source term appearing in the diffusion equation (5-266)
by a factor of 1 / k ^ in each iteration, we will prevent the rapid growth or decrease
of successive source iterates (causing possible overflow or underflow) in the event
that a number of iterations are required when k is not close to unity. That is,
dividing the source term by A:(n) removes the dependence of the flux iterate </>(rt+1)
on n [at least as
approaches the true solution].
This iterative scheme to determine the effective multiplication factor keff and the
corresponding flux <J>(r) is known as the power iteration or source iteration method.
T h e i t e r a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e k n o w n a s outer o r source
iterations.
In addition to such outer or source iterations, one will also be required to

perform inner iterations to solve the diffusion problem
M<t>{n + x ) = - j ^ S i n \
(5-276)
when two- or three-dimensional calculations are necessary. The general strategy

then takes the form sketched in Figure 5-22.
C. Source Extrapolation
Needless to say, there is strong incentive to perform as few iterations as
possible in converging to the desired accuracy. For that reason, one usually
attempts to accelerate the source iteration convergence by extrapolating ahead to a
new source guess. This is accomplished by introducing an extrapolation parameter
(much as is used in relaxation methods). For example, in a one-parameter extrapolation, one would use as the source definition
g(n)=
k(n)
F(f>(n)
(5-277)
A two-parameter extrapolation takes the form

+
(5-278)
The extrapolation parameters a and (3 range between 0 and 1, and can be chosen
by using methods based on Chebyshev polynomial interpolation. 13
219
Guess core geometry

and composition
!
Guess initial fission
source S<) and jfe<)
<f
Inner
iterations
k<n>
Criticality
search
S< n + 1 >=F<*><" + 1>

/ d 3 r S < n + 1>( r)
*< + !> =
^/c^rS^r)
Outer
iterations
Convergence test
k(n)
<l &
S<n)
<2
-No
Yes
eff =
No-
Yes
FINISHED!
F I G U R E 5-22.
Calculation strategy for reactor criticality calculation
V. PERTURBATION THEORY
It is frequently of interest to compute the change in core multiplication
caused by a small change in the core geometry or composition. Fortunately if this
change or "perturbation" is sufficiently small, one does not have to repeat the
original criticality calculation, but instead can use well-known techniques of
perturbation theory to express the corresponding change in multiplication in terms
of the fluxes characterizing the unperturbed core.
By way of example, consider a very simple one-speed diffusion model of a bare,
homogeneous reactor in which the criticality relation is
k
?2f/2
^^ =
1+
L2B2
(5-279)
220
Now suppose we were to uniformly modify or perturb the absorption cross section
to a new value
=
(5-280)
where we will assume that the perturbation S 2 a is smallthat is,

S2a2a.
(5-281)
Then the value of k' corresponding to the perturbed core can be written as
- a k 1 -
1 + LaB
2a
1+
L2B2J
(5-282)
where we have expanded k' in S 2 a / 2 a a n d have neglected all terms of higher than
first order in the perturbation ( S 2 J . This has allowed us to express the perturbed
multiplication factor k' in terms of the unperturbed multiplication k and the
perturbation S 2 a .
These general features appear in applications of perturbation theory to more
general problems in nuclear reactor analysis in which the perturbations may be
localized or in which the multigroup diffusion equations are used as the basic
model of the core behavior. Although the general ideas are essentially as simple as
those in the example above, it is necessary to introduce a few mathematical
preliminaries. (For more details, the reader is referred to Appendix E.)
We will describe the multiplication of the core by the criticality eigenvalue
problem [Eq. (5-266)]:
M ^ ^ - V - . D W V ^ W + ^ W ^ r ) = ^2 f (r)<#>(r) =
(5-283)
where we will leave it as understood that the solution of this equation, <f>(r), must
satisfy appropriate boundary conditions such as </>(rJ) = 0 on the surface of the core.
Now suppose we define the inner product ( f , g ) between any two functions / ( r )
and g(r) as
( f , g ) = f d3rf*(r)g(r),
J y
(5-284)
where f*(r) denotes the complex conjugate of / ( r ) , and V is the core volume.
We can now use this inner product to define the operator M* adjoint to the
operator M as that operator M^ for which
(M*f,g)
= (f,Mg)
(5-285)
for every / ( r ) and g(r) satisfying the boundary conditions f ( r s ) = 0 = g (r s ).

We can use this definition to explicitly construct the adjoint of an operator.
Consider for example the operator F =
which simply corresponds to multiply-
246
ing a function by p2f(r). If we write

(f,Fg)=
f d3rf*i>I,tg
J y
= f
d3r(v2J)*g
J y
= {v^fg) = (F%g\
(5-286)
where we have merely shuffled 2 f (r) around in the integral (noting that 2 f is real)
to identify
= p2f(r).
(5-287)
Notice that in this case, F^ and F are in fact identical. We refer to such operators
as b e i n g
self-adjoint.
For a more complicated example, consider the spatial derivatives in the diffusion
operator M :
q,
( f V D V g ) = f d3rfv-DVg,
(5-288)
ir
Now if we use the vector identity

V ab = a V b + b Va,
(5-289)
we can rewrite this as
= jd3r
( / , V-DVg)
- jd3r
^
/)
k
[ v f f ' ^ g }
I ,
>
J '
rr ^ ^
(5-290)
Using Gauss's law, we can convert the first term into an integral over the surface:
f d3rV-[fDVg]
= fdS-f*DVg.
J y
(5-291)
JS
However since we require that / and g vanish on the surface, this term vanishes. If
we repeat this procedure we find we can rewrite
(f,VDVg)=
fd3r[V-DVf\*g
= (VDVf,g).
(5-292)
JTS
Hence we find that

VDV* = V D V o
(5-293)
Thus we have again encountered a self-adjoint operator.

From these examples, it is apparent that the operator A f = + 2 a is
also self-adjoint, M^ = M. We will continue to distinguish between the adjoint and
direct operators M^ and M however, since for more general multigroup diffusion
calculations, M will not be self-adjoint (as we will find in Chapter 7). We will
247
define the adjoint flux
as the corresponding solution of

(5-294)
(Although again we keep in mind that M^ = M and F^ F implies that

= for
the one-speed diffusion model of a reactor.)
To understand the application of these concepts, let us go back to the criticality
equation (5-283). Now suppose we were to perturb the macroscopic absorption
cross section, say by adding a localized absorber, to a new value
2 ; ( r ) = 2 a (r) + S2 a (r).
(5-295)
We will assume that this perturbation 8 2 a (r) is small and attempt to calculate the
corresponding change in k as governed by the perturbed criticality problem
(5-296)
/c
Note here that the perturbation in the core absorption appears as a perturbation
8M in the diffusion operator
M ' = M + 8M,
8M = S2 a (r).
(5-297)
To calculate the change in k, first take the scalar product of Eq. (5-296) with the
adjoint flux
characterizing the unperturbed core, that is, satisfying Eq. (5-294),
M<f>') +
8M')
= (<f>t
(5.298)
Now using the definition Eq. (5-285) of the adjoint operator, we find
Hence we find
M
\k
k!
(4>+,F<')
We could now calculate 8k = k' k. However it is far-more convenient to define

the core
reactivity
9= ^
(5-301)
which essentially measures the deviation of the core multiplication from unity.
Then since the perturbation in reactivity is just
(5.302)
225
FIGURE 5-23. Relative and differential control

rod bank worth
the hand and use our earlier result to find the corresponding reactivity change as
f rf3/-</>t(r)S2a(r)</>(r)
Jl/
A p=-
J y
dW{r)2f(r)<Kr)
= - --*VoMro).
(5-314)
where we have denoted the denominator by a constant 6 (since it is independent

of the perturbation). If we recognize that a<t>(r0) is just the absorption rate at r0, we
then find
Ap
<t>f(r0)
(5-315)
a <Kro)
is simply proportional to the change in reactivity per neutron absorbed at r 0 per

second. In this sense, then, the adjoint flux ^ ( r ) is a measure of how effective an
absorber inserted at a position r is in changing the reactivity of the core. Evidently
if (^(r) is large at r, the core multiplication will be quite sensitive to the absorption
of neutrons at that point. Hence </>*(r) is sometimes referred to as the neutron
importance
o r the importance
function.
We can see this from a somewhat different perspective if we consider the flux
induced in a subcritical reactor by an arbitrary source S (r) as governed by
(M F)<f>=
V*Z>V</> + ( 2
p2f)</>= S .
(5-316)
226
Consider the adjoint problem

(
(5-317)
(Of course for one-speed diffusion theory, M = M * is self-adjoint, but we will retain
the generality for a bit.) Notice that we have allowed the source S \ r ) appearing in
the adjoint equation to differ from that in Eq. (5-316).
Now suppose we multiply Eq. (5-316) by
and integrate over r, then multiply
Eq. (5-317) by
and integrate, and then subtract these two results to find
(5-318)
However by the definition of the adjoint M F ^ , the LHS is zero. Hence we find:
f d3r^(r)S(r)
= f d3rSf(r)<#>(r).
Jy
Jy
Since this must hold for any choice of S ( r ) and

advantage by specifying S(r) as a unit point source at r0:
S(r) = S(r-r0),
(5-319)
we will use it to our
(5-320)
and S*(r) as the cross section 2 d (r) characterizing an imagined detector placed in
the core. Then we find
<*>t(r0)= f d3r 2d(r)<J>(r).
(5-321)
J y
Hence in this instance the adjoint flux is simply the response of a detector in the
core to a unit point source inserted at a position r 0 . Once again we find that <f>*(r0)
is a measure of the importance of a neutron event (in this case, the production,
rather than the absorption, of a neutron) at a point r 0 in contributing to the
response of a detector with cross section 2 d (r) (as opposed to reactivity).
For the simple one-speed diffusion model we have been studying, the adjoint
flux <J>+(r) is identical to the flux itself. Hence perturbations affecting the creation or
destruction of neutrons will have the most pronounced affect in those regions in
which the flux is largest. This is not true, however, for the more general multigroup
diffusion model, as we will see in Chapter 7.
REFERENCES
1. J. W. Dettman, Mathematical Methods in Physics and Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York (1969).
2. B. Friedman, Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics, Wiley, New York (1956).
3. G. Arfken, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 2nd Edition, Academic, New York
(1970).
4. P. M. Morse and H. Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Vol. I, McGraw-Hill,
New York (1953), p. 173.
5. Ibid., pp. 115-117.
6. B. Davison, Neutron Transport Theory, Oxford U. P. (1958), pp. 51-55.
227
7. K. M. Case and P. F. Zweifel, Linear Transport Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading,

Mass. (1967).
8. G. Arfken, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 2nd Edition, Academic, New York
(1970), pp. 733-739.
9. Ibid., pp. 748-768.
10. E. A. Coddington, Ordinary Differential Equations, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.
J. (1961), p. 67.
York (1969).
12. M. Clark, Jr., and K. F. Hansen, Numerical Methods of Reactor Analysis, Academic,
New York (1964).
13. E. Wachspress, Iterative Solution of Elliptic Systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.
J. (1966).
14. R. S. Varga, Matrix Iterative Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. (1962).
15. H. Greenspan, et al., Computing Methods in Reactor Physics, Gordon and Breach, New
York (1968).
16. G. E. Forsythe and C. B. Moler, Computer Solution of Linear Algebraic Systems,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. (1967).
17. T. Craig, SLODOG, A Modified One-group, One-dimensional Diffusion Code, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering Report (1968).
J. (1966), p. 22.
19. Ibid., p. 24, 25.
20. R. G. Steinke, A Review of Direct and Iterative Strategies for Solving Multi-dimensional
Finite Difference Problems, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering Report (1971).
21. W. R. Cadwell, et al., P D Q - A n IBM-704 Code to Solve the Two-dimensional Fewgroup Neutron Diffusion Equations, WAPD-TM-70 (1957) and related reports, WAPDTM-179, WAPD-TM-230, WAPD-TM-364, WAPD-TM-678.
22. D. L. Delp, et al., FLARE, A Three Dimensional Boiling Water Reactor Simulator,
General Electric Company Report, GEAP 4598 (1964).
23. E. G. Adensam, et al., Computer Methods for Utility Reactor Physics Analysis, Reactor
and Fuel Processing Technology, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1969).
J. (1966). p. 83.
25. R. Froehlich, in Mathematical Models and Computational Techniques for Analysis of
Nuclear Systems, USAEC CONF-730414-P2 (1973), p. V I M .
PROBLEMS
5-1
5-2
5-3
Compare the derivation of the one-speed neutron diffusion equation with that for the
equation of thermal conduction, taking care to point out the assumptions and
approximations used in each case. Refer to any text on heat transfer such as those
listed at the end of Chapter 12.
By considering a plane source or absorber of neutrons located at the origin of an
infinite medium, derive the interface condition Eq. (5-15) on the neutron current
density by modeling the source term in the one-dimensional diffusion equation as
S3 (x) and then integrating this equation over an infinitesimal region about origin.
Compute the rms distance x 2 ) ) 1 / 2 a neutron will travel from a plane source to
absorption using one-speed diffusion theory. Compare this result with the rms
distance to absorption in a strongly absorbing medium (in which neutron scattering
can be neglected). In particular, plot the rms distance to absorption in water in which
boron has been dissolved against the boron concentration to determine whether the
228
5-4
diffusion theory result for ( ( x 2 ) ) 1 / 2 ever approaches the result characterizing a purely
absorbing medium. (Use the thermal cross section data in Appendix A.)
It is possible to derive an expression for the relaxation or diffusion length L from the
one-speed transport equation characterizing a homogeneous medium
3<p
dx
2S
r + 1
+ 2t<p(x,ju) = J
dfi'<p(x,fi')
(we have assumed isotropic scattering for convenience). Seek a solution of the form
<p(x,ju.) = x(M) e x P( x/L) to this equation in order to eliminate the *-dependence.
The resulting homogeneous equation for x(m) can be reduced to an algebraic
equation for L by eliminating J" i } dji x(/*) By following this procedure, derive a
transcendental equation for the diffusion length L:
2tL+l
2tL 1
= 0.
5-5
Using the assumption that 2 a < 2 s , expand L as a power series in 2 a / 2 t , substitute

this expansion into the equation above, and evaluate the coefficients of the expansion
in order to derive Eq. (5-32) and obtain the transport corrections to the diffusion
length L = ( / ) / 2 a ) ' / 2 .
5-6 Determine the neutron flux in a sphere of nonmultiplying material of radius R if an
isotropic point source of strength S0 neutrons per second is placed at the center of the
sphere. Assume the sphere is surrounded by a vacuum.
5-7 The Milne problem: Imagine a diffusing medium in the half space x > 0 with a source
of infinite magnitude at infinity such that the boundary condition on the flux is that
<Kx)~S0exp(x/L)
as
Perform the following calculations:
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11
5-12
(a) Using one-speed diffusion theory and the boundary condition of zero reentrant
current, determine the flux in the medium.
(b) Repeat the solution of this problem using the extrapolated boundary concept.
(c) Determine the conditions under which these two boundary conditions might be
expected to yield similar results.
Consider a slab of nonmultiplying material with a plane source at its origin emitting
S0 neutrons/cm 2 -sec. By solving this problem first with the condition of zeroreentrant current and then extrapolated boundaries, compare the absorption rate in
the slab predicted by these two approaches. Also calculate the rate at which neutrons
leak from the slab in each case.
Consider a thermal neutron incident on a slab-shaped shield of concrete 1 m in
thickness, and determine the probability that: (a) the neutron will pass through the
shield without a collision, (b) it will ultimately diffuse through the shield, and (c) it
will be reflected back from the shield. (For convenience, treat the concrete as if it had
the composition of 10% H 2 0 , 50% calcium, and 40% silicon.)
Consider an infinite nonmultiplying medium containing a uniformly distributed
neutron source. If one inserts an infinitesimally thin sheet of absorber at the origin,
determine the neutron flux throughout the medium.
Derive the expression given by Eq. (5-47) for the albedo characterizing a slab of
material of thickness a. In particular plot this albedo for a slab of water for various
thicknesses. (Use thermal cross section data.) Comment on the behavior of the albedo
as given by Eq. (5-47) for both very thin and very thick slabs.
One defines the blackness coefficient characterizing a region as
J+(a)~J-{a)
J+(a)
229
where a denotes the surface of the region. Yet another useful parameter characterizing
interfaces is the ratio of the current density J to the flux at the interface
5-13
5-14
5-15
5-16
5-17
5-18
.
5-19
5-20
5-21
~ f ( a ) '
Determine the relation between these parameters and the albedo, assuming that
diffusion theory can be used to describe the material adjacent to the region of interest.
(It should be remarked that one frequently uses these concepts to characterize very
highly absorbing regions such as fuel elements or control rods in which diffusion
theory will usually not be valid in the highly absorbing region.)
In reactor analysis it is frequently of interest to determine the neutron flux in a
so-called unit fuel cell of the reactor, that is, a fuel element surrounded by a
moderator. As a model of such a cell characterizing a cylindrical fuel element,
consider a fuel pin of radius a surrounded by a moderator of thickness b. For reasons
that will become more apparent in Chapter 10, one assumes that the fission neutrons
that slow down to thermal energies appear as a source uniformly distributed over the
moderatorbut not directly in the fuel. Furthermore it is assumed that there is no net
transfer of neutrons from cell to cellthat is, the neutron current vanishes on the
boundary of the cell (although the neutron flux will not vanish there).
Determine the neutron flux in this cell geometry. In particular, determine the
thermal utilization characterizing the cell by computing the fraction of those neutrons
slowing down that is absorbed in the fuel.
Consider a one-dimensional slab model of a fuel cell in which the center region
consists of the fuel, and the outer regions consist of a moderating material in which
neutrons slow down to yield an effective uniformly distributed source of thermal
neutrons S0 neutrons/cm 3 -sec. Determine the neutron flux in this cell. In particular,
compute the so-called self-shielding factor fs defined as the ratio between the average
flux in the fuel to the average flux in the cell.
Consider two isotropic point sources located a distance a apart in an infinite
nonmultiplying medium. Determine the neutron flux and current density at any point
in a plane midway between the two sources.
Determine the infinite medium Green's functions or diffusion kernels characterizing
cylindrical and spherical geometries.
By representing a plane source as a superposition of isotropic point sources, construct
the plane source kernel Gpl(x,x') by using the point source kernel Gpt(r,r').
Obtain an expression for the plane source diffusion kernel characterizing a finite slab
of width a by solving for the neutron flux resulting from a unit plane source at a
position x' in the slab. This can be most easily accomplished by seeking a separate
solution on either side of the source plane which satisfies the vacuum boundary
conditions at either end, and then matching these solutions at the source plane using
the interface condition of continuity of flux and a discontinuity in the current density
given by the source strength.
Consider a neutron source emitting a monodirectional beam of neutrons into an
infinite medium. Using one-speed diffusion theory, calculate the neutron flux in the
medium. For convenience, locate your coordinate system with its origin at the source
and align the x-axis along the source beam. Since the source is highly anisotropic, you
cannot apply diffusion theory directly. Rather, compute the distribution of first
scattering collisions of the source neutrons along the x-axis, and then assume that
each of these collisions acts in effect as an isotropic point source of neutrons for the
subsequent diffusion theory analysis (assuming that such scattering is isotropic).
Use the method of variation of constants to determine the flux in a finite slab that
contains a uniformly distributed neutron source.
Construct the spatial eigenfunctions of the Helmholtz equation in spherical geometry.
230
5-22
5-23
5-24
5-25
5-26
5-27
5-28
5-29
1
5-30
5-31
.v \ !\ 5-32
5-33
5-34
Construct the spatial eigenfunctions of the Helmholtz equation in infinite cylindrical

geometry.
Construct the spatial eigenfunctions of the Helmholtz equation characterizing a
parallelepiped geometry.
Demonstrate explicitly that the eigenfunctions for the slab geometry are indeed
orthogonal.
Consider a slab of nonmultiplying material containing a uniformly distributed
neutron source. Determine the neutron flux in the slab: (a) by directly solving the
diffusion equation and (b) using eigenfunction expansions. Demonstrate that these
solutions are indeed equivalent.
Determine the neutron flux in a long parallelepiped column of nonmultiplying
material caused by a uniform source distributed across the face of the column. In
particular determine the spatial behavior of the flux far from the source plane.
Describe how one might measure the neutron diffusion length in the column by
studying the spatial behavior of the flux.
The objective of this problem is to write a computer code to calculate the flux in a
uniform nonmultiplying slab containing an arbitrary source distribution. Perform the
following steps:
(a) Derive the finite difference form of the appropriate one-speed diffusion equation
using vacuum boundary conditions. Use 30 mesh points and equal mesh spacing.
(b) Write the equations in matrix form, A <f> S_.
(c) Derive the steps necessary to solve this equation using the simultaneous relaxation
method. (Gaussian elimination would be better, but less instructive.)
(d) Write the necessary computer program. Input should consist of slab thickness, D,
2 a , and S ( . Output should include a tabulation of xi9
and S ( . Pay particular
attention to your convergence criterion and initial flux guess <f>f0) for the inner
iterations of the SR method.
(e) "Check out" your code by solving at least two problems with known analytical
solutions (e.g., cosine source or uniform source). Show how the inner iterations of
your program converge by plotting <f>f") for various values of n.
Repeat the analysis of the time-dependent slab reactor given in Section 5-3, but with
the addition of a plane source of neutrons of strength S0 located at the origin of the
slab. In particular determine the long time behavior of the reactor when it is critical.
Determine the geometric buckling Bg and critical flux profile in the following bare
reactor geometries: (a) sphere, (b) infinite cylinder, and (c) parallelepiped.
W e can define the power-peaking factor for a given reactor core as the ratio between
the maximum power density and the average power density in the core. Recognizing
that the power density is proportional to the neutron flux in the one-speed approximation, compute the power-peaking factor for three common geometries: (a) sphere, (b)
cube, and (c) finite cylinder.
A homogeneous one-speed bare reactor has a cylindrical configuration. Determine:
(a) the radius and length of the reactor as functions of the buckling so that the volume
of the critical reactor, and hence its mass, is a minimum and (b) the minimum volume
as a function of buckling,
Jezebel is a bare, fast, spherically shaped critical reactor constructed of pure 2 3 9 Pu
metal (density 15.4 g / c m 3 ) . Calculate the critical radius and critical mass of the
reactor using the one-group data: ? = 2.98, a f = 1.85 b, a y = 0.26 b, and a t r = 6.8 b.
There has been considerable interest in the possibility of super heavy nuclei with mass
numbers A > 3 0 0 . Such nuclei would be characterized by large values of v ( ~ 6 - 1 0 ) .
Using the results of Problem 5-32, study the effect of varying v on the critical radius
and mass of a bare sphere of such material.
Two infinite slabs, each of thickness a in the * direction, are separated by an inner
region of thickness 2a and are bounded by vacuum on their outer surfaces. The slab
material is of composition to give ko0 = 1.2 and thermal diffusion length of 50 cm.
231
Determine the thickness a for criticality when: (a) inner region is vacuum and (b)
inner region is a medium with ko0 = 1 and same D and L as the outer slabs.
5-35 A bare spherical reactor is made with 2 3 5 U uniformly dispersed in graphite (p = 1.7)
with an atomic ratio Nc/N25 = 104. For the cross section values given below, calculate
the critical size and mass of the reactor according to one-group diffusion theory. If the
reactor is modified by placing a cavity (vacuum) of half the total radius in its center,
find the critical size for this case. Recalculate the critical radius if the center void is
filled instead by a perfect absorber. Use as data: a f = 4.3 b, a a =0.003 b, a 2 5 = 105 b,
a 2 5 = 584 b, and D = 0.9 cm.
^J-\5-36 A bare spherical reactor is to be constructed of a homogeneous mixture of D 2 0 and
235
^
1
U. The composition is such that for every uranium atom there are 2000 heavy water
^
molecules (i.e.,
o /iV25 = 2000). Calculate: (a) the critical radius of the reactor
using one-speed diffusion theory (Data: tj 2 5 = 2.06, Z>d2o = 0.87 cm, ^ = 3 . 3 x 10" 5
c m - 1 , a f 2 = 0.001 b, and a 2 5 = 678 b.) and (b) the mean number of scattering
collisions made by a neutron during its lifetime in this reactor.
5-37 There is strong motivation to obtain as flat a power distribution as possible in a
reactor core. One manner in which this may be accomplished is to load a reactor with
a nonuniform fuel enrichment. To model such a scheme, consider a bare, critical slab
reactor as described by one-speed diffusion theory. Determine the fuel distribution
Nf(X) which will yield a flat power distribution P (x) = wf2f(jc)</>(.*) = constant. For
convenience, assume that fuel only absorbs neutrons and that it does not significantly
scatter them. Also assume that all other materials in the core are uniformly distributed.
5-38 A one-dimensional slab reactor system consists of three regions: vacuum for x < 0 ; a
multiplying core for 0<x<a;
and an infinite nonmultiplying reflector for x>a.
Calculate the core thickness a that will yield a critical system.
Suppose a cannot be made large enough to achieve criticality. Then determine the
flux at all points when an external source S0 is uniformly distributed throughout the
reflector region x > a.
5-39 Consider a bare slab reactor with material composition such that 2 a = 0.066 c m - 1 ,
Z) = 0.90, and r 2 f = 0.070 c m - 1 . Modify the one-speed diffusion computer code
developed in Problem 5-27 so that you can calculate the width a that will yield
criticality.
One possible procedure is to guess an initial slab width a and then perform a source
iteration calculation to determine kejj. To simplify the calculation, choose S (0) (x) = 1.0
= constant. The integrated fission source that appears in the estimate of k g i v e n by
Eq. (5-274) can be performed using simple trapezoidal quadrature
where Ax is the mesh spacing. Again use 30 mesh points and require a convergence
criterion on k ^ of
k(n+l)
<=10
After each criticality calculation, readjust the slab width a and recalculate
After
several such calculations, plot k e jj against a to determine the critical slab width a*.
Compare this with the analytical expression for a*.
5-40 Investigate the convergence of the inner and outer iterations in the one-speed
diffusion code developed in Problem 5-39 for the following modifications:
232
5-41
5-42
5-43
5-44
5-45
5-46
5-47
(a) Use the outer iteration source S^n\x) as the initial estimate in the inner iterations.
(b) Determine the sensitivity of both inner and outer iterations to the convergence
criteria.
(c) Attempt to accelerate the outer iterations by source extrapolation.
Verify the general first-order perturbation theory result Eq. (5-312).
Why is the adjoint system introduced in developing the perturbation equations?
Illustrate your answer with an example showing that only the use of the adjoint
system will yield the desired result.
Describe a reasonable experimental procedure by which one could measure the
variation of neutron importance within a reactor core.
Calculate the error in the critical mass of a bare homogeneous spherical reactor due to
a 1% error in k. Assume that only the core size would be adjusted to give criticality.
Calculate the relative worth of a control rod bank inserted axially into a cylindrical
reactor core.
Consider a critical bare slab reactor of thickness a which is composed of a homogeneous mixture of fuel and moderator. Estimate the reactivity change if a thickness
8x of the fuel-moderator mixture at a position x is replaced by pure moderator. What
8x at a distance from the centerline of x = 0.4 a is required to give the same reactivity
change as a perturbation thickness S;e0 at the center of the slab?
Variational methods can be used in a manner very similar to perturbation theory to
estimate the multiplication of a given core configuration using only crude guesses of
the flux in the core. For example, a useful variational expression for the multiplication
of a core described by a one-speed diffusion theory is
f dsr<}>(r)M<f>( r)
k~x=-
f d3r<t>(r)F<t>(r)
Compare the accuracy of such a scheme for a slab of width a where the estimates of
the flux or "trial functions" <f>(x) are taken as simple quadratic polynomials that
vanish on the boundaries of the slab [i.e., <f>(*)= 1 (2jc/a) 2 ].
6
Nuclear Reactor Kinetics
For a nuclear reactor to operate at a constant power level, the rate of neutron
production via fission reactions should be exactly balanced by neutron loss via
absorption and leakage. Any deviation f r o m this balance condition will result in a
time-dependence of the neutron population and hence the power level of t h ^
reactor. This may occur for a number of reasons. For example, the reactor operator
might desire to change the reactor power level by temporarily altering core
multiplication via control rod adjustment. Or there may be longer term changes in
core multiplication due to fuel depletion and isotopic buildup. More dramatic
changes in multiplication might be caused by unforeseen accident situations, such
as the failure of a primary coolant p u m p or a blocked coolant flow channel or the
accidental ejection of a control rod.
It is important that one be able to predict the time behavior of the neutron
population in a reactor core induced by changes in reactor multiplication. Such a
topic is known as nuclear reactor kinetics. However, we should recognize that the
core multiplication is never completely under the control of the reactor operator.
Indeed since multiplication will depend on the core composition, it will also
depend on other variables not directly accessible to control such as the fuel
temperature or coolant density distribution throughout the reactor, but these
variables depend, in turn, on the reactor power level and hence the neutron flux
itself. The study of the time-dependence of the related processes involved in
determining the core multiplication as a function of the power level of the reactor
is known as nuclear reactor dynamics and usually involves a detailed modeling of
the entire nuclear steam supply system. Although we briefly discuss several of the
more important "feedback" mechanisms involved in determining core multiplication later in this chapter, our dominant concern is with predicting the time
behavior of the neutron flux in the reactor for a given change in multiplication.
233
234
The principal applications of such an analysis are not only to the study of
operating transients in reactors, but also to the prediction of the consequences of
accidents involving changes in core multiplication, and to the interpretation of
experimental techniques measuring reactor parameters by inducing time-dependent
changes in the neutron flux. One can roughly distinguish between two different
types of analysis depending on the time scale characterizing changes in the neutron
population or core properties. For example, one is interested in relatively shortterm changes possibly ranging f r o m fractions of a second up to minutes in length
when analyzing normal changes in reactor power level (e.g., startup or shutdown)
or in an accident analysis. By way of contrast, changes in core composition due to
fuel burnup or isotope buildup usually occur over periods of days or months.
Needless to say, the analysis required for each class of time behavior is quite
different.
The reader will recall that we have already considered a particularly simple
example of nuclear reactor kinetics when we discussed the time behavior of the
neutron flux in a slab reactor model in Chapter 5. Although this earlier analysis
was useful for deriving the condition for reactor criticality, it is not valid for an
accurate description of nuclear reactor kinetics, since it assumed that all fission
neutrons appeared promptly at the instant of fission. As we demonstrate in the next
section, it is essential that one explicitly account for the time delay associated with
delayed neutrons in describing nuclear reactor kinetics.
Fortunately the one-speed diffusion model we have been using to study reactor
criticality is also capable of describing qualitatively the time behavior of a nuclear
reactor, provided we include the effects of delayed neutrons. Indeed such a model
is frequently too detailed for practical implementation in reactor kinetics analysis
due to excessive computation requirements, particularly when the effects of
phenomena such as temperature feedback are included. For that reason, we will
begin our study of nuclear reactor kinetics by reducing the one-speed diffusion
model still further with the assumption that the spatial dependence of the flux in
the reactor can be described by a single spatial mode shape (the fundamental
mode). Under this assumption, we can remove the spatial dependence of the
diffusion model and arrive at a description involving only ordinary differential
equations in time. This model is sometimes known as the point reactor kinetics
model, although this is somewhat of a misnomer since the model does not really
treat the reactor as a point but rather merely assumes that the spatial flux shape
does not change with time. Although we will rely heavily on the point reactor
kinetics model in our study of nuclear reactor time behavior, we will indicate its
generalizations to include a nontrivial spatial dependence as well as feedback
mechanisms.
There are two other aspects of nuclear reactor kinetics that we will not touch
upon in this chapter. The first topic involves the study of nuclear reactor control
and includes not only the analysis of the various schemes used to adjust core
multiplication but those mechanisms by which changes in the core power level can
affect multiplication as well. The second topic involves the study of long-term
changes in the core power distribution due to fuel depletion and the buildup of
highly absorbing fission products in the reactor core.
However the study of both of these subjects involves only a steady-state analysis
of the neutron flux in the reactoror, at most, a sequence of steady-state criticality
calculations. Only the time-dependence of the slowly varying changes in core
composition such as those due to fuel depletion must be explicitly considered.
Therefore such topics can be more appropriately developed in later chapters.
NUCLEAR REACTOR KINETICS
235
I. THE POINT REACTOR KINETICS MODEL

A. The Importance of Delayed Neutrons in Reactor Kinetics
In our earlier treatment of the simple bare slab reactor (Section 5-III-C), we
found that the neutron flux in such a system could be written as a superposition of
spatial modes (or eigenfunctions) characteristic of the reactor geometry, each
weighted with an exponentially varying time-dependence:
* ( M ) = 2 X P ( - V ) *(>)
(6-i)
Here the spatial eigenfunctions were determined as the solution to the eigenvalue
problem [Eq. (5-232)]:
V \ + B n \ ( r) = 0,
^(f s ) = 0,
(6-2)
while the time eigenvalues Xn were given by

Xn = vDB2 + t ; 2 a -
(6-3)
These eigenvalues are ordered as Xx > A 2 > * *. Hence for long times the flux
approaches an asymptotic form
4>(r, /) ~ A x exp( Xx t)
(r) = A, exp
Ur),
(6-4)
where we identify
/ = [ t > 2 a ( l + L 2 i? g 2 )]
k=
r =
1+ Li?2
* = mean lifetime of neutron in reactor,
^multiplication factor.
1+
L2B*
It would be natural to inquire as to just how long one would have to wait until such
asymptotic behavior sets in. We can determine this rather easily by assuming that
the reactor is operating in a critical state such that Xx = 0, and then estimating Xn. If
we recall that for a slab B2=n2 (ir/&)2, then
\n=-vD
(BZ-B*
)=-vD
{Bt-B*
)=-vD{n*~
1)(|)2'
(6-6)
Now in a typical thermal reactor, 5300 cm,

3 X l O 5 c m / s e c , and D~ 1 cm.
Hence the higher order Xn are of the order of 100-1000 s e c - 1 , which implies that
the higher order spatial modes die out very rapidly indeed.
We can utilize this fact to bypass our earlier separation of variables solution of
the one-speed diffusion equation [Eq. (5-187)] by merely assuming a space-time
separable flux of the form
<KM) = M ^ ( r ) >
(6-7)
where ^ ( r ) is the fundamental mode or eigenfunction of the Helmholtz equation,
236
Eq. (6-2). If we substitute this form into the one-speed diffusion equation, we find
that n(t) satisfies
dn
dt
In this sense, n(i) can be interpreted as the total number of neutrons in the reactor
at time t [if we normalize /d 3 r^/j(r)= 1]. Actually since the normalization of n(t) is
arbitrary, we could also scale the dependent variable n(t) to represent the total
instantaneous power P ( t ) being generated in the reactor core at any particular
time. That is, we could let
n(t)^P(t)
= w{v2fn(t\
(6-9)
where w{ is the usable energy released per fission event. Since the reactor power
level is usually a more convenient variable to monitor, we will frequently express
the reactor time-dependence in terms of P(t).
Equation (6-8) represents a somewhat simplified form of a more general set of
equations, which we shall derive in a moment, that are commonly referred to as the
point reactor kinetics equations. This term arises since we have separated out the
spatial dependence by assuming a time-independent spatial flux shape ^ ( r ) . In this
sense we have derived a "lumped parameter" description of the reactor in which
the neutron flux time behavior is of the form of the product of a shape factor
^(r)
and a time-dependent amplitude factor n(t),
1 ,
r =
<>(r, /) = t?w(/) / i( ) ^"o
ex
(V)
Mr),
(6-10)
characterized by a time constant

T = -j-^r = reactor period.
/c i
(6-11)
This model is of course identical to that developed in our qualitative discussion of

chain-reaction kinetics in Section 3-I-B except that one-speed diffusion theory has
now given us an explicit expression for the neutron lifetime I [Eq. (6-5)].
However there is, of course, something very important missing f r o m this model.
For by assuming a fission term in Eq. (5-186) of the form p S ^ r , / ) , we have
implied that all fission neutrons appear promptly at the time of fission. But we
know that a very small fraction
0.7%) of such neutrons are emitted with
appreciable time delay (recall the discussion of Section 2-II). Although these
delayed neutrons are only of minor significance in steady-state critical reactors,
they are extremely important for reactor time behavior. For if we recall that the
prompt neutron lifetime / is typically of the order 10" 4 sec in a thermal reactor
(10~ 7 sec in a fast reactor), then it is apparent that the reactor period predicted by
this model would be far too small for effective reactor control.
We can give a crude estimate of the influence of delayed neutrons on the reactor
time behavior by noting that the effective lifetime of such neutrons is given by their
prompt neutron lifetime / plus the additional delay time
characterizing the
/?-decay of their precursor. If we weight both prompt and delayed neutrons by their
respective yield fractions, we can estimate an average neutron lifetime </>
237
characterizing all fission neutrons as

6
(6-12)
Using the delayed neutron data given in Table 2-3, we find that this average
lifetime is typically </>0.1 sec, which is considerably longer than the prompt
neutron lifetime
10~6 10~ 4 sec. Hence delayed neutrons substantially increase
the time constant of a reactor so that effective control is possible.
This fact suggests a related idea; suppose we consider a reactor that is very
slightly subcritical when only prompt neutrons are considered. Suppose further that
the fraction /? of delayed neutrons provides just enough extra multiplication to
achieve criticality. This fraction will, in fact, control the criticalityand hence the
time constant. However if k 1 > /?, the reactor will be critical (or supercritical) on
prompt neutrons alone, and the reactor period should become very short, since the
delayed neutrons are not needed to sustain the chain reaction. Obviously we should
design a reactor such that this situation will never occur.
B. Derivation of the Point Reactor Kinetics Equations

In actual fact, one cannot proceed so heuristically. We must first set up a set
of equations describing the time dependence of the delayed neutrons. To this end,
we must define the precursor atomic number density:
Ct{r,t)d3r
= expected number of "fictitious" precursors of

/th kind in d3r about r that always decay by
emitting a delayed neutron.
(6-13)
Note that C(-(r,/) is only some fraction of the true precursor isotope concentration,
since only a fraction of the /th isotope nuclei eventually decays by delayed neutron
emission. For example, the 87 Br precursor described in Section 2-II is characterized
by a fictitious precursor concentration
(6-14)
C B r ( r , 0 = (-029) (.7) Br(r, t).
One can immediately write down a balance relation for these precursor concentrations by referring to our earlier discussion of radioactive decay to identify
Number of precursors
decaying in
=
q (r, t)d3r,
(6-15)
d r / sec
Number of precursors
being produced
=/^S^r,
in
t)d3r.
(6-16)
d r/sec
[This latter relation assumes the precursors don't migrate or diffuse before decay-
238
ing.] Hence our precursor concentration balance equation is just

9C,
= -\C,(r,f) +
(6-17)
N o w our old friend, the one-speed diffusion equation, can still be used to describe
the fluxprovided we treat the delayed neutron contribution to the fission source
explicitly by writing it as
Sf(r, 0 = 0 - 0 > 2 ^ , 0 + 2 \ C , ( r , * ) .
/=i
(6-18)
Hence our system of equations describing the neutron flux in a reactor including
delayed neutrons is
v
dt
- Z) V2<J> + 2a<J>(r, t) = ( \ - f i
t) + 2
\C,(r,/),
itm{
9C,
i=l,...,6.
(6-19)
We will apply these once again to the asymptotic situation in which both the flux
and precursor concentrations can be written as separable functions of space and
time
<t>(r,t) =
C , M = C ,
vn(t)xpl(r),
(6-20)
(*)*,('),
where ^,(r) is the fundamental mode of Eq. (6-2).If we substitute these forms into
Eq. (6-19) and use our expressions for the prompt neutron lifetime / and multiplication factor k for a bare, uniform reactor as given by Eq. (6-5), we arrive at a set of
ordinary differential equations for n(t) and C;(t):
d n
k ( l - D - i
4M
(6-21)
dC
These are known as the point reactor kinetics equations and represent a generalization of Eq. (6-8) to include the effects of delayed neutrons. One frequently rewrites
these equations in a somewhat different form by introducing two definitions. First
we must define the mean neutron generation time:
_ I
generation time between birth of neutron
A= =
k
and subsequent absorption inducing fission.
(6-22)
If k~ 1, then A is essentially just the prompt neutron lifetime /. Next we define a

very important quantity known as the reactivity, which essentially measures the
239
deviation of core multiplication from its critical value k= 1,

f)(t)
k(t)-l
^
= reactivity.
(6-23)
Notice here that we have explicitly indicated that k and hence p may be functions
of time. We will comment more on this in a moment.
These definitions allow us to rewrite Eqs. (6-21) in perhaps their most conventional form
dn
dt
dQ
p{t)-$
=i
(6-24)
[i,
= ^n{t)-\iCi(t),
i=l
6.
Hence we now have a set of seven coupled ordinary differential equations in

time that describe both the time-dependence of the neutron population in the
reactor and the decay of the delayed neutron precursors. Unfortunately the
solution of this system of equations is not as straightforward as it might first appear
for several reasons. First the reactivity p(t) is usually a function of time and in fact
frequently depends on the neutron population n(t) itself. Hence the equations will
generally be nonlinear. Furthermore the time constants characterizing the nuclear
processes represented by the equations range all the way from A 1 0 " 6 - 1 0 ~ 4 sec to
the lifetime of the longest lived precursor, usually about 80 sec. These widely
different time scales complicate even a direct numerical solution of Eqs. (6-24)
since the time step size allowed in most standard numerical schemes (e.g., R u n g e Kutta or predictor-corrector) is primarily controlled by the smallest time constant
in our case, the prompt neutron lifetime. Since reactor dynamics usually occur
on a time scale characterized by the delayed neutrons, such direct approaches tend
to be quite inefficient and more sophisticated methods are frequently required.
C. Limitations of the Point Reactor Kinetics Model

A number of questionable assumptions have entered into the derivation of
these equations, such as the one-speed diffusion approximation, and a timeindependent spatial shape. Fortunately the point reactor kinetics equations can be
derived in a much more general fashion in which such assumptions are not
necessary. 1 Such derivations usually proceed from the transport equation itself and
are also usually very formal. They lead, however, to the set [Eq. (6-24)] in which
only the definitions of
A, and p are changed. Hence provided one uses the more
general expressions for these parameters, the point reactor kinetics equations can
be regarded as having a much broader domain of validity.
One major modification that must be introduced into the equations is to take
some account of energy-dependent effects. These arise primarily because the
delayed neutrons appear with somewhat lower energies than do the prompt fission
neutrons (recall Figures 2-21 and 2-23). Hence in a thermal reactor, they do not
have to slow down quite so far and therefore are characterized by a somewhat
higher probability of inducing thermal fission (by as much as 20%). Of course, this
may work in just the opposite direction in fast reactors, since delayed neutrons
240
usually appear with energies below the fast fission threshold. We can take account
of these effects by characterizing each delayed neutron group by a slightly different
fast nonleakage probability and a resonance escape probability, say - P f n l a n c * P l Then we would merely modify the definition of the parameters appearing in the
point reactor kinetics equations as
(6-25)
FNL>
(6-26)
\ ^ > \ p l P FNL>
fitP'PiwL
A =
ftp'Pi
=
P ^ P = 2
AZ-l
NL
7 r >
(6-27)
(6-28)
In large thermal power reactors, /?. is typically several percent larger than the
physical value /?,. (although in small research reactors,
may be as much as
20-30% larger than /?,). It should also be kept in mind that the delayed neutron
yield fractions
must be calculated as suitable weighted averages over the relevant
mixture of fuel isotopes. In fact one will find that in most thermal spectrum
reactors these averaged delayed neutron fractions will decrease with core life since
the most common bred materials, 2 3 9 Pu and 2 3 3 U, have somewhat lower delayed
neutron yields than 2 3 5 U.
In 2 3 9 Pu/ 2 3 8 U-fueled fast reactors, the situation becomes much more complicated since there are as many as six fissioning isotopes, each characterized by six
different precursor groups. T o handle 36 delayed neutron precursor concentration
equations would be very complicated indeed. Fortunately the recent trend toward
direct experimental measurement of isotopic yields as opposed to precursor group
data should allow one to eventually solve directly for the isotopic concentrations of
the major precursor isotopes (e.g., 87 Br, 88 Br, and 137 I) and only lump the minor
isotopes into effective precursor groups. This would then eliminate the problem of
isotopic averaging for several fissionable isotopes, and decouple the data used in
the kinetics calculation more effectively from the particular reactor core composition.
Perhaps the most serious approximation involved in the point reactor kinetics
equations involves the assumption that the flux can be adequately represented by a
single, time-independent spatial mode ^ ( r ) . It should first be noted that this shape
function is actually not the f u n d a m e n t a l mode characterizing a critical system, but
rather the fundamental mode characterizing the reactor core that has been subjected to a reactivity change away from critical. Nevertheless it is common to
utilize a shape function ^ ( r ) characterizing a critical core configuration if the
reactor is close to a critical state or on a truly asymptotic period.
W h e n the changes in core composition are sufficiently slow, as in fuel depletion
or fission-product poisoning studies, one can perform an instantaneous steady-state
criticality calculation of the shape function ^ ( r ) , even though this shape will slowly
change with time. Such a scheme is known as the adiabatic
approximation?
More elaborate procedures exist for including a time variation in the shape
function. 3 However for rapidly varying transients in which spatial effects are
241
important, one is usually forced to solve the time-dependent neutron diffusion

equation directly (at considerable expense). W e will return to discuss such spatially
dependent kinetics problems later in this chapter.
Of course one could proceed in a much more empirical fashion by noting that
the point reactor kinetics equations hold for more general situations than we have
considered, but then simply to postulate that the correct values for the parameters
/?, A, and p are available (perhaps from experimental measurement). In this sense,
all detailed considerations of the flux spatial shape are avoided (or, rather, swept
under the carpet).
Let us now briefly examine the reactivity p(t) = [k(t) I]/k(t) appearing in the
point reactor kinetics equations. We know that the multiplication factor k, and
hence p, depends on the size and composition of the reactor. In our specific
one-speed diffusion model of a bare reactor core, we have found an explicit form
for k [Eq. (6-5)]. Hence by changing the size or compositionsay by inserting or
withdrawing a rod of absorbing material or adjusting a poison concentrationwe
can change p and hence control the reactor. In this sense, p will in general be a
function of time partly under the control of the reactor operator.
However for any reactor operating at power, p will also depend on the flux itself
due to several factors. First, the power level will influence the temperature of the
components of the reactor core. However the atomic concentrations of materials in
the core depend sensitively on their temperature. As the temperature changes, they
may contract or expand or change phase. This in turn will cause a change in the
macroscopic cross sectionsand hence in the reactivity. Furthermore temperature
changes may directly affect the microscopic cross sections (e.g., via the Doppler
effect). Finally, the atomic concentration of materials in the core will vary as
fission products are produced or fuel nuclei are fissioned and depleted. This will
also strongly influence the reactivity.
Such processes whereby the reactor operating conditions will affect the criticality
of the core are known as feedback effects and play an extremely important role in
reactor operation. Stated mathematically, such feedback effects imply that the
reactivity must be regarded as a nonlinear function of the power level p[n(t),t].
Hence the point reactor kinetics equations are actually a coupled set of nonlinear
ordinary differential equations that are extremely difficult to analyze analytically,
with the exception of certain very simplified model cases.
Although we will eventually discuss the physics of several of the more prominent
feedback mechanisms, we will initially limit our study to those cases in which p(t)
is a specified function of time (and hence the point reactor kinetics equations are
linear). Such a situation is commonly referred to as the zero-power point reactor
model, since it ignores the feedback that would occur due to variations in the
reactor power level. Although limited in this sense, this model does reveal quite a
bit about the time behavior of the neutron population in a reactor.
II. SOLUTION OF THE POINT REACTOR KINETICS

EQUATIONS
A. Solution With One Effective Delayed Group
We will first apply the point reactor kinetics equations to the situation in
which the reactivity is a prescribed function of time. In fact we will begin with the
242
very simple situation in which we imagine a reactor operating at some given power
level P0 prior to a time, say ? = 0, at which point the reactivity is changed to a
nonzero value p 0 . Rather than attempting to solve the full set of point reactor
kinetics equations for this situation, we will first consider the case in which all
delayed neutrons are represented by one effective delayed group, characterized by
a yield fraction
(6-29)
and an averaged decay constant

A
(6-30)
The point reactor kinetics equations for this simplified case become
P(t) +
Po-P
dP
dt
\C(t),
(6-31)
t > 0.
f - P p U - X C U ,
Note that we have chosen to work with the instantaneous reactor power level P ( t )
as our dependent variable. The precursor concentration is then slightly modified to
C = C n e w = w f 2 f C o l d . N o w prior to t = 0, the reactor is operating at a steady-state
power level P0. Hence we find that for t < 0 we must require
dP
dC
P _
(6-32)
This relationship yields the appropriate initial conditions that accompany Eq.
(6-31):
P(0) = Po,
C(0) = ^ - P 0 .
(6-33)
This simple initial value problem can be solved in a variety of ways (the easiest
being by Laplace transforms as discussed in Appendix G). We will use a more
pedestrian approach by merely seeking exponential solutions of the form
P(t)
= Pes',
C(t)=Ces',
(6-34)
where P, C, and s are to be determined. Then if we substitute these forms into Eq.
(6-31), we find the algebraic equations
sP
P + AC,
(6-35)
sC=
VP-AC.
A
243
This set of homogeneous equations has a solution if and only if
t+y-^-o.
or
As2 + (AA +
(6-36)
- p 0 ) j - PqK = 0.
Hence we have arrived at a characteristic equation for the parameter s. In

particular we find that there are two possible values for s
1
- ( ^ - p
+ A A ) V ( i 8 - p 0 + A A ) 2 + 4AAp (
(6-37)
and hence our general solutions will be of the form

P (t) = PY exps{t + /*2 exps 2 /,
(6-38)
C ( ? ) = C j e x p j ^ - I - C 2 exps 2 /.
To determine the unknown coefficients we can apply both the initial conditions
and the equations (6-35) to obtain four algebraic equations for the four unknowns
Pu P2, C\, and C 2 . Since these results are still rather cumbersome, we will examine
the solution in the case in which ( / J - p 0 + AA) 2 4AAp 0 (or A A / / ? < 1 ) and |p 0 |</?.
Then the two roots are approximately given by
fi-Po
while the power P(t)
becomes
A
p(t)*p
(6-39)
p
(
exp
fi-Po
Po
p-Po
11-
Po
-P-Po\
(6-40)
We have sketched this solution in Figure 6-1 for both positive and negative
reactivity insertion of an amount |p 0 |0.0025 into a reactor characterized by
= 0.0075, A = 0.08 sec" 1 , and A = 1 0 " 3 sec. In particular, it should be noted that
after a very rapid initial transient C$ 2 - 1 ~ .2 sec), the reactor time response becomes
exponential with a period of
25 sec. This time constant characterizing the
more slowly varying asymptotic behavior is occasionally referred to as the stable
reactor period.
B. The Inhour Equation

The reciprocal time constants sx and s2 characterizing the single delayed
group model were given as the roots of a quadratic equation (6-36) in terms of p 0 ,
/?, A, and A. W e can generalize this result to the situation in which there are several
groups of delayed neutrons by first rewriting Eq. (6-36) in a slightly different form.
244
t{ sec)
FIGURE 6-1.
Reactor power level behavior following a positive step reactivity insertion
Using our definitions of p and A in Eqs. (6-22) and (6-23), we can rewrite Eq.
(6-36) as
,
It/'
'
^T+TIT+a)'
<W1>
' \ '
This equation will determine the decay constants s for any constant reactivity p 0 .
T o generalize to six delayed groups, we write
P o =
7 + T
^7+T 2
/-I
=p(s)-
(6-42)
This equation, which expresses the decay constants s- as the roots of a seventhorder polynomial, is known in reactor theory as the inhour equation. [This
terminology arises from the very early attempts to express reactivity in units of
"inverse hours" or inhours, which were defined as the amount of reactivity required
to make the reactor period equal to one hour. Reactivity is more commonly
expressed today either in decimals or percentages or pcm (per cent mille= 10~ 5 ) of
A k / k . W e will later introduce another unit called the dollar, in which p is measured
in units of the delayed neutron fraction /?.]
The roots of Eq. (6-42) are most conveniently studied using graphical techniques.
In Figure 6-2 we have plotted the right-hand side of Eq. (6-42) for various values of
s. The intersection of these curves with the line p = p 0 yields the seven decay
constants j. characterizing the time-behavior
7
P(t)=
2 PjOipsjt.
(6-43)
7=1
The root lying farthest to the right, s0, is identified as the reciprocal reactor period,
sx=T~l.
It is apparent from Figure 6-2 that only this root will ever be positive.
The remaining roots sJ9 j>l,
can then be identified as transients that die out
rapidly after a reactivity p 0 is inserted into the reactor.
245
It should be noted that the range of p 0 is bounded by unity,

/
k - i
- cc 1 y 1 = 0
p 0 -> 1 = > 5 ^ 0 0
(supercritical)
oo = > 5 , ^ A!
(subcritical)
This last limit is particularly interesting because it implies that no matter how much
negative reactivity we introduce, we cannot shut the reactor down any faster than
on a period T 1 /\X determined by the longest-lived delayed neutron precursor. In
235
U fueled thermal reactors, Af ^ 8 0 sec.
Several other limiting cases are of particular interest:
(1) Small reactivity insertions (p 0 </?): Then we can assume that the magnitude of s 0 is small such that
|^0|<A1<A2... < / - i
Hence in the inhour equation (6-42) we can neglect sx in comparison with
/ ~ 1 and A, to write
A/V
/=i
Thus the reactor period is given by

6
T=
J- = -I
s,
Po
/+"
/= 1
<0
</>
Po
k - 1 '
(6-45)
246
However this is of course identical to the result suggested by our earlier

heuristic argument. Hence for small reactivities the reactor period is
determined essentially by the average neutron lifetime </> including
delayed neutrons.
(2) Large positive reactivity insertions ( p 0 / 3 ) : In the opposite extreme of
large reactivity insertion, we can assume
to write the inhour
equation (6-42) as
S,
P o -
/ - I
+ - 7 7 T 7
Sx + I
S. +
BL~L
A - r '
Sx + /
sl +1
(6"46)
Hence we can solve for the reactor period as

r =
~ Tk 7 (Po~P)
>
(6"47)
which is just the result we would have obtained by totally ignoring

delayed neutrons. Thus for large positive reactivity insertions, the reactor
response is determined essentially by the prompt neutron lifetime /.
(3) p 0 = / 3 : This is essentially the "break point" between a reactor kinetic
response controlled by delayed neutrons and that governed by prompt
neutrons alone. If we refer to the point reactor kinetics equations (6-24), it
is apparent that for the reactor to be critical on prompt neutrons alone,
we would require p 0 = A - For p 0 < / 2 the delayed neutron contribution is
needed for reactor criticality, and hence the time response of the reactor
will be determined to a large extent by the time delay characterizing the
precursor /?-decay. Some common terminology is to refer to the range
0 (3 is referred to as prompt critical or
prompt supercritical. Obviously it is very important to avoid this latter
situation in reactor operation, since the reactor time response would be
very rapid if prompt criticality were exceeded.
Actually the transition between these two classes of time response is not quite so
abrupt. In Figure 6-3 4 we have shown the asymptotic reactor period 7 1 = j f 1
plotted versus p 0 for positive reactivity insertions in 2 3 3 U, 2 3 5 U, and 2 3 9 Pu-fueled
cores. The rather dramatic decrease in the reactor period in the neighborhood of
prompt critical p 0 = (3 should be noted.
The significance of the prompt critical condition has led to the custom of
measuring reactivity in units of ji. More precisely, a p = ft is referred to as one
dollar ($) of reactivity. For example, a reactivity of $.40 would correspond to
p = 0.4^ = 0.0028 A&/& = 280 pcm for a 2 3 5 U-fueled thermal reactor.
C. The Inverse Method5

There are very few problems for which it is possible to obtain an exact
solution for P(t) given a specific p(t). Actually it is frequently more appropriate to
invert the problem by determining that p(t) which will yield a desired P(t)
behavior, since this is more in line with the philosophy of reactor control.

10 - I
IV 11 I iV|i] i l y u
t ivjn i rat ] i i 111 i i II
" / = 10~ 8
NO"7
So-6
10-5
MO" 4
247
i i 1 | * 1 111 1233
U
:
s e c ^ \
10" 1
10-
2
I Mil I I III I I III I I III I Mil 1 Mil 1 Mil 1 1 11 i 111 K i
1cr6
10"5
10"4
10"3
10"2
1o~ 1
1
10
1o 2
1o 3
Asymptotic period (T), sec
10-6
10-5
10" 4
10"3
10"2
10 _ 1
10 2
10
10 3

10 - 1 1 VI 1 1 \ l | 1i
i i VT" ir\nj i i 111 i i II | i 1 III 1 1 111 1239pu "
I ^ J
- / = 10"8
S o - 7 V 1 0 - 6 \ 1 0 - 5 \ -j Q4 \ 1 0 - 3 s e c ^ S
10_1
"S
CO
0)
CC
10
10"6
FIGURE 6-3.
I I11 1 1 l\l
, .,l . . i.l , I 1 1 I 1 Mil 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 Mil
1O" 5
10"4
10"3
10" 2
10" 1
1
10
10 2
1o 3
Reactor period versus reactivity for fissile isotope delayed-neutron data 4
In order to solve for p(t) in terms of P(t), let us derive yet another form of the
point reactor kinetics equation. Suppose we begin by formally solving the equations
for the precursor concentrations in terms of P(t):
C,.(0= f
d f - ^ P ( O e x p - M t - 0 = fV|Uxp(-A,.T)i>(/-T),
(6-48)
J - oc
where we have implicitly assumed that C,(7) exp\?>0 as t-*cc and then let
r = t tf to obtain the second integral. [Note that if we wish to take explicit account
of initial conditions on C(.(f)s say at a time tt0y then we would merely separate
out the contribution in the first form of the integral in Eq. (6-48) from t = cc to
t = t0 to represent C^t^).] We will now substitute this into the first of the point
reactor kinetics equations to write
dP
dt
p(Q-jS
P(t)+
/
I
dr Z j ~ r
e x
- a
<
P(t-r).
(6-49)
248
If we define the delayed neutron kernel D (r)

6
= 2
XB
"Vexp-V,
i-i
(6-50)
(noting that D (r) dr is just the probability that a delayed neutron will be emitted in
a time dr following a fission event at t = 0 ) then we arrive at an "integrodifferential" form of the point reactor kinetics equations
dP
dt
P(0~j8
A
We can now rearrange this equation to yield p(t) in terms of
= P+
P(t):
P(t~r)
(6-52)
This particular relationship is important for two reasons: (a) it can be used in
principle to determine the time-dependence of the applied reactivity required to
yield a specific power variationthat is, to program the control rod motion and (b)
the interpretation of the measured power responses in transient analyses of reactivity changes can be used to provide information about the feedback mechanism in
the reactor. Several specific applications of this relationship are of considerable
interest:
1. PERIODIC POWER VARIATION
Suppose we seek the reactivity that will yield a sinusoidally varying power of
the form
P (t) = P0+ Px sin cot.
(6-53)
(Note that we must require P0>PX since a negative power would offend our
physical intuition.) Inserting this expression into Eq. (6-52) and performing a few
manipulations (left for the reader's enjoyment to the exercises at the end of the
chapter), we arrive at
Px
P ( ' ) = p 1 ! Y(i<*)\
sin(wf <j>)
p
(6-54)
1 + sin o)t
"o
where
<f> = a r g { y ( ^ ) " 1 } .
(6-55)
and Y(ios) is a function which looks suspiciously like a chunk of the inhour
249
equation
y (/) = / a + 2 7/co + X,
a
(6-56)
(It will cross our path again.) Notice in particular that the reactivity insertion that
gives rise to a purely sinusoidal power variation is periodicbut not sinusoidal (at
least for large power variations). One can show, in fact, that p ( 0 has a negative
bias. This fact proves of some importance in reactor oscillator experiments in
which an absorbing material is oscillated within the core and the core power
response is then measured in an effort to infer system parameters (e.g., /? and A).
2. REACTIVITY A F T E R A POSITIVE POWER TRANSIENT
As a second application of Eq. (6-52), suppose we determine the reactivity

present following a power transient in which the reactor power increases from its
initial value P0 at t 0, and then decreases back to P0 at a later time t0
p(t0) = A
'o
1 dP
dt
dr D ( t )
n'o-O-ô
(6-57)
Now we know that for a positive transient, P(t0 r)> P(t0) = P0 and hence the
integral is always positive. Furthermore it is apparent that at t = /0, the slope
dP/dt | , o < 0 . Thus we can infer that the reactivity following a positive power
excursion must, in fact, be negative. That is, the reactor must be taken subcritical
to return the power to its original level.
3. R A M P REACTIVITY INSERTION
Suppose the reactor power level is found to increase very rapidly from an
initial level P0 as P 0 exp(a* 2 ) for f > 0 . Then using Eq. (6-52) we can find that for
long times /,
p(t)^f]
+ 2Aat.
(6-58)
Hence p(t) approaches a linear function of timethat is, a ramp insertion of

reactivity above prompt critical. We can turn this calculation around to infer that
the response of the reactor power P(t) to a ramp insertion p(t)=*yt should behave
as e x p [ y f 2 / 2 A ] for long times. This conclusion has particular relevance for certain
classes of fast reactor accident models in which fuel melting is assumed to lead to
core reassembly in a prompt supercritical configuration with a ramp reactivity
insertion. Obviously the power increase resulting from such an occurrence would
be very rapid indeed.
D r Approximate Solutions
As we have seen, exact solutions of the point reactor kinetics equations are
known for only a few special reactivity insertions. Hence we now turn our attention
to approximate schemes for solving these equations in the absence of feedback.
250

1. C O N S T A N T D E L A Y E D N E U T R O N P R O D U C T I O N R A T E
APPROXIMATION
In certain problems, such as when the reactor is shut down by rapid insertion
of the safety rods, we are interested in the response of the reactor power to a given
reactivity insertion in short time intervals following a time t0. During such short
time intervals we can ignore the change in the rate of production of delayed
neutrons, replacing C,(/) by CÔ). Hence in this approximation, the point reactor
kinetics equation becomes
dP
dt
P{t)+Q{t),
(6-59)
where the effective source of delayed neutrons Q(t) is now presumed known and
given by
g ( 0 -
2\c,(0).
i=\
(6-60)
However we now just have a first-order inhomogeneous differential equation that

we can easily integrate for any given p(t).
A rather interesting application of this result is to the case of a reactor scram in
which control rods are rapidly inserted into the reactor core to shut the reactor
down in an emergency situation such as the loss of primary coolant flow. Since the
rod insertion takes a finite time, we cannot really treat the reactor scram as a step
reactivity change (as in Section 6-II-1). A more reasonable model is to assume a
negative ramp insertion, that is, p ( f ) = ~~ yt. If we substitute this into Eq. (6-59) and
solve this equation subject to the initial condition imposed by steady-state power
operation prior to the scram,
2\.C,.(0)=f/>0,
(6-61)
then we find that the power level decreases as
(6-62)
After the scram rods have been fully inserted, the negative reactivity becomes
constant, and one can determine P(t) for subsequent time using our earlier
solutions of the point reactor kinetics equation for constant p(t) = p0.
2. T H E P R O M P T J U M P A P P R O X I M A T I O N
In our earlier study of the response of the reactor power P(t) to a step change
in reactivity, we found that there was initially a very rapid transient behavior on a
time-scale characteristic of the prompt neutron lifetime, followed by a more slowly
varying response governed by delayed neutron behavior. Since this transient is so
rapid, a very useful approximation to make for systems below prompt critical is
251
one in which the prompt neutron lifetime is essentially taken to be zero such that
the power level jumps instantaneously to its asymptotic behavior (recall Figure
6-1). This so-called prompt jump approximation is effected by merely neglecting the
time derivative dP/ dt in the point reactor kinetics equation
0=[PM-/?]i>(0+Ai\.c,.(0
1-1
(6-63)
dC,
B,
Since the delayed neutron production cannot respond immediately to a step change
in reactivity, this model predicts that a reactivity j u m p from px to p 2 causes an
instantaneous change in reactor power from Px to P2 as given by
Pi
"
;(
"
" '
' (
The prompt j u m p approximation is frequently used in numerical studies of the

point reactor kinetics equations since it eliminates the very short time scale due to
A which plagues finite difference methods. However it is also of use in simplifying
analytical estimates based on the one-effective delayed group model, since in this
case the precursor concentration C(t) can be eliminated to find a simple first-order
differential equation for the power P(t)
M O - 0 ] f
MO
P(t) = 0.
(6-65)
If p(t) is given, we can again solve for P(t) as

P(t) = P(0)eA\
(6-66)
where
A(t)= dT
j0 l^^r
f
rp(r) + Ap(r)l
For example, for a ramp insertion p(t)=yfit,

implies
"
the prompt j u m p approximation

x
P(t) = P(0)e~Xt[l-yt]-{X+y).
(6 67)
' '
"
(6-68)
The prompt j u m p approximation is frequently found to yield an adequate

description of reactor kinetic behavior. Numerical solutions of the point reactor
kinetics equations have demonstrated the approximation is valid to within about
1% up to reactivity insertions of p 0 = $0.50. 6
252
3. SMALL A M P L I T U D E APPROXIMATION (LINEARIZATION)
Suppose that we assume that small reactivity variations will produce only
small changes in the reactor power f r o m its equilibrium value P0. We already know
that this assumption is not true for a critical reactor since even a slight positive step
in reactivity gives rise to an exponentially increasing power response that eventually grows beyond any bound. However the assumption will still be valid if we
consider only short times following the step insertion. Furthermore for certain
classes of reactivity changes such as a periodic reactivity insertion with an
appropriate negative bias, the resulting power variations remain small for all times.
In this case, the point reactor kinetics equations reduce f r o m a set of linear O D E s
with variable coefficients to a set of linear O D E s with constant coefficients.
Consider again the integrodifferential f o r m of the point reactor kinetics equations
dP
dt
(6-69)
If we now let p(t) denote the power variations about a reference level P0
P(t) = P0+p(t),
(6-70)
then substitution of Eq. (6-70) into Eq. (6-69) and use of the identity
J
yields (after a bit of manipulation)
dp
p(t)
i =
p(*)p(t)
r 00
drD(r)=
(6-71)
8 roo
+ fjT * D ( r ) [ p ( t - r ) - p m
(6-72)
Thus far our analysis has been exact, merely consisting of a bit of algebraic
manipulation. We now introduce our key approximation by assuming that p(t) and
p(t) are sufficiently small that we can neglect the second-order term p(/) p(t) to
write
idp ~p ( 0 o UB <*rl>(r)[p('-r)-p(0l
=
(6-73)
This approximation is sometimes (incorrectly) referred to as the linearization

approximation. Actually both the original point reactor kinetics equation as well as
Eq. (6-72) are already linear, provided we are given p{t). All we have done is to
remove p(/) as a time-dependent coefficient in the equation and replace it by a
time-dependent inhomogeneous term
p(t)P0/A.
Equation (6-73) forms the basis of nuclear reactor stability analysis, since it
relates the response of the reactor power to a small change in reactivity. At this
point one can essentially turn the mathematical analysis of this equation over to
the systems (or control) engineer who will then proceed to hack away at it using the
powerful tools of linear systems analysis. 7 It is not our intent here to venture very
far into this topic.
253
However with the recognition that many readers of this text (particularly
electrical engineers) will already be acquainted with methods of linear systems
analysis, we do feel it useful to provide a very short discussion of this topic in an
effort to bridge the gap to reactor kinetics. 8 ' 9 (Other readers may wish to bypass the
remaining discussion of this section.)
The key tool used in linear systems analysis is the Laplace transform (defined
and discussed in Appendix G). W e will define the Laplace transform f(s) of a
f u n c t i o n / ( 0 by
f(s)=f a e - y C f ) .
(6-74)
Then we can easily Laplace transform the "linearized" reactor kinetics equation
(6-73) and solve for
p(s) =
(6-75)
P0Z(s)p(s)
where we have defined the zero power transfer function Z (s)

-l
' 1
v
'
j- 1
+ X:
J
(6-76)
Y(s)'
Hence to determine the behavior of the reactor power, we need only study the
poles of Z(s) and (.?). However there is a great deal more we can do by employing
the very powerful methods of linear systems analysis. In particular we can study
the stability of the reactor when it is operating at power (i.e., when we introduce
feedback).
The concept of a transfer function is much more general. The response (or
output) of any physical system to a signal (or input) applied to it can be expressed
in terms of such transfer functions. More precisely, we define
Laplace transform of response
Transfer function =
= Z (J).
Laplace transform of input
(6-77)
This can be conveniently represented by a "block diagram."
Input
(cause)
Z(s)
Output
(effect)
In our case, the input is the reactivity p(t), while the output is the fractional power
change p(t)/P0.
Of course other choices are possible, such as the inlet coolant
temperature and pressure.
The transfer function defined for a linear system in this way is sometimes called
the "open-loop" transfer function, since we have assumed that the output (power
level) does not affect the input (reactivity) in any way. Later we will consider the
254
T H E ONE-SPEED DIFFUSION M O D E L O F A NUCLEAR REACTOR
case in which we allow feedback effects:
Input
(That is, we "close" the feedback loop.)

It should be noted that the concept of a transfer function allows one to use the
principle of superposition to write the total output resulting f r o m several inputs as
the sum of the individual output f r o m each of the inputs. In particular since
{(/)} = 1, the response to a S-function reactivity input is just the inverse Laplace
transform of the transfer function itself.
exp s t
PO
= 2(/).
(6-78)
7=2
A +
Here, %{t) is the so-called unit impulse response, that is, the power response to a
unit impulse reactivity insertion. The Sj are the roots of the inhour equation, while
we have noted that for a critical system, s 0 = 0.
One can now use the convolution theorem (Appendix G) to reexpress Eq. (6-75)
in the "time domain" as
p(0-rof'**(<-r)f>(r).
(6-79)
Note that Z ( t - r ) is just the Green's function for the linearized point reactor
kinetics equation. Hence it is not surprising that Z(t) plays an extremely important
role in the study of nuclear reactor kinetics. In particular one can infer the stability
properties of a linear system by studying %(t).
One defines such a linear system to be stable if its response to any bounded input
is also bounded. It is possible to show (see Problem 6-27) that a necessary and
sufficient condition for stability is for
r oo
\%(t)\dt<oo.
(6-80)
In this regard it is interesting to note that since the zero power reactor response
function ( / ) - * A _ 1 as t->oo, the integral of %(t) over all time is not bounded.
This then implies that a critical reactor without feedback is unstable with respect to
bounded reactivity inputs. However as we will see later, there are always sufficient
negative reactivity feedback mechanisms present in reactors to render them stable
under almost any conceivable operating conditions.
255
As an example of the use of the reactor transfer function, let us determine the
response of the reactor to a sinusoidal reactivity input
p(t) =
(6-81)
Spsinut.
Then if we note that the Laplace transform of this input is just

Spa)
p(s) =
(6-82)
* 2 + <o2'
we can easily invert Eq. (6-75) to find

p(0
exp Sjt
= 8p\Z (/to)| sin(atf + <f>) + o)8p
(6-83)
where <(<o) = arg[Z(/co)] is known as the phase shift of the transfer function, while
\Z(io))\ is known as the system gain. The first term in Eq. (6-83) arises from the
poles of p(.s) on the imaginary axis at s = z<o, while the remaining terms are due to
the poles of Z(s). These latter poles are just the roots Sj of the inhour equation
Y(sj) = 0. Of course for the critical system we are considering, s7<s6< * < j 1 = 0 .
Hence as
only the oscillating terms and the s^ = 0 term remain, and we find
the asymptotic behavior of the power oscillations as
p(t)
~
= 8p\Z(io))\ sin(co* + </>)+
So
(6-84)
Notice in particular that there is a shift in the average power level of P0Sp/o)A.
If a reactor operating at a steady-state power level is subjected to a sinusoidal
perturbation in reactivity, the power will oscillate with the source frequency, but
with a phase shift <J>(to) = a r g { Z } (actually a phase lag) and an amplitude proportional to G(<o) = |Z(/<o)|. Hence we can obtain the values of Z(s) on the imaginary
axis in the complex s-plane by measuring experimentally the amplitude and relative
phase of power oscillations as functions of frequency, induced by a sinusoidal
reactivity insertion with constant amplitude. This is the basis of the zero-power
pile-oscillator experiment. We have sketched the gain and phase shift of the zero
power transfer function for a 2 3 5 U/ 2 3 8 U-fueled system in Figure 6-4.
F. Some General Comments on Applications of the Point Reactor

,
Kinetics Equations
The point reactor kinetics equations are commonly applied to analyze most
short-term transients in nuclear reactor behavior. The popularity of the point
reactor kinetics model is not due necessarily to its validity (which is limited), but
rather the fact that alternative methods that also treat the spatial dependence of the
flux are usually prohibitively expensive to use in the large variety of problems
typically encountered in a core design effort.
256
T H E O N E - S P E E D DIFFUSION M O D E L OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
O)
FIGURE 6-4.
Gain and phase shift of the zero-power reactor transfer function
Most experimental measurements on reactors involving a reactivity change can

be analyzed via the point reactor kinetics equations. Indeed since such experiments
are usually performed at zero power, it is frequently not necessary to append to the
point reactor kinetics equations suitable models of reactivity feedback. Although
we will briefly review a variety of experimental techniques commonly used to
measure reactor kinetics parameters later in this chapter, we would merely mention
here as an example experiments in which the reactivity worth of control rods are
measured by withdrawing a rod and then determining the resulting asymptotic
reactor period. The inhour equation can then be used to relate this period to the
worth of the control rod.
Normal operating transients in nuclear power reactors are usually very easy to
analyze, since they are typically rather slow. This is because the rate of change of
reactor power level in a large plant is limited not by neutronic considerations, but
rather by the rate of temperature change allowable in nonnuclear plant components. For such slow transients (typically a 5% change in power per minute or
less for maneuvering) reactivity insertions are kept far below prompt critical, and
hence the prompt j u m p approximation, in which the mean generation time A is set
equal to zero, is adequate. Furthermore on such a time scale the spatial power
shape usually remains in a fundamental mode and hence the point reactor kinetics
equations are valid. The solution of the point reactor kinetics equations for such
slow transients does necessitate consideration of reactivity feedback, however.
Frequently one finds the point reactor kinetics equations augmented with transient
257
models of the remainder of the plant suffices for on-line system performance
studies in the plant itself (using hybrid digital-analog process computers).
The most stringent application of the point reactor kinetics equations is in the
analysis of hypothetical reactor accident situations in which reactivity insertions
may be quite large (several $) and power transients very rapid. Indeed one
frequently encounters situations in which such equations are not valid. Typically
one uses them to provide a parameter study of the effects of various input data
such as reactivity insertions on reactor behavior under the postulated accident
conditions. Occasionally spatially dependent kinetics calculations are performed to
check the predictions of the point reactor model. Obviously an effort is always
made to generate conservative predictions.
For most severe transients in thermal reactors, such as a loss of coolant accident
or the ejection of a control rod, the usual transient thermal-hydraulics models are
adequate to supplement the core neutronics calculations. However in fast systems
very severe transients may lead to fuel melting and slumping with an appreciable
change in core configuration. Indeed such core rearrangements may produce large
positive reactivities, leading to very large energy release, followed by core disassembly (that is, a small nuclear explosion). Such severe accidents, although quite
remote in probability, must nevertheless be studied in reactor analysis. They
require not only models of the core neutronics (e.g., the point reactor kinetics
equations) and thermal-hydraulics, but as well models of the physical motion of the
core due to melting and disassembly. Needless to say, such analyses can become
very complicated indeed.
III. REACTIVITY FEEDBACK AND REACTOR DYNAMICS

A. Mathematical Description of Feedback
Thus far we have assumed that the reactivity p(t) appearing in the point
reactor kinetics equations is a given function of time. However we know, in fact,
that it depends on the neutron flux (or power level) itself. This dependence arises
because the reactivity depends on macroscopic cross sections, which themselves
involve the atomic number densities of materials in the core:
2(T,t)
N(T9t)o(T,t).
(6-85)
Now it is easily understandable how the atomic density N (r, t) can depend on the
reactor power level, since: (a) material densities depend on temperature T, which in
turn depends on the power distribution and hence the flux and (b) the concentrations of certain nuclei is constantly changing due to neutron interactions (buildup
of poison or burnup of fuel). However it should also be noted that we have
explicitly written the microscopic cross sections as explicit functions of r and t.
This must be done since the cross sections that appear in our one-speed diffusion
model are actually averages of the true energy-dependent microscopic cross sections over an energy spectrum characterizing the neutrons in the reactor core. And
258
this neutron energy spectrum will itself depend on the temperature distribution in
the core, and hence the reactor power level.
Such reactivity variation with temperature is the principal feedback mechanism
determining the inherent stability of a nuclear reactor with respect to short-term
fluctuations in power level. Evidently our first task in constructing a model of
temperature feedback is to determine the temperature distribution in the core. Of
course, one could begin by writing the fundamental equations of heat a n d mass
transport characterizing the reactor. That is, one could write the equations of
thermal conduction and convection using the fission energy deposition as the
source of heat generation. The motion of the coolant through the core would then
be described by the equations of hydrodynamics. As we will find in our detailed
development of thermal-hydraulic core analysis in Chapter 12, this fundamental
approach results in a formidable set of nonlinear partial differential equations
unless further simplifications are introduced.
Hence it has become customary to avoid the complexity of a direct solution of
the full set of thermal-hydraulic equations by replacing the spatially dependent
description by a "lumped parameter" model similar in philosophy to the point
reactor kinetics model. The reactor core is typically characterized by several
average temperatures, such as an average fuel temperature, moderator temperature,
and coolant temperature. One then models a simple dependence of the reactivity
on these temperature variables.
Of course one must append to the original point reactor kinetics model equations
describing the changes of these core temperatures produced by changes in the
reactor power level. Typically such calculations are based on a model of a single
average fuel element and its associated coolant channel, and describes the conduction of fission heat out of the fuel element and into the coolant, and then its
subsequent convection out of the reactor core. We will consider such models in
some detail in Chapter 12.
Our more immediate concern in this chapter, however, is to study how the results
of such thermal-hydraulic models, namely the core component average temperatures such as TF (fuel) and TM (moderator or coolant), can be used in suitable
models of reactivity feedback. T o this end let us return to consider our point
reactor kinetics model. W e will write the reactivity p(t) as a sum of two contributions
p(t) = 8peJt)
8p{[PL
(6-86)
The 8p notation signifies that the reactivity is measured with respect to the
equilibrium power level P0 [for which p = 0]. Furthermore, 8pext(t) represents the
"externally" controlled reactivity insertion such as by adjusting a control rod.
p f [.P] denotes the change in reactivity corresponding to inherent feedback
mechanisms. This latter component is written generally as a functional of the
reactor power level.
When the reactor is operating at a steady-state power level PQ, then there will be
a certain feedback reactivity p f [P 0 ]. Since in almost all cases this will correspond to
a negative reactivity, it is customary to refer to p f [P 0 ] as the power defect in
reactivity. T o sustain the criticality of the system, we must supply a counteracting
external reactivity p 0 (such as by withdrawing control rods) such that
(6-87)
259
In this sense then, we define our incremental reactivities as

5
Pext(0 = Pext(0-Po>
8p{[P]
= ps[P]-Pr[Po\-
(6-88)
It is also useful to recall our definition of the incremental power

p(t) = P(t)-P
(6-89)
From Eq. (6-88) we note that Spf[/? = 0] = Sp f [P 0 ] = 0.

We can now sketch the block diagram characterizing a reactor with feedback as
shown in Figure 6-5. In particular, it should be recalled that we have already
analyzed the "black box" describing the reactor kinetics, since this is just given by
the point reactor kinetics equation without feedback, which can be most conveniently written in the form Eq. (6-72). This equation can be regarded as
d e t e r m i n i n g p ( i ) for any p(t). Of course we commonly analyze this equation under
one of a variety of approximations, for example: (a) ignoring delayed neutrons
( D = 0 ) for very large reactivity insertions, (b) prompt j u m p approximation, and (c)
linearization for small reactivity insertions, in which case we can solve Eq. (6-73) in
terms of the open loop or zero-power transfer function to find
p\p] = P0fdT%(t-T)p(T).
(6-90)
We therefore turn our attention to the study of the black box describing the
feedback functional Spf[/?].
B. Models of Temperature Feedback

1. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF REACTIVITY
Of most concern in the study of short-term reactivity feedback is the effect of

the core temperature T on the multiplication of the core. One usually expresses this
in terms of a temperature coefficient of reactivity aT defined as
dp
=
(6-91)
pit)
Pext
External
reactivity
-o
Net
reactivity
Spf
pit) = pip]
Neutron
kinetics
5pf [p]
Feedback
mechanisms
F I G U R E 6-5.
Closed-loop block diagram
o > Incremental
power
260
This should more properly be referred to as an isothermal temperature coefficient,

since it assumes that the core can be characterized by a single uniform temperature
T.
Such a simple model illustrates quite clearly the effect of temperature feedback
on reactor stability. For if a reactor were to possess a positive aT, then an increase
in temperature would produce an increase in p, hence the power would increase,
causing a further increase in temperature, a n d so on. In this sense, the reactor
would be unstable with respect to temperature or power variations. The more
desirable situation is that in which aT is negative, since then an increase in
temperature will cause a decrease in p, hence a decrease in reactor power and
temperature which tends to stabilize the reactor power level.
The temperature coefficient of reactivity depends on a great many processes
occurring within the core. Since the details of these processes depend on the
specific reactor type under consideration, we will defer a discussion of just how
such temperature coefficients are evaluated to Chapter 14.
However we should remark at this point that the concept of such an isothermal
temperature coefficient has a very limited range of usefulness in reactor analysis. In
a heterogeneous reactor, most of the fission energy release is confined to the fuel
elements. This energy must then be transferred by thermal conduction through the
fuel element, the clad, and then into the coolant before it can be withdrawn from
the core. Hence one has a very nonuniform temperature distribution. For example,
fuel centerline temperatures may range as high as 2700C, while coolant temperatures are as low as 250C.
Hence one usually introduces several such temperature coefficients of reactivity,
each of which characterizes the reactivity feedback due to a variation in the
effective or average temperatures of each major component of the core, such as
fuel, moderator, and structure
However one must also keep in mind that the various thermal processes in the core
are characterized by widely different time behaviors. The fuel temperature responds relatively rapidly to any power level changes. However it takes an appreciable amount of time to transfer this energy to the coolant, and hence its temperature response is much slower. For this reason, it is convenient to divide up the
temperature coefficient of reactivity into prompt and delayed components.
Effects that depend on the instantaneous state of the fuelfor instance, resonance absorption (Doppler effect) or thermal distortion of fuel elementsmay
be regarded as prompt, while effects that depend primarily on the moderator or
coolantneutron energy spectrum and thermal expansion of moderator material
are delayed. Prompt feedback mechanisms are of particular importance in reactor
safety studies, since they play a very important role in limiting any reactor
transients that may occur.
For these reasons, the isothermal temperature coefficient of reactivity is not
really a very useful quantity. A more useful quantity is the change in reactivity
caused by a change in reactor power. W e will consider this in detail in the next
section.
There is one instance in which the concept of an isothermal temperature
coefficient is of some use, however. When the reactor is at zero power, there is no
261
fission energy being released in the fuel, and hence the entire reactor core can
essentially be characterized by a single temperature. As the temperature of the core
is increased, say by heating the primary coolant, there will be a decrease in core
multiplication due to temperature feedback. One defines the so-called temperature
defect of reactivity, Ap TD , as the change in reactivity that occurs in taking the
reactor core from the fuel-loading temperature (i.e., the ambient temperature) to
the zero power operating temperature
P t d
r T zero power g 0
/
-dT.
(6-93)
Jt ambient
The magnitude of Ap XD is primarily determined by the coolant temperature

coefficient of reactivity, and depends sensitively on the moderator-to-fuel ratio and
soluble poison concentration. In a L W R Ap T D ~.02-.04(AA;//:).
2. POWER COEFFICIENTS OF REACTIVITY
A far more useful parameter characterizing feedback is the power coefficient

of reactivity defined by
where the Tt are again the effective temperatures associated with each core
component. Such a parameter takes account of the temperature differences occurring in a reactor while it is operating at power. The reactivity due to power
feedback can then be written as
p = fPdPaP(P).
(6-95)
Obviously if a reactor is to be inherently stable against power-level fluctuations, it

must be designed with a p < 0 .
A closely related quantity is the power defect, which is defined to be the change
in reactivity taking place between zero power and full power
C
APpd= I
f u l l power 3 O
-dP.
(6-96)
A)
The power defect can be quite sizable. For example, in the L W R the power defect
is typically of the order Ap PD ->.01 .03(A/c/:).
Thus far we have only discussed how the reactivity depends on temperature. The
remaining problem of how the temperature depends on the power level is strongly
relate^Lto the reactor type and involves a thermal-hydraulics analysis of the core.
For slow power changes, one can use the steady-state analysis developed in
Chapter 12 to determine the core temperatures for a given power level and hence
the power coefficient of reactivity in terms of the temperature coefficients of the
various components of the core.
Such a steady-state thermal analysis will no longer be valid for more rapid power
transients. For example, the thermal time constant of the fuel is frequently as large
262
as 10 seconds. For power transients on shorter time scales the fuel temperature
coefficient of reactivity (principally determined by the Doppler effect) will be the
dominant factor in determining the power coefficient of reactivity.
Although a realistic description of temperature feedback involves a transient
thermal-hydraulics model of the reactor core such as those we will develop in
Chapter 12, several alternative lumped parameter models of the reactor temperature dependence are occasionally used for qualitative studies of reactor dynamics.
One common model assumes a single effective coolant temperature Tc, and
models the fuel temperature TF by Newton's law of cooling
=KP(t)-Y(TF-
Tc),
(6-97)
where K and Y are thermal constants characterizing the core. At the opposite
extreme would be an adiabatic model, in which the heat loss is assumed to be
negligible (such as in a very rapid transient)
= KP (/).
(6-98)
Still another model assumes constant power removal such that

dTF
= K(P-P0).
(6-99)
All of these models can be considered as special cases of a general linear feedback
functional:
Pf(0= Jr
drh(t-r)[P(r)-P0l
(6-100)
00
A little inspection should convince you that the feedback kernel h(t) in each of
these cases takes the form:
aKe~yt
Newton's law of cooling:
h(t) =
Adiabatic model:
h(t) = aK[P0 = 0]
Constant power removal:
h(t) aK.
(6-101)
If more reliable design information is required, then one is usually forced to go

to a multigroup diffusion calculation coupled with a detailed thermal-hydraulic
analysis of the core. One can then calculate the multiplication for several different
power levels, and hence determine directly the dependence of reactivity on power
level. The corresponding power and temperature coefficients are frequently precalculated and stored in tabular form for use in determining the reactivity feedback
to use in point reactor kinetics models.
C. The Transfer Function of a Reactor with Feedback

1. CLOSED-LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION
Let us now return to consider the dynamic behavior of a reactor with

feedback. In particular we will consider the effects of feedback on the reactor
263
r e s p o n s e t o a n e x t e r n a l reactivity i n s e r t i o n . F i r s t w e will c o n s i d e r t h e p o w e r
oscillations r e s u l t i n g f r o m a p e r i o d i c r e a c t i v i t y i n s e r t i o n of small a m p l i t u d e , since
this i n e f f e c t m e a s u r e s t h e r e a c t i v i t y - t o - p o w e r t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n .
A t y p i c a l series of reactivity p o w e r t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n g a i n m e a s u r e m e n t s 1 0 , 1 1 is
s h o w n i n F i g . 6-6. I n p a r t i c u l a r n o t i c e h o w d i f f e r e n t t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n at p o w e r
is f r o m t h e z e r o p o w e r t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n . T h e m a r k e d r e s o n a n c e b e h a v i o r in t h e
vicinity of .03 cps a t 7 ^ = 550 k W in t h e first p l o t is a p p a r e n t . Such b e h a v i o r is d u e
t o t h e p r e s e n c e of f e e d b a c k . A s t h e p o w e r level increases, t h e r e s o n a n c e p e a k
b e c o m e s n a r r o w e r a n d h i g h e r . A s w e shall see, this implies t h a t f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y
large p o w e r s , t h e r e a c t o r is u n s t a b l e .
L e t u s go b a c k a n d d e v e l o p a m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a r e a c t o r w i t h f e e d b a c k . 1 W e will restrict ourselves t o small p o w e r
v a r i a t i o n s a b o u t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m level P0 so t h a t t h e f e e d b a c k c a n b e a d e q u a t e l y
r e p r e s e n t e d a s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n a l similar t o E q . (6-100)
C 00
Spf[p]
= j
drh(r)p(t~r).
(6-102)
N o t e t h a t w i t h this sign c o n v e n t i o n t h e n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k n e c e s s a r y f o r r e a c t o r
Frequency (cps)
+ 12
I rsM llllj
+8
1 M i l l I|
+4
7/in
// i
0.01
i i i i mil
0.1
1 1 1 1 Mill
1
'//
1 III! ll
10
I I I I III!
w, rad/sec
FIGURE 6-6.
^ yy /
A\
-16
/ / !
A
ij i \
-12
i i i
o
o -4
o
<N
-8
I 1 i mi!
60 MWV ry71 MW
20 M W \
4 0 MW ~
10 MW\ A l /
\Y\
_
Zero\
power V
<3
I 1 t Mill
Examples of measured closed-loop transfer functions 10 ' 11
100
264
stability will imply that / * ( t ) < 0 . It should also be kept in mind that the feedback
kernel h(t) actually depends on the equilibrium power level P0.
If we substitute Eq. (6-102) into Eq. (6-72), we find
dp_
dt
f oo
SPext(0+/
drh(r)p(t-r)
J
A
0
[P0+p(t)]
^lf^dTD(r)[p(t-r)-p(t)].
(6-103)
Of course this equation is still nonlinear. We will consider only small power
variations p(t)<&P0 such that we can linearize Eq. (6-103) to write
dp_
dt
Now, as before, we will assume the reactor is operating at a steady state power
level P0 prior to f = 0. Then by Laplace transforming Eq. (6-104) we find
SP ( ' ) = X
05Pex, + X
( S ) P (*)
H ( S ) P (S)
H
~ A
or
p(t)
Po
Z(s)
8
Pen(s)
-P0N(s)Z(s)
L s
( )$PtAs)>
(6-105)
where Z(s) is the usual zero power transfer function given by Eq. (6-76) while
H(s)= {h(t)}
is the feedback transfer function. We have further defined the
reactivity-to-power or closed-loop transfer function L(s)
Z(s)
L(s)
-P0H(s)Z(s)
(6-106)
Notice that as ^ o ^ O , L(s)^>Z(s),

the zero power transfer function. This notation is
consistent with our earlier block diagram that has been relabeled in Figure 6-7. Just
FIGURE 6-7.
Closed-loop Transfer function
265
as in the zero power case, the inverse of

/ ( / ) = ^ L ^ ) } , is the Green's
function for the point-reactor kinetics equation with feedback
pit^pJ'dTlit-T^p^T).
(6-107)
'O
Let us examine L(s) in a bit more detail. Unlike Z(s), L(s) is analytic at 5 = 0
with a value
L(0)=-[P0H(0)]~l=
l(t)dt.
(6-108)
'o
Hence the long time response to a positive step reactivity insertion of magnitude
8
Pext-^dPo
is
Just
p(t)
= P0dpJtdr!(T)^P08p0L(0).
(6-109)
This implies that the reactor approaches a new equilibrium power level
P (tôo)
= P0[ 1 + S p 0 L ( 0 ) ] .
(6-110)
This is in sharp contrast to the zero power (i.e., no feedback) reactor whose power
level grew exponentially for long times. The equilibrium state occurs when the
power level reaches a value such that the feedback reactivity just compensates for
the step reactivity insertion
8Pf(t)=
fdTh(t-T)p(T)^p(x>)H(0)=-8p0.
(6-111)
2. RESPONSE TO A SINUSOIDAL REACTIVITY INSERTION
Let us once again consider a sinusoidal reactivity variation

8pext(t)
= 8p0smc>t.
(6-112)
Then rfhe long time response is given in analogy to the zero feedback case [Eq.
(6-84)fby
Pi*)
"o
= | L (id) | sin (o>t + 4>),
<f>(w) = arg { L (/)}.
(6-113)
N o w if we recall the form for L(s) given by Eq. (6-106), we can see that a
resonance in the gain G(co)= |L(/<o)| will occur when
1 - P0H (/<o)Z (iw) = 1 + P0\H(iu)Z (/w)|exp/0>0,
(6-114)
where
fl() = a r g { - / / ( / w ) Z ( i ) } .
(6-115)
266
However for the resonance condition [Eq. (6-122)] to be satisfied, we require that
both of the conditions
0(o))=
180
and
P0\H( /co)Z ( / ) | = 1
(6-116)
be simultaneously satisfied. These two conditions will determine a critical power

level PCTit and a resonance frequency cocrit at which a true resonance situation will
arise. As long as the reactor power P0 is kept below P c r i t , only a finite resonance
peak such as those illustrated in Figure 6-6 will occur. At this peak, the gain |L(/)|
will assume a value
OIII L O cm/1
|Z
//t0;rit\.
(6-117)
In the light of this discussion we can more readily understand the transfer function
gain measurements given in Figure 6-6.
In almost all cases of reactor design, the critical power level Pcrit above which the
reactor is susceptible to such instabilities is always quite far above actual or design
operating levels. Nevertheless it is important to be able to anticipate such inherent
instabilities in the design so that effective countermeasures can be taken (such as
by modification of the original design or by the addition of stabilizing feedback
control). Such considerations arise in reactor stability analysis.
3. L I N E A R S T A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S
The stability of a reactor with feedback can be investigated by examining the

singularities of the closed-loop transfer function
Z(s)
L { s ) =
1\~P0PH{s)Z{s)
< w /
(6
"118)
in the complex s-plane. First notice that since Z (s) appears both in the numerator
and denominator, its poles Sj [that is, the roots of the inhour equation
= Z - 1 ( ^ ) = 0] "cancel." Hence the poles of L(s) are simply the zeros of
\~P0H(s)Z(s)
= 0.
(6-119)
Now suppose that Eq. (6-119) were to have a simple root at s s0 [i.e., a pole of
L(s)]. Then when we invert the Laplace transform, this pole will contribute a term
i n p ( t ) of the form exp(s 0 t). Hence if s0 is in the right half s-plane (RHP), t h e n p ( t )
will grow exponentially in time. This would imply an unstable response to an
applied reactivity perturbation (within the linear approximation, of course). If the
root s0 lies in the LHP, then terms of the form exp(5 0 /) will decay in time. Hence to
study reactor stability, it is obviously important to determine if any of the poles of
L(s) [i.e., zeros of Eq. (6-119)] lie in the RHP.
Instabilities may arise for sufficiently large power levels P0 even with negative
reactivity feedback, as the sequence of diagrams in Figure 6-8 indicate. For P 0 = 0,
we can identify the poles of L(s) as just those of Z(s) [i.e., the inhour equation
roots]. Then, for the case in which aP = H(0)<0,
increasing P0 will provide more
267
negative feedback and hence shift the pole sY to the left and into the LHP.
However the other poles will also shift. In particular, the pole s2 will shift to the
right. For-some sufficiently large power level P 0 , the poles s{ and s2 will coalesce,
forming a complex conjugate pair that moves off of the real axis and into the
complex plane. For still larger P0, this pair moves back to the right, until for some
critical power level P0 = Pcrit the poles move into the R H P and the reactor becomes
unstable. When the poles cross the imaginary axis, we observe a "resonance" in the
transfer function gain |L(/<o)| as we have already noted. Hence the problem of the
linear stability of our equilibrium state reduces to the problem of determining the
sign of the real parts of the poles of L(s). In particular, we have found that a
reactor is linearly "strictly stable" when the poles of L(s) all have negative real
parts. The response of the power in the critical case, when any of these poles have
real parts equal to zero, is not correctly described by linear analysis and depends
on nonlinearities of the point reactor kinetics equation.
P0 = 0
-xx-
FIGURE 6-8.
level Pn
P0 = P,> 0
-xx-xs3
s2 S-1
P0-P2>
splane
splane
splane
s plane
Pv
x4x-
Pent/
1I
\
Shifting of poles of the closed-loop transfer function with increasing reactor power
\
Ther6 are numerous tricks for determining the signs of these poles. These include
methods 1 2 such as those utilizing Nyquist diagrams, root-locus plots, and R o u t h Hurwitz criteria. However such subjects are more properly the concern of linear
system analysis or control theory, so we will simply refer the interested reader to
the references listed at the end of the chapter. 1 , 8 , 9
4. N O N L I N E A R POINT REACTOR KINETICS
Thus far our study of the point reactor kinetics equations with feedback has
been restricted to situations in which the reactivity changes and corresponding
power changes are sufficiently small that these equations can be linearized. In
particular our study of the stability of the reactor has been restricted to the
consideration of stability in the smallthat is, to the study of perturbations and
responses sufficiently small for a linear analysis. However for larger perturbations
nonlinear effects must be taken into account. In these cases, the resulting conclusions about stability may be quite different.
For example, we have seen that the linearized point reactor kinetics equation
predicts that the reactor will be unstable if the power exceeds some critical value
268
P c r i t . However even though the reactor is linearly unstable, it may be stable in the
nonlinear description. Hence it is of some interest to study the significance of linear
stability theory within the more general framework of nonlinear stability theory.
It should be remarked, however, that there are many different approaches to
nonlinear point reactor kineticsnone of which is completely satisfactory.
Furthermore such results as do exist provide only sufficient (as opposed to necessary) conditions for stability. Sufficiency conditions are usually m u c h too
restrictive for practical application. Furthermore, the very limited validity of the
models investigated by nonlinear stability methods usually discount their value for
practical reactor design. A n d of course there is also the more pragmatic philosophy
adopted in most nuclear reactor design favoring an ultraconservative design that
guarantees linear stability under all conceivable operating conditions, hence obviating the need for a nonlinear stability analysis.
5. SOME F I N A L COMMENTS ON REACTOR STABILITY ANALYSIS
It might seem that an integral part of any reactor safety analysis would be an
investigation of the stability of the reactor design. In particular such an analysis
should consider the possibility that the reactor might become unstable under some
feasible combination of operating conditions. In practice, however, such stability
studies do not play near as significant a role in reactor design as one might expect.
Reactor instabilities usually can occur only if one of the temperature feedback
coefficients happens to be positive over some range of operating conditions.
However it is usually quite easy to design a power reactor so that it will always be
characterized by large, negative temperature coefficients (as we will see in Chapter
14). Indeed all power reactor designs tend to be ultraconservative in this respect (as
they do with respect to all safety considerations). Hence there has been relatively
little motivation to perform detailed stability analyses of reactor core designs. And
in those instances in which methods of stability analysis have been applied to
practical reactor designs, investigations have usually been limited to the linear
domain.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF
KINETIC PARAMETERS AND REACTIVITY
REACTOR
F r o m our earlier development of the point reactor kinetics equations, we have

found that the three most important parameters characterizing the kinetic behavior
of a nuclear reactor are the reactivity p, the prompt generation time A, and the
effective delayed neutron fraction
A variety of experimental techniques have
been developed to measure both these as well as dynamic (i.e., feedback)
characteristics of the reactor. Such methods can be classified as either static or
dynamic measurement techniques.
A. Static Techniques for Reactivity Determination

1. N E U T R O N MULTIPLICATION M E A S U R E M E N T (RECIPROCAL
MULTIPLICATION METHOD)
Perhaps the most common measurement is the so-called critical loading

experiment or reciprocal multiplication method, in which the steady-state neutron
269
flux resulting from a source in a subcritical assembly is measured as fuel is added

to the assembly. If the reactor is characterized by a multiplication factor k, then
one can crudely think of the amplification of the original source neutrons by the
assembly as given by
9L
S q k S
'''
= (\-kylS0~MS0,
(6-120)
where S0 is the rate at which source neutrons are emitted in the reactor. The usual
procedure for a safe approach to delayed critical in core loading consists of
plotting M ~ x (or the reciprocal neutron counting rate) as a function of some
parameter that controls reactivity (e.g., fuel mass) and then extrapolating this M ~1
plot to zero to determine the critical loading (as sketched in Figure 6-9). During a
stepwise approach to delayed critical by the reciprocal multiplication method, the
neutron level following each addition of reactivity must be allowed to stabilize in
order to obtain an accurate indication of the asymptotic multiplication before
proceeding with the next reactivity addition. As one approaches delayed critical,
the buildup of the precursor concentrations can become bothersome.
\
\
Data points
\
\
Estimate of
\ critical mass
Fuel mass
F I G U R E 6-9.
Critical loading measurements
2. FUEL SUBSTITUTION TECHNIQUES 4
One can determine reactivity by uniformly substituting a p .ison for a small

fraction of the fuel. The poison is usually chosen such that it has the same
scattering and absorption properties as the fuel (or as closely as possible). Then
first-order perturbation theory yields a reactivity change due to the substituted
poison of
f
</V(r)2f(r)<Kr)
poison
A p =
( 6 - 1 2 1 )
^V(r)2f(r)<Kr)
This substitution method can be used for control-rod calibration by balancing the
effect of a given rod movement by adding a proper amount of distributed poison.
270
B. Dynamic Techniques for Reactivity Measurements

1. A S Y M P T O T I C P E R I O D M E A S U R E M E N T S
Perhaps the simplest type of kinetic measurement one can perform is to make
a small perturbation in the core composition of a critical reactor, and then to
measure the stable or asymptotic period of the resultant reactor transient. Using
the inhour equation, one can then infer the reactivity "worth" of the perturbation
from a measurement of the asymptotic period. It should be noted that the period
method for all practical purposes applies only to positive periods, since negative
periods are dominated by the longest delayed neutron precursor decay and hence
provide very low sensitivity to negative reactivity.
2. R O D D R O P M E T H O D
Let us consider a reactor operating at some equilibrium power level P0 when

it is suddenly shut down by the introduction of a negative reactivity 8p (the "rod
drop"). From our earlier studies of the point reactor kinetics equations we know
that after a few prompt neutron lifetimes, the reactor power level drops to a lower
level Px, determined by the amount of reactivity insertion and remains at this
"quasistatic" level until it is ultimately decreased by delayed neutron precursor
decay. We can use our earlier result [Eq. (6-64)] from the prompt j u m p approximation to write
H
P0
P+
(6-122)
8p'
Hence we can solve for the reactivity insertion in dollars in terms of the power
levels P0 and Px as
- R R R
(6
-,23)
To determine Pv one need only extrapolate back the asymptotic behavior following the rod drop to t = 0.
3. S O U R C E J E R K M E T H O D
A very similar technique can be used to measure the multiplication of a

subcritical assembly. Suppose we consider such a subcritical system maintained at
a power level P0 by a neutron source of strength S0. One can express the
equilibrium power level P0 using the point reactor kinetics equation as
(6-124)
Sp+/?
where 8p is the degree of subcriticality of the system. Suppose the source is now
jerked out of the core. Once again the prompt j u m p approximation can be used to
express the lower "quasistatic" power level Px as
5p + j8
iO
(6-125)
271
Using Eqs. (6-124) and (6-125), along with the equilibrium forms of the pointreactor kinetics equation prior to the source jerk, one can find
P0
Sp
JT = ! +
(6-126)
Hence the dollars subcritical of the assembly is given very simply by
(6-127)
The source jerk method is very similar to the rod drop method in concept. However
it is somewhat simpler to perform since it requires only the removal of a small mass
of material (the source) in contrast to the rapid release of one or more control rods.
4. R O D OSCILLATOR M E T H O D
If one oscillates a control rod in a sinusoidal fashion in a critical reactor,

there will be a corresponding oscillation in the reactor power. By measuring the
gain and magnitude of the phase shift characterizing the power oscillations, one
can measure the reactor transfer function, either at zero power or operating power:
^
= L(/co)Sp.
(6-128)
"o
For low powers, L(/)Z(/<o). In this case, the high-frequency behavior of the
transfer function
can be used to'measure either the prompt generation time A or the reactivity worth
of the oscillating rod,
Sp = c o A ^ .
(6-130)
-M)
Such oscillator measurements can also be used to determine the stability

characteristics of the reactor.
5. P U L S E D N E U T R O N M E T H O D S
By measuring the transient behavior of the neutron population following a

burst of neutrons injected into an assembly, one can measure a variety of important parameters. Suppose we first consider a pulse of neutrons injected at t = 0 into
a nonmultiplying assembly. Then according to one-speed diffusion theory, the flux
satisfies
=
(6-131)
272
subject to the initial condition applying to the pulsed source, <|>(r,0) = <f>0(r). For
long times, the flux in the assembly will approach the asymptotic form
</>(r,0-iî(r)exp-(t;i:a+i;Z)5g2>,
(6-132)
where ^j(r) is the fundamental mode of the assembly geometry. Hence the
asymptotic behavior of the flux is governed by the decay constant
a
= v \ + vDB2.
(6-133)
If one measures a 0 for various assembly sizes, then plotting a 0 against B 2 will yield
t>2a (the intercept at B* = 0) and vD (the slope). (See Figure 6-10.) Actually, there
are higher order terms in Bg2 due to both transport and energy-dependent corrections
a 0 = t ; 2 a + vDBj + CB% +
(6-134)
which add a curvature to the a 0 ( B p l o t .

In multiplying assemblies if one assumes that both the pulse injection and
measurement are performed on a time scale short compared to delayed neutron
lifetimes, then one can use
i ^
= J DV 2 <|>-(2 a -^ f )<J>(r,0
(6-135)
to find decay constants of the form

a 0 = u ( 2 a - ?2 f ) + vDB 2 .
experiment
(6-136)
273
In this case, the a 0 versus B 2 curve appears as that shown in Figure 6-10.
One can use this technique to directly measure reactivity. For a rapid pulse, the
time behavior of the flux or power will be determined by prompt neutron kinetics
such as
1 dP
P~fi
,,
Hence a 0 can be used to infer p, provided P and A are known. If the core is
maintained at delayed critical, then p = 0 and the pulsed neutron method measures
a0=-A/(3.
(6-138)
C. Noise Analysis in Nuclear Reactors 1314

Thus far we have been analyzing the reactor as essentially a deterministic
system. Yet we know that all of the dynamic variables describing the reactor
(power level, flux, temperature, etc.) actually fluctuate in a statistical fashion about
some mean value. W e are unable to predict with certainty the future values of these
variables but rather can only specify the probability that they will assume a certain
value.
The statistical nature of the neutron diffusion process has been stressed repeatedly. Moreover the concept of a cross section, and, indeed, even the quantum
mechanical description of the neutron interactions, must be interpreted in a
probabilistic sense. There are numerous other sources of such statistical fluctuations or noise in a reactor, such as in fluid flow, coolant boiling, and mechanical
vibration. In fact, statistics enters even into the measurement of the reactor state
due to detector noise.
At low power levels the statistical fluctuations associated with the fundamental
nuclear processes occurring in the core will be dominant. However at higher power
levels, the reactor noise will be predominantly due to disturbances of a nonnuclear
nature (e.g., coolant flow). Regardless of its origin, reactor noise is important in
reactor dynamics for at least two reasons. First, it interferes with the precision with
which a desired quantity can be measured in a reactor; that is, one must extract the
signal of interest out of the background noise. Second, however, since the noise
originates from various processes occurring in the reactor, it can actually serve as a
source of information about the system. The latter of these properties is of most
interest to us here. W e will study how noise analysis can be used to measure the
transfer function of the reactor.
1. CROSS CORRELATION METHODS
Let us begin by introducing two definitions. We will define the autocorrelation

of a function
by
< ^ 0 0 = lim
fTx(t)x(t
T->oo 2.1 J T
+ T)dt,
(6-139)
and the cross correlation of two functions, x{t) and y(t) by

<pjr)=
lim - L (T x{t)y(t
T>00 1 J T
+ r)dt.
(6-140)
274
If the functions
a n d y ( f ) are periodic, then the limit process can be omitted
provided T is chosen as the period. In general, however, x(t) and y{t) will not be
periodic. In fact we will later consider them to be random variables in the sense that
only their probability distribution can be specified.
N o w we will set up the cross correlation between reactivity and power (using a
notation in which the limit process T->cc is to be understood)
r
I
<PpP(r)=Jf
P{t+r)
Pt(0pT
(6-141)
If we substitute in our expression f o r p { t ) / P 0 f r o m Eq. (6-107) (after extending the

time domain to oo < t' < t), we find
<PPp(T)=Jf
Pex l t - r )
rdu8p^{t-u)l{u)
o
dt
du
- L
f 00
= /
(6-142)
l
( )<Ppp(T-tt)rf,
where we have identified the autocorrelation function of reactivity

T
(6-143)
5
<PppM= J f /_7. Pext(0Pext(' +
^ ) ^
As a final step, we take the Fourier transform of Eq. (6-142), defined as

oo
(6-144)
- rv-1
to find
(6-145)
but ^ {/()} is just the closed loop transfer function L(zco). Hence we find that we
can write
L(io)) =
^{qy}
(6-146)
Here <ppP = ^ {<Ppp} is referred to as the cross-spectral density, while <ppp = ^ { ^ p p } is

referred to as the reactivity (or input) spectral density.
To apply this result in a practical measurement, one varies the reactivity of the
reactor in a r a n d o m or pseudorandom fashion and then measures the corresponding variations in the reactor power or flux. In this sense, the measurement is very
similar to that involved in a rod oscillator experiment. To construct the timecorrelation function, one measures both 8p e x t (0 and p(t) at the time t and at
various delayed times ff + Ar s ^ + 2 A r , . . . . Using these measurements, one can
275
then construct both the time-correlation functions <p(/) and their Fourier transforms numerically. For example, if measurements are taken at delay intervals of
At, then the cross-spectral density is given by
{<Ppp( r )) = 2 (AT)exp(/Âr)AT.
n
(6-147)
Then by taking the ratio of W{<ppP} and ^{<p pp }, one can obtain both the gain and
phase of the closed-loop transfer function L(/w).This experiment becomes particularly simple if one can use a so-called "white" noise source as the reactivity input.
Such sources are characterized by a spectral density that is constant in frequency,
=
that is, ^ |
c o n s t a n t = A.. Then
<${cpl>P}=AL{i).
(6-148)
Hence by merely measuring the cross correlation, one can determine both the
amplitude and phase of the transfer function.
This experiment serves, then, as an alternative to a reactor oscillator transferfunction measurement. Unlike the latter, it does not suffer from background noise
(rather taking advantage of such random fluctuations), and hence does not require
nearly so large an input signal. However both of these experiments suffer from the
fact that one must perturb the reactor by introducing an externally controlled
reactivity signal in order to perform the measurement. It is possible to bypass this
difficulty and measure the amplitude of L(io>) directly from the inherent noise
naturally present in the reactor.
2. AUTOCORRELATION MEASUREMENTS
Consider the autocorrelation of the fluctuations in the reactor power

, ,
<PPP 0 0 = 2f
pO)p(t
I
/
If we substitute in Eq. (6-107) for p(t)/P0

time, we find
-P
+ r)
Po
DT
(6-149)
and again take a Fourier transform in
%{<f>PP } = L(-m)L(iw)?F{<ppp},
(6-150)
or
(6-150
pp.
Hence the square of the magnitude (i.e., the gain) of the transfer function can be
determined as the ratio of the power and reactivity spectral densities.
Although we can easily measure the power spectral density, the reactivity
spectral density characterizing inherent reactivity noise is not experimentally accessible. If one has reason to believe that such fluctuations are truly random in
nature, then
= constant, and the measurement of the power autocorrelation
function by itself will yield the amplitude of the transfer function (although phase
information will have been lost).
276
Such a measurement of |L(/<o)l is extremely simple. It has the advantage that it

does not perturb the reactor. Indeed it can be used in a real time mode to obtain an
instantaneous measurement of the reactor transfer function. Its only significant
disadvantage is its limited accuracy.
Such noise measurements have been used to measure a large variety of nuclear
reactor parameters, and have proven to constitute a valuable diagnostic technique
in determining reactor kinetic behavior.
V. SPATIAL EFFECTS IN REACTOR KINETICS

Thus far our analysis of time-dependent nuclear reactor behavior has been
based on the point reactor kinetics model in which the neutron flux was assumed to
be the product of a time-independent spatial shape factor ^ ( r ) and a timedependent amplitude factor P(t) [cf. Eq. (6-7)]. However this assumption will
obviously be invalid in many cases of interest. For example, one of the most
important safety questions concerning reactor analysis involves the reactor kinetic
behavior following the postulated ejection of the control rod with highest reactivity
worth. Such a strongly localized perturbation in the core composition would
certainly cause a considerable deviation from the spatial shape factor ^ ( r ) and
would invalidate the point reactor kinetics model.
Furthermore most modern power reactor cores are quite large f r o m a neutronic
point of view, being as much as 200 diffusion lengths in diameter. Hence the
neutronic behavior in such cores tends to be quite loosely coupled from point to
point. This means that a change in the flux or power density (or core multiplication) at one point in the core will not be felt at other points until after an
appreciable time delay. For example, one frequently finds rather significant "tilts"
in the spatial power distribution across the core due to nonuniform coolant
temperature or fission product buildup. The phenomenon of such loose spatial
coupling can be seen rather vividly by measuring the reactor transfer function, say,
under zero power conditions, at several points in a large power reactor core. That
is, one inserts a sinusoidal or pseudorandom reactivity variation at one point r in
.the core (say, by moving a control rod in and out of the core), and then measures
the amplitude and phase of the resulting power or flux oscillations by locating a
neutron detector at various other points r' in the core. If the reactor were truly
described by the point reactor kinetics equation, then the transfer function Z(/w;
r,r') measured at various points r would be the same. And for low frequencies, one
does indeed find that Z(/to;r, r') is essentially i n d e p e n d e n t . However for
higher frequencies in large reactor cores, one finds that actual measurements will
yield different results, depending on where the oscillator and detector are placed.
Such measurements reveal that the transfer function is actually spatially dependent
for higher frequencies, because of the time it takes to propagate a disturbance in
the neutron flux f r o m one point to another in the core. This implies a breakdown in
the point reactor kinetics model that characterizes every point in the reactor by the
same time-dependence P(t).
As a general rule, one finds that the point reactor kinetics equations are
incapable of predicting the detailed behavior of reactor transients initiated by rapid
local changes in reactivity. More precisely, if the neutron flux changes rapidly on a
300
time scale of the order of the effective neutron lifetime </>, the point reactor
kinetics equation should be regarded as suspect.
In these instances, one must take explicit account of the spatial dependence of
the neutron flux. In fact one is frequently forced to perform a brute force
numerical solution of the time-dependent neutron diffusion equation and precursor
equations. Unfortunately in most cases in which such spatial effects are significant,
one cannot rely on the one-speed approximation to provide an adequate description of the neutron energy-dependence. Hence a direct numerical study of nuclear
reactor kinetics 15 usually involves the solution of the multigroup, time-dependent
diffusion equationsat a considerable computational expense.
For such finite difference solutions of the multigroup diffusion equations to be
feasible, it is necessary to employ a variety of numerical techniques to accelerate
the computation. These calculations are usually coupled with transient thermalhydraulic calculations and can become quite involved. In general they are only
used as a last resort to describe situations in which detailed spatial behavior is of
p a r a m o u n t importance in a rapid transient (such as the rod-ejection accident
analysis).
A variety of less direct methods exist. These can generally be classified as nodal,
quasistatic, or modal techniques. The nodal approach 1 6 is very similar to that
discussed in Section 5-II in that the core is divided into a number of regions or
nodes. As i n ^ h e static case, the primary difficulty in this approach is determining
the parameters^ that couple the flux at various nodal points. This is usually
accomplished by a variety of approximate schemes adjusted by numerous empirical
fits to either experimental or benchmark calculation data.
So-called quasistatic methods 1 7 essentially work within the framework of the
point reactor model, performing periodic static spatial calculations to obtain the
shape functions necessary for evaluating the point kinetics parameters p, /?, and A.
The practical utilization of this method has been rather limited to date.
Perhaps the most popular alternative 18 to direct finite difference schemes involves expanding the flux in a finite series of known spatial functions or modes,
\pj(r), and then obtaining a set of equations for the time-dependent expansion
coefficients <pj(t):
<H'>') = 2
j" i
(6-152)
Of course the ideal scheme would be to choose i^(r) as the spatial eigenfunctions of
the perturbed reactor. Unfortunately one usually does not know these modes.
Instead it is common to expand in an alternative finite set of spatial functions and
then use either weighted residual or variational methods (recall Section 5-III-C) to
determine the appropriate set of modal equations for the <pj. Such schemes are
referred to as synthesis methods and will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 13.
Although such spatially dependent kinetics problems are of importance in the
very rapid transients arising in postulated accident analysis, they also arise in the
study of much longer term fuel depletion and fission product buildup phenomena.
In these latter cases, however, one can treat the neutron flux in a quasi steady-state
manner by performing a sequence of criticality calculations as the core composition changes with time. W e will devote considerable attention to the analysis of
such fuel depletion or burnup problems in Chapter 15.
278
REFERENCES
1. A. Z. Akcasu, G. S. Lellouche, and L. M. Shotkin, Mathematical Methods in Nuclear
Reactor Dynamics, Academic, New York (1971).
2. R. Scalletar, in Proceedings of Conference on Neutron Dynamics and Control, D. L.
Hetrick and L. E. Weaver Eds., USAEC CONF-650413 (1966).
3. W. M. Stacey, Jr., Space-Time Nuclear Reactor Kinetics, Academic, New York (1969).
4. G. R. Keepin, Physics of Nuclear Kinetics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. (1965).
Reactor Dynamics, Academic, New York (1971), p. 91.
6. R. Goldstein and L. M. Shotkin, NucL Sci. Eng. 38, 94 (1969).
7. P. H. Hammond, Feedback Theory and its Applications, English Universities Press,
London (1958); J. L. Bower and P. M. Schultheiss, Introduction to the Design of
Servomechanisms, Wiley, New York (1958).
8. D. L. Hetrick, Dynamics of Nuclear Reactors, University of Chicago Press (1971).
9. L. E. Weaver, Reactor Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, New York (1968).
10. F. W. Thalgott, et al., Proceedings of Second U. N. Conf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy, Vol. 12, 242 (1958).
11. J. A. Deshong, Jr., and W. C. Lipinski, USAEC Document ANL-5850 (1958).
Reactor Dynamics, Academic, New York (1971), Chapter 6.
13. J. A. Thie, Reactor Noise, Rowman and Littlefield, Totowa N.J. (1963).
(1970), pp. 511-514.
15. D. R. Ferguson and K. F. Hansen, NucL Sci. Eng. 51, 189 (1973).
16. W. M. Stacey, Jr., Space-Time Nuclear Kinetics, Academic, New York (1969), Section
1.4.
17. K. O. Ott, NucL Sci. Eng. 26, 563 (1966).
18. J. B. Yasinsky and A. F. Henry, NucL Sci. Eng. 22, 171 (1965).
PROBLEMS
At time t = 0, a decaying point source emitting S0e~Xt neutrons per second is placed
at the center of a homogeneous bare spherical reactor which is being maintained in a
subcritical state. Determine the time-dependence of the neutron flux that would be
measured by a detector placed outside of the reactor. Use one-speed diffusion theory
and ignore delayed neutrons.
6-2 Consider a spherical assembly operating at a critical steady-state power level at time
t = 0. At this instance a neutron burst is suddenly inserted at the center of the reactor.
Derive an expression for the length of time before the reactor flux will once again
assume its fundamental mode shape to within 10%. Plot this time versus assembly
radius R for a thermal assembly moderated with H z O. Ignore delayed neutrons.
6-3 (a) What is the maximum possible reactivity insertion capable in a 2 3 5 U fueled
reactor? (Express your answer in $.)
(b) What is the maximum possible reactivity of a 235 U-fueled reactor having a
nonleakage probability of 0.6 for fission neutrons and 0.7 for delayed neutrons?
6-4 Estimate the prompt neutron lifetime in a large thermal reactor fueled with 2 3 5 U and
moderated with: (a) H 2 0 , (b) graphite, and (c) D 2 0 .
6-5 Calculate the effective neutron lifetime </> for a thermal reactor fueled with either
233
U or 2 3 5 U and a fast reactor fueled with 239 Pu.
6-6 Give a physical discussion of the difference between the prompt neutron lifetime and
mean neutron generation time A for both an infinite and finite reactor. (Refer to
Keepin, 4 p. 166, for a more thorough discussion.)
6-1

6-7
6-8
6-9
6-10
6-11
6-12
6-13
6-14
279
In our development of an equation describing the delayed neutron precursor concentration, we assumed that these precursors did not migrate from the point of fission.
This is a reasonable assumption in solid-fueled reactors. Consider, however, a reactor
core in which the fuel is in gaseous form. Then the precursors may diffuse from the
point of fission before decaying. If the diffusion coefficient characterizing a given
precursor migration is Dp develop a generalization of the precursor concentration
equations to account for this process.
Derive an expression for the effective delayed neutron yield fractions $ characterizing
a mixture of several fissile isotopes.
Rederive the inhour equation for the case of a fast reactor fueled with 2 3 9 Pu and 2 3 8 U
treating delayed neutrons from both isotopes explicitly.
Repeat the solution of the point reactor kinetics equations with one effective delayed
group for a constant reactivity insertion p 0 using Laplace transform methods (see
Appendix G).
Demonstrate that for small reactivity insertions and ( f t - p 0 + XA)2 4AAp0 the reactor
power P ( t ) is given by the approximate form [Eq. (6-40)].
Estimate the reactor period induced by a positive reactivity insertion of 1 $ in an
infinite 2 3 5 U-fueled thermal reactor moderated with water and a fast 2 3 9 Pu-fueled
reactor.
Proverlhat for six groups of delayed neutrons, the inhour equation has seven roots st
of whifeh six have negative values.
Consider a two-stage delayed neutron production process as sketched below:
Fission product A -+B-* C + d e l a y e d neutron.
Assuming that B is the only delayed neutron precursor of interest, write the point
reactor kinetics equations including both rate equations for A and B. By then deriving
the corresponding inhour equation, demonstrate that such a two-stage decay process
can actually yield a negative effective delayed neutron fraction.
6-15 Initially a reactor is operating at a steady-state power level P0. Using the point reactor
kinetics equation with one equivalent group of delayed neutrons, determine the stable
reactor period T for a positive step reactivity insertion of 1 $. Use the fact that
A A / / ? < 1 to simplify your answer. Calculate a numerical value for T in the case in
which A = 0.1 s e c " 1 and A = 0.001sec _ 1 .
6-16 According to the point kinetics equations with one equivalent group of delayed
neutrons, how long should a steady source of S0 neutrons per second be left on in
order to raise the steady state reactor power level from P{ to P21 Assume A A / / 3 < 1 .
Roughly plot P(t) against t.
6-17 Using the point kinetics equations with one equivalent group of delayed neutrons,
derive an expression for p(t) such that P(t)= P0+ at.
6-18 Use the one-speed, one equivalent delayed neutron group form of the point reactor
kinetics equation to analyze the following situation: A reactor operator wishes to
reduce the power level of a reactor from Px to P2. He therefore takes the reactor
subcritical to a reactivity p 0 , where p 0 is a negative number, and after a time T, he
restores the reactivity to zero, whereupon the reactor levels out to P2. In terms of Pu
P2, p0, and the other constants of the system, how long must he choose the time T to
be? (Assume AA/ ft \ for convenience.)
6-19 Repeat the derivation of the integrodifferential form [Eq. (6-51)] of the point reactor
kinetics equation for the case in which P{t) and Cj(t) are specified at an initial time,
chosen at f = 0.
6-20 Demonstrate that for a periodic power variation P(t)= P0+ Plsincot, one requires a
periodic reactivity insertion of the form given by Eq. (6-54). Demonstrate that this
reactivity insertion has a negative bias in the sense that its average over a period is
negative.
280
6-21
Compute the time-dependence of the reactivity insertion for a positive power excursion of very short duration compared to delayed neutron lifetimes. Express this result
in terms of the total energy released in the excursion.
By considering the point reactor kinetics equation with one effective delayed group,
determine the time-dependence of the reactor power for a ramp reactivity insertion of
p(0~
Compare this with the result predicted by the prompt j u m p approximation, Eq. (6-68).
Demonstrate that following a reactivity change from p, to p 2 , the power levels before
and after the reactivity step are given by P2/P\ ~ ( f i p\)/ ft P2) in the prompt j u m p
approximation.
Provide the details omitted in the derivation of the alternative form of the pointreactor kinetics equation given by Eq. (6-72).
In reactor kinetics problems in which reactivity is inserted at a very rapid rate,
important changes occur in the neutron density while the delayed neutron emission
changes only slightly. Assuming under this approximation that for short times after
reactivity insertion Eq. (6-59) is applicable, determine the reactor power level P{t) if
the time-dependence of reactivity is p(/) = p 0 e x p ( f / r ) .
Explicitly perform the Laplace transform inversion of the zero power transfer function Z(s) to obtain the impulse response function %(t).
Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for stability of a linear system is that
6-22
6-23
6-24
6-25
6-26
6-27
r 00
I I %(01 dt<cc. [Hint: To prove sufficiency, show that this condition implies that
'o
the reactor power will be bounded for any bounded reactivity input. To prove
necessity, consider the specific reactivity input p( / ) = %{t)/\%(t)\
and show that for
this bounded input, the output p{t) is unbounded if the above condition does not
hold.]
6-28 Calculate the amplitude and phase angle for the zero-power transfer function and
plot these as functions of frequency. Assume one group of delayed neutrons with
/? = .0065, X 0.08 sec" 1 , and A = 1 0 " 4 sec.
6-29 Write and run a simple computer program that solves the point reactor kinetics
equations numerically. Assume only one effective delayed group of neutrons, and use
either a R u n g e - K u t t a or predictor-corrector scheme to integrate the equations. In
particular, study the time-step magnitude necessary to handle step reactivity insertions
of p 0 = 0 . 2 $, 1 $, and 5 $.
6-30 Set up the point reactor kinetics equations, including temperature feedback but no
delayed neutrons. Assume that the power removal rate is proportional to the deviations of the temperature from some steady-state operating condition. Linearize the
equations, solve them, and discuss the solutions. Assume step reactivity input at r = 0 .
6-31 A reactor operating at steady state with constant heat removal rate experiences a step
insertion of positive reactivity of 3 $.
(a) Assuming a prompt negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, a heat removal
rate during the excursion that remains constant at the steady-state value, and a
constant delayed neutron contribution, give an expression for the maximum
temperature reached during the excursion. (Make any necessary assumptions and
state what they are.)
(b) Approximately what is the power level when this maximum temperature is
reached?
6-32 In a prompt critical reactor excursion a large amount of reactivity (measured above
prompt critical) p 0 is instantaneously inserted in an equilibrium reactor at r = 0.
Assume that: (a) the effect of delayed neutrons is negligible on the time scales under
consideration and (b) the reactor shuts itself down by thermal expansion of the core
in such a way that negative reactivity is " a d d e d " proportional to the total heat energy
generated up to time /, that is, p = p 0 - y Sodt'P(t').
Find the power level P(t) where t
is measured from the time of reactivity insertion and in units of the prompt neutron
lifetime. [This is known as the Fuchs-Hansen model of a reactor excursion.]

6-33
281
Determine the total energy generated in the excursion modeled in Problem 6-32 in
terms of the reactivity insertion, delayed neutron fraction, and reactivity feedback
coefficient y. Also determine the peak power generated in the excursion. Discuss the
implications of these results for reactor safety.
6-34 A homogeneous fuel-moderator mixture is assembled as an unreflected critical reactor. N o cooling is provided. Suddenly a control rod is removed, bringing k to 1.02.
Estimate the maximum temperature that results. The thermal conductivity is high
enough that the core can be treated isothermally. As data, use: a T = 2.5 X 1 0 ~ 4 / C ,
0 = 0.0075, and A = 1 0 " 5 sec.
6-35 A n interesting alternative to the pulsed neutron experiment is a modification of the
diffusion length experiment in which an oscillating source of thermal neutrons is
placed against one end of a long column of the material to be studied, and then the
oscillating component of the resulting neutron flux in the column is measured at
various positions. Determine expressions for the attenuation and phase shift (relative
to the source) of the flux as functions of frequency co for a nonmultiplying column as
described by one-speed diffusion theory. [This is known as the neutron wave experiment.]
6-36 Derive the expression obtained for the system gain in terms of the autocorrelation
ftmctions in Eq. (6-151).
3
The Multigroup
Diffusion Method
7
Multigroup Diffusion Theory
Thus far we have based our study of nuclear reactor theory on a particularly
simple model of neutron transport, one-speed diffusion theory. This model
certainly suffices to introduce most of the important concepts of reactor analysis as
well as many of the computational methods used in modern reactor design. It can
even be used on occasion to provide useful qualitative information such as in
preliminary survey design studies. However for most of the problems encountered
in practical nuclear reactor design the one-speed diffusion model is simply not
adequate.
Two very significant assumptions were made in deriving the one-speed diffusion
model. We first assumed that the angular flux was only weakly dependent on angle
(linearly anisotropic, in fact) so that the diffusion approximation was valid. Usually
this assumption is reasonably well satisfied in large power reactors provided we
take care to modify the analysis a bit in the vicinity of strong absorbers, interfaces,
and boundaries to account for transport effects.
The principal deficiency of the model is the assumption that all of the neutrons
can be characterized by only a single speed or energy. As we have seen, the
neutrons in a reactor have energies spanning the range from 10 MeV down to less
than 0.01 eVsome nine orders of magnitude. Furthermore, we have noted that
neutron-nuclear cross sections depend rather sensitively on the incident neutron
energy. Hence it is not surprising that practical reactor calculations will require a
more realistic treatment of the neutron energy dependence. (Inaeed it is surprising
that the one-speed diffusion equation works at all. Its success depends on a very
judicious choice of the one-speed cross sections that appear in the equation.)
We will now allow the neutron flux to depend on energy, but rather than treat
the neutron energy variable E as a continuous variable, we will immediately
285
286
THE MULTIGROUP DIFFUSION METHOD
discretize it into energy intervals or groups. That is, we will break the neutron
energy range into G energy groups, as shown schematically below:
Group g
1
EG-I
1
Eg
Eg-1
I
E2
>
E0
Notice that we are using a backward indexing scheme, corresponding physically to

the fact that the neutron usually loses energy during its lifetime (and mathematically to the fact that one always solves the discretized equations starting at high
energies and working successively to lower energies).
As in our earlier discrete ordinates approach, it would be possible to discretize
<p(r,E,t) by considering it only to be defined at each energy mesh point Eg.
However it is more convenient to define the discretized fluxes instead to be the
integrals of <(r, E, t) over the energies of each group, such that the multigroup fluxes
<t>g(T,t), represent the total flux of all neutrons with energies E in the group
Eg< E< Eg_x. Then our task is to determine equations for <^(r,f). W e will find
that these equations take the form of a set of diffusion equations describing the
neutrons in each energy group. The equations are coupled to one another since
neutrons may experience changes in energy and hence pass f r o m group to group.
For example fission neutrons will usually be born in the highest energy groups and
then cascade downward in energy from group to group as they are moderated by
scattering collisions.
Recalling the rather detailed dependence of neutron cross sections on neutron
energy E, one might expect that a great many such energy groups would be
necessary to adequately describe a nuclear reactor. Surprisingly enough, however,
most nuclear reactor calculations achieve sufficient accuracy using only few-group
diffusion descriptions. The ability to describe a reactor adequately with a relatively
small number of energy groups is not simply fortuitious, but rather is a consequence of a careful choice of the energy-averaged cross sections that characterize
the neutrons in each group. Since the calculation of such group-averaged cross
sections or multigroup constants is the key to the successful implementation of
multigroup diffusion theory, we will consider it in some detail in Chapters 8 a n d 9.
In this chapter, we will first give a heuristic derivation of the multigroup
diffusion equations based on the concept of neutron balance. We will then rederive
these equations in a more rigorous (and useful) fashion and illustrate their application using several important examples. Finally we will discuss the common calculational strategies useful for solving this set of coupled partial differential equations.
I. A HEURISTIC DERIVATION OF THE MULTIGROUP

DIFFUSION EQUATIONS
Perhaps the most straightforward manner in which to arrive at the form of
the multigroup diffusion equations is to apply the concept of neutron balance to a
given energy group by balancing the ways in which neutrons can enter or leave this
MULTIGROUP DIFFUSION THEORY
287
group. Consider then a typical energy group g:
After a bit of reflection, it should be apparent that such a balance would read as
follows:
Time rate of
change of
neutrons in
group g
change due
to
leakage
neutrons "
scattering
out of
group g
absorption'
+
in
groupg
source
neutrons
appearing
in group g
neutrons ~
scattering
into
group g
(7-1)
It should be noted that we have taken explicit account of the fact that a scattering
collision can change the neutron energy and hence either remove it from the group
g, or if it is initially in another group g\ scatter it to an energy in the group g. We
will characterize the probability for scattering a neutron from a group g' to the
group g by something akin to the differential scattering cross section 2 S (
) (a
so-called group-transfer cross section),
Note that the cross section characterizing the probability that a neutron will scatter out of the group g is then given by
G
=
(7-2)
sgg
S'-l
We will similarly define an absorption cross section characterizing the group g, 2 a g ,

and a source term S giving the rate at which source neutrons appear in group g.
Finally we will define a diffusion coefficient Dg so that the leakage from group g
can be written within the diffusion approximation as VDgV(j>g. If we combine all of
these terms, we find a mathematical representation of the balance relations [Eq.
(7-1)]
1 3
v.
3;
1 2sg,A
g'= 1
g= 1,2,...,G.
(7-3)
If we separate out that component of the source due to fissions, then we can write
Sg=xg
(7-4)
where Xg is the probability that a fission neutron will be born with an energy in
288
group g, while 2 f g , is the fission cross section characterizing a group g' and v . is the
average number of fission neutrons released in a fission reaction iduced by a
neutron in group g'.
Hence we now have a set of G coupled diffusion equations for the G unknown
group fluxes <f>g(r,t). It shouldn't take much imagination to see that many of the
same techniques that we used for the one-speed (or in our present terminology,
one-group) model will also hold for the G-group system. In fact, we will see later in
this chapter that the specific structure of the multigroup equations makes their
solution extremely simple in most casesprovided one can handle the diffusion
equation characterizing each individual group.
The more serious problem concerns just how one determines the group constants
that appear in these equations:
V Dr
s*'g> Xg> 2 f g > V
( 7 -15)
We have only given a very vague definition of these constants in our heuristic
derivation of the multigroup equations. Hence before we can concern ourselves
with just how these equations are to be solved, we must go back and give a more
careful derivation of these equations in an effort to obtain a more explicit and
useful definition of the group constants.
II. DERIVATION OF THE MULTIGROUP EQUATIONS FROM

ENERGY-DEPENDENT DIFFUSION THEORY
Perhaps the most satisfying manner in which to derive the multigroup
diffusion equations characterizing the average behavior of neutrons in each energy
group is to integrate (i.e., average) the equation for the energy-dependent neutron
flux, <j>(r,E,t), over a given group, E <E<Eg_v
We will assume that this flux can
be adequately described by the energy-dependent diffusion equation:
- ^-V-DV<j>
V Ot
+ 2t(r,E,t) =
rdE'UE'->EWt,E'9t)
Jo
/OO
+
{E)j
+ Sext(r,E,t).
dE'v{E')^{E')${x,E',t)
(7-6)
Notice that we have inserted the explicit form for the fission source developed
earlier in Eq. (4-50).
We might mention that other energy-dependent equations could be used as a
starting point for the development of the multigroup diffusion equations. 1,2 For
example, we could have first developed the multigroup form of the transport
equation and then introduced the diffusion approximation for each group. We will
consider an alternative approach based upon the P} equations in Chapter 8.
However all of these approaches yield very similar forms for the multigroup
diffusion equations, with only some minor variations in the expressions for the
group-averaged cross sections.
We will begin by eliminating the energy variable in the energy-dependent
diffusion equation by integrating Eq. (7-6) over the gth energy group characterized
289
by energies Eg < E < Eg_ x:
r~
d_ Eg
I
dt
r~
Eg
d E - ^ - V - |
r~
Eg
dEDV$
+ /
dEZt4>
= f ' *dE f"dE'2t(E'^>E)4>(T9E'9t)+

J
'
dES.
(7-7)
E0
Ee
We will proceed further by making some formal definitions. First define the
neutron flux in group g as
4>g(r,t)= J
(7-8)
dE<t>(r,E,t).
Next define the total cross section for group g as

E.
'
'dE2t(E)4>(T,Ettl
(7-9)
the diffusion coefficient for group g as

fEg-1dED(E)VMriE,t)
J r
f.
(7-10)
"1 dE Vj<j>(r, E, t)
and the neutron speed characterizing group g as

Eg_,
v
g
(7-11)
dE<t>(r,E,t).
v
Je,
The scattering term requires a bit more work. If we break up the integral over E' to
write
fEg~ldE
JEg
(dE'2t(E'^>E)4>(T9E,9t)
Jo
G
= 2
f r^ d E j ^ d E ' Z J t E ' ^ E M T t E ' t t ) ,

Eg
g'-1
*
(7-12)
then it becomes evident that we want to define the group-transfer cross section as
d E
=
g
ldE
"2t(E'^>E)4>(T9Ef,t).
(7-13)
^g
A very similar procedure is followed for the fission term by writing

Eg_,
g-i
dESt(r9E9t)
Eg
C
I
*E0
dEx(E)
Eg._x
2
/
g'= i E*'
dE'v(E')2f(E%(r9E'9t) ,
(7-14)
290
and then defining the fission cross section for group g' as
V 2 v = T " J/
9g'
Eg'
'
dE'r(E')2AE')*(r,E',t)9
(7-15)
while defining
E
g-1
Xg=f
dE x(E).
(7-16)
If we now use these purely formal definitions to rewrite Eq. (7-7), we arrive directly
a t t h e multigroup
diffusion
equations:
01
g'=l
g'= I
g=l,2,...,G.
(7-17)
Several comments concerning these equations are necessary. The multigroup

diffusion equations (7-17) are still quite exact (within the diffusion approximation,
that is), but they are also quite formal in the sense that the group constants are as
yet undetermined. While it is true that our derivation has yielded explicit expressions for these group constants, it is apparent that in order to calculate them we
would need to know the flux <f>(r,E,t), and this is just the function we were trying to
calculate in the first place by discretizing the energy-dependent diffusion equation
(7-6). Hence it seems as if our development has been a bit circular.
In fact the multigroup "constants" as we have defined them still depend on space
and time. They will be rigorously constant only in the case in which the neutron
flux is of the separable form
4>(r9E9t) = t(T9t)q>(E),
(7-18)
in which case they reduce to group averages over the neutron flux energy spectrum
<p(). Unfortunately the flux in a nuclear reactor is usually not separable in energy,
and in general we will find that the group constants do indeed depend on space
and time (although in a manner somewhat more subtle than the above discussion
might indicate).
However perhaps you have already guessed the game we will play now, for we
will, in fact, attempt to guess or approximate the intragroup fluxes,
<t>(f, E91) as <approx(r, E9t),
(7-19)
in our calculation of the group constants, e.g.,
J^-'dEZt(E)^ (r,Ej)
pprox
2tg a
(7-20)
fEg~'dE<t>
Jr
(r,E,t)
as averages over these approximate intragroup fluxes.

In the next two chapters we will develop a number of schemes for approximating
291
the flux {r,E,t)

within a groupusually by first neglecting its spatial and time
dependence. The accuracy required of this flux estimate is primarily dictated by the
group structure itself. Of course for an extremely fine group structure, the cross
sections and hence the flux would tend to be smoothly varying over a given group,
and hence even a very crude approximation to the flux would be sufficient. For
example, in Chapter 8 we will demonstrate that in a thermal reactor the flux
behaves very roughly as {E)~ \ / E for energies between l e V and 10 5 eV. Hence
this functional form could be inserted into our definitions to calculate the group
constants characterizing groups in this energy range. However when we remember
the very complicated dependence of the cross sections on energy (in particular,
their resonance structure), it becomes apparent that the groups would have to be
very finely divided indeed for such a crude approximation to the intragroup fluxes
to yield meaningful results.
In actual practice, one usually works with from two to 20 groups in reactor
calculations. Such few group calculations can only be effective with reasonably
accurate estimates of the group constants (and hence the intragroup fluxes). The
most common approach is to actually perform two multigroup calculations. In the
first of these calculations, the spatial and time dependence is ignored (or very
crudely approximated), and a very finely structured multigroup calculation is
performed to calculate the intragroup fluxes (usually relying on various models of
neutron slowing down and thermalization). The group constants for this fine
spectrum calculation are frequently taken to be just the tabulated cross section data
averaged (with, for example, a 1 / E weighting) over each of the fine groups.
These intragroup fluxes are then used to calculate the group constants for a
coarse group calculation
(including spatial dependence):
This scheme of first calculating a neutron flux spectrum and then collapsing the
cross section data over this spectrum to generate few group constants is the most
common method in use today. It should be noted that in a calculation of this type,
the spectrum calculation (and hence the few-group constants) will depend sensitively on the particular reactor being analyzed and its operating conditions (e.g.,
fuel loading, isotopic composition, temperature, and coolant conditions). In fact
such group constants will have to be calculated in each region of the reactor in
which the core composition varies appreciably, for example, because of variations
in fuel enrichment or moderator density. Furthermore these group constants will
have to be recalculated whenever these regionwise core properties change, such as
during fuel burnup or reactivity adjustment via the movement of control rods.
Hence spectrum calculations and the generation of few-group constants must be
performed repeatedly in reactor design.
It is usually necessary to take some account of the spatial dependence of the flux
in the generation of group constants. This is frequently done by performing the
calculation of the'neutron spectrum for a typical cell of the reactor core lattice,
using a variety of approximate techniques to account for flux variation throughout
292
the cell. The flux spectrum c p ( E ) that one then uses to generate group constants
will be a spatial average of the true flux
over the cell. Such cell calculations
are essential for an adequate description of thermal reactors in which the neutron
mfp is relatively short, and we will devote considerable attention to them in
Chapter 10.
The above discussion illustrates a very important feature of nuclear reactor
analysis: the separation of the treatment of energy- and space-dependence in
multigroup diffusion theory. That is, one first utilizes a rather crude description of
the flux spatial dependence (say, fon only a given cell of the reactor lattice) to
generate a detailed representation of the energy spectrum <p(E) suitable for the
generation of accurate multigroup constants. One then uses these group constants
in a few-group diffusion equation analysis of the reactor. In this latter calculation,
the energy dependence of the flux is treated rather coarsely (only a few energy
groups), while more emphasis is directed toward adequately describing the spatial
variation via the diffusion equation. We will find that this procedure of separating
the treatment of the various independent variables r, E, and t arises very frequently
in nuclear reactor analysis. If performed properly, it will allow a rather detailed
study of the reactor for only a modest amount of computational effort.
How many groups are necessary for a reactor calculation? This will depend on
the problem one is considering. For example, in very crude survey calculations of
thermal reactors, two groups (one to characterize fast neutrons and the other to
characterize thermal neutrons) may be sufficient. Most LWR calculations are
performed using a four-group diffusion model 3 (three fast groups, one thermal
group) while gas-cooled reactor analysis typically uses seven to nine groups. 4 For
fine detail, one may have to go as high as 20 groups (this is particularly true in
fast-reactor calculations) 5 , and in spectrum calculations, the number of groups can
range as high as 1000 (so-called microgroup structure), which is almost as detailed
as the tabulated cross section data itself. 6
Let us look now in a bit more detail at the structure of the multigroup diffusion
equation. In particular, consider the scattering term in the equation. Recall that in
our study of the kinematics of neutron scattering collisions in Chapter 2, we noted
that if the incident neutron energy E was substantially greater than the thermal
energy of the target nuclei (typically less than 0.1 eV), the neutron could never gain
energy in a scattering collision. Such "fast" neutrons will only slow down in a
scattering collision. Hence in these fast groups, we can set
2 S ^ = 0,
for g' > g.
(7-21)
Since most few-group diffusion calculations utilize only one thermal group to
describe the neutrons with E < 1 eV (assuming that neutrons cannot scatter up out
of the thermal group), we can generally simplify the scattering term to write
2
2
1
(7-22)
g'= i
Here we have taken care to separate out the in-group scattering term
which
characterizes the probability that a neutron can suffer a scattering collision and
lose sufficiently little energy that it will still remain within the group. It is
customary to transfer this term to the left-hand side of the multigroup equation
(7-17) a n d t o d e f i n e a removal
cross
section,
(7-23)
293
which characterizes the probability that a neutron will be removed from the group
g by a collision. Note that the removal cross section is sometimes defined such that
it does not contain absorption 2 a g . We will use the above definition in our
development, however. We will see later that the neglect of upscattering (that is, the
assumption that the neutron can never gain or scatter up in energy in a collision)
greatly simplifies the solution of the multigroup diffusion equations.
One frequently achieves an additional simplification of the multigroup equations
by choosing the group spacing such that neutrons will only scatter to the next
lowest groupthat is, such that
1,A-1+
(7"24)
In this case, one refers to the multigroup equations as being directly coupled. If we
recall from Section 2-II-D that a neutron of energy E cannot scatter to an energy
below aE in a single elastic scattering collision, then it is apparent that to achieve
direct coupling we should choose our group spacing such that Eg_x/Eg>
1 / a . For
heavier moderators (e.g., 12C), this is easy to do. Unfortunately in hydrogeneous
moderators a H = 0, and hence direct coupling cannot be strictly achieved. However,
if one chooses Eg_x/Eg>\50,
then the probability of the neutron "skipping" the
next lowest group in a scattering collision with hydrogen is less than 1%, and hence
direct coupling is effectively achieved. We might mention as well that one typically
chooses a group structure such that the ratio, Eg_ x/ Eg, is kept constant from group
to group. The motivation for this choice will become apparent in Chapter 8.
We will most frequently be concerned with situations in which both the timedependence and the presence of an external source can be ignored (e.g., criticality
'g- 3
g1
*\
- 2
g-1
-1
g -3
I*,
\* \ *
I I
^ T
No
upscattering
F I G U R E 7-1.
+1
Vi
E g+2
i E g
Directly
coupled
+ 2
Alternative types of multigroup coupling
g + 1
Nondirectly
coupled
g+ 2
294
calculations). In this case the multigroup equations can be written as
21
2
K
g'=l
(7-25)
8'= 1
The structure of these equations can be seen more clearly in matrix form
-VvDjV+2,
2,
0
V-Z)2V+2R2
/<M
02
</>3
'S23
:
<
M
/"iXA,
f2XiSf2
l<t>l
<t> 2
3
(7-26)
1 :
where we have inserted the usual criticality eigenvalue k. Notice in particular that
the neglect of upscattering has led to a lower triangular form for the "diffusion"
matrix M . The fission matrix F is full, however, since fission neutrons induced by
a neutron absorption in a lower group will appear distributed among the higher
energy groups.
In the case of directly coupled groups, M becomes a simple bidiagonal matrix of
the form
By way of contrast, if one chooses to assign several groups to the thermal energy
range in which appreciable upscattering occurs, there will be a full submatrix
within M corresponding to 2 , for g' or g in the thermal range:
295
We will return in a later section to discuss a general strategy for solving such
systems of diffusion equations. Before doing so, however, it is useful to consider
several simple applications of the multigroup diffusion equations.
III. SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF THE MULTIGROUP

DIFFUSION MODEL
A. One-Group Diffusion Theory
Eqco
First suppose we set up the "one-group" diffusion equation by defining

and is^ = 0. Then if we note that
r.
oo
o dEX(E)
=h
(7-29)
E0= oo
and
1 group
Ex= 0
f ^ d E ' ^ E ^ E ' ) = 2S(),
(7-30)
we find that the multigroup equations yield an old friend, the one-speed diffusion
equation
(7-31)
Of course it should be stressed that this equation is still of only formal significance
until we provide some prescription for calculating the group constants [that is, the
intragroup fluxwhich, in this case, is <f>(r, ,*)] Nevertheless it is comforting to
know that if we chose the group constants properly, even one-speed diffusion
theory could give an accurate description of nuclear reactor behavior.
B. Two-Group Diffusion Theory

A more enlightening application involves the case of two energy groups, one
chosen to characterize fast neutrons and a second for thermal neutrons. The cutoff
energy for the thermal group is chosen sufficiently high such that upscattering out
of the thermal group can be ignored. This corresponds to an energy of 0.5-1.OeV in
water moderated reactors, but may range as high as 3eV in high-temperature
gas-cooled reactors. If we choose the group structure as shown below:
Thermal group
"
v
Ey ~ 1 eV
Fast group
*
Eq = 10 MeV
296
then we can identify:

E0
= f dE<j>(r,E,t)
j
eEx
x
$x(r,t)
cE'
02(r,/)= I
Jr.
= f&st flux,
'
dE$(r,Ej)=
(7-32)
thermal flux.
(7-33)
We can simplify the group constants for this model somewhat. Consider first the
fission spectrum. Since essentially all fission neutrons are born in the fast group
(recall the fission spectrum x(E) illustrated in Figure 2-21), we can write
Xl=
,E
E0
dEX(E)=
f dE
Jr.
'Ex
Et
E
1,
1,
xx22== f/ XdEX{E)
JJEr-2
= 0.
(7-34)
Hence the fission source will only appear in the fast group equation:
S fi = v^fi<t>x + v 2 \<t> 2
(fast),
(7-35)
S fz = 0
(thermal).
(7-36)
We can proceed to calculate the scattering and removal cross section. First since
there is no slowing down out of the thermal group,
, E i 1 eV
J eC = ft
o
E2<E,<El.
d E \ { E ' ^ E ) = ^s{E%
(7-37)
Hence we find
2 E
J
<t>2 E
JE2
(7-38)
Thus the removal cross section for the thermal group is just
2
R2 = 2 t 2 - 2 S 2 2 = 2 t 2 - 2 S 2 = 2a2,
(7-39)
as we might have expected. The remainder of the group constants are defined as
before in the previous section. In practice they would be calculated by first
performing a fine spectrum calculation for the group of interest, and then averaging the appropriate cross section data over this spectrum to obtain the group
constants. For example, a fast spectrum calculation would be performed to calculate
the fast group constants vu 2 f , 2 R , 2 , a n d Dx (as d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 8) w h i l e a
thermal spectrum
calculation
w o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d to c a l c u l a t e t h e thermal
group
an
constants v2>
d 2 a 2 (as described in Chapter 9).
We will consider the application of two-group diffusion theory to a reactor
criticality calculation. 7 Then we can set both the time derivatives and the external
297
source terms equal to zero to write the two-group diffusion equation as
- VD V<t> +
x
"2^2],
~V-D2V^2^)t>2=\<t>v
(7-40)
Notice that we have inserted a multiplication factor (1 / k ) in front of the fission

source term since we are eventually going to be performing a criticality search.
Also notice that while the source terms in the fast group correspond to fission
neutrons, the source term in the thermal group is due only to slowing down from
the fast group.
As a specific illustration, we will apply the two-group diffusion equations, Eq.
(7-40), to analyze the criticality of a bare, uniform reactor assuming that both fast
and thermal fluxes can be characterized by the same spatial shape ^(r):
V ^ + 5 V ( r ) = 0,
^(f s ) = 0.
(7-41)
W e have omitted the subscript g from the geometric buckling Bg= B2 so as not to
confuse it with the group index g. Then if we substitute
</>,(!) = ^ ( r ) ,
<t>2 (r) =
(7"42)
00
into Eq. (7-40), we find the algebraic equations

(DXB2
+2
- k - ' v ^ ) ^ - k~lv2Zf2<t>2 = 0,
-2Si2<#>I + (Z) 2 5 2 + 2 a > 2 = 0.
(7-43)
However this algebraic system has a solution if and only if
J ^ '
+S j
= 0.
(7-44)
We can now solve for the value of the multiplication factor k, which will yield a
nontrivial solution of the two-group equations:
7 + 7
i^+D.B2)
T7
^ - ^ r .
(2a:+D2B2)
(7-45)
It is of interest for us to see if we can relate this expression to our earlier

expressions for knotably the six-factor formula. First notice that the first term in
Eq. (7-45) represents neutron multiplication due to fissions occurring in the fast
group, whereas the second term represents multiplication due to thermal fission.
Since we expect the thermal fission contribution to be dominant in those situations
298
in which such a two-group analysis makes sense, let us first examine

2
*2 =
"22f,
(2Ri + J>i*2)
(1 + L2lB2)
{\+D2B2)
(7-46)
L2B2)
(1 +
From our earlier discussion in Section 5-III-D, it is evident that

P N L i - ( 1 + L?2?2)"\
/>NL2 = (1 + L 2 2 S 2 ) _ 1
(7-47)
are just the fast and thermal nonleakage probabilities. Notice that the diffusion
length Lx characterizing the fast group is defined somewhat differently as
,
i
K
12
but this is consistent with our earlier definition of the diffusion length, since both
2 a and 2 Sj2 act to remove neutrons from the fast group. The only unidentified term
is the ratio 2 / 2 R . However for a homogeneous reactor we know that this ratio is
just:
Rate at which neutrons slow
down to thermal group
Rate at which neutrons are
removed from fast group
r^
J
r
J
. ^
s,2<?M )
2 Siz
= p9
(7-49)
. /r\
Riîv )
which we can identify as the resonance escape probability p characterizing slowing

down from group 1 to group 2. Hence
In a very similar manner we can identify the fast multiplication factor as

"i^/SR,
where ril = v l 2 f i / 2 ^ and we have defined a "fast utilization factor" / 1 = 2 a | / 2 R i in

analogy to the thermal utilization f 2 .
To complete our identification with the usual six-factor formula, we evidently
must identify the fast fission factor e as just
299
Then we find
k=kx
+ k2 = tk2=
Ifc-A/^NL^NL,
(7"53)
= Wth/K^FNL^TNL*
which is the usual six-factor formula. Of course, this definition of c is somewhat

awkward, since it depends upon quantities such as the thermal utilization, the
thermal nonleakage probability, and the resonance escape probability.
The identification of the various components of the six-factor formula in terms
of two group-constants is not unique, and alternative schemes can be found in the
literature. 1,7 Such arbitrariness is indicative of the limited usefulness of the sixfactor formula for more realistic reactor analysis. In fact the two-group expression
for k [Eq. (7-45)] is far more appropriate for the description of most thermal power
reactor types which are characterized by a somewhat harder neutron energy
spectrum than the natural uranium, graphite-moderated reactors which motivated
the development of the six-factor formula.
The two-group diffusion model can be used to demonstrate a number of the
various applications of the multigroup formalism. For example, one frequently
wishes to generate the group constants for a few-group calculation using the
neutron spectrum generated by a many-group calculation. Such a procedure is
known as group collapsing, since it expresses few-group constants in terms of
many-group constants.
To illustrate this, we can derive expressions for the one-group constants in terms
of two-group constants. For example,
E
f " d E S j E M S )
Jr.
f "dEZJtE)<t>(E)+
Jr.
dE^(E)<t>{E)
Jr.
2a =
f dE<t>(E)
JE
r .2
dE<t>(E)+
Jr.
'dE<j>(E)
Jr.
(7-54)
01+02
or using Eq. (7-43) to eliminate <j>2 in terms of <f>x:
D2zB2
+ 2 aa + 2
2
st2
'
The remaining one-group constants can be given as
j2 f =
=
<t>i + <t>2
(7-57)
Z>i 2 5 + 2 a 2 + 2s 12
(These relations can be generalized to the case of collapsing from G groups, but we
will leave this development to the problem set at the end of the chapter.)
300
C. Modified One-Group Diffusion Theory

In the analysis of large thermal reactors it is sometimes possible to simplify
the two-group diffusion equations even further by ignoring thermal leakage. If we
note that in a large L W R , D2~0.5 cm, B2^ 10" 4 c m ' 2 , while 2 ^ 0 . 1 c m " 1 , then
we find
-D2V2<t>2
D2B2
S <
a2 #>2
a2
Hence the neglect of - D2V2<p2 in the second of Eqs. (7-40) may occasionally be
valid for the investigation of problems in which thermal neutron diffusion does not
have a significant reactivity effect.
If we now solve the simplified equation for the thermal group flux
2Sl2
fcOO^^r)
(7-59)
a
and substitute this into the fast-group equation, we find the modified one-group
diffusion model
- V - D . V ^ + 2R1*, = v & f r + r 2 S f 2 ( 2 S i 2 / 2 a >
(7-60)
or rearranging for the case of a homogeneous reactor
(7-61)
where
p,2f
v^f
= -L + - i - J i = *
^R,
a2
+ *
,,
(7-62)
R]
where we recall L2=DX/2R.

This model is sometimes referred to as one- and
one-half-group diffusion theory, since it is midway between the one- and two-group
schemes.
A very useful (and common) modification of this scheme which takes some
account of both fast and thermal leakage within a one-group treatment is obtained
by replacing L2 in Eq. (7-61) by the so-called migration area M2 defined as
M 2 = L 2 + L 2 2 = Z ) 1 / 2 R I + Z) 2 /2 R 2 .
(7-63)
We will show in Chapter 9 that M2 is essentially just 1 / 6 the mean square distance
traveled by a neutron from its birth in fission to its eventual demise via thermal
absorption.
We have developed these very simple few-group models to demonstrate how
301
multigroup techniques can be used to evaluate many of the quantities of interest in

reactor analysis. (Still further examples are included as exercises at the end of this
chapter.) We could continue our discussion by considering more elaborate multigroup diffusion models, such as the four-group model customarily used in LWR
analysis, or the ultrafine group structure required in fast reactor studies. However
we will defer such topics until we have studied schemes for the generation of
multigroup constants.
Thus far our illustrations of multigroup diffusion calculations have been extremely simple. They usually ignored spatial dependence (or at best, assumed only
a fundamental mode dependence). In any realistic calculation, one must take into
account the inhomogeneous nature of the reactor core by actually solving the
multigroup diffusion equations in detail. Hence we now turn our attention to the
strategy for solving these more general equations.
IV. NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE MULTIGROUP

DIFFUSION EQUATIONS
A. Successive Solution of the Multigroup Equations
We now consider a strategy for solving the multigroup diffusion equations on
digital computers. Suppose we begin by writing these equations (7-26) out in detail
as
-V D V<f> + 2 ^
2
= ^XiS +
- VD V<j> 3 + 2r3<#>3 =
3
I x 3 S + 2 Bis *, + 2 ^
(7-64)
Notice that here we have assumed that there is no upscattering and also defined the
fission source as
S(r)=
(" )
7
g' = i
65
It is very important to note that the spatial dependence of the fission source is
identical in each group diffusion equation.
Now the essential scheme is just as before. We begin by guessing a fission source,
S(r) and a multiplication eigenvalue k:
S(r)-J(0,(r),
kk\
(7-66)
302
Next, we calculate the flux in the first group:

- V - Z J ^ +S ^
(7-67)
Having obtained this flux, we can then proceed to the diffusion equation
characterizing the next lowest energy group
- V - Z J ^ +Z ^ -
- L x ^ t o +Z.^"
(7-68)
and solve this for ^ V ) since the right-hand side is now known. We can continue
on in this fashion to determine all of the group fluxes:
*<(r), *<'>(r), <^(r), < | > < ; > < .
(7-69)
Having done so, we can then calculate a new fission source

s>(r)= i
(7-70)
'=i
and a new value of k

f d3rS(1)(
*<>=-=
r)
(7-71)
We can then proceed to perform each source iteration by solving down the
multigroup equations toward increasingly lower energies. This scheme of solving
successively the equations in the direction of lower energies is enabled by the
assumption that there is no upscattering. This implies that the flux in the higher
energy groups always determines the source term in the lower energy groups. In
effect, we are merely inverting a lower triangular matrix (as the matrix formulation
in the previous section made apparent).
If one chooses a multigroup structure in which more than one group is assigned
to the thermal energy range in which appreciable upscattering can occur, then
such a successive groupwise solution of the multigroup diffusion equations is no
longer possible. One must solve the equations characterizing the thermal group
simultaneously. If the number of such fully coupled groups in which both upscattering as well as downscattering occurs is small (e.g., in H T G R calculations, 4 it is
common to use three to four thermal groups), a direct simultaneous solution (i.e.,
matrix inversion) can be accomplished. However if the number of thermal groups
is large, as it may be in thermal spectrum calculations, then iterative solution
schemes will be necessary (similar to the inner iterations used in multidimensional
diffusion calculations).
A great deal is known about the mathematical nature of such multigroup
diffusion eigenvalue problems. 8,9 Under rather weak restrictions on the group
fluxes and their boundary conditions, one can show that there will always exist a
303
maximum eigenvalue keff that is real and positive. The corresponding eigenfunction
is unique and nonnegative everywhere within the reactor. These features are
reassuring, because we would anticipate that the largest eigenvalue will characterize
the multiplication of the system, and the corresponding eigenfunction will describe
the flux distribution within the core (which cannot be negative). One can also
demonstrate that the above source iteration will converge to this "positive
dominant" eigenvalue keff and the corresponding eigenfunction.
Such formal considerations are interesting in their own right, as well as being
useful in the investigation of algorithms devised for the solution of the multigroup
diffusion equations. In actual practice, however, one must also discretize the spatial
dependence in order to solve the group-diffusion equations. That is, one chooses a
spatial mesh and finite difference scheme, just as we did in Chapter 5, and then
discretizes the diffusion equations for each group. We now turn to a brief
discussion of several more practical aspects of the solution of such equations.
B. Strategies for Solving the Finite-Differenced Multigroup Diffusion

Equations
If we recall the general discussion of finite difference representations of the
neutron diffusion equations given in Section 5-II-B, it is apparent that the general
structure of the finite-differenced multigroup diffusion equations takes the form: 11
(Note here that we will occasionally write the group index g as a superscript in
order to avoid confusing it with the spatial mesh indices i and j.) Notice that in
addition to the coupling to different energy group fluxes at a given mesh point due
to the fission source and scattering, the finite difference equation is coupled as well
to the flux at adjacent spatial mesh points because of the effect of spatial diffusion.
If we denote the number of spatial mesh points by N and the number of groups
by G, then Eq. (7-72) represents a set of G X N simultaneous linear algebraic
equations. One usually normalizes the flux at one energy group-space mesh point
(since the overall normalization of the flux is arbitrary in a criticality calculation).
Hence we have GxN equations available to determine the G x i V - 1 fluxes and
the multiplication eigenvalue &eff. As. before, it is convenient to rewrite this set of
equations as a matrix eigenvalue problem
M = t -
(7-26)
EXAMPLE: Consider four energy groups with a five by four two-dimensional

spatial mesh. Then each matrix has (4 X 5 X 4)2 = 6400 elements and the flux vector
<j> has 80 elements. One typically allows fission neutrons to appear only in the
=
uppermost energy group, X i ~ h
g > 1. Furthermore, we will assume directly
coupled groups such that 2 sg , g = 0 if g'=g 1. We can explicitly exhibit the
structure of the matrix eigenvalue problem in this case as shown in Figure (7-2).11
305
Let us now review the general iterative strategy for solving this eigenvalue
problem.
(T) One first makes an initial guess of the source vector S<0) and the multiplication
eigenvalue
(2) At this point one proceeds to solve the inhomogeneous matrix equation
M$(n+l)=-^S(n)
(7-73)
for the next flux iterate, </>(w+1). This solution involves a number of substeps:
2-1 One solves the inhomogeneous diffusion equation characterizing each of
the energy groups g
( + ! ) _
1
M
qOO
()
by solving first for the highest energy group, g = 1 (noting

ô 0
and then using
to solve for <t>2*+l\ and so on, solving successively
down the groups.
EXAMPLE: If we return for a moment to our earlier four-group, five-by-four
spatial mesh problem, we find that each matrix in the group inhomogeneous
equation [Eq. (7-74)] has (5 X 4)2 = 400 elements while the flux and source vectors
have 20 elements. Note that the fission source
vanishes for all but the highest
energy group since Xg = 0, g> 1. Furthermore the highest energy group obviously
has no slowing down source. The matrix form of the group diffusion equation [Eq.
(7-74)] is shown in Figure 7-3 for this example. 11
2-2
Of course, solving even the inhomogeneous diffusion equation [Eq. (7-74)]

for a single group is no trivial matter. For multidimensional problems,
iterative techniques will be necessary such as those discussed in Chapter 5
(e.g., SOR). Such inner iterations usually take the previous flux estimate
</>g_I) as their first guess in solving Eq. (7-74). It should be mentioned that
a variety of schemes have been proposed (and utilized) for coupling such
inner iterations to the outer (source) iterations to accelerate convergence.
Q) Having obtained the flux estimate <f>(n+1), one can now determine the next
multiplication eigenvalue estimate. A variety of weighting schemes can be used
to determine the ratio of fission source estimates. One such scheme can be
+
derived by taking the scalar product of the fission source vector
with
the equation defining the iterative scheme
(7-75)
and then noting that presumably
i)^
(n+l)
(7-76)
to find
k(n+1) = k
(F<t> ( n + l \ F < f > ( n + l ) )

~
.
.
(7-77)
I
if*=l
I
if*>l

@
307
A t this p o i n t o n e tests t h e s o u r c e i t e r a t i o n f o r c o n v e r g e n c e , s u c h as
comparing
by
9
jc(n+
(7-78)
o r a p o i n t w i s e criterion
max
$ ( + D _ $ ()
Si
Si
c
(7-79)
(n+ 1)
(or b o t h ) . If t h e c h a n g e s in k(n) or t h e e l e m e n t s of S ( n ) o r <j!>(n) a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y

small, o n e a s s u m e s t h a t c o n v e r g e n c e h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d , a n d t h e iterative
p r o c e d u r e is e n d e d . If n o t , t h e n a n e w fission s o u r c e is c a l c u l a t e d a n d t h e
iteration continues.
U s u a l l y t h e fission s o u r c e 5 ( n ) u s e d in t h e n e x t i t e r a t i o n is c h o s e n via a n
e x t r a p o l a t i o n s c h e m e (cf. S e c t i o n 5 - I V - C ) t o a c c e l e r a t e c o n v e r g e n c e of t h e
source iterations, for example,
( n )
in)
(n) +
F
=
k( n)=J-
(7-80)
T h e positive n a t u r e of t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n o p e r a t o r s implies similar p r o p e r ties f o r t h e m a t r i c e s resulting f r o m f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c i n g these e q u a t i o n s . H e n c e m a n y

of t h e f o r m a l c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g c o n v e r g e n c e t o t h e positive d o m i n a n t eig e n v a l u e a n d e i g e n f u n c t i o n c a n a l s o b e s h o w n t o h o l d f o r the f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e d
m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s . T h e t h e o r y of s u c h n u m e r i c a l p r o c e d u r e s h a s b e e n
placed o n firm g r o u n d by Varga10 a n d Wachpress,8 a n d the interested reader
is r e f e r r e d t o their treatises f o r m o r e detail.
T h u s f a r w e h a v e o n l y c o n c e r n e d ourselves w i t h t h e u s u a l criticality c a l c u l a t i o n
f o r kefV A c t u a l l y a variety of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of criticality s e a r c h e s a r e typically
c o n d u c t e d in a n e f f e c t to a c h i e v e a d e s i r e d c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n (which is f r e q u e n t l y
n o t e q u a l t o 1.0). F o r e x a m p l e , t w o s u c h s c h e m e s a r e : (a) c o r e size s e a r c h e s
(usually t h e size of a given c o r e r e g i o n is v a r i e d , say b y v a r y i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of o n e
b o u n d a r y , u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e of & eff is a c h i e v e d ) a n d (b) c o m p o s i t i o n s e a r c h
(the a t o m i c d e n s i t y of a specific f u e l isotope, o r several s u c h isotopes, is varied,
p e r h a p s o n l y i n a given s u b r e g i o n of t h e core).
T h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s c a n also b e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y of o t h e r
a p p l i c a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e c a n u s e these e q u a t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n e u t r o n
f l u x m a i n t a i n e d in a subcritical a s s e m b l y b y a s t e a d y - s t a t e s o u r c e ( b y r e t a i n i n g t h e
s o u r c e t e r m in t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s ) . T h e y c a n also b e u s e d t o
c a l c u l a t e t h e t i m e eigenvalues a o c c u r r i n g in s o l u t i o n s of t h e f o r m eat b y inserting
a n e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n t e r m (a/vg)<t>g i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n s , a n d t h e n solving f o r a as
a m a t r i x e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m . S u c h " a - s e a r c h e s " a r e of use in s t u d y i n g r e a c t o r
kinetic behavior.
308
V. MULTIGROUP PERTURBATION THEORY

Before we conclude this general discussion of the multigroup diffusion
equations, it is useful to redevelop the procedure of perturbation theory as it
applies to the multigroup equations as written in matrix form:
(7-81)
In order to determine the change in reactivity induced in the core by a small

perturbation, we must generalize somewhat our concept of inner products and
adjointness to account for the matrix nature of the multigroup eigenvalue problem
[Eq. (7-81)]. To this end, define the inner product between two G-dimensional
vectors /(r) and g(r) as
( / , g ) = [^/[/t(r)g1(r)+/*(r)g2(r)+...].
(7-82)
J y
We can now use this inner product to construct the adjoint of the operators M and
F:
/ > ) = (/> M S ) -
(7-83)
Since the adjoint of a matrix is obtained by first taking the transpose of the matrix
and then complex-conjugating each of its elements, it is evident that
' - V - ^ V + Sr,
M M
-2Sl2
- V D 2 V + ZK2
(7-84)
and similarly
'"ixA,
*'iX2 2 f I
+ = [ *2XI2,2
f 2 X 2 2f 2
).
(7-85)
Note in particular that

and F ^ ^ F t h a t is, the multigroup criticality
problem is not self-adjoint. Hence we find <j>*^=<l>.
We can use our earlier expressions for the reactivity change corresponding to
perturbations in the core composition, if we recognize that such perturbations will
now have a matrix characterfor example,
M'=
M + 8M9
(7-86)
F+
(7-87)
and
8F.
309
For example, one could imagine a perturbation in the absorption cross section
characterizing the second group as being represented by
r
m = \
S2 a
I-
<7-88)
(7-89)
The corresponding reactivity change is then given by

(<frfJ
8F~
*P=
8M1
~
To make these ideas more precise, let us consider the particularly simple example
of two-group diffusion theory as described by Eq. (7-40). In matrix form, these
equations become
/-v-D.v+z^
\
-SSi2
-V-D2V
W<M = i("i 2 f,
+2J
U2/
^v
"2sf2\ /<M
0 /U
1
| F
/.
(7-90)
The adjoint equations are
-V-D2V+2j
\)
M+
(7-91)
Ik F
Note that M1~= M and F 1 "^ F, hence

Suppose we consider the reactivity change induced by perturbing the thermal
absorption cross section by an amount
Then
8F = 0,
m=(o
< 7 " 92 )
J -
Hence we can compute

(if, l i ) =
Jyd3r
(o
S2 a
(7-93)
to find
d3r<pld\2<l>2
f
A p =
< t
~ 7 1
(7-94)
310
In analogy with our earlier one-speed calculation, suppose we set

S2aj=S(r-r0).
(7-95)
Ap=-^(r0)*2(r0).
(7-96)
Then
Thus we find
4>l(r0) =
cAp
fractional change in
= reactivity per neutron
2
absorbed per unit time.
(7-97)
In particular, if </>| is large at r0, then the change in p introduced by a thermal

absorber at r0 will be large. That is, </>|(r) measures the "importance" of the point r
with respect to reactivity changes induced by perturbing the thermal absorption at
that point.
For the more general multigroup problem, ^J(r) can be identified as the neutron
importance function for group g, since </>J(r) is proportional to the gain or loss in
reactivity of a reactor due to the insertion or removal of one neutron per second in
the group g at point r.
In general, one finds that the multigroup neutron importance (or adjoint fluxes)
differs substantially f r o m the multigroup fluxes. This is shown for a two-group
calculation for a reflected slab geometry core in Figure 7-4.
FIGURE 7-4.
The two-group fluxes and adjoint fluxes for a reflected slab reactor
311
VI. SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS

W e have n o w developed the multigroup diffusion equations a n d outlined a
s t r a t e g y f o r solving t h e m . T h e m a j o r u n c e r t a i n t y at this p o i n t c o n c e r n s j u s t h o w
o n e d e t e r m i n e s t h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . T h e s e latter c a l c u l a t i o n s rely o n clever guesses
o r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s f o r t h e i n t r a g r o u p fluxes, a n d m o r e specifically o n o n e ' s ability
to d e t e r m i n e t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m c h a r a c t e r i z i n g f a s t a n d t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n s . T h i s is t h e s u b j e c t t o w h i c h w e will n e x t t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n as w e s t u d y
t h e slowing d o w n a n d t h e r m a l i z a t i o n of n e u t r o n s .
REFERENCES
University of Chicago Press, (1958), p. 509.
(1970), p. 181.
3. R. L. Hellens, The Physics of P W R Reactors, in New Developments in Reactor Physics
and Shielding, USAEC CONF-720901 (1972).
4. M. H. Merrill, Nuclear Design Methods and Experimental Data in Use at Gulf General
Atomic, GULF-GA-A12652 (GA-LTR-2), 1973.
5. R. Avery, Review of F B R Physics, in New Developments in Reactor Physics and
Shielding, U S A E C CONF-720901 (1972).
6. B. J. Toppel, A. L. Rago, and D. M. O'Shea, MC 2 , A Code to Calculate Multigroup
Cross Sections, ANL-7318, Argonne National Laboratory, 1967.
8. E. L. Wachspress, Iterative Solution of Elliptic Systems and Applications to the Neutron
Diffusion Equation of Reactor Physics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. (1966).
9. G. J. Habetler and M. A. Martino, Proceedings of Symposium on Applied Mathematics,
Vol. XI, American Mathematical Society (1961), p. 127.
10. R. S. Varga, Matrix Iterative Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. (1962).
11. R. G. Steinke, A Review of Direct and Iterative Strategies for Solving MultiDimensional Finite Difference Problems, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering
Report (1971).
(1966).
PROBLEMS
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
Estimate the fast-group constants characterizing H 2 0 if the fast group is taken from
El = 1 eV to E0 = lOMeV and the neutron energy spectrum over this group is taken as
<t>(E)~l/E.
Estimate the minimum group spacing that will yield directly coupled multigroup
equations for 12C, 2 D, 9 Be, and 2 2 Na.
What percentage of the neutrons slowing down in hydrogen will tend to skip groups if
the group structure is chosen such that Eg_l/Eg
100?
Write out the detailed form of the multigroup diffusion equations, M<f>
for a
four-group model in which: (a) there is direct coupling, (b) the fission source exists
only in the upper two groups, and (c) only the lowest group contains thermal
neutrons.
312
7-5
Repeat Problem 7-4 for the case in which the lowest two groups correspond to
thermal neutrons (which will be characterized by appreciable upscattering).
Calculate the critical size and mass of a bare sphere of pure 2 3 5 U metal using the
group constants characterizing groups 1 and 2 in Table 7-1.
7-6
TABLE 7-1
ANL Four-Group Microscopic Cross Sections (in barns)*
Lower
Energy
u
[ln0/L]
EL
MeV
keV
eV
1.353
9.12
0.4
1
4.7
2
7.0
3 51.0
4 .597.0
H2O
Fission
Spectrum
->* + I
<*tr
0.575
3.08
2. 81
0.425
10.52
4.04
17.03
16.55
0.035
4.14
68.6
0.57
U 235
OF
o
u238
y
CT
tr
inR
2.65
1.3 0.1 1.4
1.4 0.3 0
2.55
23.0 18.0 0
2.5
0
2.5 490 97
0
0
0.01
0
4.7
7.0
11.0
13.0
2.65
----
ff
0.53
0
0
0
0.04
0.18
0.8
2.4
inR
2.1
0
0
0
0
0
0.01
0
eR
From Reactor Physics Constants, ANL-5800 (1963). [Here, a i n R and a e R refer

to the inelastic and elastic scattering removal cross sections for the group
similar to the definition given in Eq. (7-23).]
7-7
7-8
7-9
7-10
Compare the critical radius of a 2 3 5 U sphere as given by one-group, two-group, and

modified one-group (1-1 / 2 group) diffusion models. Again use the data from groups 1
and 2 of Table 7-1.
Determine the thermal flux due to an isotropic point source emitting S0 fast neutrons
per second in an infinite moderating medium. Use two-group diffusion theory. In
particular, discuss the solution to this problem for the case in which Lx> L2 and
L,<L2.
Consider a plane source emitting S0 fast n e u t r o n s / c m 2 sec at the center of a
subcritical slab of thickness a. Determine the two-group fluxes established in the
assembly.
We have listed in Table 7-2 typical group constants characterizing a P W R (in both
two-group and four-group forms). Calculate the multiplication factor of a P W R core
of height 370 cm and diameter 340 cm using two-group diffusion theory.
TABLE 7-2
Few-Group Diffusion Theory Constants for a Typical PWR Reactor Core
Four-Group
Two-Group
Group
Constant
1 of 2
2 of 2
1 of 4
3 of 4
3 of 4
4 of 4
D
2R
.008476
.003320
.01207
1.2627
.02619
.18514
.07537
.1210
.3543
.1210
.009572
.003378
.004946
2.1623
.08795
.001193
.0004850
.002840
1.0867
.06124
.01768
.006970
.03053
.6318
.09506
.18514
.07527
.1210
.3543
.1210
313
7-11
Using the group constants of Table 7-2, calculate each of the terms in the six-factor
formula for the core described in Problem 7-10.
7-12 The neutron "age" r is defined as 1 / 6 of the mean-square distance a fast neutron will
travel before it slows down or is absorbed. Derive an expression for the age r in terms
of two-group constants. In particular, compute the age for the group constants
characterizing a L W R in Table 7-2.
7-13 Recall that we defined the conversion ratio C R characterizing a reactor as the ratio of
the production rate of fissile nuclei to the destruction rate of fissile nuclei. Derive an
expression for the conversion ratio in a slightly enriched uranium-fueled reactor (such
as a LWR) at the beginning of core life (i.e., such that the plutonium density is zero).
7-14 One important method of controlling reactivity in a P W R is to dissolve a poison such
as boron in the coolant. If we assume that boron only affects the thermal absorption,
2 a z , derive an estimate of the critical boron concentration that will render k 00 = 1. Use
this expression to estimate the boron concentration necessary to render the reactor
described in Problem 7-10 critical. Take o f s O , a =2207 b.
7-15 Calculate the one-group constants corresponding to collapsing the two-group set
given in Table 7-2.
7-16 Derive a general group collapsing expression for TV-group constants in terms of
N X M-group constants (e.g., 2-group in terms of 4-group).
7-17 Calculate the two-group constants corresponding to collapsing the four-group constants in Table 7-2 by assigning groups 1, 2, and 3 to group 1 and group 4 to group 4,
respectively. Compare these with the two-group constants listed in Table 7-2.
7-18 Using two-group theory, determine the critical core width of a slab reactor with core
composition similar to that of a P W R and surrounded by an infinite water reflector.
Use the two-group constants of Table 7-2 supplemented with group constants
characterizing the water reflector: D j = 1.13 cm, D 2 = 0.16 cm, 2 R =0.0494 c m - 1
2 a 2 = 0.0197 c m " 1 , 2 a i = .0004 cm" 1 .
7-19 A beam of Jin fast n e u t r o n s / c m 2 / s e c is incident on the plane face of an infinite
homogeneous nonmultiplying half-space. Use two-group diffusion theory and partial
current boundary conditions to calculate 7 o u t , the partial current of thermal neutrons
going back toward the fast source.
7-20 Consider a thin slab of fuel surrounded by an infinite moderator. Suppose that the
slab is thin enough that it is essentially transparent to nonthermal neutrons. However
because of its large thermal absorption cross section, all thermal neutrons striking the
surface of the slab are absorbed. Suppose further that every thermal neutron absorbed
in the fuel results in the net production of t j fission neutrons. Using the two-group
diffusion theory model, develop an equation for the effective multiplication factor for
this system.
7-21 Assuming that fwo-group diffusion theory with one group of delayed fission neutrons
represents a valid description of the reactor, write the three coupled differential
equations for the time and spatial dependence of the neutron precursor fragment
concentration C(r,f) and the fast and slow group fluxes ^ ( r , t) and <J>2(r, 0 respectively. The average speed, diffusion constants, and removal (by all types of collision)
cross sections in the fast and slow groups are u,, Dh
and v2, D2, and
respectively. Fission can be produced only by slow group neutrons, and the cross
section is 2 f 2 . There are v neutrons emitted per fission, all into the fast group, with a
fraction /? delayed. The decay constant of the neutron precursor is X, and the cross
section for transfer of neutrons from the fast group to the slow group is 2 Si2 . By
assuming that the spatial shapes of <j>l9 <f>2 and C are that of the fundamental mode
with geometric buckling B2, find an equation for the transient and stable periods (i.e.,
the inhour equation). How many transient terms are there?
7-22
Write out the explicit form of the matrix equations A/j>= k ~ XF<$> and
Sg + R g - f o r a four-group, 4 x 4 x 3 three-dimensional spatial mesh problem in
which the lowest two groups are both taken in the thermal range in which significant
upscatter can occur.
314
7-23
7-24
7-25
7-26
7-27

Write a simple two-group, one-dimensional diffusion code (similar to the one-group
code written in Problem 5-27). Then treating the L W R described in Problem 7-10 as a
slab geometry, calculate the width necessary for reactor criticality.
Using ANL-7411, list and contrast various multigroup diffusion codes. In particular,
compare their group structure, inner-outer iteration strategy, source-extrapolation
methods, criticality search options, and estimated running times.
Calculate </>i,02 and the adjoint fluxes, <[,<J>2 for a bare, spherical reactor of radius R.
Compute and sketch both the two-group fluxes and adjoint fluxes for the reflected
slab reactor described in Problem 7-18.
A critical system consisting of a slab surrounded on both sides by infinite reflectors is
to be described by two-group diffusion theory. The center third of the core suddenly
has its thermal group absorption cross section increased slightly. Find the change in
core multiplication by perturbation theory. Then to demonstrate that the work saved
over directly calculating the multiplication factor for the perturbed system is very
great, carry out the latter calculation until as many pages are filled as were required to
perform the perturbation calculation.
8
Fast Spectrum Calculations
and
Fast Group Constants
The principal tool of nuclear reactor analysis is multigroup diffusion theory. In

Chapter 7 we developed the general form of the multigroup diffusion equations and
prescribed a strategy for their solution. However these equations contained various
parameters known as group constants formally defined as averages over the
energy-dependent intragroup fluxes </>(r,) which must be determined before these
equations assume more than a formal significance. The determination of suitable
approximations for the intragroup fluxes, that is, the neutron energy spectrum, is
the key to the generation of group constants that will yield an accurate few-group
description of nuclear reactor behavior.
Hence our goal in this chapter and Chapter 9 is to develop methods for
generating few-group constants by averaging fundamental microscopic cross section data over suitable approximations to the neutron energy spectrum. Of course
there are two aspects to this problem, since both the energy and the spatial
dependence of the intragroup fluxes must be estimated. Because of the extremely
complicated dependence of microscopic neutron cross sections on energy, it is
necessary to provide a rather careful treatment of the energy dependence of the
intragroup flux. Of course if the number of groups is very large ( > 5 0 ) , one can
frequently get by with rather crude estimates of this energy dependence. For
example, for energies above 1 MeV, one might approximate <$>(E) by the fission
spectrum x(E)\ for intermediate energies, 1 e V < E< 1 MeV, we will see that <f>(E)
behaves very roughly as 1/E; while for energies below 1 eV, we might model <()
by a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution characterizing neutrons in thermal equilibrium with the reactor core material at a temperature T.
Unfortunately, for the generation of few-group constants, one requires a far
better treatment of the energy dependence of the intragroup flux. In fact one is
315
316
usually required to perform a detailed multigroup calculation of the neutron energy

spectrum using a fine-group structure (with a crude treatment of spatial dependence) which can then be used to average or "collapse" fundamental cross section
data to generate few-group constants.
The methods used to generate the neutron energy spectrum vary, depending on
the range of neutron energies of interest. For example, at high energies the
dominant process is neutron slowing down via both elastic and inelastic scattering.
At intermediate energies, resonance absorption becomes quite important. At low
energies, upscattering becomes appreciable as the neutrons tend to approach
thermal equilibrium with the nuclei comprising the reactor core. Hence it is
customary to divide the range of neutron energies into three different regions, each
characterized by these different types of interaction, as indicated below:
Upscattering
Chemical
binding
Elastic scattering
from stationary,
free nuclei (isotropic in CM,
s-wave)
Elastic scattering
(anisotropic in
CM, p-wave)
N o upscattering
resonance absorption
(resolved resonances)
N o upscattering
resonance absorption
(unresolved resonances)
fission sources
Diffraction
105 eV
1 eV
Neutron
Thermalization
Neutron moderation
or slowing down
107 eV
Fast fission
In this chapter we will be concerned with the calculation of the neutron energy
spectrum characterizing fast neutrons. Hence our study of the calculation of fast
neutron
spectra
a n d the g e n e r a t i o n of fast
group
constants
will b e d o m i n a t e d b y a
development of the theory of neutron slowing down and resonance absorption. In

C h a p t e r 9 w e t h e n c o n s i d e r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of thermal
neutron
spectra
and
thermal
group constants involving the development of the theory of neutron thermalization.

One must also account for the spatial dependence of the intragroup fluxes, as
well as the spatial variation of the reactor core composition. Of course a detailed
treatment of this spatial dependence in the generation of multigroup constants
would be impracticalindeed the primary motivation for the generation of fewgroup constants is to yield a sufficiently coarse treatment of neutron energy
dependence to allow such a detailed spatial calculation. Instead we must introduce
a very approximate treatment of the spatial dependence of the intragroup fluxes.
Of course the most drastic such approximation is simply to ignore the spatial
dependence altogether in the calculation of the neutron spectrum. That is, one
effectively assumes that the intragroup fluxes can be calculated by assuming that
neutron slowing down and thermalization occur in an infinite medium in which
there is no spatial dependence. We will begin our study of both fast and thermal
spectra for this situation because of its simplicity.
FAST SPECTRUM CALCULATIONS AND FAST GROUP CONSTANTS
317
In most cases, however, one cannot so cavalierly ignore the spatial dependence
of the intragroup fluxes. Hence we will modify our study of infinite medium
spectrum calculations to include a very simple treatment in which the intragroup
flux spatial and energy dependence are assumed to be separable, and this spatial
dependence is then characterized by a single parameter (an effective value of the
geometric buckling B g ).
However even this extended treatment is inadequate for many situations in
which the detailed geometry of the reactor lattice must be taken into account. This
is particularly true for an adequate treatment of both resonance and thermal
neutron absorption. The few-group constants must be modified to account for the
variation of both the neutron flux and the material composition in a small
subregion or cell of the reactor core. In effect one must spatially average the
few-group constants over a unit cell of the core lattice (much as the microscopic
group constants have been averaged over energy to generate the few-group constants) before they can be used in a few-group diffusion calculation. We will
consider such cell-averaging techniques in Chapter 10.
Therefore the generation of appropriate few-group constants usually involves a
sequence of both energy and spatial averages of the microscopic cross section data
over approximate estimates of the neutron energy spectrum and spatial dependence
characterizing the neutron flux in a given subregion of the reactor of interest. As
such, these group constants are dependent on the reactor design of interest, and
also the region of the reactor core under investigation, its present operating
conditions (e.g., coolant densities, temperatures), as well as its past history (e.g.,
fuel depletion, fission product buildup). The generation of multigroup constants is
an extremely important (and usually time consuming) facet of nuclear design since
it is the key to the successful implementation of the multigroup diffusion technique.
I. NEUTRON SLOWING DOWN IN AN INFINITE MEDIUM

A. Introduction
Our initial goal is the calculation of the energy dependence of the neutron
flux <>(r,) in the fast energy range, E > 1 eV, in which upscattering can be ignored.
To simplify this calculation, we will first consider neutron slowing down from
sources uniformly distributed throughout an infinite, uniform medium. 1 ' 2 ' 4 In this
case, all spatial dependence disappears, and the neutron continuity equation, Eq.
(4-79), reduces to an equation for the neutron energy spectrum <{>(r, is )-<() of the
form
(8-1)
That is, the neutron transport equation simplifies rather dramatically to an integral
equation in the single variable Ey which we will refer to as the infinite-medium
spectrum
equation.
Of course the neglect of all spatial dependence may seem very drastic, and we
will later study schemes for reincluding it in our analysis. In most large reactors,
however, leakage is a relatively minor effect in comparison to neutron energy
variation. Furthermore even spatial effects due to core heterogeneities are usually
318
of secondary importance, particularly in the fast neutron energy range. Hence we

are certainly justified in focusing our initial attention on the energy dependence of
the neutron flux.
Before we can proceed further, we must provide more information concerning
the energy dependence of the neutron cross sections 2 t (is) and 2 S ( " C o n s i s tent with our present concern with fast neutron spectra, we will assume that the
scattering nuclei are initially at rest and free to recoil. That is, we will consider only
fast neutron energies much greater than the thermal energy of the nuclei E ^ > k T so
that upscattering in collisions can be ignored.
We will further restrict our initial investigation by considering only the process
of elastic scattering that is isotropic in the center of mass system. In this case, our
earlier study of two-body collision kinematics has indicated that the differential
scattering cross section is of the form
E
(1 - a ) E "
0.
< E
'
< E
(8-2)
otherwise.
where a = (A \/A +1) 2 . This form is sufficiently simple to enable us to obtain

a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o t h e neutron
slowing down
r
equation
00
dE"29(E'^>E)t(E')
+ S(E)
(8-3)
in many cases of interest, even without specifying the detailed forms of the cross
sections 2 s (is) and 2 a (is). Of course it will be necessary to use more general
numerical methods in solving Eq. (8-3) for most practical situations. However those
analytical results we will develop are of considerable use in formulating efficient
numerical schemes, as well as in checking their accuracy.
By restricting our attention to s-wave elastic scattering, we have limited the
applicability of our initial analysis to neutron energies below 1 MeV in light
moderators, and below 0.1 MeV in heavier materials, 3 since the average scattering
angle cosine Ji0 in the CM system is given roughly by /Z0 = 0.07 A 2 / 3 [MeV]. More
specifically, in hydrogen, s-wave scattering is dominant below several MeV. By way
of contrast, for heavier nuclei such as 1 6 0, p-wave scattering becomes significant
above roughly 50 keV. We will justify our restricted study of only s-wave scattering
by noting that in thermal reactors, most neutron moderation is due to light
elements such as jH, 2 D, or X\C.
For neutron energies above 0.1 MeV, inelastic scattering from heavy nuclei
becomes important and cannot be ignored. Unfortunately the complexities of
inelastic processes severely limits the extent to which one can use analytical
methods to investigate neutron slowing down. Hence our consideration of inelastic
scattering will be deferred until our discussion of the numerical solution of the
neutron slowing down equations.
We will begin our study of Eq. (8-3) for the particularly simple case of neutron
slowing down in an infinite medium of hydrogen. This study is of particular
importance since hydrogen is a very common moderator, and moreover this
analysis will serve to introduce a number of concepts which prove useful in the
study of more general neutron slowing down problems.
319
W e will t h e n t u r n to the s t u d y of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n via elastic s c a t t e r i n g

f r o m n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s . T h e r e a d e r s h o u l d b e c a u t i o n e d t h a t while the
d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in this section m a y look l e n g t h y a n d
c o m p l i c a t e d , t h e a c t u a l results of this a n a l y s i s a r e e x t r e m e l y simple. W e will f i n d
t h a t t h e n e u t r o n f l u x will usually b e h a v e essentially as </>() l/1,s(E)E,
provided
o n e is n o t n e a r energies c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a n e u t r o n s o u r c e or a s t r o n g cross section
r e s o n a n c e . H o w e v e r , as is, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of so m u c h of physics, the analysis
n e c e s s a r y to d e r i v e a n d j u s t i f y this result is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n the
result itself.
B. Neutron Moderation in Hydrogen

1. S L O W I N G D O W N IN T H E ABSENCE O F ABSORPTION
W e will first e x a m i n e t h e very simple c a s e in w h i c h all a b s o r p t i o n is i g n o r e d .
A c t u a l l y s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n is n o t t o o d r a s t i c in h y d r o g e n , since a " / a " ~ . 0 1 4 .
H o w e v e r w e a r e m o r e generally c o n c e r n e d with n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in a
h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r c o n t a i n i n g in a d d i t i o n a h e a v y m a s s a b s o r b e r ( s u c h as
238
U ) . E v e n in this case, m o s t n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n o c c u r s in fairly n a r r o w energy
r a n g e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a b s o r p t i o n r e s o n a n c e s , a n d f o r energies f a r f r o m these
r e s o n a n c e s , t h e neglect of a b s o r p t i o n will yield t h e correct q u a n t i t a t i v e b e h a v i o r of
the n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m ^(-E1).
F o r h y d r o g e n w e set A = 1 a n d h e n c e a H = 0. T h e n in the a b s e n c e of a b s o r p t i o n ,
E q . (8-3) b e c o m e s
f00
I dE'
2 a ( i ? )*()=
2S(>(')
+S{E).
(8-4)
Je
W e will b e g i n b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m <p(E) resulting f r o m a

m o n o e n e r g e t i c s o u r c e of s t r e n g t h SQ e m i t t i n g n e u t r o n s of energy E0. It p r o v e s
c o n v e n i e n t t o i n t r o d u c e a c h a n g e of d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e in E q . (8-4) b y i d e n t i f y i n g
the collision r a t e d e n s i t y F(E) = '2s(E)<t>(E), so t h a t w e c a n rewrite t h e slowing
d o w n e q u a t i o n (8-4) as
rE o
F{E)
F(Ef)
d E ' - ^
+ S ^ E - E t ) .
(8-5)
H e r e w e h a v e set the u p p e r limit of i n t e g r a t i o n at E0 since n o n e u t r o n s c a n achieve

energies h i g h e r t h a n the s o u r c e e n e r g y if o n l y d o w n s c a t t e r i n g is possible.
W e c o u l d solve this p r o b l e m as w e d i d the p l a n e s o u r c e d i f f u s i o n p r o b l e m of
C h a p t e r 5, b y restricting o u r a t t e n t i o n to energies E < E 0 a n d using the s o u r c e as a
b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n as E ^ E 0 . H o w e v e r it is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t in this case to solve
Eq. (8-5) directly. F i r s t n o t e t h a t b e c a u s e of t h e singular source, t h e s o l u t i o n F(E)
m u s t c o n t a i n a t e r m p r o p o r t i o n a l to 8(E E0). H e n c e w e will seek a s o l u t i o n of the
form
F(E)
= Fc(E)
C8(E-E0),
(8-6)
320
where C is an undetermined constant and FQ(E) is the nonsingular component of

F{E). Substituting this form into Eq. (8-5), one finds
rE
F(Ef)
c
= J d E ' - ^ j - + - +
JF
0
Fc(E)+C8(E-E0)
SQ8(E-Ej.
(8-7)
However the singular contributions must be equal. Hence we demand C = S0. Then
we find that FC(E) satisfies the remaining nonsingular equation
F(E)=
-
I
rE
E'
E<E0.
(8-8)
Notice something rather interesting here. FC{E) satisfies an equation in which the
source term is just that corresponding to source neutrons making a single collision
at the source energy E0that is, the effective source presented by "once-collided"
neutrons
S(E) = S 0 P ( E 0 ^ E ) = ^ .
(8-9)
Thus FC{E) can be interpreted as the collision density due to neutrons that have
suffered at least one collision (hence the subscript "c"). In a similar sense, we now
identify the singular component of F{E), S08(E E0), as simply the contribution
due to uncollided source neutrons (present only at the source energy E0).
We now must solve the remaining equation (8-8) for FC(E). We can solve this
integral equation by first differentiating it to convert it into an ordinary differential
equation (refer to Appendix B):
dpc
dE
E
\ rfi-o
(
dE'
dE J w
d
E'
_d_l So
dE\E0
(8-10)
or
dFc
d E
i
= - ^ H E ) .
(8-11)
The general solution to Eq. (8-11) is of the form FC{E)= C/E. To determine the
constant C, note that we can infer an initial condition at E = E 0 directly from the
integral equation (8-8):
(8-12)
Hence we must choose C = 5"0 to find the total solution
F ( E ) = ^ +
S08(E-E0),
(8-13)
321
or
S0
+
jirE
^r>
H E
<8
-' 4 )
It s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d t h a t if t h e s c a t t e r i n g cross section is o n l y w e a k l y d e p e n d e n t o n e n e r g y ( w h i c h it usually is), t h e n b e l o w the s o u r c e e n e r g y E0 the flux

a s s u m e s a \ / E f o r m . T h i s f u n c t i o n a l f o r m c o u l d in f a c t b e u s e d as a c r u d e
e s t i m a t e of t h e f l u x in g e n e r a t i n g g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n e u t r o n slowing
d o w n , b u t w e will p r o c e e d to d e v e l o p m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d m o d e l s .
A very similar analysis c a n b e u s e d to c o n s t r u c t t h e s o l u t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a
d i s t r i b u t e d s o u r c e S(E).
I n this case, o n e f i n d s (see P r o b l e m 8-2) t h a t
1
'
<f>(E)=
'
/-00
\ dE'S
(E)EJ
S(E)
(")+
2b(E)
O n c e a g a i n w e n o t e t h a t b e l o w t h e s o u r c e energies, t h e flux b e h a v e s essentially as

\/E.
2. SOME U S E F U L D E F I N I T I O N S
(a) THE SLOWING
DOWN
DENSITY
It is u s e f u l t o i n t r o d u c e several n e w d e f i n i t i o n s at this p o i n t in o r d e r to
facilitate o u r later analysis. W e first w a n t to d e f i n e t h e n e u t r o n slowing down density
q(E) d e s c r i b i n g t h e r a t e at w h i c h n e u t r o n s slow d o w n p a s t a given e n e r g y E. T o b e
m o r e general, we define
q(r E)d3r=
n u m
e r
n e u t r o n s
slowing d o w n p a s t e n e r g y
^g
E p e r sec in d3r a b o u t r.
If w e recall t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
t h a t a n e u t r o n will s c a t t e r f r o m a n initial e n e r g y E' to a f i n a l e n e r g y E" in dE",
t h e n w e c a n write
R a t e at which neutrons
t h a t s u f f e r collision
a t e n e r g y E' in dE'
slow d o w n p a s t E
f\(E'Ê")<j>(r,E')dE"
Jc\
dE'.
(8-17)
H e n c e t h e t o t a l slowing d o w n d e n s i t y resulting f r o m all initial energies E'>E

given b y
r
q(r,E)=
co
rE
dE'
J e
is
dE"2s(E'^>E")<f>(r,E').
(8-18)
ô
W e c a n a p p l y this d e f i n i t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e t h e slowing d o w n d e n s i t y in o u r infinite,
322
nonabsorbing, hydrogeneous moderator as

00
q(E)
dE
dE
I i.
o
(8-19)
Hence for this simple problem, the slowing density is constant and equal to the
source. This is of course understandable, since in the absence of absorption and
leakage, all source neutrons must eventually slow down below the energy E.
(b) THE NEUTRON
LETHARGY
The energy range spanned by neutron slowing down is extremely large,

ranging from 107 eV down to 1 eV. Furthermore we have found that in elastic
scattering the neutron tends to lose a fraction of its incident energy rather than a
fixed amount of energy. These considerations suggest that it would be more
convenient to use as an independent variable, the logarithm of the neutron energy
E. T o this e n d , w e d e f i n e t h e neutron
lethargy
(8-20)
Here the energy E0 is chosen to be the maximum energy that neutrons can achieve
in the problem. It is usually set either at the source energy for a monoenergetic
source problem, or chosen as 10 MeV for a reactor calculation.
Notice that as a neutron's energy E decreases, its lethargy u increases. That is, as
a fast neutron loses energy via scattering collisions, it moves more slowly, becoming more "lethargic." The neutron lethargy is such a convenient variable that it is
customary to perform fast spectrum calculations in terms of u rather than E. Hence
we must convert all of our earlier equations over to this new independent variable.
To accomplish this, we first compute the relationships between differentials
(8-21)
Then, for example, we can calculate the collision density in terms of lethargy by
writing
(8-22)
F(u)du=-F(E)dE
or
F(u)
EF(E).
323
( T h e m i n u s sign a p p e a r s b e c a u s e l e t h a r g y increases as e n e r g y decreases.) If we

a p p l y this t o o u r earlier e x a m p l e of slowing d o w n in a n infinite, n o n a b s o r b i n g
m e d i u m of h y d r o g e n , w e f i n d f o r this case, the collision rate d e n s i t y is a c o n s t a n t in
the lethargy variable
F(u)
= EF(E)=S0.
(8-23)
I n m o r e g e n e r a l cases, w e will f i n d t h a t t h e collision d e n s i t y F is usually a m u c h

m o r e slowly v a r y i n g f u n c t i o n of u t h a n E a n d h e n c e is easier to a p p r o x i m a t e in the
lethargy variable.
A s a s e c o n d e x a m p l e , w e c a n c o m p u t e t h e elastic s c a t t e r i n g p r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n
P ( E ' ^ E ) in l e t h a r g y b y n o t i n g
P(u'û)du=
- P(E'Ê)dE.
(8-24)
= -
P ( E ' ^ E ) = EP
Thus
P (u'û)
du
1
(E'-*E)
eu'~u
/ E \
(1 - a ) \ E ' J
(8-25)
(1 a) *
Also
E<E'<E/a=>u-ln(\/a)<
u'<
u.
(8-26)
Hence we find
(1 a ) '
w l n ( l / a ) < w' (w)= fUduf eu'-u^{u%{uf)
S(u).
(8-28)
N o w n o t i c e s o m e t h i n g r a t h e r interesting; f r o m E q s . (8-18) a n d (8-27), it is a p p a r e n t

t h e slowing d o w n d e n s i t y in t h e l e t h a r g y v a r i a b l e is given b y
q(u)=
fVjiwW)^'"-
( 8 " 29 )
Jo
N o w s u p p o s e w e d i f f e r e n t i a t e this e x p r e s s i o n w i t h respect t o u
dq
du
= -
fUdu'2,(u')<l>(u')eu'-u
+ 2M(u)<l>(u).
(8-30)
324
Hence we can reidentify q{u) from Eq. (8-29) to write

^ + q ( u ) = 2s(u)<t>(u).
(8-31)
These equations relating the slowing down density to the flux are peculiar to
slowing down in hydrogen, but we will later find that they also hold when
absorption and spatial dependence are included. They will prove to be of considerable use in numerical studies of neutron slowing down.
As a final exercise involving the lethargy variable, let us compute the average
lethargy gain (corresponding to the average logarithmic energy loss) of a neutron in
a collision with a nucleus of arbitrary mass number:
(1
<*E,
a)Ej
dEf
(8-32)
or
(8-33)
By way of example, the mean lethargy gain per collision,

moderators of interest in Table 8-1.
TABLE 8-1
Moderator
H
D
H2O
D2O
He
Be
C
238
u
is tabulated for several
Slowing Down Parameters of Typical Moderators
A
1
2
0
.111
1
.725
.920
.509
.425
.209
.158
.008
4
9
12
238
.360
.640
.716
.983
p[g/cm3]
gas
gas
1.0
1.1
gas
1.85
1.60
19.1
Number of
collisions
from 2 MeV
to 1 eV
14
20
16
29
43
69
91
1730
^[cm-1]
1.35
0.176
1.6 X 10" 5
0.158
0.060
0.003
2s/2a
71
5670
83
143
192
.0
An interesting application of this quantity is to compute the average number of

collisions necessary to thermalize a fission neutron, that is, to slow it down from 2
MeV to 1.0 eV. This is given by
l
2 x 10 6
< # > = ^ -
= 4 ^
(8-34)
325
and is compared for several moderators of interest in Table 8-1. We can see rather
dramatically how much more effective low mass-number nuclei are at moderating
fast neutrons.
(c) MODERATING POWER AND MODERATING
RATIO
The above analysis has indicated that the number of scattering collisions
necessary to slow a neutron to thermal energies is inversely proportional to
Certainly the better moderators will be characterized by large values of
However
they must also be characterized by large scattering cross sections 2 S since otherwise
the probability of a scattering collision occurring will be too small. Hence a more
a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e of t h e moderating
o r slowing
down power
of a m a t e r i a l is the
product s . To this end, one defines:

Moderating p o w e r = | 2 S .
(8-35)
However, even this parameter is not sufficient in itself to describe the effectiveness of a material for neutron moderation, because obviously one also wishes
the moderator to be a weak absorber of neutrons. Thus it is customary to choose as
a figure of merit the moderating ratio, defined as
Moderating r a t i o = - = -
(8-36)
The moderating power and moderating ratio are given for several materials of
interest in Table 8-1. From this comparison it is evident that D 2 0 is the superior
moderator. Indeed the moderating ratio of D 2 0 is sufficiently large that it can be
used to construct a reactor fueled with natural uranium. Unfortunately it is also
very expensive. Hence most thermal reactor designs choose to use somewhat
poorer, but cheaper, moderators such as light water or graphite, although this
usually requires the use of enriched uranium fuels.
3. S L O W I N G D O W N W I T H ABSORPTION
We will now include an absorption term in our infinite medium slowing down
equation. Actually the absorption cross section of hydrogen is negligible. The
physical situation we want to describe is that of a strongly absorbing isotope mixed
in hydrogen (such as 238 U). However this isotope can also scatter, and since its
mass number is not unity, it would invalidate our analysis. For simplicity, therefore, we will assume the absorber to be "infinitely massive" so that it does not slow
down neutronsit only absorbs them. We will also ignore inelastic scattering.
Then the appropriate slowing down equation (again with a monoenergetic source at
energy E0) is just
)]*()=
dE>
+S08(E~E0).
(8-37)
J e
As in our earlier analysis, we seek the solution for the total collision density
F(E) = '2t(E)4>(E) as the sum of a collided and uncollided contribution, similar to
326
Eq. (8-6). Then we find that the collided contribution F (E) must satisfy
FXE)
-I
dE'2s(E')Fc(E>)
2S(0) S0
'2t(')
(8-38)
Note that again the effective source term in this equation corresponds to oncecollided source neutrons, suitably scaled down to account for neutron absorption
at the source energy E0.
We again solve this equation by first differentiating to find
U E )
dE
(8-39)
FXE).
E2t(E)
We can easily integrate this ordinary differential equation using the initial condition at E= E0 implied by Eq. (8-38) to find
rEodE'UF')
2s(0)S0
J
(8-40)
HE')E'
Notice in particular that if we were to set 2 a = 0 we would return to our earlier

solution FC(E)= S0/E. We can compute the slowing down density as before to
find
q(E)
= EFc(E)
(8-41)
= S0ex p
I
St(E')E'
If we now note that

So = rate at which source neutrons are emitted at energy E0
q(E) = rate at which neutrons slow down past E,
then we can identify
So
_ probability that a source neutron is not absorbed while

slowing down from E0 to E.
(8-42)
Since most absorption in the slowing down energy range is due to resonances in the
absorption cross section, it is natural to identify the resonance escape probability to
energy E in hydrogen as just
p(E)=
=exp
E'UE')
(8-43)
To proceed further we need explicit forms for 2 a (is) and 2 t ( ) . We will develop
these later in this chapter when we return to consider resonance absorption. First,
however, we will generalize these results to the case of A > 1.
327
C. Neutron Moderation in Media with A > 1

1. S L O W I N G D O W N W I T H O U T ABSORPTION
W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to the m o r e g e n e r a l case in w h i c h n e u t r o n s slow
d o w n via elastic s c a t t e r i n g in a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m of a r b i t r a r y m a s s n u m b e r A > \ .
O n c e a g a i n w e first c o n s i d e r t h e s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h a b s o r p t i o n is i g n o r e d . T h e n the
slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n f o r t h e collided f l u x r e s u l t i n g f r o m a m o n o e n e r g e t i c s o u r c e
at e n e r g y E0 is j u s t
Zs(E)<t>c(E)
I
f
dE'
f f ^ f f
(1 -a)E
+ t ^ ^ V ,
(1
-a)E0
E<E0.
(8-44)
If w e o n c e a g a i n write this e q u a t i o n in t e r m s of the collision d e n s i t y FC(E)

d i f f e r e n t i a t e w i t h r e s p e c t to E , w e arrive a t
dE
(!-)
and
0-)
T h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e first t e r m c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e u p p e r limit of i n t e g r a t i o n is
w h a t f o u l s u s u p , since this t e r m d e p e n d s n o t o n E b u t r a t h e r o n E/a.
This
20,
21
e q u a t i o n is r e l a t e d to a differential-difference
equation
a n d requires an alternative m e t h o d of solution. Its s o l u t i o n is c o m p l i c a t e d b e c a u s e the collision d e n s i t y is
in f a c t d i s c o n t i n u o u s (or possesses d i s c o n t i n u o u s derivatives) at energies
anE0
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the m i n i m u m e n e r g y a n e u t r o n c a n slow d o w n to in n collisions).
T h e s e d i s c o n t i n u o u s " t r a n s i e n t s " in t h e collision d e n s i t y will e v e n t u a l l y s m o o t h o u t
to a n a s y m p t o t i c s o l u t i o n f a r b e l o w t h e s o u r c e e n e r g y of t h e f o r m
FC(E)~\/E
( i n d e e d , o n e c a n r e a d i l y v e r i f y t h a t s u c h a f u n c t i o n is a s o l u t i o n of E q . (8-44) w h e n
t h e source t e r m is n o t p r e s e n t ) . F o r t u n a t e l y this a s y m p t o t i c b e h a v i o r is sufficient
f o r m o s t s l o w i n g d o w n studies, since o n e is u s u a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h either h y d r o g e n - d o m i n a t e d slowing d o w n ( s u c h as in a L W R ) in w h i c h the t r a n s i e n t s d o n o t
arise or w i t h t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x f a r b e l o w the fission s o u r c e energies.
O n l y f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e m a s s n u m b e r m o d e r a t o r s s u c h a s d e u t e r i u m d o the
t r a n s i e n t s c a u s e difficulties.
H o w e v e r f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s w e will s k e t c h t h e d e t a i l e d s o l u t i o n 1 of the slowing
d o w n e q u a t i o n f o r a r b i t r a r y m a s s n u m b e r A. It is m o s t c o n v e n i e n t to r e c a s t E q .
(8-44) in t e r m s of lethargy. H o w e v e r w e m u s t b e c a r e f u l in o u r s t u d y of this
e q u a t i o n since a n e u t r o n c a n o n l y g a i n a m a x i m u m lethargy of l n ( l / a ) in a
collision. H e n c e t h e s o u r c e t e r m will d i s a p p e a r f r o m the e q u a t i o n f o r lethargies
w > l n ( l / a ) . W e first c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e l e t h a r g y r a n g e 0 < w < l n ( l / a ) , in w h i c h
case E q . (8-44) b e c o m e s
0 < w <In
(8-46)
W e h a v e d e n o t e d the s o l u t i o n in this r a n g e as <?>0(). N o t i c e t h a t to gain a lethargy

b e l o w w = l n ( l / a ) , the n e u t r o n w o u l d h a v e to e x p e r i e n c e a t least t w o collisions.
328
Hence we refer to 0 < u < In (1 / a) as the "first collision interval". We will introduce
the collision density to write
u
Cdu'F0(u')eu-"+-^-,
*(,()-"r
l-a-'o
"
(1 a)
0 < w < In .
(8-47)
Now differentiate with respect to u to find

dFj
(8-48)
du
The corresponding boundary condition is found, as usual, by examining Eq. (8-47)

as u>0 to find
(8-49)
Hence we can readily solve for

exp
(8-50)
(I-a)
[Note that in terms of energy variables

(8-51)
To handle higher order collision intervalssay between (n l ) l n ( l / a ) < u
< ( / ? + l ) l n ( l / a ) one must split up the range of integration to write
i n - l)ln
,du'Fn{u')eu'~u
In
a
n\n
1
a
nln
1
(n + l)ln
a
jn _
(8-52)
Again we differentiate to find
dR
(8-53)
We can integrate this to write
n () =
n ( "
l n
"
n l n
(8-54)
a

Since w e k n o w F0(u),
For example
F M = S
a
x
_laa
w e c a n use this e x p r e s s i o n to g e n e r a t e higher o r d e r
j e x p [ ( - ^ )
] - 5
^ ^ (
- l n I ) e x p [ (
^ )
329
Fn(u).
] .
(8-55)
N o t e t h a t t h e r e is a d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n F0(u)
a n d Fx(u)
F0(ln 1 / a ) - ^ ( l n 1 / a ) = a / ( l - a).
at w = ln 1 / a :
(8-56)
I n a similar m a n n e r , o n e c a n g e n e r a t e the h i g h e r o r d e r collision densities Fn(u).

T h e s e f u n c t i o n s (so-called " P l a c z e k f u n c t i o n s " ) a r e illustrated in F i g u r e 8-1. 5
N o t i c e in p a r t i c u l a r h o w these f u n c t i o n s a p p e a r to b e s m o o t h i n g o u t as the
n e u t r o n s s u f f e r increasingly m o r e collisions. I n f a c t f o r w l n l / a , w e c a n use a n
a s y m p t o t i c s o l u t i o n to e q u a t i o n (8-46) in w h i c h t h e source t e r m is n e g l e c t e d
f . ( )=
0-
Fe(u')
du
eU U
f
I
x 'jY=a) ~ J tiu ~ In
,
(8"5?)
It is evident t h a t Fc(u) = c o n s t a n t = C is a s o l u t i o n to this e q u a t i o n . H o w e v e r it is
FIGURE 8-1.
The collision density F(u) for A = 2 and 4.
330
n o t e v i d e n t j u s t w h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p this s o l u t i o n h a s t o Fn{u) f o r large n. F u r t h e r m o r e , this h o m o g e n e o u s e q u a t i o n p r o v i d e s n o p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g C.

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t direct w a y t o g e n e r a t e t h e a s y m p t o t i c s o l u t i o n is t o solve E q .
(8-47) u s i n g L a p l a c e - t r a n s f o r m m e t h o d s . 6 W e will a d o p t a s o m e w h a t m o r e p e d e s t r i a n a p p r o a c h b y n o t i n g t h a t t h e slowing d o w n d e n s i t y in t h e l e t h a r g y v a r i a b l e
is given b y
/
q(u)=
/*u' + ln
,_
xdu'Fc{u')i
(8-58)
J u Ina
û
If w e s u b s t i t u t e in o u r a s y m p t o t i c f o r m Fc(u) C, w e f i n d
C
ru
I
,du'eu
4-ln. (X
ru' + \n
du"e~u
=C 1 +
a
In a
Ia
= Ct
(8-59)
H o w e v e r in a n o n a b s o r b i n g m e d i u m , w e k n o w t h a t q{u) m u s t b e c o n s t a n t a n d
e q u a l t o t h e s o u r c e r a t e S0 (since t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o p r e v e n t t h e n e u t r o n s f r o m
slowing d o w n ) . H e n c e w e m u s t c h o o s e C =
or
(8-60)
or
S0
W e c a n also w r i t e this a s y m p t o t i c s o l u t i o n i n t e r m s of t h e e n e r g y v a r i a b l e as
^ - e ^ f e y
(8 62)
"
H e n c e a s y m p t o t i c a l l y a t least t h e flux c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n in a
n o n a b s o r b i n g m e d i u m of m a s s n u m b e r A is v e r y similar t o t h a t f o u n d i n h y d r o g e n ,
w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r , t h e m e a n l e t h a r g y loss p e r collision,
A s w e h a v e n o t e d , t h e p r i m a r y q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e m o r e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n is
t h e o c c u r r e n c e of i r r e g u l a r ( d i s c o n t i n u o u s ) b e h a v i o r n e a r e n e r g i e s a t w h i c h s o u r c e
n e u t r o n s a p p e a r or s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n o c c u r s . A s o n e m o v e s d o w n i n e n e r g y ( u p in
l e t h a r g y ) t h e s e t r a n s i e n t s d a m p out, l e a v i n g t h e s m o o t h a s y m p t o t i c b e h a v i o r given
b y E q . (8-62). T h e r a p i d i t y w i t h w h i c h this a s y m p t o t i c b e h a v i o r is r e a c h e d
d e c r e a s e s w i t h t h e m a s s n u m b e r of t h e m o d e r a t i n g m a t e r i a l ( a l t h o u g h s u c h b e h a v i o r is a l w a y s p r e s e n t in h y d r o g e n ) .
M o r e f r e q u e n t l y o n e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n in a m i x t u r e of
n u c l i d e s . A l t h o u g h w e will t r e a t this s i t u a t i o n in s o m e d e t a i l in l a t e r sections, w e
will n o t e h e r e t h a t o u r earlier analysis c a n b e easily g e n e r a l i z e d t o a m i x t u r e of
nuclides by writing
(8-63)
331
w h e r e 2 s ( i ) is t h e t o t a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section a n d \ is the a v e r a g e l e t h a r g y gain

p e r collision
N
S ^
/= 1
^
/=1
(8-64)
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t (") is in g e n e r a l e n e r g y (or l e t h a r g y ) - d e p e n d e n t b e c a u s e of
t h e e n e r g y d e p e n d e n c e of t h e s c a t t e r i n g cross section.
2. SLOWING D O W N W I T H ABSORPTION
W e c o u l d n o w i n t r o d u c e a b s o r p t i o n ( a g a i n a s s u m i n g a n infinitely massive
a b s o r b e r ) i n t o E q . (8-44):
:a()
+ 2s(is)]<H)=
2 (Ef>\( E'}
S
+S(E),
( l _ a ) E ,
C ^
"dE'
/ FT
(8-65)
or in t e r m s of t h e collision d e n s i t y ,
F(E)
f
JF
F{E')
dE'
(1
-a)E
+S(E).
(8-66)
T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e f a c t o r [ 2 s ( i s ) / 2 t ( . E ) ] m a k e s it very d i f f i c u l t to m a k e m u c h
p r o g r e s s t o w a r d a n a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n to this e q u a t i o n , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of very
special cross s e c t i o n b e h a v i o r s a n d e l a b o r a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . 1 ' 2 R a t h e r
t h a n discuss s u c h t e c h n i q u e s here, w e will r e c o g n i z e t h a t o n e is usually m o s t
i n t e r e s t e d in t h e e f f e c t s of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n , a n d so we will p r o c e e d directly to
a discussion of t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s u s e d to c a l c u l a t e t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e
p r o b a b i l i t y . W e will r e t u r n l a t e r to discuss a p p r o x i m a t e t r e a t m e n t s of slowing
d o w n w h e n w e c o n s i d e r as well h o w o n e t r e a t s spatial e f f e c t s in n e u t r o n slowing
down.
D. Inelastic Scattering
T h u s f a r w e h a v e c o n c e r n e d o u r s e l v e s - w i t h n e u t r o n m o d e r a t i o n via elastic
collisions in w h i c h a n e u t r o n m e r e l y b o u n c e s off of a n u c l e u s in billiard-ball
f a s h i o n , l o s i n g s o m e e n e r g y in t h e p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r for h i g h e r e n e r g y n e u t r o n s
( > 5 0 keV), inelastic s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e p o s s i b l e in w h i c h a n a p p r e c i a b l e
f r a c t i o n of t h e i n c i d e n t n e u t r o n e n e r g y goes i n t o exciting t h e n u c l e u s i n t o a h i g h e r
n u c l e a r q u a n t u m state. S u c h s c a t t e r i n g is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t in h e a v y m a s s nuclei
in w h i c h slowing d o w n b y elastic s c a t t e r i n g is negligible. F o r e x a m p l e , if w e
c o n s i d e r a 1 M e V n e u t r o n i n c i d e n t o n a 2 3 8 U n u c l e u s , t h e a v e r a g e e n e r g y lost in a n
elastic s c a t t e r i n g collision w o u l d b e (1 - a)E0/2 = 0.0085 M e V . By w a y of c o n t r a s t ,
t h e a v e r a g e e n e r g y lost in a n inelastic s c a t t e r i n g collision is a b o u t 0.6 M e V .
Of c o u r s e f o r s u c h inelastic s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s to o c c u r , the i n c i d e n t n e u t r o n
e n e r g y m u s t b e a b o v e t h e t h r e s h o l d c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e lowest excited state of the
t a r g e t n u c l e u s . F o r light nuclei, this t h r e s h o l d is q u i t e high (4.4 M e V in 1 2 C a n d 6.1
M e V in 1 6 0 , f o r e x a m p l e ) . H o w e v e r in h e a v i e r nuclei t h e inelastic s c a t t e r i n g
332
t h r e s h o l d s a r e m u c h lower (450 k e V in 2 3 N a a n d 45 k e V in 2 3 8 U ) , a n d inelastic

processes b e c o m e quite important.
Since inelastic s c a t t e r i n g is m u c h m o r e significant f o r f a s t n e u t r o n s in high
m a s s - n u m b e r m a t e r i a l s , it m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to b e of c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e in
f a s t r e a c t o r s . I n d e e d inelastic s c a t t e r i n g in m a t e r i a l s s u c h as s o d i u m is t h e
d o m i n a n t s l o w i n g d o w n m e c h a n i s m in f a s t r e a c t o r s a n d m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y
a c c o u n t e d f o r in a n y realistic r e a c t o r analysis.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e details of t h e inelastic s c a t t e r i n g cross sections a r e q u i t e
c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d a n a l y t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s such as t h o s e w e h a v e a p p l i e d to elastic
s c a t t e r i n g a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o very simple n u c l e a r m o d e l s (e.g., t h e "Weisskopf e v a p o r a tion m o d e l 2 or f e w level models 2 0 ). I n s t e a d , o n e m u s t u s u a l l y p r o c e e d in p r a c t i c e
with a b r u t e f o r c e f i n e - s t r u c t u r e m u l t i g r o u p c a l c u l a t i o n . T h a t is, o n e writes the
slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n in m u l t i g r o u p f o r m a n d solves it directly f o r m a n y g r o u p s
in o r d e r to o b t a i n the i n t r a g r o u p fluxes f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s .
S u c h f i n e s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s m a y r e q u i r e as m a n y as a t h o u s a n d or m o r e
m i c r o g r o u p s to a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t the details of inelastic scattering. F u r t h e r m o r e
b e c a u s e of t h e r a t h e r large e n e r g y loss e x p e r i e n c e d b y a n e u t r o n in a n inelastic
s c a t t e r i n g event, several e n e r g y g r o u p s a r e usually c o u p l e d t o g e t h e r (indirect g r o u p
coupling). L a t e r in this c h a p t e r w e will c o n s i d e r in detail h o w inelastic s c a t t e r i n g is
t r e a t e d in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s .
II. RESONANCE ABSORPTION (INFINITE MEDIUM)

A. Introduction
A s n e u t r o n s slow d o w n f r o m fission energies in a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r , they
e x p e r i e n c e a n a p p r e c i a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y of b e i n g a b s o r b e d in the n u m e r o u s s h a r p
c a p t u r e r e s o n a n c e s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e h e a v y nuclei s u c h as 2 3 8 U or 2 3 2 T h . S u c h
r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n of n e u t r o n s is a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t p h e n o m e n o n in
n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s . It n o t only a f f e c t s r e a c t o r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , b u t f u e l b u r n u p a n d
b r e e d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e a n d r e a c t o r c o n t r o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as well.
O n e c a n d i s t i n g u i s h several d i f f e r e n t types of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in n u c l e a r
r e a c t o r s . Of p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s is a b s o r p t i o n in t h e wellresolved l o w - e n e r g y r e s o n a n c e s of f u e l m a t e r i a l s such as 2 3 8 U or 2 3 2 T h . T h e analysis
of n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n in such w e l l - s e p a r a t e d r e s o n a n c e s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , a n d we
will c o n s i d e r it in detail in this section.
A b o v e several k e V in fertile m a t e r i a l s ( a n d as low a s 50 eV in fissile isotopes),
o n e f i n d s t h a t t h e r e s o n a n c e s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s so finely d e t a i l e d t h a t r e s o n a n c e s
c a n n o l o n g e r b e individually resolved. T h e t r e a t m e n t of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in
the r e g i o n of s u c h u n r e s o l v e d r e s o n a n c e s is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , since it
r e q u i r e s the use of n u c l e a r m o d e l s to d e s c r i b e t h e r e s o n a n c e s t r u c t u r e . A l t h o u g h
this s u b j e c t is of s o m e i m p o r t a n c e in f a s t r e a c t o r analysis, its c o m p l e x i t y i n d u c e s us
to r e f e r the i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r to m o r e a d v a n c e d studies of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n f o r
a d e t a i l e d discussion. 7
A n a c c u r a t e t r e a t m e n t of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n is essential to r e a c t o r criticality
c a l c u l a t i o n s , since this is o n e of t h e p r i m a r y n e u t r o n loss m e c h a n i s m s in b o t h
thermal a n d fast reactors. Such a process enters into a multigroup diffusion
c a l c u l a t i o n t h r o u g h the f a s t m u l t i g r o u p a b s o r p t i o n cross sections 2 , a n d the
333
a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e of these g r o u p c o n s t a n t s will b e o n e of o u r p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n s . I n
general, t h e r e will b e a d e p r e s s i o n in the n e u t r o n flux at t h o s e energies in the
vicinity of a s t r o n g r e s o n a n c e , a n d the analysis of such flux d e p r e s s i o n s is of
c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e in d e t e r m i n i n g m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s .
Since r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in fertile m a t e r i a l ( 2 3 8 U , 2 3 2 T h ) c a n l e a d t o the
p r o d u c t i o n of fissile m a t e r i a l ( 2 3 9 Pu, 2 3 3 U ) , a n a c c u r a t e analysis of r e s o n a n c e
a b s o r p t i o n is also of i m p o r t a n c e in p r e d i c t i n g c o n v e r s i o n or b r e e d i n g ratios. I n d e e d
small i n a c c u r a c i e s in t h e t r e a t m e n t of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n c a n p r o p a g a t e sizable
e r r o r s in t h e e s t i m a t e of b o t h f u e l d e p l e t i o n a n d fertile-to-fissile c o n v e r s i o n 8 .
R e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n is also e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e kinetic
b e h a v i o r of the r e a c t o r . T h e a m o u n t of s u c h a b s o r p t i o n d e p e n d s sensitively o n the
f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e t h r o u g h the D o p p l e r b r o a d e n i n g m e c h a n i s m . I n f a c t the d o m i n a n t
reactivity f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m of s i g n i f i c a n c e in very r a p i d p o w e r t r a n s i e n t s is
usually t h a t d u e to the D o p p l e r e f f e c t .
A r i g o r o u s t r e a m e n t of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n w o u l d a t t e m p t to d e t e r m i n e the
n e u t r o n f l u x <J>(r,) in a f u e l lattice cell either b y solving t h e t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n
directly or u s i n g M o n t e C a r l o t e c h n i q u e s . A l t h o u g h s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e o c c a s i o n ally p e r f o r m e d , t h e y are f a r t o o expensive f o r use in r o u t i n e design analysis.
I n s t e a d o n e u s u a l l y r e m o v e s t h e spatial a n d a n g u l a r d e p e n d e n c e to arrive at a n
e q u a t i o n f o r t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t n e u t r o n f l u x similar t o t h e slowing d o w n
e q u a t i o n (8-3). A direct n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n of this e q u a t i o n c a n b e , a n d is,
c o m m o n l y p e r f o r m e d . H o w e v e r t h e large n u m b e r of c a l c u l a t i o n s typically r e q u i r e d
in a r e a c t o r d e s i g n p r e c l u d e t h e extensive use of s u c h direct m e t h o d s in f a v o r of
simpler a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n s of t h e slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n to d e t e r m i n e the
n e u t r o n f l u x in t h e vicinity of a r e s o n a n c e . S u c h a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d s a r e usually
a n a l y t i c a l in n a t u r e , a l t h o u g h v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of the solution m a y r e q u i r e n u m e r i c a l
evaluation. W h e n used for appropriate problems, they provide reasonable accuracy
w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y less c a l c u l a t i o n a l e f f o r t t h a n t h e m o r e r i g o r o u s m e t h o d s .
I n this section w e will a t t e m p t to i n t r o d u c e s o m e of the m o r e e l e m e n t a r y
c o n c e p t s a n d a p p r o x i m a t i o n s u s e f u l in the s t u d y of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n . W e will
c o n f i n e o u r d i s c u s s i o n to r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in a n infinite m e d i u m (consistent
w i t h o u r earlier s t u d y of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n ) a n d d e v e l o p the p r i n c i p a l
a p p r o x i m a t i o n s u s e f u l in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y a n d
f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . H o w e v e r t h e results of s u c h i n f i n i t e m e d i u m c a l c u l a t i o n s are
of o n l y l i m i t e d utility, since spatial v a r i a t i o n s of the n e u t r o n flux in a f u e l lattice
c a n strongly i n f l u e n c e r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n . W e d e f e r t h e s t u d y of spatially
d e p e n d e n t e f f e c t s u n t i l w e c o n s i d e r cell c a l c u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s in C h a p t e r 10.
O u r g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h is to c o n s i d e r n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in a n infinite,
h o m o g e n e o u s m i x t u r e of a h e a v y i s o t o p e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a b s o r p t i o n a n d scattering r e s o n a n c e s a n d a m o d e r a t o r m a t e r i a l h a v i n g a c o n s t a n t s c a t t e r i n g cross section
(at least over t h e r e s o n a n c e ) a n d a negligible a b s o r p t i o n cross section. I n p a r t i c u l a r
w e will s t u d y t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n in t h e vicinity of a
well-isolated r e s o n a n c e .
T o illustrate t h e essential i d e a s involved, w e will b e g i n b y c o n s i d e r i n g the
s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h t h e m o d e r a t i n g m a t e r i a l is h y d r o g e n a n d s c a t t e r i n g f r o m the
a b s o r b e r n u c l e i is n e g l e c t e d . T h i s case is p a r t i c u l a r l y simple, since the n e u t r o n
s l o w i n g d o w n e q u a t i o n c a n b e solved exactly w h e n the m a s s n u m b e r of the
s c a t t e r e r is u n i t y .
334
B. Resonance Absorption in Hydrogen Plus An Infinitely Massive

Absorber
W e will b e g i n b y s t u d y i n g r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n d u e t o a n i n f i n i t e l y m a s s i v e
a b s o r b e r d i s t r i b u t e d u n i f o r m l y t h r o u g h a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m of h y d r o g e n . T h e
i n f i n i t e a b s o r b e r m a s s implies t h a t all n e u t r o n slowing d o w n d u e t o elastic
s c a t t e r i n g will b e d u e t o h y d r o g e n . W e will a l s o i g n o r e inelastic s c a t t e r i n g p r o cesses. W e h a v e a l r e a d y solved t h e n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n e q u a t i o n (8-37) f o r this
c a s e in S e c t i o n 8 - I I - A t o f i n d t h e flux
HE)
(8-67)
P(E),
EZs(E)
w h e r e t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y t o e n e r g y E,p(E),
p(E)
= ex p
-I
dEf
is given b y
(8-68)
'
W e will a p p l y this e x a c t e x p r e s s i o n t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y
f o r a single r e s o n a n c e at e n e r g y E0. F o r c o n v e n i e n c e w e will i g n o r e s c a t t e r i n g f r o m
t h e infinitely m a s s i v e a b s o r b e r a n d a b s o r p t i o n i n h y d r o g e n , b y a s s u m i n g NnoSH
If w e d e n o t e t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r this p a r t i c u l a r
resonance as p , then we find
p = exp
dE'
Ky{E')
E'
Nno?
(8-69)
NAo*{E')
T h e n o t a t i o n jE i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e integral is t o b e p e r f o r m e d over energies i n t h e

n e i g h b o r h o o d of t h e r e s o n a n c e .
T o p r o c e e d f u r t h e r , w e m u s t i n t r o d u c e a n explicit f o r m f o r t h e c a p t u r e cross
s e c t i o n o*(E).
W e will u s e t h e D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d B r e i t - W i g n e r c r o s s section
d e v e l o p e d in S e c t i o n 2 - I - D :
(8-70)
W e will first e v a l u a t e p in t h e limit in w h i c h t h e a b s o r b e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n is

s u f f i c i e n t l y d i l u t e t h a t t h e s c a t t e r i n g f r o m h y d r o g e n is d o m i n a n t e v e n a t t h e
r e s o n a n c e e n e r g y , t h a t is, N A o 0 < g . N H o ^ . T h i s is k n o w n as t h e infinite
dilution
approximation,
a n d it is e q u i v a l e n t to a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e a b s o r b e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n is
so dilute tha*t t h e a b s o r p t i o n r e s o n a n c e d o e s n o t p e r t u r b t h e s l o w i n g d o w n f o r m of
t h e flux. U s i n g this a p p r o x i m a t i o n in E q . (8-69), w e f i n d t h a t
f dE'
>ex p
^ H ^ s
E0
=P
(8-71)
335
T o p r o c e e d f u r t h e r , w e n o t e t h a t the m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n to the integral c o m e s f r o m

t h o s e energies close to r e s o n a n c e , E'~E0.
H e n c e we c a n e x t r a c t l / ' ~ l / 0 to
find
r
at?'
ô^v
u A
0 0
v7'
'0 JEq
w h e r e the limits of i n t e g r a t i o n h a v e b e e n e x t e n d e d to infinity since o n l y a m i n o r
c o n t r i b u t i o n c o m e s f r o m the w i n g s of the r e s o n a n c e . H e n c e in the i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n
limit
irNAa0Ty
(8-73)
= exp
2N~Ê0
Several f e a t u r e s of this result a r e of interest. F i r s t n o t e t h a t the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e

p r o b a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y (or cross section), since
t h e n the n e u t r o n s slow d o w n t h r o u g h t h e r e s o n a n c e m o r e r a p i d l y . T h i s e f f e c t is
p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in w a t e r m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r s b e c a u s e it l e a d s to large
n e g a t i v e p o w e r c o e f f i c i e n t s of reactivity. T h a t is, i n c r e a s i n g p o w e r a n d h e n c e
m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e will d e c r e a s e m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y (usually via s t e a m f o r m a tion). H e n c e t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y will d e c r e a s e , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g
reactivity.
N e x t it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e s o n a n c e is m o r e e f f e c t i v e in a b s o r b i n g
n e u t r o n s if t h e r e s o n a n c e e n e r g y E0 is lower. T h i s is easily u n d e r s t o o d w h e n it is
r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e a s y m p t o t i c collision d e n s i t y b e h a v i o r is as F(E)1 / E . H e n c e
l o w e r e n e r g y n e u t r o n s will e x p e r i e n c e m o r e collisions with a b s o r b e r nuclei a n d
t h e r e f o r e a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y of b e i n g a b s o r b e d . F o r this r e a s o n , t h e m o s t
s i g n i f i c a n t r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s o c c u r s in the l o w e r lying
r e s o n a n c e s of fertile m a t e r i a l s s u c h as t h e 6.67 eV r e s o n a n c e in 2 3 8 U . T h e r e s o n a n c e
p a r a m e t e r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g several of t h e lower lying r e s o n a n c e s of 2 3 8 U w h i c h are
s i g n i f i c a n t in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r d e s i g n a r e listed in T a b l e 8-2.
TABLE 8-2:
Low-Lying Resonance Data for ^ U
E0
T n (eV)
r y (eV)
a 0 (b)
6.67
.00152
.026
2.16 X 105
1.26
20.90
.0087
.025
3.19 X 10 4
1.95
.174
36.80
.032
.025
3.98 x 10 4
3.65
.306
66.54
.026
.022
2.14 X 10 4
2.26
.554
102.47
.070
.026
1.86 X 10 4
3.98
.850
116.85
.030
.022
1.30 x 10 4
1.32
165.27
.0032
.018
2.41 X 10 3
0.98
1.37
208.46
.053
.022
8.86 X 10 3
2.63
1.73
Tp(eV)
i(l - aÊrfeV)
.055
.966
F i n a l l y w e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t a l t h o u g h o*(E) is t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t t h r o u g h
the D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n i n g m e c h a n i s m , t h e i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n l i m i t p h a s n o t e m p e r a -
336
t u r e d e p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r this m i g h t h a v e b e e n a n t i c i p a t e d since w e h a v e a l r e a d y
n o t e d t h a t in this a p p r o x i m a t i o n the n e u t r o n flux is n o t p e r t u r b e d b y the resonance.
T h e r e f o r e w e t u r n to the m o r e g e n e r a l case of finite d i l u t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e
a r e n o w h a m p e r e d in o u r ability to o b t a i n a closed f o r m e v a l u a t i o n of the r e l e v a n t
integrals. If w e s u b s t i t u t e t h e f o r m E q . (8-70) f o r a ^ ( E ) i n t o E q . (8-69) a n d e x t e n d
the limits of i n t e g r a t i o n , w e f i n d t h a t t h e g e n e r a l result f o r the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e
probability
p = exp
(8-74)
o
m u s t b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s of a t a b u l a t e d f u n c t i o n 9 / ( f , / ? ) ,
a,/?)
dx
(8-75)
where
(8-76)
102
0
=
Ot
I s
5.2
10
- s = O.J
V fov
J
A
i
1 ' i r \\
\ \\
ea.
^
s
10
10
12
14
16
18
; (where (5 = 2 J X 10" 5 )
FIGURE 8-2.
The function/(,/?) [L. Dresner, Resonance Absorption
Pergamon, New York (I960)].
in Nuclear
Reactors,
337
It is a p p a r e n t f r o m this f o r m t h a t t h e f i n i t e d i l u t i o n r e s o n a n c e integral is i n d e e d
t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t . I n F i g u r e 8-2 w e h a v e s h o w n t h e f u n c t i o n / ( ? , / ? ) p l o t t e d
versus
f o r v a r i o u s v a l u e s of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e p a r a m e t e r f . F r o m this p l o t it is
a p p a r e n t t h a t as t e m p e r a t u r e T increases, f decreases, i m p l y i n g t h a t / ( , / $ )
i n c r e a s e s a n d h e n c e t h a t t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y p d e c r e a s e s . T h a t is,
r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s is t h e so-called
Doppler effect r e f e r r e d t o earlier in o u r d i s c u s s i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s of
reactivity.
TABLE 8-3
The Function / ( f , / 3 ) for f = 0.1-1.0 and p = V x 10" 5 +
Jtt>fi)
-0.1
= 0.2
= 0.3
= 0.4
= 0.5
= 0.6
= 0.7
= 0.8
= 0.9
=1.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
4.979(2*)
3.532
2.514
1.801
1.307
9.667(1)
7.355
5.773
4.647
3.781
3.045
2.367
1.730
1.164*
4.970(2)
3.517
2.491
1.767
1.257
8.993(1)
6.501
4.777
3.589
2.759
2.153
1.676
1.268
9.081(0)
4.969(2)
3.514
2.487
1.761
1.248
8.872(1)
6.335
4.562
3.328
2.471
1.867
1.423
1.074
7.815(0)
4.968(2)
3.513
2.485
1.759
1.245
8.831(1)
6.278
4.485
3.230
2.354
1.741
1.301
9.718(0)
7.087
4.968(2)
3.513
2.485
1.758
1.244
8.812(1)
6.252
4.450
3.183
2.297
1.675
1.235
9.119(0)
6.629
4.968(2)
3.513
2.484
1.757
1.243
8.802(1)
6.238
4.430
3.158
2.265
1.638
1.194
8.739(0)
6.322
4.967(2)
3.513
2.484
1.757
1.243
8.796(1)
6.230
4.419
3.143
2.245
1.614
1.168
8.484(0)
6.107
4.967(2)
3.513
2.484
1.757
1.243
8.792(1)
6.225
4.412
3.133
2.232
1.598
1.151
8.304(0)
5.950
4.967(2)
3.513
2.484
1.757
1.242
8.790(1)
6.221
4.407
3.126
2.223
1.587
1.138
8.174(0)
5.833
4.967(2)
3.513
2.484
1.757
1.242
8.788(1)
6.218
4.403
3.121
2.217
1.579
1.129
8.077(0)
5.744
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
7.172(0)
4.088
2.204
1.148
5.862( 1)
2.963
1.490
7.468(~2)
3.739
1.871
9 . 3 5 8 ( - 3)
4.680
2.340
1.170
5.851(-4)
2.925
6.014
3.658
2.067
1.109
5.757( - 1)
2.936
1.483
7.452( - 2)
3.735
1.870
9 . 3 5 6 ( - 3)
4.680
2.340
1.170
5.851 ( 4)
2.926
5.342
3.371
1.966
1.078
5.671 ( 1)
2.913
1.477
7.437( - 2)
3.732
1.869
9.355( 3)
4.679
2.340
1.170
5.851 ( 4)
2.926
4.914
3.169
1.889
1.053
5.599( - 11)
2.894
1.472
7.424( - 2)
3.728
1.868
9.352( - 3)
4.679
2.340
1.170
5.85K-4)
2.926
4.624
3.022
1.829
1.033
5.539( - 1)
2.877
1.468
7 . 4 1 3 < - :I)
3.726
1.868
9.350( - 3)
4.678
2.340
1.170
5.85K-4)
2.926
4.419
2.911
1.781
1.016
5.488( 1)
2.863
1.464
7.403( - 2)
3.723
1.867
9.349< - 3)
4.678
2.340
1.170
5.851( 4)
2.926
4.268
2.826
1.743
1.002
5.445( - 1)
2.851
1.461
7.395( - 2)
3.721
1.867
9.348( 3)
4.678
2.340
1.170
5.851{ 4)
2.926
4.154
2.759
1.712
9.904( 1)
5.408
2.840
1.458
7.388( 2)
3.719
1.866
9.346( 3)
4.677
2.340
1.170
5.851 ( 4)
2.926
4.066
2.706
1.687
9 . 8 0 5 ( - 1)
5.376
2.831
1.455
7.381 { 2)
3.718
1.866
9.345( 3)
4.677
2.340
1.170
5 . 8 5 1 ( - 4)
2.926
3.997
2.663
1.666
9.722( 1)
5.348
2.823
1.453
7 . 3 7 5 ( - 2)
3.716
1.865
9.344( - 3)
4.677
2.340
1.170
5 . 8 5 1 ( - 4)
2.926
30
31
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
1.463
7.314( 5) 7 . 3 1 4 ( - 5) 7.315( - 5) 7 . 3 1 5 ( - :5) 7 . 3 1 5 ( - :5) 7.315( 5) 7 . 3 1 4 ( - 5) 7 . 3 1 4 ( - 5) 7 . 3 1 4 ( - 5) 7 . 3 1 4 ( - 5)
Dresner, Resonance Absorption

in Nuclear Reactors, Pergamon, New York (1960).
N u m b e r s in parentheses are powers of 10, which multiply the entry next to which they stand and all
unmarked entries below it.
T o u n d e r s t a n d this b e h a v i o r , recall t h a t o u r earlier a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t

i n c r e a s e d t e m p e r a t u r e c a u s e s a r e s o n a n c e to b r o a d e n . H o w e v e r since the a r e a
u n d e r t h e r e s o n a n c e is essentially ( a l m o s t ) t e m p e r a t u r e - i n d e p e n d e n t , t h e r e s o n a n c e
p e a k d r o p s with t e m p e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r t h e b r o a d e n e d r e s o n a n c e i n c r e a s e s the
e n e r g y r a n g e over w h i c h a b s o r p t i o n o c c u r s . T h i s e f f e c t o u t w e i g h s t h e slight
l o w e r i n g of the r e s o n a n c e p e a k a n d gives rise to a n e n h a n c e d a b s o r p t i o n with
increasing temperature.
338
T h i s e f f e c t arises b e c a u s e of t h e p h e n o m e n o n of self-shielding. W e will s h o w later

t h a t t h e n e u t r o n flux is d e p r e s s e d (see F i g u r e 8-3) f o r t h o s e e n e r g i e s in t h e
n e i g h b o r h o o d of t h e r e s o n a n c e . T h i s e f f e c t is k n o w n as energy self-shielding since
t h e s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n of t h e r e s o n a n c e t e n d s t o shield t h e a b s o r b e r n u c l e i f r o m
n e u t r o n s w i t h e n e r g y E E 0 (the flux d e p r e s s i o n ) . ( W e will later s t u d y a r e l a t e d
p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n as spatial self-shielding.) A s t e m p e r a t u r e increases, t h e reso n a n c e p e a k d e c r e a s e s , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g self-shielding a n d t h e f l u x d e p r e s s i o n ,
a n d i n c r e a s i n g r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n [i.e., t h e e n e r g y - i n t e g r a t e d r e a c t i o n r a t e
FIGURE 8-3.
Flux depression in the neighborhood of a resonance.
T h i s l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n also e x p l a i n s w h y t h e i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n limit s h o w s n o
t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e , since in this c a s e t h e r e is n o f l u x d e p r e s s i o n (the a b s o r b e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is t o o l o w t o p e r t u r b the flux) a n d h e n c e n o self-shielding.
C. Resonance Integrals
W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o the m o r e g e n e r a l case of n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n
in a n infinite, h o m o g e n e o u s m i x t u r e of a b s o r b e r a n d m o d e r a t o r . It is possible to
cast t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g this p r o b l e m i n t o a f o r m very
similar t o t h a t f o r h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s , E q . (8-68). If w e i m a g i n e t h e n e u t r o n s
b e i n g p r o d u c e d b y a s o u r c e of s t r e n g t h S0 at e n e r g y E0, t h e n t h e total a b s o r p t i o n
r a t e e x p e r i e n c e d b y n e u t r o n s w h i l e slowing d o w n f r o m e n e r g i e s E0 t o E is j u s t
339
H e n c e the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y is j u s t
S n neutron absorption rate
i r En
P ( E ) = =
= l - - f J dE'^(E')<p(E>).
(8-77)
I n a very similar m a n n e r w e c a n d e f i n e the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y pi f o r

a n y single, well-isolated r e s o n a n c e l o c a t e d at a n e n e r g y Er T o d o so, we will
a s s u m e t h a t all a b s o r p t i o n o c c u r s in a n u m b e r of w e l l - s e p a r a t e d r e s o n a n c e s lying
b e l o w the s o u r c e e n e r g y E0. If t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e s o n a n c e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y widely
s e p a r a t e d , t h e n t h e f l u x o c c u r r i n g j u s t a b o v e a given r e s o n a n c e at e n e r g y Ei will
h a v e a s s u m e d the a s y m p t o t i c f o r m ,
Sir)
H-Â^Se
SsE
zs
+zs
w h e r e S e $ is t h e original s o u r c e s t r e n g t h S0 r e d u c e d b y t h e
p r o b a b i l i t i e s f o r all h i g h e r e n e r g y r e s o n a n c e s t h a t is,
=S
n PP
where
Ej>
resonance-escape
(8-79)
(See F i g u r e 8-4.) H e n c e w e c a n i d e n t i f y the a b s o r p t i o n p r o b a b i l i t y f o r the reso n a n c e at Et as j u s t

Absorption probability =
êff
f dE2*(E
E
i
)<p(E),
(8-80)
340
a n d t h u s t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r this p a r t i c u l a r r e s o n a n c e b e c o m e s
just
êff
T o w r i t e this i n a m o r e u s e f u l f o r m , s u p p o s e w e n o r m a l i z e t h e f l u x <()
f a r a b o v e t h e r e s o n a n c e it b e h a v e s as
<t>(E) ~
for
EE
so
that
(8-82)
T h e n t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e is j u s t
P i
= l ~ ~ Jf dEoyA(E)<t>(E),
= s Ei
[<K)~l/].
(8-83)
T h i s is still n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n v e n i e n t f o r o u r p u r p o s e s , since t o c o m p u t e t h e
t o t a l r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r a series of r e s o n a n c e s , w e w o u l d h a v e t o
m u l t i p l y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g pi t o g e t h e r as
/>total= I I / V
(8-84)
i
T o facilitate this c a l c u l a t i o n , we first n o t e t h a t in g e n e r a l t h e a b s o r p t i o n p r o b a b i l i t y
1 p. is q u i t e small. H e n c e w e c a n use t h e e x p a n s i o n
exp[-(l-Jpl.)]~l-(l-/>i)+
p,
(8-85)
to rewrite
Piêx p
w h e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e effective
X a
resonance
(8-86)
integral
f o r t h e /th r e s o n a n c e a s
dEoyA(E)4>(E),
(8-87)
T h e n t o c o m p u t e t h e t o t a l r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y , w e n e e d o n l y a d d the
resonance integrals for each resonance
P total = I I / > , = exp
(8-88)
-
T h e r e s o n a n c e integral /, is a v e r y u s e f u l q u a n t i t y f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a r e s o n a n c e .
341
W e first s h o u l d n o t e t h a t / h a s t h e d i m e n s i o n s of a m i c r o s c o p i c cross section

(barns), if w e r e m e m b e r the n o r m a l i z a t i o n c o n d i t i o n , </>(")\/E f o r E ^ > E i t I n
effect, /,. r e p r e s e n t s t h e a v e r a g e a b s o r p t i o n cross section c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the reso n a n c e , a v e r a g e d over t h e f l u x w i t h i n the r e s o n a n c e . W e will f i n d t h a t /(. is largely
i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of the m o d e r a t o r .
T h e r e s o n a n c e integral I t h a s y e t a n o t h e r e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t p r a c t i c a l application since it c a n b e u s e d directly in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . T o see
this, first recall t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e m u l t i g r o u p a b s o r p t i o n cross section f o r a given
g r o u p g:
fE'~ldE2a(E)<!>(E)
=
.
f
(8-89)
dE<j>(E)
N o w since t h e r e s o n a n c e s a r e q u i t e n a r r o w , o v e r m o s t of t h e g r o u p energy r a n g e
t h e f l u x b e h a v e s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y as <f>(E)~\/E
such t h a t
(E'-ldE<t>(E)
= ln(Eg_l/Eg).
(8-90)
F u r t h e r m o r e essentially all n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n will o c c u r in t h o s e r e s o n a n c e s

c o n t a i n e d in g r o u p g. H e n c e u s i n g o u r earlier d e f i n i t i o n of t h e effective r e s o n a n c e
integral, w e f i n d
Â
i^g
NA
i eg
/,
'
<8 9l)
w h e r e / E g is w r i t t e n to i n d i c a t e t h a t only those r e s o n a n c e s c o n t a i n e d in t h e g r o u p
g c o n t r i b u t e to 2 a g , a n d Au g r e p r e s e n t s t h e l e t h a r g y w i d t h of g r o u p g. H e n c e we
c a n g e n e r a t e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a b s o r p t i o n directly b y using
r e s o n a n c e integrals. ( W e will later p r o v i d e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p r e s c r i p t i o n using pr)
T h e r e f o r e " a l l " we n e e d to d o is f i g u r e o u t a w a y to c a l c u l a t e or m e a s u r e the
r e s o n a n c e integrals themselves. W e will n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d several
a p p r o x i m a t e s c h e m e s f o r d o i n g this.
D. Approximate Calculations of Resonance Integrals

W e will n o w c o n s i d e r in m o r e detail n e u t r o n slowing d o w n t h r o u g h a single
resonance characterizing an absorber (denoted by " A " ) distributed uniformly
t h r o u g h o u t a m o d e r a t o r ( " M " ) . W e will a s s u m e t h a t t h e n e u t r o n flux has achieved
its a s y m p t o t i c b e h a v i o r <f>(E)~ 1 / E b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e r e s o n a n c e energy. W e will
f u r t h e r m o r e a s s u m e t h a t t h e m o d e r a t o r h a s a c o n s t a n t s c a t t e r i n g cross section a n d
a negligible a b s o r p t i o n cross section.
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m of t h e n e u t r o n slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g this
342
s i t u a t i o n is
It is possible t o solve this e q u a t i o n n u m e r i c a l l y . 1 0 H o w e v e r w e will d e v e l o p several

s i m p l e a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n s b a s e d o n a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i d t h of t h e
resonance.
L e t us b e g i n b y n o t i n g several f e a t u r e s of t h e cross s e c t i o n s t h a t a p p e a r in this
e q u a t i o n . W e c a n effectively i g n o r e t h e a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n of t h e m o d e r a t o r
o v e r t h e r a n g e of t h e r e s o n a n c e t o write
2tM( )~2SM( ) = 2^,
(8-93)
w h e r e w e h a v e f u r t h e r n o t e d t h a t s c a t t e r i n g f r o m t h e m o d e r a t o r is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
t h e p o t e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section 2 ^ w h i c h is essentially c o n s t a n t over t h e
n a r r o w r a n g e of t h e r e s o n a n c e .
T h e r e s o n a n c e a b s o r b e r is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d c r o s s section
dependence
=
(8-94)
w h e r e w e h a v e s e p a r a t e d t h e r e s o n a n c e a n d p o t e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g c o m p o n e n t s of t h e
cross section. W e c a n n o w c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e f f e c t i v e w i d t h of t h e r e s o n a n c e b y
d e f i n i n g t h e practical width T p as the e n e r g y r a n g e over w h i c h t h e r e s o n a n c e cross
s e c t i o n e x c e e d s t h e n o n r e s o n a n c e c o m p o n e n t ( w h i c h is essentially j u s t 2 p + 2 *
= 2 p ) . T o e s t i m a t e T p , w e c a n u s e the B r e i t - W i g n e r f o r m u l a t o c o m p a r e
- I
+1
~2
(8-95)
T.
(8-96)
or
Tp = 2 ( E - E
T y p i c a l l y f o r low-lying r e s o n a n c e s
w h i c h is m u c h larger t h a n t h e a c t u a l
N e v e r t h e l e s s f o r all r e s o n a n c e s of
is m u c h s m a l l e r t h a n t h e a v e r a g e
nucleus
^ \
) ~ } j ^
in 2 3 8 U , 2 0 / 2 p ~ 10 3 . T h u s T p ^ 3 0 r > . 7 eV
w i d t h of t h e r e s o n a n c e .
interest in r e a c t o r analysis, t h e p r a c t i c a l w i d t h
e n e r g y lost in a collision with a m o d e r a t o r
= U l - a
) E
p t
(8-97)
T h i s m e a n s t h a t m o s t of t h e r a n g e of i n t e g r a t i o n , E<Ef
<E/aM,
in t h e m o d e r a t o r
i n t e g r a l in E q . (8-92) will b e s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r f r o m t h e r e s o n a n c e t h a t t h e flux
a s s u m e s its a s y m p t o t i c f o r m , < ( ) - > ! / E , a n d h e n c e w e c a n r e p l a c e t h e f l u x in t h e
343
integral w i t h this a s y m p t o t i c f o r m with negligible e r r o r :
I
E
(1~M)'
(i
"
<8-98>
TO-r-
If we s u b s t i t u t e this i n t o E q . (8-92), w e f i n d t h a t o u r slowing d o w n

becomes
E_
f a
I
dE'
[ ^ + ^ ( E ) + ^{E)]<t>(E)=
J
equation
2f("W')
+
(8-99)
T h e m a j o r a p p r o x i m a t i o n w e will m a k e in o u r s o l u t i o n of this e q u a t i o n will involve

o u r t r e a t m e n t of t h e absorber s c a t t e r i n g integral. T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n will a g a i n b e
b a s e d o n t h e relative w i d t h of t h e r e s o n a n c e , b u t n o w c o m p a r e d to t h e e n e r g y loss
s u f f e r e d in a collision w i t h a n a b s o r b e r n u c l e u s .
1. N A R R O W R E S O N A N C E (NR) A P P R O X I M A T I O N
W e will first a s s u m e t h a t t h e p r a c t i c a l w i d t h F p of t h e r e s o n a n c e is small
c o m p a r e d t o t h e a v e r a g e e n e r g y loss s u f f e r e d in a collision w i t h the absorber
nucleus:
A|A = ( - ^ )
(8-100)
T h e n we c a n a p p r o x i m a t e t h e a b s o r b e r s c a t t e r i n g integral as w e d i d t h a t f o r t h e
m o d e r a t o r b y r e p l a c i n g <f>(E) in t h e i n t e g r a n d b y its a s y m p t o t i c f o r m
C i
2*((')
2*
r~dE'(
1 \
(8 ioi)
I ^'iN^-oôX f-te)-^- -
I n t h e s e c o n d i n t e g r a l w e h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e a b s o r b e r s c a t t e r i n g cross section over

m o s t of this r a n g e is essentially j u s t t h a t f o r p o t e n t i a l scattering 2 .
U s i n g t h e s e results in E q . (8-99), w e f i n d
+ 2?)
St(E)4>()=
H e n c e t h e narrow resonance
approximation
(8-102)
to t h e flux is
(8
-103)
W e c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e integral in the
N R a p p r o x i m a t i o n as
~ 2 ^ + 2 :p
(8-104)
=JEdEo*(E)^K(E)=
f
<fo${E)
2t()
344
This integral c a n now be c o m p u t e d using our D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d resonance

s h a p e s , j u s t as it w a s f o r h y d r o g e n . Since t h e a v e r a g e e n e r g y loss p e r collision
(1 a A ) 0 / 2 i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e n e r g y E0, w e m i g h t e x p e c t t h e N R
a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o b e valid f o r higher e n e r g y r e s o n a n c e s . F o r l o w e r e n e r g y r e s o n a n c e s , t h e e n e r g y loss in collisions w i t h a b s o r b e r nuclei will n o l o n g e r b e larger
t h a n t h e p r a c t i c a l w i d t h of t h e r e s o n a n c e T p a n d w e m u s t t h e n c o n s i d e r a n
alternative approximation.
2. N A R R O W R E S O N A N C E I N F I N I T E MASS ABSORBER ( N R I M ) OR W I D E
R E S O N A N C E (WR) A P P R O X I M A T I O N
W e n o w c o n s i d e r t h e o t h e r limit in w h i c h t h e p r a c t i c a l w i d t h of t h e r e s o n a n c e
is very w i d e c o m p a r e d t o t h e e n e r g y loss s u f f e r e d in a collision w i t h a n a b s o r b e r
nucleus
= (
^ ) ^ o r
(8-105)
(although we continue to treat the resonance width as n a r r o w c o m p a r e d to

m o d e r a t o r e n e r g y loss A E | M ) . T h i s is o c c a s i o n a l l y k n o w n as t h e wide
resonance
case, a l t h o u g h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y o n e o b t a i n s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e
a b s o r b e r s c a t t e r i n g i n t e g r a l b y a s s u m i n g t h e a b s o r b e r t o b e infinitely m a s s i v e s u c h
t h a t n e u t r o n s s u f f e r n o e n e r g y loss i n a collision w i t h t h e a b s o r b e r . T h a t is, w e t a k e
t h e limit a s A->oo or aA = (A \ / A + 1) 2 ->1 t o f i n d
E
dE'HrAvA/
(E')<j>(E')
a j
r ^
dF'
i f .
(8-106)
T h e n o u r s l o w i n g d o w n e q u a t i o n [Eq. (8-99)] b e c o m e s
2m
W e c a n t h e n solve f o r t h e f l u x in the N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n as
2M
a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s o n a n c e integral a s
'M
rNRIM
dE
A/j7\
(8-109)
N o t i c e t h a t t h e N R a n d N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n s d i f f e r o n l y in t h e w a y in w h i c h
s c a t t e r i n g f r o m t h e a b s o r b e r nuclei is t r e a t e d . If w e n o t e t h a t u s u a l l y t h e a b s o r b e r
d e n s i t y is s u f f i c i e n t l y l o w t h a t
t h e n in f a c t t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
t w o f o r m s f o r I lies in t h e s u b t r a c t i o n of t h e a b s o r b e r s c a t t e r i n g cross section
f r o m t h e t o t a l cross s e c t i o n in t h e d e n o m i n a t o r of t h e N R I M e x p r e s s i o n f o r
345
If the a b s o r b e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n is v e r y small, 2 t ( ) 2 ^ * , a n d w e p a s s t o the

i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n f o r m of t h e r e s o n a n c e integral
/ = f
(8-110)
By c o m p a r i n g E q s . (8-104) a n d (8-109) w i t h (8-110), o n e f i n d s t h a t I00 is larger

t h a n either / N R o r / N R I M . T h i s is d u e to the self-shielding
e f f e c t . If w e e x a m i n e
e i t h e r of the a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m s , E q . (8-103) or (8-108), for t h e f l u x (E) w i t h i n the
r e s o n a n c e , w e n o t e t h a t t h e f l u x d e c r e a s e s as 2 A ( " ) i n c r e a s e s t h a t is, flux
depression
o c c u r s . T h i s f l u x d e p r e s s i o n l o w e r s the effective a b s o r p t i o n in the
r e s o n a n c e a n d h e n c e I is similarly d e c r e a s e d . W e will f i n d later in C h a p t e r 10 t h a t
spatial self-shielding d u e to f u e l l u m p i n g h a s t h e s a m e e f f e c t o n r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p tion since it also r e d u c e s I .
O n e c a n g o f u r t h e r a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d B r e i t - W i g n e r line
s h a p e s to c a l c u l a t e these r e s o n a n c e integrals in t e r m s of r e s o n a n c e p a r a m e t e r s . It is
c u s t o m a r y ( a l t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s c o r r e c t 1 1 ) to neglect i n t e r f e r e n c e s c a t t e r i n g s u c h
t h a t o u r cross sections b e c o m e
(8"
T h e n inserting these i n t o o u r expressions f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e integrals yields
(2M + 2A)r
/ N R
AE O
nrim=
2sMr
.
2m + 2
a
(8 112)
'
P = - j rArO- '
and
7
J { S
2sMr
w h e r e t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e
is given in E q . (8-75).
H e r e (3 is t h e p a r a m e t e r essentially c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the d i l u t i o n of the a b s o r b e r ,
while f c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . A s fi or
b e c o m e s large, b o t h the N R a n d
N R I M f o r m s a p p r o a c h the i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n limit
/NR(
>oo) = / N R I M (
>co) = / 0 0 =
(8-114)
EQ
A s in t h e case of h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s , w e f i n d t h a t t h e r e is n o t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e in this limit. If w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of m o s t

interest in r e a c t o r a p p l i c a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d s to 0.1 < f < 1.0, t h e n w e f i n d t h a t unless
1.6 X 1 0 " 4 < / ? < 2 . 6 , t h e r e will b e n o t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of / ( a n d h e n c e of p).
F o r the r a n g e 2 ^ / N A ~ 10-10 3 b p e r a b s o r b e r a t o m e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e r m a l
r e a c t o r design, o n e c a n e s t i m a t e the d e r i v a t i v e of / with r e s p e c t to t e m p e r a t u r e as
| ^ ~ 1 0 -
/ C ^ ^ ~ - 1 0 -
/ C .
(8-115)
346 /
H e n c e in this p a r a m e t e r r a n g e , D o p p l e r b r o a d e n i n g will c a u s e a s i g n i f i c a n t dec r e a s e in p w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .

T h e N R a p p r o x i m a t i o n is c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r all b u t t h e lowest lying r e s o n a n c e s
f o r w h i c h t h e N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n is m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y . I n T a b l e 8-4 we h a v e
given e x a m p l e s 1 2 of s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r several r e s o n a n c e s i n 2 3 8 U . T h e s e a r e
c o m p a r e d w i t h d i r e c t n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e r e s o n a n c e integral. A l t h o u g h
n e i t h e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s e e m s t o yield s a t i s f a c t o r y results f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e s at
i n t e r m e d i a t e e n e r g y , 1 3 w h e n l a r g e n u m b e r s of r e s o n a n c e s a r e a c c o u n t e d for, t h e
e r r o r s t e n d t o a v e r a g e o u t . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , w e h a v e also s u m m a r i z e d t h e results
of t h e s e v a r i o u s s c h e m e s f o r h a n d l i n g r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n i n T a b l e 8-5.
TABLE 8-4:
Resonance Absorption Calculations12
Resonance
Energy 0 ( e V )
0.2376 (21%)
0.07455 (+10.4%)
0.04739 ( - 1 8 . 6 % )
0.010163 ( + 5.9%)
0.001114 ( + 0.9%)
0.009035 ( - 1.5%)
0.005086 ( - 2 8 . 6 % )
0.004440 ( - 1 1 . 6 % )
6.67
21.0
36.9
81.3
90.
117.5
192.
212.
TABLE 8-5:
(1 ~Pi)
NRIA
(1 -Pt)
NR
(1-A)
Exact
0.1998 (1.8%)
0.07059 ( + 4.5%)
0.06110 ( + 5.0%)
0.008109 ( - 1 5 . 5 % )
0.000998 ( - 9 . 6 % )
0.009500 ( + 3.6%)
0.01228 (73.0%)
0.007689 ( + 53.1%)
0.1963
0.06755
0.05820
0.009596
0.001104
0.009170
0.007119
0.005021
Resonance Integrals for Single Resonances

Hydrogen + Infinite Mass
Absorption
NR
Approximation
NRIM
Approximation
Homogeneous
Infinite dilution
o0Tyvr
Zero temperature
"
2E0
CT0ry7T
Homogeneous
a0TyTr
7
"
2 E0
2E0
(y0ry7r
j _ ary
2 E0a
2E
2 E0a
\/ac-b2/4
Finite dilution
i.
Zero temperature
c = a-\
^Mp
-O
J a /
=1
2m
(2^ + 2^) Ty
2m + 2A
Finite temperature
B'~
B~
NHO?T
rr^
r.
Homogeneous
Finite dilution
347
W e will r e t u r n later in C h a p t e r 10 to discuss t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d in these

results in o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s (i.e., f u e l l u m p i n g ) . N o w , however,
w e will c o n t i n u e with o u r s t u d y of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in a n e f f o r t to t a k e
a c c o u n t of spatial e f f e c t s (i.e., finite m e d i a ) .
III. NEUTRON SLOWING DOWN IN FINITE MEDIA

A. The Lethargy-Dependent Px Equations
W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f a s t n e u t r o n s p e c t r a w h e n
t h e spatial d e p e n d e n c e of the n e u t r o n f l u x m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . Since the effects of
a n i s o t r o p i c s c a t t e r i n g a r e usually significant, w e will b e g i n o u r s t u d y with the Px
e q u a t i o n s (4-153) a n d (4-154) r a t h e r t h a n t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n .
T h i s will allow a f a r m o r e c o n s i s t e n t t r e a t m e n t of t h e spatial a n d e n e r g y variables
t h a n t h a t p r o v i d e d b y e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y . It will b e s u f f i c i e n t to
c o n s i d e r t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e f o r m of these e q u a t i o n s in only a single spatial v a r i a b l e x
since o u r i n t e n t is to d e v e l o p a r a t h e r s i m p l e t r e a t m e n t of t h e spatial d e p e n d e n c e
t h a t w e c a n use in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . It will p r o v e c o n v e n i e n t
to r e w r i t e t h e Px e q u a t i o n s in t h e l e t h a r g y v a r i a b l e u as
N
|+2t(M)$(*,ii)= 2
7=1
~
fU^4o(uû)<t>(x,u')-hS0(x,u),
0
+2t(M)/(jC,u)= 2
^ X ^ " ) *
(*>"')>
(8"116)
w h e r e 2g0(w'w) a n d 2* 1 ('w) a r e t h e i s o t r o p i c a n d linearly a n i s o t r o p i c c o m p o n e n t s of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l cross section c h a r a c t e r i z i n g elastic s c a t t e r i n g f r o m

i s o t o p i c species " i . " ( U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , w e will a l w a y s use the cross
s e c t i o n n o t a t i o n 2 S to r e f e r o n l y to elastic s c a t t e r i n g in this section.) It s h o u l d b e
n o t i c e d t h a t w e h a v e restricted these e q u a t i o n s to the d e s c r i p t i o n of n e u t r o n
slowing d o w n b y t r u n c a t i n g t h e u p p e r limit of i n t e g r a t i o n at u' = u ( t h a t is, i g n o r i n g
upscattering).
F o r t h e m o m e n t , w e will i n c l u d e the e f f e c t s of inelastic s c a t t e r i n g a n d fission in
the s o u r c e t e r m
N
JTi J
(8-117)
a n d f o c u s o u r a t t e n t i o n o n a p p r o x i m a t e t r e a t m e n t s of slowing d o w n via elastic
scattering. A l t h o u g h inelastic s c a t t e r i n g c a n p l a y a very i m p o r t a n t role in n e u t r o n
slowing d o w n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y in f a s t r e a c t o r s ) , it is n o t n e a r l y as susceptible to
a p p r o x i m a t e t r e a t m e n t s as elastic s c a t t e r i n g a n d usually r e q u i r e s a direct m u l t i g r o u p t r e a t m e n t , discussion of w h i c h will b e d e f e r r e d until later in this section. It
s h o u l d also b e n o t e d t h a t w e h a v e explicitly i g n o r e d a n y a n i s o t r o p i c c o m p o n e n t s of
inelastic s c a t t e r i n g or fission b y setting t h e s o u r c e t e r m 5 , ( x , w ) = 0 in the s e c o n d P ,
348
e q u a t i o n (8-116). O u r neglect of this a n i s o t r o p i c s o u r c e c o m p o n e n t is m o t i v a t e d b y

recalling t h a t b o t h of t h e s e r e a c t i o n s involve c o m p o u n d n u c l e u s f o r m a t i o n in h e a v y
nuclei a n d h e n c e s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d as p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e i s o t r o p i c in
the L A B system.
T o p r o c e e d f u r t h e r , w e will n o w i n t r o d u c e t h e s l o w i n g d o w n d e n s i t i e s
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g elastic s c a t t e r i n g f r o m e a c h i s o t o p i c species b y r e w r i t i n g E q . (8-18)
in t e r m s of t h e l e t h a r g y v a r i a b l e as
ql0(x9u)
ru
r oo
= / du' I du"2\ ( m ' - > m " ) $ ( j c , k ' ) .
'O
Ju
W e h a v e i n s e r t e d t h e s u b s c r i p t " 0 " t o d i s t i n g u i s h ql0(x,u)

q u a n t i t y d e f i n e d in t e r m s of t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y
J(x,u):
q[(x,u)=
("du'
(8-118)
f r o m a closely r e l a t e d
(0du'%l(u'û")J(x9u').
(8-119)
W e c a n m a k e t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s a bit m o r e explicit b y r e c a l l i n g t h a t t h e elastic

s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s of g r e a t e s t c o n c e r n in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r a n a l y s i s i n v o l v e s - w a v e
scattering, for which we c a n write
r,
(l-a,-)
u I n <u'
a,.
0,
<u
(8-120)
otherwise.
O n e c a n similarly s h o w t h a t f o r s - w a v e scattering,
m-^-m
u I n <u'
<u
otherwise.
0,
(8-121)
T h u s w e c a n u s e t h e s e cross s e c t i o n s t o w r i t e t h e s l o w i n g d o w n densities in m o r e
explicit f o r m . F o r e x a m p l e ,
ql0(xiu)=
du'
A/ In
f
Ju-in!
du"
Ju
eu~u-a:
du't\(u')${xyu')
(8-122)
OLi
T o i m p l e m e n t t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s , w e will d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e s l o w i n g d o w n densities
w i t h r e s p e c t t o u:
H
du
= fXdu"^So(uû")4>(x,u)-
f d u ' ^ u ' ^ u ^ u ' ) ,
(8-123)
349
or noting that
r oo
du"^{u-*u") = Vlu),
(8-124)
= S ^ M X j c , U) - f j d u ' ^ ( u ' ^ u ^ x , ' ) .
(8-125)
we find
I n a v e r y similar m a n n e r w e c a n f i n d
-r = ju 01 .2s(w)/ ( x , u) / duf^ls{u'->u)J{x,u'),
1
ou
Jq
(8-126)
where we have noted that

/* 00
du"VSi(uû")
= ji0^(u).
(8-127)
W e c a n n o w use E q s . (8-125) a n d (8-126) to r e p l a c e t h e elastic s c a t t e r i n g t e r m s in

t h e Px e q u a t i o n s (8-116) w i t h t h e derivatives of t h e elastic slowing d o w n densities:
N
+ ^neM^*'
+ S0(X9 U),
") = - 2
i=l
H e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e nonelastic
S ^ m ) = 2t() -
a n d the transport
(8-128)
^
cross section
() - 2t(tt) -
2 2j()
1=1
(8-129)
cross s e c t i o n
2tr() = 2 t ( ) - M 0 2 f ( M ) = 2 t ( w ) - 2
1=1
(8-130)
T h e Px e q u a t i o n s in t h e f o r m (8-128) will serve a s o u r p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e f o r the

s t u d y of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in finite m e d i a . W e w o u l d stress t h a t t h e only
essential a p p r o x i m a t i o n u s e d in d e r i v i n g these e q u a t i o n s involves t h e a s s u m p t i o n
t h a t t h e a n g u l a r n e u t r o n f l u x <p(x,ju,w) c a n b e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y o n l y a
l i n e a r l y a n i s o t r o p i c d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e a n g u l a r v a r i a b l e juthat is, t h e Pl
approximation.
By i n t r o d u c i n g t h e slowing d o w n densities, w e h a v e e l i m i n a t e d t h e integral t e r m s
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g elastic scattering. H o w e v e r in t h e p r o c e s s w e h a v e of c o u r s e i n t r o duced additional d e p e n d e n t variables, 4o(x>u) anc*
Although these
350
v a r i a b l e s are f o r m a l l y d e f i n e d in t e r m s of t h e f l u x a n d c u r r e n t b y E q s . (8-118) a n d
(8-119), it will p r o v e c o n v e n i e n t to seek a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n s f o r the
slowing d o w n densities t h a t c a n b e u s e d to a u g m e n t t h e Px e q u a t i o n s (8-128).
B. Approximate Treatments of Neutron Slowing DownContinuous

Slowing Down Theory
I n m o s t s c h e m e s u s e d to g e n e r a t e f a s t n e u t r o n s p e c t r a , elastic s c a t t e r i n g is
t r e a t e d u s i n g a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d s t h a t a r e usually r e f e r r e d to collectively as
continuous
slowing down theory. I n s u c h m e t h o d s , a n a p p r o x i m a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l
e q u a t i o n is d e v e l o p e d f o r e a c h slowing d o w n d e n s i t y b y e x p a n d i n g t h e collision
densities 2*(w') <f>(x,u') a n d ^\{uf)J (x,uf) w h i c h a p p e a r in t h e integrals of the exact
d e f i n i t i o n s [Eqs. (8-118) a n d (8-119)] of the slowing d o w n densities as T a y l o r series
e x p a n s i o n s a b o u t uf = u a n d r e t a i n i n g o n l y o n e or two t e r m s of these e x p a n s i o n s .
T h i s in e f f e c t r e p l a c e s t h e original integral e q u a t i o n b y a set of c o u p l e d f i r s t - o r d e r
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s in t h e l e t h a r g y v a r i a b l e .
The motivation behind such an approximate treatment might be questioned
w h e n it is r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a direct s o l u t i o n of t h e m u l t i g r o u p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e
original f a s t s p e c t r u m e q u a t i o n s c o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d o n a n y m o d e r n digital
c o m p u t e r p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e a b s e n c e of u p s c a t t e r i n g w o u l d allow a direct
successive s o l u t i o n of t h e m u l t i g r o u p e q u a t i o n s f o r successively h i g h e r lethargies.
H o w e v e r to g e n e r a t e s u c h a f i n e - g r o u p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , it is n e c e s s a r y to calculate f i n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s b y m a k i n g a simple e s t i m a t e of t h e i n t r a g r o u p flux,
say <j>(u)~constant.
W e h a v e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s c a t t e r i n g cross sections
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g elastic s c a t t e r i n g v a n i s h d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y o u t s i d e of the
collision interval, u In 1 / a , < uf < w. S u c h a stepwise b e h a v i o r is d i f f i c u l t to
a p p r o x i m a t e a c c u r a t e l y b y a m u l t i g r o u p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . H e n c e it is to o u r a d v a n tage to r e p l a c e t h e s c a t t e r i n g integrals b y s m o o t h l y v a r y i n g t e r m s m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e
to a m u l t i g r o u p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y seeking a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e slowing
d o w n densities, ql0{x,u) a n d
q\{x,u).
1. S L O W I N G D O W N IN H Y D R O G E N (A = 1)
W e will b e g i n
f r o m h y d r o g e n in
appropriate starting
(8-118) a n d (8-119),
b y e x a m i n i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y simple case of s l o w i n g d o w n
w h i c h A = 1 a n d h e n c e a = 0. T h i s case is a p a r t i c u l a r l y
p o i n t since it c a n b e t r e a t e d exactly. If w e set a = 0 in E q s .
we find
(8-131)
H o w e v e r of m o r e r e l e v a n c e is t h e f a c t t h a t b y d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g these expressions, w e
c a n i d e n t i f y t w o simple d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s ,
(8-132)
351
w h i c h c a n b e u s e d to s u p p l e m e n t t h e Px slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n s (8-128). It s h o u l d
b e stressed t h a t while t h e s e e q u a t i o n s a r e exact, t h e y only a p p l y to t h e case of
hydrogen.
2. T H E A G E A P P R O X I M A T I O N
F o r t h e m o r e g e n e r a l c a s e of n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s , o n e c a n n o t
o b t a i n s u c h d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s exactly c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e slowing d o w n densities. H o w e v e r essentially all t r e a t m e n t s of elastic s c a t t e r i n g a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n
a p p r o x i m a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s f o r qx0(x,u) a n d q\(x,u) in the f o r m
H
(8-133)
3*1
T o a c c o m p l i s h this o n e first n o t e s t h a t in m a n y cases the elastic s c a t t e r i n g collision

density
)<() is a slowly v a r y i n g f u n c t i o n of lethargy. F o r e x a m p l e , f o r z e r o
a b s o r p t i o n in a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m f a r b e l o w s o u r c e energies, w e k n o w t h a t the
a s y m p t o t i c f o r m of the collision d e n s i t y is in f a c t c o n s t a n t , 2).(w)<|>() = S 0 / ! ( . T h u s
if the s y s t e m of interest is n o t t o o strongly a b s o r b i n g , a n d if t h e collision interval is
n o t too l a r g e t h a t is, if A is l a r g e w e a r e t e m p t e d to e x p a n d the collision density
a p p e a r i n g in t h e integrals of E q s . (8-118) a n d (8-119) as T a y l o r e x p a n s i o n s a b o u t
u'= u a n d r e t a i n o n l y l o w - o r d e r t e r m s :
Z i ( > ( * , ' ) u ) + ( ' - u ) f - [ 2 j ( M x , u ) J,
(8-134)
2 j ( ' ) / (x,')
= 2i()/
(*, u) + (u'-u)-^[
2 \ { u ) J (x, u) ].
If we s u b s t i t u t e t h e first of these e x p a n s i o n s i n t o E q . (8-118), w e f i n d

+
(8-135)
where we have identified

a. In
4
du'
a.
= 1
a.-
1 a, '
(8-136)
Ju-In
at=
I
Ju-inl
du'
1 a.
2(1-a,)
(8-137)
It is c o m m o n to t r u n c a t e E q . (8-135) a f t e r o n l y o n e t e r m t o write
(8-138)
T h i s result is k n o w n a s t h e age approximation
o r s o m e t i m e s as continuous
slowing
352 /
down theory. T h e f o r m e r n a m e will o n l y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n S e c t i o n 8-1V-C. T h e

l a t t e r n a m e arises b e c a u s e t h e neglect of h i g h e r o r d e r t e r m s i n t h e e x p a n s i o n of t h e
collision d e n s i t y e f f e c t i v e l y i m p l i e s t h a t n e u t r o n s lose o n l y a n i n f i n i t e s i m a l a m o u n t
of e n e r g y in e a c h collision.
T o p r o c e e d f u r t h e r , w e will a s s u m e t h a t w e c a n r a t h e r a r b i t r a r i l y set
q\(x9u)
= 09
(8-139)
t h a t is, w e will n e g l e c t a n i s o t r o p i c e n e r g y e x c h a n g e . T h e n t h e s e c o n d of e q u a t i o n s
[Eq. (8-128)] c a n b e solved f o r
/ ( x , u) = - [ 3 2 r ' ^
= -.D
(u) ^
(8-140)
w h i c h yields j u s t F i c k ' s law. T h i s c a n t h e n b e s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e first e q u a t i o n

(8-128) t o f i n d
(8-H1)
w h e r e w e h a v e u s e d t h e a g e a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r all i s o t o p e s in t h e s y s t e m . T h i s is
k n o w n as t h e age-diffusion
equation. It is s o m e t i m e s a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s
inconsistent
Pj theory s i n c e w e h a v e n o t t r e a t e d t h e slowing d e n s i t y q\{x9 u) i n t h e s a m e f a s h i o n
as w e t r e a t e d ql${x9 u).
T h e a g e - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n is p r i m a r i l y of historical i m p o r t a n c e in r e a c t o r
a n a l y s i s since it is r e s t r i c t e d t o slowing d o w n in h e a v y m a s s m o d e r a t o r s s u c h as
g r a p h i t e a n d w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t a p p l y t o h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s . It is of
i n t e r e s t s i m p l y b e c a u s e it c a n b e solved exactly i n c e r t a i n special cases (as w e will
see in S e c t i o n 8-IV-C).
W e c a n p a r t i a l l y alleviate t h e restriction t o h e a v y m a s s m o d e r a t o r s b y using t h e
e x a c t e q u a t i o n s (8-132) t o d e s c r i b e h y d r o g e n m o d e r a t i o n a n d t h e n u s e t h e a g e
a p p r o x i m a t i o n ( i n c o n s i s t e n t />,) o n l y to d e s c r i b e n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s species (A > 1).
T h i s s c h e m e , w h i c h is o n e of t h e c o m m o n m e t h o d s u s e d i n c o m p u t i n g f a s t s p e c t r a
in L W R s , is k n o w n as t h e Selengut-Goertzel
method.
It is a relatively s i m p l e m a t t e r t o r e m o v e t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y p r e s e n t in t h e a g e
a p p r o x i m a t i o n [i.e., E q . (8-139)] b y s u b s t i t u t i n g E q . (8-134) i n t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
q\{x9u) given b y E q . (8-119) t o f i n d
q\(x9u)^^(u)J(x9u)
(8-142)
where
{ ^^^ C1
In
-K l ) ) _ (1 _
yÂrK
ln
l))
(8-143)
If E q s . (8-138) a n d E q . (8-142) a r e b o t h u s e d in t h e Px e q u a t i o n s , o n e a r r i v e s a t t h e
consistent P1
approximation.
353
O n e o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n o c c a s i o n a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d in the t r e a t m e n t of n e u t r o n
slowing d o w n in w e a k l y a b s o r b i n g s y s t e m s involves r e t a i n i n g b o t h t e r m s in the
e x p a n s i o n (8-135) t o w r i t e
q0(x9 u) = s(w)<J>(x, u) + a
[2s(w)</>(*,)]
a 2g()*(*, ) + f - ! ;
)]
(8-144)
w h e r e w e h a v e r e i n t r o d u c e d E q . (8-138) i n t o t h e s e c o n d t e r m t o a c h i e v e a
c o n s i s t e n t s e c o n d - o r d e r e x p a n s i o n . N o w in a n infinite, sourceless m e d i u m , E q .
(8-128) c a n b e w r i t t e n as
-^=2ne(M)<KH).
(8-145)
If w e s u b s t i t u t e E q . (8-144) i n t o E q . (8-145), w e c a n solve f o r

*(*,)
However we can approximate
|2ne(W))<Hx,).
(8-146)
I (see P r o b l e m 8-29) to write

q0(x9u)a&t(u)<f>(x9u).
(8-147)
T h i s f o r m of the a g e a p p r o x i m a t i o n is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n s t e a d of o u r earlier f o r m
given b y E q . (8-138). F o r w e a k a b s o r p t i o n , b o t h expressions yield very similar
results.
3. T H E G R U E L I N G - G O E R T Z E L A P P R O X I M A T I O N
T h u s f a r w e h a v e p r o v i d e d p r e s c r i p t i o n s f o r h a n d l i n g n e u t r o n slowing d o w n
in either v e r y h e a v y (age t h e o r y ) or h y d r o g e n e o u s (exact) m o d e r a t o r s . H o w e v e r
n e i t h e r of t h e s e s c h e m e s is a d e q u a t e f o r light, n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s m a t e r i a l s w i t h
d e u t e r i u m 2 D b e i n g a p r i m e villian. H e n c e w e a r e m o t i v a t e d to c o n s t r u c t a n
a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e a g e a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s m e d i a .
T o a c c o m p l i s h this, w e will use the T a y l o r e x p a n s i o n of t h e collision densities to
write a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n s f o r qlQ(x,u) a n d q\(x,u)
in the f o r m s E q . (8-133). T o
illustrate h o w this m a y b e a c c o m p l i s h e d , s u p p o s e w e use t h e e x p a n s i o n E q . (8-135)
to c a l c u l a t e
H
(8-148)
3w
T o cast this i n t o t h e f o r m of E q . (8-133), w e c a n i g n o r e t e r m s in 3 2<j>/du2 as b e i n g
of h i g h e r o r d e r a n d c h o o s e A 0/ so t h a t t e r m s in d<j>/du cancel. T h i s yields
1
a , ( l + l n + ^-ln 2 )
a
\
<*/ 2
iJ
1 a. I 1 + In
W
(8-149)
354
A very similar c a l c u l a t i o n will yield the s e c o n d of e q u a t i o n s (8-133) w i t h t h e c h o i c e

(1 + Y,)a f (1 + Y,-)
4
a f ^ l / a - ^ l n l / a ^ l )
7i
(1 -
Yi)[8-av"/
(ln21 / o i - 4 l n 1 / a , + 8)]jft - f i u =
(8-150)
A u g m e n t i n g t h e set of Px e q u a t i o n s (8-128) w i t h E q . (8-133) yields w h a t is k n o w n

as t h e Greuling-Goertzel
approximation.
Since h i g h e r o r d e r t e r m s in t h e collision
d e n s i t y e x p a n s i o n h a v e b e e n r e t a i n e d in this s c h e m e , t h e G r e u l i n g - G o e r t z e l
a p p r o x i m a t i o n will p r o v i d e a f a r m o r e a c c u r a t e t r e a t m e n t of i n t e r m e d i a t e m a s s
m o d e r a t o r s s u c h as 2 D o r 4 Be t h a n t h a t p r o v i d e d b y a g e t h e o r y . T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n a l s o h a s t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t it r e d u c e s t o t h e e x a c t e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g
h y d r o g e n in t h e limit A>1.
4. S U M M A R Y O F T H E Px S L O W I N G D O W N E Q U A T I O N S
It is c o n v e n i e n t t o s u m m a r i z e t h e s e v a r i o u s a p p r o x i m a t e
n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n b y w r i t i n g t h e Px e q u a t i o n s as
treatments
of
NHj
du
dx
du
S0(x,u),
(8-151)
1 3<J>
3 dx
/ x /
x
du
du
w h e r e t h e s l o w i n g d o w n densities a r e given b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
3?OH
du
dqH
3 -g
( e x a c t t r e a t m e n t of H )
Ki
XltÎ-
(8-152)
+ 4oH'ix9
u) =
= fixiJ(x>u)> ( a p p r o x i m a t e t r e a t m e n t of N H ) .
N o t e w e h a v e s e p a r a t e d t h e t r e a t m e n t of h y d r o g e n o u s ( H ) f r o m n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s
( N H ) slowing d o w n . T h e various approximations we have discussed c a n then be
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r c h o i c e of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A 0/ , X w fi 0 i , a n d f} u . W e
h a v e s u m m a r i z e d t h e s e c h o i c e s in T a b l e 8-6 b e l o w :

TABLE 8-6:
355
Choice of Parameters for Continuous Slowing Down Models
Poi
^0/
Pit
Age approximation
Selengut-Goertzel
Consistent age
approximation
fi^S 0
Eq. (8-149)
Eq. (8-150)
Greuling-Goertzel
(s-wave scattering)
T h e s e e q u a t i o n s c a n b e r a t h e r easily solved o n a digital c o m p u t e r p r o v i d e d the

spatial d e p e n d e n c e c a n b e simplified.
5. T R E A T M E N T O F T H E SPATIAL D E P E N D E N C E IN T H E />, S L O W I N G
DOWN EQUATIONS
R e c a l l t h a t w e a r e g o i n g to use t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e Px slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n s
t o g e n e r a t e f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . H e n c e w e only n e e d a c r u d e m e t h o d to a c c o u n t
f o r gross l e a k a g e effects. I n p a r t i c u l a r w e will a s s u m e t h a t t h e l e t h a r g y a n d spatial
d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f l u x a r e s e p a r a b l e a n d f u r t h e r m o r e c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e spatial
d e p e n d e n c e of e a c h of t h e v a r i a b l e s b y a simple b u c k l i n g m o d e . F o r e x a m p l e , the
f l u x w o u l d b e w r i t t e n as
<f>(x, u) = <j>(u) e x p (iBx),
(8-153)
w i t h similar expressions f o r c u r r e n t , source, a n d slowing d o w n densities. T h a t is, w e

a p p r o x i m a t e t h e spatial d e p e n d e n c e b y a single F o u r i e r m o d e , exp (iBx).
(This
t u r n s o u t to b e s o m e w h a t m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t h a n c h o o s i n g a slab g e o m e t r y m o d e
s u c h as c o s ^ x since it results in d i f f e r e n t spatial v a r i a t i o n f o r t h e f l u x a n d t h e
c u r r e n t w h e n t h e real p a r t of t h e s o l u t i o n s is t a k e n . ) H e r e t h e p a r a m e t e r B will
c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e l e a k a g e in e a c h r e g i o n of t h e c o r e in w h i c h t h e n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m
4>(u) is t o b e c a l c u l a t e d , a n d m u s t b e c h o s e n f r o m o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F o r
e x a m p l e , if w e w e r e c o n s i d e r i n g a b a r e , h o m o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r w e k n o w the flux
would indeed be separable, a n d B would b e determined by
V ^ ( r ) + 5 V ( r ) = 0.
(8-154)
M o r e generally, t h e flux will n o t b e s e p a r a b l e in r a n d w, b u t B 2 c a n b e r e g a r d e d as

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the a v e r a g e c o r e leakage. I n t h e e v e n t t h a t a n a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e is
r e q u i r e d , o n e c o u l d first e s t i m a t e B2, c a l c u l a t e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , use these in a
m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e flux, a n d t h e n use this flux to c a l c u l a t e a
n e w B2~(V2<f>/<f>). T h i s i m p r o v e d e s t i m a t e of B2 c o u l d t h e n b e u s e d to r e g e n e r a t e
t h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . F o r t u n a t e l y m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e rarely sufficiently sensitive to t h e c h o i c e of B 2 to r e q u i r e such a n iterative a p p r o a c h .
A s s u m i n g f o r t h e m o m e n t t h a t w e h a v e specified B2, w e c a n t h e n s u b s t i t u t e the
356
s e p a r a b l e f o r m s E q . (8-153) i n t o t h e Pl e q u a t i o n s t o arrive a t
dq"
iBJ () + Sne(u)<l>(u) = -
dq>
- ^
S0(u),
+ 2tr(W)/ ( ) = - _ -
(8-155)
_
i
a u g m e n t e d b y t h e set
dq?
and
H e n c e w e n o w h a v e a r r i v e d a t a set of simple, f i r s t - o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s t h a t
w e c a n i n t e g r a t e n u m e r i c a l l y . W e s h o u l d recall h e r e t h a t inelastic s c a t t e r i n g a n d
fission h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d in t h e s o u r c e t e r m as
N
SQ(u)=
2
7-i
f du'2\a(u'-*u)<t>(u>)+
2 * ( )
72i
r d u ' v ^ u ' M u ^ + S ^ u ) .
(8-157)
6. A N A L T E R N A T I V E T R E A T M E N T O F SPATIAL D E P E N D E N C E T H E
METHOD15
T h u s f a r w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h e s p a t i a l d e p e n d e n c e of t h e
s o l u t i o n s t o t h e P , s l o w i n g d o w n e q u a t i o n s b y a single m o d e of t h e f o r m e x p
T h e r e is a n a l t e r n a t i v e s c h e m e t h a t b y p a s s e s t h e Px e q u a t i o n s entirely, a n d f o r
c o m p l e t e n e s s w e will s k e t c h its d e r i v a t i o n h e r e . T o d o so, w e m u s t r e t u r n t o t h e
s t e a d y - s t a t e t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n , w r i t t e n in its o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l f o r m , E q . (4-48), as
8<p
/ A +2 T (W)<P(X,JW,u) = J
r + 1
ru
d f i ' j du/1s(u/ûi/x,-îJ,)(p(x,ii\u/)
S(x,ii9u).
(8-158)
N o w a s s u m e a n a n g u l a r f l u x a n d s o u r c e spatial d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f o r m similar to
t h a t in E q . (8-153):
S(u)
(8-159)
357
( N o t e t h a t w e h a v e a s s u m e d a n i s o t r o p i c s o u r c e c o n s i s t e n t with o u r
a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g fission a n d inelastic scattering.) T h e n w e f i n d
earlier
+1
[ 2 t ( w ) - iB{x]<p( ju,m) = j
dy! j " du'2s(u'^>u9ii'-->n)<p(
S(u)
/x', u') + ^ y ^ .
(8-160)
A t this p o i n t , if w e m u l t i p l i e d b y 1 or /x a n d i n t e g r a t e d over /x a n d t h e n e x p a n d e d
cp l/2<j>(u) + 3/2fiJ(u),
w e w o u l d r e d e r i v e the P , e q u a t i o n s . I n s t e a d s u p p o s e we
first divide b y ( 2 t iBfi) a n d f u r t h e r m o r e a s s u m e o n l y linearly a n i s o t r o p i c scattering to write:
<p(/x,w) = ( 2 t - / P / x )
-1
f"du'2s0(u'û)<p(u')
S{u)
+ ^
L J0
N o w multiply by
equations:
fdu'i:ll(u'->u)j(u')+
(8-161)
1 a n d /x a n d i n t e g r a t e over /x to f i n d the c o u p l e d p a i r of
a(u) r
<H
+ ^ [ 1 -A(u)]
(") = i
f"du'2sl(u'û)J(u'),
[1 - A (") ] f0"du'
32,(w)
s0('->)*(')
S0()
ru
B
t a n "- 1 [ 5 / 2 , ( m ) ]
A(u)
/2t()
(8-162)
A f t e r s o m e r e a r r a n g i n g , o n e c a n rewrite these e q u a t i o n s as
iBJ (u) + 2 t ( u)<f>(u) = Cdu'
2 s 0 ( w ' - > u)$(u')
+ S 0 (M).
(8-163)
iB
4>(t#) + y ( w ) 2 t ( w ) / (w) = f"du'
3
'o
2 s 1 (m'->m)./ ('),
where
? ( ) -
- 1 + 1 5 ( 2 ;
tan
'(t)
(8-164)
358
U p o n r e w r i t i n g t h e s c a t t e r i n g integrals i n t e r m s of slowing d o w n densities, o n e c a n

r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e Bx equations a b o v e a r e very similar t o t h e P , e q u a t i o n s , e x c e p t
f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e f a c t o r y. F o r b a r e s l a b geometries, t h e Bx e q u a t i o n s a r e
f o u n d t o yield slightly m o r e a c c u r a t e s p e c t r a . I n f a c t , if o n l y linearly a n i s o t r o p i c
s c a t t e r i n g is p r e s e n t , t h e Bx e q u a t i o n s p r o v i d e a n e x a c t t r e a t m e n t of a n g u l a r effects.
H o w e v e r f o r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d geometries, as well as f o r large t h e r m a l r e a c t o r
c o r e s in w h i c h l e a k a g e is relatively small, b o t h m e t h o d s yield v e r y similar results.
T h e m o r e r e c e n t t e n d e n c y h a s b e e n t o g e n e r a t e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s u s i n g t h e Bx
e q u a t i o n s . H o w e v e r b e c a u s e of their simplicity ( a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l similarity), w e
will c o n t i n u e o u r d i s c u s s i o n u s i n g t h e Px e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f a s t
n e u t r o n spectra.
IV. FAST SPECTRUM CALCULATIONS AND FAST GROUP

CONSTANTS
W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e Px a n d Bx e q u a t i o n s
t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f a s t n e u t r o n s p e c t r a s u i t a b l e f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of f a s t g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s t o b e u s e d in f e w - g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c o d e s . W e will s t u d y t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
s c h e m e s t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o g e n e r a t e f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . T h e first s u c h s c h e m e
will b e t h e n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n of t h e Px (or B x ) e q u a t i o n s b y discretizing t h e s e
e q u a t i o n s o n a f i n e g r o u p m e s h (typically 5 0 - 1 0 0 g r o u p s ) . T h i s s c h e m e w a s
originally d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of L W R s , a n d w h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n
of g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r h y d r o g e n e o u s systems, it is k n o w n as t h e M U F T techn i q u e . 1 6 F o r m a n y y e a r s it a n d its v a r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s s u c h as t h e G A M codes 1 7
h a v e b e e n t h e m a i n s t a y of t h e r m a l r e a c t o r design. F o r this r e a s o n , a n d also
b e c a u s e t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d in t h e M U F T - G A M c o d e s t o solve t h e Px (or Bx)
e q u a t i o n s a r e c o m m o n t o o t h e r f a s t s p e c t r u m codes, w e will c o n s i d e r this s c h e m e
in s o m e detail.
W e will a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f a s t r e a c t o r s p e c t r a in w h i c h inelastic
s c a t t e r i n g is of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e a n d f o r w h i c h a d i r e c t s o l u t i o n of t h e Px
e q u a t i o n s over a n u l t r a f i n e g r o u p s t r u c t u r e is r e q u i r e d . T h e n f i n a l l y f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s ( a n d h i s t o r i c a l s e n t i m e n t ) , w e will b r i e f l y d e v e l o p t h e a n a l y t i c a l aged i f f u s i o n m o d e l ( a l t h o u g h s u c h a m o d e l h a s v e r y little r e l e v a n c e t o m o d e r n d a y
reactor calculations).
A. MUFT-GAM TYPE FAST SPECTRUM CALCULATIONS

L e t us b e g i n b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e Px e q u a t i o n s a p p l i e d t o d e s c r i b e n e u t r o n
slowing d o w n i n a m i x t u r e of h y d r o g e n p l u s a single h e a v i e r i s o t o p e of m a s s
n u m b e r A. ( T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e m e t h o d w e will d e s c r i b e t o h a n d l e m o r e
g e n e r a l m i x t u r e s of m o d e r a t o r s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . ) T o b e specific, w e will utilize
t h e a g e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o d e s c r i b e slowing d o w n f r o m this h e a v y i s o t o p e c o u p l e d
w i t h a n e x a c t t r e a t m e n t of h y d r o g e n t h a t is, w e will use t h e S e l e n g u t - G o e r t z e l
d e s c r i p t i o n . It s h o u l d b e stressed t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e w e will o u t l i n e w o u l d a p p l y
e q u a l l y well to t h e o t h e r a p p r o x i m a t e t r e a t m e n t s of s l o w i n g d o w n t h a t w e h a v e
d i s c u s s e d (e.g., t h e c o n s i s t e n t Px a p p r o x i m a t i o n or t h e G o e r t z e l - G r e u l i n g m e t h o d ) .
359
T h e Px e q u a t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a single spatial m o d e c a n t h e n b e w r i t t e n as
iB . , v
+
j - - ^ . L
du
du
du
H e r e w e h a v e f o u n d it c o n v e n i e n t to s e p a r a t e t h e r e m o v a l cross s e c t i o n i n t o t h r e e
parts:
= " s m o o t h " a b s o r p t i o n cross section,
= " r e s o n a n c e " a b s o r p t i o n cross section,
r oo
du'Zû.>w') = inelastic scattering cross section.

o
R e m e m b e r t h a t r e m o v a l d u e to elastic s c a t t e r i n g h a s a l r e a d y b e e n a c c o u n t e d f o r in
t h e t e r m s i n v o l v i n g t h e s l o w i n g d o w n density.
T o solve t h e s e e q u a t i o n s , w e will n o w discretize t h e m into m u l t i g r o u p f o r m . W e
will c h o o s e a f i n e g r o u p s t r u c t u r e in the l e t h a r g y variables as s h o w n in F i g u r e 8-5.
W e will l a b e l these f i n e g r o u p s w i t h a s u b s c r i p t n to a v o i d c o n f u s i o n with the
c o a r s e g r o u p s t r u c t u r e d e n o t e d earlier b y g.
T h e set of e q u a t i o n s (8-165) will n o w b e a v e r a g e d over t h e f i n e g r o u p s t r u c t u r e
in a m a n n e r very similar to t h e m u l t i g r o u p e q u a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d in C h a p t e r 7. F o r
e x a m p l e , t h e g r o u p a v e r a g e s of d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s s u c h as <f>(u), J(u\
or q(u) are
d e f i n e d as:
u u
un\
Simple d i f f e r e n c e expressions c a n b e u s e d f o r derivatives:

du
dq
fa=(?n-<ln-1-
T h e fine group constants characterizing smoothly varying (nonresonant)

sections a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y simple a v e r a g i n g :
2
-. = daV
P
u
n Ju
un-1
cross
(8 168)
n
"
_x
or
n
(8-167)
un> _ j
360
= 0
-i-u
10 MeV
w o
1 MeV
0.1 MeV
--5
ln W
10 keV
I
or
--
1 keV
- - 1 0
100 eV
10 eV
--15
- I
0) o
--
1 eV
--
0.1 eV
f
0.02 eV
20
FIGURE 8-5.
Typical few-group structures.
T h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s r e p r e s e n t i n g r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in t h e g r o u p c a n either b e
c a l c u l a t e d in t e r m s of t h e r e s o n a n c e integrals c h a r a c t e r i z i n g r e s o n a n c e s in t h e
group:
2
r
a
"
= ~ A
A un
(8-170)
Un
or in t e r m s of t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y pn f o r t h e g r o u p b y n o t i n g :
P"
"n-1
'I/
(8-171)
361
H e n c e the m u l t i g r o u p f o r m of the slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n s (8-165) c a n b e w r i t t e n

as:
iBJnAun
un + 2inÂ
un + {\~Pn)[
]
~ K
= X Au + Au n
+ <_,)AM/2+ (, -
_ 4
~ Ion -.) -
~ <
,)-
( q A + < j A w / 2 = ( | A 2 f )ÂW,
= i,...,
W e h a v e n o w a r r i v e d at a set of 5N a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s f o r the u n k n o w n s Jn, (/>,

=
q ^ , q " , a n d qo n . T o solve these e q u a t i o n s , w e b e g i n by n o t i n g
#(> = 0
(since n o n e u t r o n s c a n slow d o w n i n t o t h e u p p e r m o s t g r o u p ) . W e c a n t h e n solve
f o r Jx a n d <f>x u s i n g the Px e q u a t i o n s (8-172) f o r n 1. H a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d these, we
t h e n solve t h e r e m a i n i n g e q u a t i o n s (8-172) f o r q ^ q a n d q^ . W e c a n p r o c e e d in
this m a n n e r , solving successively f o r the v a r i a b l e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g increasingly
h i g h e r l e t h a r g y g r o u p s (i.e., increasingly lower e n e r g y g r o u p s ) .
O n c e w e h a v e o b t a i n e d <f>n, w e c a n t h e n use it to g e n e r a t e f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s .
F o r e x a m p l e , if w e utilized a 5 4 - g r o u p M U F T c a l c u l a t i o n to g e n e r a t e o n e - f a s t group constants, we would find
54
U
( *-%{u)$(u)du
2
n= 1
nnAun
'
u)du
(8"173)
n=1
or
54
1
^
<t>n^n
n=\ 3 2 ,ir
Dx =
(8-174)
2
n
S o m e t i m e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e s c h e m e is u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e g r o u p - d i f f u s i o n
coefficients. T h i s p r o c e d u r e c o m e s f r o m r e q u i r i n g t h a t Dg b e d e f i n e d s u c h t h a t for
a g r o u p of l e t h a r g y w i d t h A u
f duJ(x,w)
J A u
= -Dg-j-
f
ClX J
du<j>(x,u).
(8-175)
If w e u s e o u r single
Lgle bb\u c k l i n g m o d e f o r m s f o r J ( x , u) a n d <j>(x, w), w e f i n d t h a t Dg is
then defined by
54
JMn
2 <#>aw
n=1
362 /
I n s u m m a r y t h e n , M U F T - G A M - t y p e Schemes g e n e r a t e a f a s t n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m
a n d c a l c u l a t e f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s b y u s i n g t h e Px (or Bx) slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n s ,
a p p r o x i m a t i n g the spatial d e p e n d e n c e b y a single spatial m o d e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n
" e q u i v a l e n t b a r e c o r e b u c k l i n g " B 2 , t r e a t i n g elastic s c a t t e r i n g b y a c o n t i n u o u s
slowing d o w n m o d e l (an exact t r e a t m e n t for h y d r o g e n a n d either the age
approximation or the Goertzel-Greuling model for materials with mass n u m b e r
A > 1), a n d h a n d l i n g inelastic s c a t t e r i n g u s i n g a m u l t i g r o u p t r a n s f e r m a t r i x . W e
h a v e n o t d w e l t in d e t a i l o n t h e t r e a t m e n t of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n , b e c a u s e such
c a l c u l a t i o n s will usually c o r r e c t t h e i n f i n i t e m e d i u m r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s
w e c o n s i d e r e d earlier f o r f u e l l u m p i n g ( h e t e r o g e n e o u s ) e f f e c t s . W e will r e t u r n to
discuss this in s o m e d e t a i l in C h a p t e r 10.
M o s t typically t h e M U F T s c h e m e is u s e d to g e n e r a t e either o n e - f a s t - g r o u p or
t h r e e - f a s t - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r L W R c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h t h e g r o u p s t r u c t u r e as s h o w n
in F i g u r e 8-5 ( w e h a v e also i n d i c a t e d t h e t h e r m a l g r o u p , w h i c h m u s t b e h a n d l e d b y
m e t h o d s to b e d i s c u s s e d in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ) .
A n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e M U F T f a s t s p e c t r u m p r o c e d u r e is t h a t utilized in t h e G A M
c o d e a n d its o f f s p r i n g , in w h i c h a d i r e c t f i n e - g r o u p s o l u t i o n of the slowing d o w n
e q u a t i o n (in t h e Bx or Px a p p r o x i m a t i o n is solved). T y p i c a l l y of t h e o r d e r of 100
l e t h a r g y g r o u p s a r e used, v a r y i n g in w i d t h Aw f r o m 0.1 to 0.25. I n m o s t respects
(aside f r o m its direct m u l t i g r o u p t r e a t m e n t of elastic scattering), G A M s p e c t r u m
c o d e s a r e v e r y similar t o M U F T c o d e s a n d a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d to g e n e r a t e f a s t
group constants for H T G R s .
B. Fast Group Constant Generation for Fast Reactor Calculations

T h e g e n e r a t i o n of f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r f a s t r e a c t o r a p p l i c a t i o n s involves
m u c h m o r e in t h e w a y of direct or b r u t e f o r c e t e c h n i q u e s t h a n c o m p a r a b l e t h e r m a l
r e a c t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s . T o a large d e g r e e this is b e c a u s e of t h e relatively limited
e x p e r i e n c e in f a s t r e a c t o r design a n d h e n c e t h e desire f o r as a c c u r a t e a c a l c u l a t i o n
a s possible. It also arises, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e of t h e i n c r e a s e d c o m p l e x i t y of the
variety of n u c l e a r p r o c e s s e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e a f a s t r e a c t o r s p e c t r u m p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e
e f f e c t s of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n a n d inelastic scattering. I n a t h e r m a l r e a c t o r , the
s t r o n g elastic s c a t t e r i n g p r e s e n t in t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e f a c t t h a t m o s t fissions are
i n d u c e d b y t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s will t e n d to w a s h o u t m a n y of these details. H o w e v e r
in a f a s t r e a c t o r essentially all fissions a r e i n d u c e d b y n e u t r o n s w i t h energies in j u s t
t h o s e r a n g e s in w h i c h inelastic s c a t t e r i n g a n d r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n are m o s t
important.
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, t h e m o s t g e n e r a l class of c o d e s f o r g e n e r a t i n g f e w - g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s f o r f a s t r e a c t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s i n c l u d e s the M C 2 c o d e a n d its v a r i a n t s . 1 8
T h i s c o d e b e g i n s w i t h e v a l u a t e d cross s e c t i o n d a t a ( E N D F / B ) a n d p r o c e e d s to
p e r f o r m a s e q u e n c e of g r o u p a v e r a g e s f r o m u l t r a f i n e g r o u p s with A w ~ 1 / 1 2 0 , to
f i n e g r o u p s w i t h A w 1 / 4 , a n d finally to b r o a d g r o u p s w i t h A w 1 / 2 to 1. I n t h e
m o r e a d v a n c e d versions of this c o d e , a d i r e c t m u l t i g r o u p s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n is
p e r f o r m e d at h i g h e r energies, w h e r e a s a c o n t i n u o u s slowing d o w n c a l c u l a t i o n is
u s e d to h a n d l e elastic s c a t t e r i n g at lower energies. T h e c o n t i n u o u s slowing d o w n
c a l c u l a t i o n u s e s a n i m p r o v e d G o e r t z e l - G r u e l i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n similar to t h a t w e
d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e v i o u s section. Spatial d e p e n d e n c e is h a n d l e d in either the Px or
Bx a p p r o x i m a t i o n w i t h a g a i n a single spatial m o d e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g l e a k a g e w i t h a n
effective b u c k l i n g B2. A n u m b e r of r a t h e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d to
h a n d l e r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e o v e r l a p p i n g or u n r e s o l v e d res-
363
o n a n c e r e g i o n s [the isolated r e s o n a n c e s a r e m o s t typically h a n d l e d b y t h e n a r r o w

resonance ( N R ) approximation].
A s w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d , c o d e s such as M C 2 a r e m u c h t o o e l a b o r a t e f o r daily use
in r e a c t o r design a n d a r e i n t e n d e d m o r e f o r the e v a l u a t i o n of c a l c u l a t i o n a l
t e c h n i q u e s a n d c o m p a r i s o n w i t h critical e x p e r i m e n t s . A s m o r e e x p e r i e n c e is
a c q u i r e d in t h e design of cores f o r c o m m e r c i a l f a s t r e a c t o r s , less e l a b o r a t e
( a l t h o u g h sufficiently a c c u r a t e ) t e c h n i q u e s will evolve in a m a n n e r similar to the
M U F T - G A M s c h e m e s u s e d in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r design.
W e h a v e n o t e d t h a t in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s t h e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s are sensitive
f u n c t i o n s of c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d c o r e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d h e n c e m u s t b e
r e c a l c u l a t e d m a n y times in a c o r e design. I n f a s t r e a c t o r s t h e e x p e n s e of a direct
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c o u p l e d with a s o m e w h a t lower sensitivity
to core e n v i r o n m e n t h a s m o t i v a t e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of sets of u n i v e r s a l microscopic m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d f o r a n y f a s t r e a c t o r c o r e design.
T h e m o s t w e l l - k n o w n of such sets of fast g r o u p c o n s t a n t s i n c l u d e the Y O M set, 2 2
t h e H a n s e n - R o a c h or L A S L 16-group set, 2 3 a n d the B o n d a r e n k o or A B N set. 2 4
T h e e f f e c t s of c o r e e n v i r o n m e n t o n t h e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e t h e n t a k e n i n t o
a c c o u n t b y u s i n g so-called " / - f a c t o r s " 2 5 ( s o m e t i m e s also r e f e r r e d to as B o n d a r e n k o
self-shielding f a c t o r s ) w h i c h a r e d e f i n e d in such a w a y t h a t if a e f f is t h e g r o u p
c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o r e of interest, while a a v is t h e universal
group constant, then
a
eff=/aav
H e r e , a a v w o u l d essentially c o r r e s p o n d to t h e i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n cross section (similar

t o the i n f i n i t e d i l u t i o n r e s o n a n c e integral). T h e set of u n i v e r s a l m i c r o s c o p i c g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s is typically c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a v e r y simple i n t r a g r o u p f l u x f o r e x a m p l e ,
a 1 / E collision d e n s i t y . T h e / - f a c t o r t h e n t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t the d e t a i l e d int r a g r o u p f l u x b e h a v i o r d u e to r e s o n a n c e self-shielding, f o r e x a m p l e . T h e / - f a c t o r s
a r e u s u a l l y t a b u l a t e d as f u n c t i o n s of c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d t e m p e r a t u r e a n d i n c l u d e d
with t h e cross section sets.
C. Age-Diffusion Theory
F o r historical c o m p l e t e n e s s , let u s r e t u r n to c o n s i d e r t h e a g e - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n in a bit m o r e detail. R e c a l l t h a t this e q u a t i o n t a k e s t h e f o r m
- D (w)V2</>(r, u) + 2 a ( w ( r , u) = - ~
+ S (r, u)
(8-177)
where
(8-178)
N o w w e k n o w t h a t this e q u a t i o n is o n l y valid f o r n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in
m o d e r a t o r s with r e a s o n a b l y large m a s s n u m b e r s (such as graphite). N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
a g e - d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y h a s b e e n t h o r o u g h l y s t u d i e d in t h e p a s t b e c a u s e o n e c a n
o b t a i n a n explicit solution of this e q u a t i o n in c e r t a i n simplified cases.
F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , w e will first c o n s i d e r t h e solution of t h e a g e - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n
in the a b s e n c e of a source. If w e t h e n s u b s t i t u t e E q . (8-178) i n t o (8-177), we f i n d
D(u)
S.(u)
3q
(8-179)
364
Let us i n t r o d u c e a n integrating f a c t o r t o eliminate the a b s o r p t i o n t e r m b y defining

a new d e p e n d e n t variable, <?(r,w):
f
<?(r,w) = 4 ( r , w ) e x p
, 2.(0
(8-180)
T h e n if we substitute this f o r m i n t o Eq. (8-179), we f i n d
$2,(11)
y Q = 3q .
h
au
(8-181)
T o solve this e q u a t i o n , w e next m a k e a c h a n g e of i n d e p e n d e n t variable b y defining
)
i
(8-182)
and note
3
3w
3t 3
3w 3T
(u)
3
2 S (W) 3T *
(8-183)
If we n o w use this n e w i n d e p e n d e n t variable in Eq. (8-181), we f i n d t h a t

satisfies
V 2 <?(r,r) =
q(r,r)
(8-184)
3r *
N o t i c e that the f o r m of this e q u a t i o n is very similar to t h a t of the t i m e - d e p e n d e n t

d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n . F o r this reason, r is k n o w n as the Fermi age in a n a l o g y to the
time variable t even t h o u g h its units are c m 2 r a t h e r t h a n sec.
By n o t i n g the similarity b e t w e e n the age e q u a t i o n (8-184) a n d t h e timed e p e n d e n t d i f f u s i o n equation, w e c a n a d a p t o u r entire earlier analysis to solve this
e q u a t i o n . W e w o n ' t d o this here, however, b e c a u s e age theory is primarily of
historical interest a n d is only of limited utility in p r e s e n t - d a y reactor design. W e
will, however, generalize o u r results to include a b s o r p t i o n b y n o t i n g
#(r,T) = <?(r,T) exp
Sa(0
du'
= <?("> t)/?(W),
(8-185)
w h e r e we h a v e identified the exponential f a c t o r as j u s t the r e s o n a n c e escape

probability p(u) to lethargy u.
T o illustrate these ideas m o r e clearly, let us consider the e x a m p l e of a n infinite
p l a n a r source emitting n e u t r o n s of energy E0 at the center of a n o n a b s o r b i n g slab
of width a (as we h a v e seen, a b s o r p t i o n c a n be easily included) [see Figure 8-6]. W e
will d e f i n e the lethargy variable with respect to the source energy E0 so that u = 0
c o r r e s p o n d s to the source energy. If we also n o t e
T(
E
CE0 dE D ( )
E $2,(2?) '
F
(8-186)
FAST SPECTRUM CALCULATIONS AND FAST GROUP CONSTANTS/388

S08(X)8(T)
t h e n w e c a n w r i t e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m of t h e a g e e q u a t i o n a s
ax
subject t o :
aq
( a ) initial c o n d i t i o n :
= S8 ( x )
(b) boundary conditions:
q( - a / 2 , r ) = 0 =
q(a/2,t)
T o solve this, w e will try a n e i g e n f u n c t i o n e x p a n s i o n ( n o t i n g b y s y m m e t r y t h a t o n l y

even eigenfunctions need be used)
q(x,T)=-2fn(T)cosBnx,
(8-188)
a
If w e s u b s t i t u t e this i n t o t h e a g e e q u a t i o n
~ 2 B%n(r)cmBnx=
n
^ 1 cosBnx>
(8"189)
a n d use o r t h o g o n a l i t y w e f i n d
(8-190)
366
T h e s o l u t i o n t o this e q u a t i o n is j u s t
/(T)=
e x p Bt.
(8-191)
H e n c e the g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n to E q . 8-187 is
q(x,r)=
*2Anexp(~B*T)cosBnx.
(8-192)
N o w u s i n g t h e initial c o n d i t i o n a t r = 0, w e r e q u i r e
q(x, 0 ) = 2 A n c o s B n x = S 8 ( x ) .
(8-193)
I n t h e u s u a l m a n n e r w e c a n n o w m u l t i p l y b y c o s f i m x , i n t e g r a t e over x, a n d use
o r t h o g o n a l i t y t o e v a l u a t e all An t o f i n d t h e s o l u t i o n
exp(-52T)cos^x.
ci
(8-194)
J u s t as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o d e ( = 1) will d o m i n a t e t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e timed e p e n d e n t d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n , w e f i n d t h a t f o r large v a l u e s of r , t h a t is, f o r n e u t r o n

e n e r g i e s f a r b e l o w t h e s o u r c e e n e r g y E0, t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e a g e - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n
approaches
9 c
q{x,T)~^txp(-Bg\)cosBgx,
Bg = Bv
(8-195)
T h i s is a very u s e f u l expression, since it essentially d e s c r i b e s t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n

of n e u t r o n s s l o w i n g d o w n t o t h e r m a l energies in a b a r e , h o m o g e n e o u s a s s e m b l y
f r o m fission s o u r c e s . Since t h e r e is n o a b s o r p t i o n i n o u r m o d e l e d p r o b l e m , w e c a n
i n t e r p r e t t h e d e c r e a s e in q(x,r) w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a g e as b e i n g d u e t o n e u t r o n l e a k a g e
w h i l e slowing d o w n .
N o t e in p a r t i c u l a r t h a t if all of t h e s o u r c e n e u t r o n s h a d initially b e e n d i s t r i b u t e d
in t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o d e cos Bgx s h a p e ( w h i c h w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d , f o r e x a m p l e , t o
t h e a p p e a r a n c e of fission n e u t r o n s in a b a r e , critical s l a b r e a c t o r ) , t h e n t h e loss of
n e u t r o n s d u r i n g slowing d o w n w o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e e x p ( B g r ) f a c t o r . T h a t
is, w e c a n i d e n t i f y t h e f a s t n o n l e a k a g e p r o b a b i l i t y -P F N L i n t r o d u c e d earlier ( C h a p t e r
3) in t h e six-factor f o r m u l a f o r k a s j u s t
P F N L = exp(-JBg2Tth),
(8-196)
w h e r e r t h is t h e a g e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e r m a l energies (usually t a k e n as 1 eV):

CEo
T
*-
v J? .
D(E)
eJE-
(8
"197)
Of c o u r s e this e x p r e s s i o n f o r P F N L is valid o n l y in t h e a g e a p p r o x i m a t i o n a s a p p l i e d
to a bare, u n i f o r m reactor.
T h e a g e - d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n c a n a l s o b e s o l v e d in several o t h e r s t a n d a r d
367
g e o m e t r i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , the slowing d o w n d e n s i t y resulting f r o m a p l a n e source in

a n infinite, n o n a b s o r b i n g m e d i u m is
'
V47TT
while t h a t r e s u l t i n g f r o m a p o i n t s o u r c e in s u c h a m e d i u m is
Sex
p(^f)
(4
TTT)
T h i s last result c a n b e u s e d to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
r = i<r2> =
1 / 6 the a v e r a g e ( c r o w - f l i g h t d i s t a n c e ) 2
f r o m the point where a neutron enters
a s y s t e m w i t h E0 to the p o i n t at w h i c h
it slows d o w n t o a n age T.
(8-200)
O n e usually c a l c u l a t e s o r m e a s u r e s t h e a g e - t o - t h e r m a l energies r t h or m o r e c o m m o n l y , the a g e - t o - i n d i u m r e s o n a n c e at 1.45 eV, r I N (since this is the m o s t c o m m o n

e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t ) . I n T a b l e 8-7, w e h a v e listed the a g e T^ f o r several
c o m m o n moderators, along with other parameters characterizing thermal neutron
b e h a v i o r in these m o d e r a t o r s .
TABLE 8-7:
Moderator
Diffusion Parameters for Some Common Moderators
Density (g/cm 3 )
D(cm)
H2O
D2O
Be
Graphite
1.00
1.10
1.85
1.60
0.16
0.87
0.50
0.84
Reactor Type
<L>(cm)
r(cm)
PWR
BWR
HTGR
LMFBR
GCFR
1.8
2.2
12.0
5.0
6.6
2a(cnrl)
0.0197
2.9x10" 5
l.OxlO" 3
2.4X10" 4
40
50
300
L(cm)
r(cm 2 )
2.85
170
21
59
26
131
102
368
M(cm)
5.84
170
23
62
Diameter
<M>
Diameter
<A/>( cm)
6.6
7.3
21
56
50
40
190
180
63
35
35
If we recall t h a t t h e t h e r m a l n o n l e a k a g e p r o b a b i l i t y is ^ T N L = (1 + L 2 B 2 ) ~ \ a n d
n o t e f u r t h e r t h a t f o r m o s t larger p o w e r r e a c t o r s , B 2 is sufficiently small t h a t b o t h
L 2 B 2
a n d t B 2 a r e m u c h less t h a n o n e , t h e n w e c a n write the t o t a l n o n l e a k a g e
368
p r o b a b i l i t y as
P
NL = ^ T N l / W =
eX
+
P( "
(1 + L ^
) (l + O
w h e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e neutron
l )
1
2
{1 + L%
migration
M2=L2
+ TB?)
area M2
(8-201)
(1+
as
+ t.
(8-202)
T h e migration length M c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as 1 / V 6 of t h e r m s d i s t a n c e a n e u t r o n
travels f r o m its a p p e a r a n c e as a f a s t fission n e u t r o n to its c a p t u r e as a t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n (see P r o b l e m 8-42). W e h a v e listed t h e m i g r a t i o n lengths f o r typical
m o d e r a t o r s in T a b l e 8-7. T h e m i g r a t i o n l e n g t h p r o v e s u s e f u l as a scale w i t h w h i c h
to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e size of a r e a c t o r core. F o r e x a m p l e , a m o d e r n L W R is
t y p i c a l l y ~ 5 0 M in d i a m e t e r , w h e r e a s a c o m p a r a b l e H T G R c o r e is a b o u t 4 0 M. I n
this sense, e v e n t h o u g h t h e p h y s i c a l size of t h e H T G R is t w o to t h r e e t i m e s t h a t of
a L W R , its " n e u t r o n i c " size is a c t u a l l y s o m e w h a t smaller. B o t h r e a c t o r t y p e s a r e
c e r t a i n l y f a r m o r e loosely c o u p l e d in a n e u t r o n i c sense t h a n f a s t r e a c t o r c o r e s ( 3 0
L) a n d h e n c e a r e m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to spatial p o w e r t r a n s i e n t s .
D. Some Additional Comments on Fast Spectrum Calculations

A s w e h a v e seen, m o s t s c h e m e s f o r g e n e r a t i n g f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s first
p e r f o r m a f i n e m u l t i g r o u p s o l u t i o n of the n e u t r o n slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n s (in the
Px or Bx a p p r o x i m a t i o n ) to o b t a i n t h e f a s t n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m , a n d t h e n a v e r a g e
m i c r o s c o p i c cross section d a t a o v e r this s p e c t r u m to o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d f e w - g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s . M i c r o s c o p i c cross s e c t i o n d a t a e n t e r this c a l c u l a t i o n in t w o d i f f e r e n t
w a y s . First, the m i c r o s c o p i c cross sections a v a i l a b l e f r o m n u c l e a r d a t a files s u c h as
E N D F / B m u s t b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o f i n e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s in o r d e r to allow t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e fast n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m . T h e n these d a t a m u s t b e a v e r a g e d over
this s p e c t r u m to g e n e r a t e the f e w g r o u p c o n s t a n t s themselves.
S u c h b a s i c n u c l e a r d a t a are usually given in the f o r m of p o i n t w i s e d a t a a l o n g
w i t h v a r i o u s i n t e r p o l a t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s in a d a t a set s u c h as E N D F / B . H e n c e the
first step in a f a s t s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n is to p r e p a r e a l i b r a r y of f a s t f i n e - g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s b y a v e r a g i n g these b a s i c cross section d a t a over t h e g r o u p s to b e u s e d in
t h e f a s t s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n . U s u a l l y either a 1/ E or a fission s p e c t r u m is u s e d as
a w e i g h t i n g f u n c t i o n . T h e s e f a s t libraries a r e typically s u p p l i e d as p a r t of a given
f a s t s p e c t r u m c o d e , since their g e n e r a t i o n f r o m a b a s i c n u c l e a r d a t a set c a n b e
r a t h e r expensive. A s c h e m a t i c of this p r o c e d u r e is s h o w n in F i g u r e 8-7.
A r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of s u c h cross section libraries involves t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
of r e s o n a n c e cross section d a t a . I n the r e s o l v e d r e s o n a n c e region, the t e c h n i q u e s
w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d (e.g., t h e N R or N R I M m e t h o d s ) c a n b e u s e d to c a l c u l a t e the
r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the r e s o n a n c e s in e a c h of the f i n e g r o u p s .
H o w e v e r in the r e g i o n of u n r e s o l v e d r e s o n a n c e s m o r e e l a b o r a t e s c h e m e s m u s t b e
u s e d . A l t h o u g h a r a t h e r c r u d e t r e a t m e n t of t h e u n r e s o l v e d r e s o n a n c e r e g i o n is
usually s u f f i c i e n t in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s , in a f a s t r e a c t o r as m u c h as 40%
of the r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n c a n o c c u r in u n r e s o l v e d r e s o n a n c e s , a n d h e n c e a
d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n is r e q u i r e d .
FIGURE 8-7.
369
Generation of cross section libraries from E N D F / B .
I n m o s t f a s t s p e c t r u m codes, o n e h a s the o p t i o n of s p e c i f y i n g the g r o u p s t r u c t u r e

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s t h a t h e wishes to g e n e r a t e . In general o n e
wishes to use t h e smallest n u m b e r of c o a r s e g r o u p s c o n s i s t e n t with t h e desired
a c c u r a c y in t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n . In fact, the
n e c e s s a r y g r o u p s t r u c t u r e will usually d e p e n d o n the type of c a l c u l a t i o n of interest.
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of integral q u a n t i t i e s such as the c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
f a c t o r c a n u s u a l l y b e a c c o m p l i s h e d with f e w e r g r o u p s t h a n a n e s t i m a t e of the
p o w e r - p e a k i n g in a f u e l a s s e m b l y .
T h e lower cutoff of t h e f a s t s p e c t r u m is u s u a l l y c h o s e n high e n o u g h so t h a t
u p s c a t t e r i n g o u t of the t h e r m a l g r o u p s c a n b e neglected. I n a L W R , this cutoff is
typically c h o s e n at a r o u n d 0.6 eV. H o w e v e r in a n H T G R , it m u s t b e c h o s e n
s o m e w h a t h i g h e r (typically 2.38 eV) b e c a u s e t h e higher m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e in
s u c h r e a c t o r s c a u s e s a p p r e c i a b l y larger u p s c a t t e r i n g . T h e r e m a i n i n g g r o u p s t r u c t u r e
is usually c h o s e n such t h a t d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n a t e n d to be isolated within
a given g r o u p . F o r e x a m p l e , in a t h r e e - f a s t - g r o u p calculation, the highest energy
g r o u p is u s u a l l y c h o s e n to c o n t a i n all of t h e fission s p e c t r u m , the m i d d l e g r o u p is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y elastic slowing d o w n , a n d m o s t of the r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n is
c o n f i n e d to t h e lowest e n e r g y g r o u p . (See F i g u r e 8-5).
A f a s t s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n n o t o n l y supplies f a s t f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a n d the
f a s t n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m , b u t also will p r o v i d e t h e r a t e at w h i c h n e u t r o n s slow d o w n
i n t o t h e t h e r m a l e n e r g y r a n g e . T h i s latter i n f o r m a t i o n is n e e d e d to c o m p l e t e the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s b y g e n e r a t i n g a t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m
a n d t h e n a v e r a g i n g cross section d a t a over this s p e c t r u m to o b t a i n t h e r m a l g r o u p
constants.
REFERENCES
1. J . H . F e r z i g e r a n d P. F . Z w e i f e l , The
Reactors, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge (1966).
Theory
of Neutron
Slowing
Down
in
Nuclear
370
2. M. M. R. Williams, The Slowing Down and Thermalization of Neutrons, North-Holland,

Amsterdam (1966).
3. Ibid., Chapter VIII.
4. A. Radowsky, (Ed.), Naval Reactors Physics Handbook, Vol. I, Selected
Techniques,
USAEC Report (1964), Chapter 2.
University of Chicago Press (1958), p. 290.
6. J. H. Ferziger and P. F. Zweifel, The Theory of Neutron Slowing Down in Nuclear
Reactors, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge (1966) pp. 73-78; R. E. Marshak, Rev. Mod. Phys. 19,
185 (1947).
7. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J.,
(1970), pp. 439-443.
8. P. E. Meyer and P. F. Zweifel, Trans. Am. Nucl Soc. 13, 305 (1970).
9. M. E. Rose, W. Miranker, P. Leak, and G. Rabinowitz, A Table of the Integral \j/(x,t),
BNL-257 (T-40), (1953); WAPD-SR-506 (1954); K. K. Seth and R. H. Tabony, USAEC
Document TID-21304 (1964).
10. L. W. Nordheim, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 12, 457 (1962).
11. Y. Ishiguro, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 49, 526 (1972); R. Goldstein, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 49, 526 (1972).
12. K. T. Spinney, BNL-433 (1960).
13. P. E. Meyer, Approximate Methods for the Calculation of Resonance Absorption,
University of Michigan Ph.D. Dissertation, 1974.
14. G. Goertzel and E. Greuling, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 7, 69 (1960).
15. H. Hurwitz and P. F. Zweifel, J. Appl. Phys. 26, 923 (1956).
16. H. Bohl, Jr., E. M. Gelbard, and G. H. Ryan, MUFT-4, A Fast Neutron Spectrum
Code, Report WAPD-TM-22 (1957).
17. G. D. Joanou, E. J. Leshan, and J. S. Dudek, GAM-1 a Consistent Px Multigroup Code
for the Calculation of Fast Neutron Spectra and Multigroup Constants, General Atomic
Report GA-1850 (1961).
18. B. J. Toppel, A. L. Rago, and D. M. O'Shea, MC 2 A Code to Calculate Multigroup
Cross Sections, ANL-7318 (1967).
19. J. R. Lamarsh, An Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass. (1966).
20. M. Lineberry and N. Corngold, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 53, 153 (1974).
21. R. Bellman and K. Cooke, Differential-Difference
Equations, Academic, New York
(1962).
22. S. Yiftah, D. Okrent, and P. A. Moldauer, Fast Reactor Cross Sections, Pergamon, New
York (1960).
23. I. I. Bondarenko, et. al., Group Constants for Nuclear Reactor Calculations, Consultants
Bureau, New York (1964).
24. Reactor Physics Constants, 2nd Ed., USAEC Document ANL-5800 (1963), pp. 568-579.
25. M. Segev, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 56, 72 (1975).
PROBLEMS
8-1
8-2
8-3
The lower cutoff energy Ec for the fast region is usually chosen such that there is
negligible upscattering above this energy. If the moderator is modeled as a free proton
gas [cf. Eq. (2-107)], compute the cutoff energy Ec such that less than 0.1% of the
thermal region neutrons will be upscattered above Ec. Plot this cutoff energy versus
moderator temperature T.
Determine the neutron flux <j>(E) resulting from an arbitrary source in an infinite
hydrogeneous medium by: (a) solving the infinite medium slowing down equation
with this general source term, and then (b) using the solution obtained for a
monoenergetic source as a Green's function for the more general problem.
(a) Derive an expression for the neutron balance in a nuclear reactor in terms of the

scalar flux <f>(r, E, t), and the net current J(r, E, t).
(b) Derive an expression for the neutron slowing down density q(r,Ej)
371
in terms of
<Kr,E,t).
(c) Prove that in a purely hydrogeneous medium and in the steady state one may
write
8-4
8-5
where S represents the sources. You may use the lethargy variable u rather than
the energy E if you prefer. Throughout, assume E^>kT.
Transform the infinite medium slowing down equation (assuming only elastic scattering) from the energy variable to the lethargy variable.
Repeat the derivation of an expression for the neutron slowing down density in an
infinite moderating medium by first calculating P(E'>E),
the probability that a
neutron with energy E' scatters below an energy E in a collision. Then integrate the
product of this quantity with the collision density 2 S ( ")<(') over all E > E to find
q(E).
8-6
Show that the neutron continuity equation can be written quite generally in terms of
the slowing down density q(r,Ej) as
^
8-7
Solve the coupled slowing down equations for an infinite hydrogeneous medium
2a(w)</>(w)=
8-8
8-9
8-10
8-11
+ V- J + 2 a ( )<Kr, E, t) = | | + S (r, E, t).
H-S(w);
+q(w) = 2s(w)</>(w) for a monoenergetic source at leth-
argy u 0.
Calculate the mean lethargy loss per collision f, the moderating power, and the
moderating ratio for H 2 0 and D 2 0 at energies of 1 eV and 100 eV. Estimate the
necessary cross section data from BNL-325.
Consider neutrons slowing down in an infinite medium with no absorption.
(a) By equating the number of collisions in a lethargy interval du with the number of
collisions in a time dt, obtain an expression for the time required for neutrons to
slow down to thermal energies.
(b) Calculate the time required for fission neutrons to slow down to thermal in
graphite and water. Assume 2 f = 0.385 c m - 1 while 2 " 2 = 0.528 c m - 1 (constant
in energy).
Demonstrate that for large mass numbers,
^ +22 / 3 '
Show that the average increase in lethargy f in an elastic (s-wave) collision is one-half
the maximum lethargy increase.
8-12 Calculate the multigroup transfer scattering elements
for hydrogen under the
assumption that 2 s (m) and the intragroup flux <j>(u) can be taken as constant. Assume
the groups are equally spaced with a lethargy width Au.
8-13 Demonstrate that the multigroup transfer scattering elements characterizing elastic
scattering for directly coupled groups of lethargy width Aug are given by
= 2 s g g / A u g (Hint: Balance the scattering rates into and out of each group.)
8-14 As an example of a nondirectly coupled multigroup calculation, consider a scheme in
which all groups are of the same lethargy width Aw and in which neutrons are able to
skip at most one group. Assume that only s-wave elastic scattering need be considered
and that the scattering cross section 2 s (w) can be treated as lethargy-independent.
Calculate the elements of the scattering transfer cross section
for all g' and g,
assuming a constant intragroup flux <(w) = <>. Also verify that the sum of these
transfer cross sections is indeed equal to the group-averaged scattering cross section
2sg.
372
395 /
8-15
Determine the neutron flux <t>(E) resulting from a monoenergetic source at energy E0
in an infinite hydrogeneous medium if the scattering cross section is taken to be
constant and the absorption cross section is inversely proportional to the neutron
speed (a " 1 / u absorber").
8-16 Derive the expression for the energy spectrum of the flux in the first collision interval
of a moderator of mass A which has an arbitrarily varying scattering cross section
2 s (iT) and an absorption cross section 2 a ( ) . Assume that the medium is infinite and
homogeneous, that q0 neutrons are introduced per sec per unit volume at an energy
E0, and that 2 a ( 0 ) = 0.
8-17 Solve the infinite medium slowing down equation characterizing slowing down from a
monoenergetic source in a medium of mass number A in the absence of absorption by
using Laplace transforms. In particular, determine the asymptotic behavior of the
solution for large lethargy u.
8 - 1 8 Calculate the resonance escape probability in hydrogeneous media for finite dilution
but at zero temperature. Show explicitly that this expression reduces to the infinite
dilution result in the limit as N A o 0 /N u o^>0.
8-19 An infinite homogeneous medium consists of a single isotope that scatters neutrons
isotropically in the C M system with an energy-independent scattering cross section 2 S .
Assume that the macroscopic absorption cross section is zero for energies E > Ex and
that 2 a constant for E<EX. If a source emits S0 neutrons per cm 3 per sec at some
energy E0 where aE0< Ex< E0, find the collision density F(E) of neutrons in this
collision interval.
8-20 Consider the slowing down of neutrons in an infinite, homogeneous mixture of
hydrogen (number density NH and scattering cross section a s H ) and an infinite mass
absorber (number density NA and capture cross section oY). We will model a
resonance of the absorber centered about an energy Ex by assuming that oy constant
oy0/aT
for Ex bT< E < Ex + bT and zero elsewhere, where a, b, and o y 0 are
constants and T is the absolute temperature. The resonance energy Ex is well below
the neutron source energy and 2bT (resonance w i d t h ) < ' 1 . The scattering cross
section of hydrogenCTshcan be assumed constant in the vicinity of the resonance.
(a) Calculate the resonance escape probability px and show that px decreases as the
temperature T increases.
(b) Show that for the case of infinite dilution ( A ^ a y Q ^ N j j a " ) the resonance escape
probability px is independent of temperature.
8-21
8-22
Consider a medium in which the average lethargy gain and the scattering cross
section 2 S are independent of energy. A common expression for p{E) is
When, if ever, is this expression (a) exact, (b) a good approximation, and (c) a poor
approximation?
Assume that the resonance region consists of two widely spaced resonances at EX and
E 2 , such that EX - E2*>olEX.
Within
and A E 2 , 2 a / 2 s = o o , and everywhere else
2 a / 2 s = 0. What is the overall resonance escape probability if:
(a)
8-23
8-24
- A E
^ > A E
and
AE2^>AE2;
(b) EX AEX ÊX, and E 2 AE2 =

AE2.
Compute the resonance escape probabilities for a N n / N v = 1.0 mixture of 2 3 8 U and
hydrogen at temperatures 0K and 500C for the 6.67 eV, 21 eV, and 208 eV
resonances of 2 3 8 U as given in Table 8-2.
(a) Develop an accurate equation for the resonance escape probability for an infinite
homogeneous mixture of nonabsorbing moderator of mass A and nonscattering
8-25
8-26
8-27
8-28
8-29
8-30
8-31
8-32
8-33
8-34
8-35
8-36
8-37
8-38
8-39
8-40
373
absorber whose absorption cross section is infinite over the range Ex to E2 and
zero at all other energies. The resonance region is several orders of magnitude
below the source energy,
(b) What is the resonance escape probability when E2=otExl
Calculate the escape probabilities for r = 3 0 0 K , 600K, and 1200K for both the
6.67 eV and 208 eV resonances in 2 3 8 U, assuming that 2 / N A = 10 and 1000 b per
238
U atom. Use the N R I M approximation for the lower resonance and the N R
approximation for the higher resonance. (Ignore interference scattering terms.)
Estimate the probability that a 2 MeV neutron emitted in an infinite medium of water
will not be absorbed while slowing down to 1 eV.
Demonstrate explicitly that for any capture resonance, dI/dT>0
and hence dp/dT
< 0. (Use either the N R or N R I M expression for the effective resonance integral.)
Derive the equations (8-132) for the slowing down densities qo(x,u) and
in
hydrogen.
Show that a / by plotting both parameters as functions of a for 0 < a < 1.
Explicitly derive the expressions for A0, Xx,
and fix in the Goertzel-Greuling
approximation.
Derive the Bx equations by explicitly calculating the first two angular moments of the
transport equation as described in Section 8-III-B and then rearranging these results
into the form of Eq. (8-163).
Using the group-averaging schemes discussed in Section 8-IV, develop in detail the
fine multigroup slowing down equations (8-172) from the set (8-165).
Determine the following quantities in terms of the fine-group M U F T representation:
(a) source rate, (b) slowing down rate to thermal, (c) leakage rate, and (d) absorption
rate. Then calculate the slowing down probability, leakage probability, and absorption probability. Verify that these latter probabilities all add to unity.
Consider an infinite slab of thickness L composed of pure atomic hydrogen with a
number density N H . The slab contains an external source of the form
S(x,u)
= x(w)exp(/5x) where x( M ) is the 2 3 5 U fission spectrum and x = 0 denotes the
midplane of the slab.
Write a computer program that will solve the P x equations for this problem. Your
program should tabulate <#>(), J ( u ) , #o(M)> a n < l ?i( M )i it should also calculate the fast
leakage and absorption probabilities and the age to thermal. Run your program for
several slab thicknesses and compare the results.
Use the M U F T 54 group scheme and a pointwise representation of the fission
spectrum as given by Eq. (2-112), and use BNL-325 to obtain a pointwise representation of
Determine the slowing down spectrum of fission neutrons slowing down in an infinite
medium of water using a MUFT-type fast spectrum code. Repeat this calculation for
an infinite medium of D 2 0 .
Determine the slowing down density established by a monoenergetic plane source at
the origin of an infinite moderating medium as given by age-diffusion theory.
Determine the slowing down density resulting from a point source in an infinite
moderating medium (using age-diffusion theory).
Sources of monoenergetic fast neutrons are distributed in a moderating slab as
S(x)= S0cos(7rx/a),
where a is the width of the slab. Using age-diffusion theory,
determine the slowing density in the slab. Then calculate the average probability that
a source neutron leaks out of the slab while slowing down.
Age theory for hydrogen fails principally because the collision density may not be
slowly varying over the limits of the scattering integral. Why not?
Consider a "zero-temperature" reactor, namely, a reactor in which all nuclei are at
rest and thus slowing down theory is valid for all lethargies. Assume that the reactor is
bare with a geometric buckling
and that all fission neutrons are born with zero
lethargy. Then using age-diffusion theory, derive the criticality relation for this reactor
374

in the form:
1=
8-41
8-42
8-43
f00
*(i#)2 f ()
/
du
p(u)exp[-BgMu)].
Estimate the fast and thermal nonleakage probabilities for each of the reactor types
listed in Table 8-7. Use core sizes from Appendix H.
Demonstrate that A / 2 = L 2 + T is indeed 1 / 6 the mean-square distance a neutron will
travel from its origin in fission to its eventual absorption as a thermal neutron.
Consider an effectively infinite medium in which a monoenergetic pulse of fast
neutrons is instantaneously injected at time / = 0 uniformly throughout the medium.
Using age theory, determine the time-dependent slowing down density q(u,t).
9
Thermal Spectrum Calculations
and
Thermal Group Constants
W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to t h e g e n e r a t i o n of m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s characterizing l o w - e n e r g y n e u t r o n s . O n c e again t h e general a p p r o a c h will b e to d e v e l o p

m e t h o d s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g the detailed energy d e p e n d e n c e or s p e c t r u m of such
n e u t r o n s in t h o s e situations in which the spatial d e p e n d e n c e c a n b e i g n o r e d (or
t r e a t e d in a c r u d e m a n n e r ) a n d t h e n to a v e r a g e m i c r o s c o p i c cross section d a t a over
this energy s p e c t r u m .
A d e t a i l e d investigation of t h e n e u t r o n energy s p e c t r u m below several eV
b e c o m e s q u i t e involved d u e to t h e c o m p l i c a t e d n a t u r e of t h e n e u t r o n scattering
process. F o r a t s u c h low energies we c a n n o longer ignore t h e t h e r m a l m o t i o n of
t h e nuclei, as we did in the s t u d y of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n . T h e energy of such
slow or t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s is c o m p a r a b l e as well to the b i n d i n g energy of the a t o m s
in m o l e c u l a r or crystalline materials, a n d h e n c e the n e u t r o n will t e n d to interact
with a n a g g r e g a t e of a t o m s r a t h e r t h a n with a single nucleus. T h e s e f e a t u r e s greatly
c o m p l i c a t e t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of cross sections c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the scattering of
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s , a n d such cross sections will exhibit a r a t h e r involved d e p e n d e n c e
o n b o t h n e u t r o n energy a n d scattering angle. M o r e o v e r t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross
sections d e p e n d , in a detailed m a n n e r , o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d physical state (i.e.,
solid, liquid, o r gas) of t h e scattering m e d i u m , unlike fast n e u t r o n cross sections,
w h i c h d e p e n d p r i m a r i l y o n t h e n u c l e a r species. T h e c o m p l i c a t e d n a t u r e of such
cross sections r e n d e r s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n spectra r a t h e r involved, a n d o n e usually m u s t resort to direct n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d s .
T h e s t u d y of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n b e h a v i o r is c u s t o m a r i l y r e f e r r e d to as neutron
thermalization,1-4
Actually, however, the s u b j e c t of n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n c a n b e
classified i n t o t w o s e p a r a t e p r o b l e m s : (a) t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of cross sections
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r m a l n e u t r o n scattering in v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s a n d (b) t h e use of
these cross sections in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e energy s p e c t r u m c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
375
376
l o w - e n e r g y n e u t r o n s (e.g., f o r u s e in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r
f e w - g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s ) . T h e s e s u b j e c t s a r e quite i n t e r r e l a t e d since t h o s e
f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross sections m a y h a v e a r a t h e r signific a n t i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r m a l s p e c t r a .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e kinetic e n e r g y of a l o w - e n e r g y n e u t r o n is
c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e t h e r m a l e n e r g y of a t o m i c m o t i o n m e a n s t h a t m i c r o s c o p i c
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross sections a c t u a l l y m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as a v e r a g e s over t h e
t h e r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of n u c l e a r speeds a n d h e n c e a r e t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t , as
w e s a w in C h a p t e r 2. F u r t h e r m o r e , it will b e possible f o r t h e n e u t r o n t o gain
e n e r g y t h a t is, t o u p s c a t t e r i n a s c a t t e r i n g collision w i t h a m o v i n g n u c l e u s . T h i s
will c o m p l i c a t e t h e n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n of t h e f i n e - s t r u c t u r e m u l t i g r o u p e q u a t i o n s
used to determine thermal spectra.
Of similar i m p o r t a n c e is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e n e r g y of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s is c o m p a r a b l e to t h e c h e m i c a l b i n d i n g e n e r g y of t h e s c a t t e r i n g nuclei (e.g., in a m o l e c u l e or a
crystal lattice). H e n c e t h e n u c l e u s will n o l o n g e r recoil freely, a n d t h u s b i n d i n g will
b e c o m e s i g n i f i c a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e n e r g y a n d a n g l e c h a n g e of a n e u t r o n in a
collision. I n f a c t o n e c a n s h o w t h a t t h e s c a t t e r i n g cross s e c t i o n of a b o u n d n u c l e u s
is s o m e w h a t larger t h a n t h a t of a f r e e n u c l e u s b y a n a m o u n t t h a t is r o u g h l y
a b o u n d = ( l + l / ^ 4 ) 2 a f r e e , w h e r e A is t h e m a s s n u m b e r of t h e s c a t t e r i n g n u c l e u s . 2 F o r
e x a m p l e , in h y d r o g e n e o u s m a t e r i a l s f o r w h i c h A 1, w e w o u l d f i n d t h a t t h e a c t u a l
l o w - e n e r g y s c a t t e r i n g cross s e c t i o n is s o m e f o u r t i m e s larger t h a n t h e f r e e - a t o m
s c a t t e r i n g cross s e c t i o n a f r e e .
Of r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n c e a r e inelastic s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s in w h i c h t h e i n t e r n a l
states of t h e s c a t t e r i n g s y s t e m (e.g., m o l e c u l a r v i b r a t i o n a n d r o t a t i o n o r crystal
lattice v i b r a t i o n ) a r e excited b y n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g collisions. ( S u c h t h e r m a l inelastic s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d w i t h n u c l e a r inelastic s c a t t e r i n g
in w h i c h t h e n u c l e u s itself is excited i n t o a h i g h e r q u a n t u m state. T h e latter p r o c e s s
is of little c o n c e r n f o r t h e low energies c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s . ) Inelastic
s c a t t e r i n g gives rise t o a c o m p l i c a t e d cross s e c t i o n d e p e n d e n c e o n e n e r g y a n d
angle.
F o r v e r y l o w energies, t h e n e u t r o n w a v e l e n g t h is c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e i n t e r a t o m i c
s p a c i n g of t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l . H e n c e t h e n e u t r o n w a v e f u n c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s
d i f f r a c t i o n e f f e c t s (just a s light is d i f f r a c t e d ) . H o w e v e r , w e s h o u l d a d d t h a t while
s u c h c o h e r e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s c a n b e q u i t e i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e very
low e n e r g y b e h a v i o r of n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g cross sections, t h e y a r e r a r e l y of
i m p o r t a n c e in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r b e h a v i o r .
N e e d l e s s t o say, s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s greatly c o m p l i c a t e t h e s u b j e c t of n e u t r o n
t h e r m a l i z a t i o n . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross sections is e x t r e m e l y
c o m p l i c a t e d a n d c a n b e r e g a r d e d as essentially a s u b f i e l d of statistical m e c h a n i c s
a n d solid a n d l i q u i d - s t a t e physics. Since t h e m e a s u r e m e n t a n d c a l c u l a t i o n of s u c h
cross sections c a n infer information a b o u t the microscopic structure a n d dynamics
of m a t e r i a l s , t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g (or thermal neutron spectroscopy)
has
r e c e i v e d a n e x h a u s t i v e t r e a t m e n t i n t h e scientific literature, a n d w e will n o t a t t e m p t
t o d u p l i c a t e t h a t t r e a t m e n t in this text. 4 - 6
F o r t u n a t e l y most of t h e c o m p l i c a t e d details of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n c r o s s section
b e h a v i o r a r e of s e c o n d a r y c o n c e r n in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis. I n d e e d in m o s t large
thermal power reactors the neutron energy
s p e c t r u m is s u f f i c i e n t l y well
" t h e r m a l i z e d " t h a t r a t h e r c r u d e m o d e l s of t h e n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s a r e
s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n L W R
THERMAL SPECTRUM CALCULATIONS AND THERMAL GROUP CONSTANTS
377
c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e core c a n f r e q u e n t l y b e m o d e l e d as a n ideal gas of p r o t o n s (totally

i g n o r i n g b i n d i n g a n d d i f f r a c t i o n effects) s e e d e d with a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
a b s o r b e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e f u e l . S u c h a m o d e l is p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a t ing t h e t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s to b e u s e d in survey or p a r a m e t r i c studies (e.g.,
c o r e lifetime studies). Of course, m o r e d e t a i l e d studies of such large, h e t e r o g e n e o u s
r e a c t o r cores c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s t r o n g t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s r e q u i r e m o r e e l a b o r a t e
m o d e l s of t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r t h e analysis of
r e a c t o r s utilizing solid m o d e r a t o r s , such as the H T G R , w h i c h uses g r a p h i t e as a
m o d e r a t o r . H o w e v e r , in all cases t h e m o d e l s of t h e p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e
of the s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l u s e d to c a l c u l a t e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross sections f o r
n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis a r e very c r u d e i n d e e d w h e n c o m p a r e d to t h e sophisticated
t h e o r i e s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s t h a t exist f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n
scattering data.
H e n c e o u r c o n c e r n in this c h a p t e r will b e to first illustrate s o m e of the simple
i d e a s i n v o l v e d in n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e n to d e v e l o p t h o s e tools f o r m i n g
t h e basis f o r t h e r m a l s p e c t r a c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d u s e d to g e n e r a t e t h e r m a l g r o u p
constants.
I. GENERAL FEATURES OF THERMAL NEUTRON SPECTRA

A. Thermal Equilibrium
A l t h o u g h the d e t a i l e d f o r m of t h e cross section c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g is e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d , d e p e n d i n g as it d o e s o n the t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l , t h e r e a r e several simple
g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of such cross section b e h a v i o r with i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n spectra. S u p p o s e w e o n c e a g a i n c o n s i d e r a s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h w e
i m a g i n e s o u r c e s of n e u t r o n s d i s t r i b u t e d u n i f o r m l y t h r o u g h o u t a n infinite m e d i u m
s u c h t h a t spatial a n d t i m e d e p e n d e n c e c a n b e i g n o r e d . T h e n w e recall t h a t the
n e u t r o n c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n (4-79) simplies to
C oo
[ S a ( ) + 2 J ( ) ] < # > ( ) = f dE'Zs(E'Ê)<p(E')
+ S(E).
(9-1)
N o t i c e t h a t w e h a v e a l l o w e d the r a n g e of i n t e g r a t i o n to e x t e n d to E = 0, since we
n o w wish to a n a l y z e the low e n e r g y b e h a v i o r of the n e u t r o n flux.
T h e first u s e f u l p r o p e r t y of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross s e c t i o n s a n d i n d e e d , all
d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross sectionsis essentially j u s t a d e f i n i t i o n :
r oo
(9-2)
J(\
H o w e v e r e v e n this f a m i l i a r p r o p e r t y tells us s o m e t h i n g interesting. F o r if we

i n t e g r a t e E q . (9-1) over all e n e r g y a n d use t h e relation E q . (9-2), w e f i n d the
balance relation
/CO
f 00
dE 2 a ( )<p()=
-A)
dES(E).
(9-3)
T h a t is, f o r a s t e a d y - s t a t e f l u x </>() to b e possible in a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m , w e
378
r e q u i r e t h a t t h e r a t e a t w h i c h s o u r c e n e u t r o n s a p p e a r b e j u s t e q u a l to t h e r a t e a t
w h i c h n e u t r o n s a r e a b s o r b e d (since t h e r e is n o leakage). If w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t in
t h e r m a l i z a t i o n p r o b l e m s all s o u r c e n e u t r o n s will a p p e a r as fission n e u t r o n s slowing
d o w n i n t o t h e t h e r m a l e n e r g y r a n g e , a n d t h e a b s e n c e of u p s c a t t e r i n g a b o v e the
t h e r m a l c u t o f f e n e r g y Ec implies t h a t E q . (9-1) h o l d s w i t h t h e u p p e r limit t r u n c a t e d
at Ec, t h e n o n e c a n rewrite E q . (9-3) as (see P r o b l e m s 9-2 a n d 9-3)
T o t a l r a t e of a b s o r p t i o n _ f ^ ^ ' S (E}<b(E}
in t h e r m a l r a n g e / c m 3
~ J0
' ^
(E
r a t e at w h i c h
s ow
*
c ) ~ d o w n into thermal
, range/cm3.
neutrons
(g 4\
^ " '
T h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section o r s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l 2 S ( ' > ) c a n b e

s h o w n to possess a n o t h e r v e r y i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y :
i
'
= vZs(E-Ê')M
(E),
(9-5)
w h e r e M(E)
is t h e M a x w e l l - B o l t z m a n n d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the
energies of t h e p a r t i c l e s of a n i d e a l gas at t e m p e r a t u r e T:
E q . (9-5) is k n o w n as t h e principle of detailed balance, a n d it m u s t b e satisfied b y

a n y n e u t r o n cross s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g f r o m a s y s t e m of n u c l e i
in t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m at a t e m p e r a t u r e T ( r e g a r d l e s s of their s t r u c t u r e or d e t a i l e d
d y n a m i c s ) . T h i s p r o p e r t y is essentially a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e laws of statistical
m e c h a n i c s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l . 7 It implies a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e f o r t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m in a r e a c t o r , as w e will n o w
demonstrate.
S u p p o s e w e c o n s i d e r t h e special case in w h i c h w e set t h e a b s o r p t i o n a n d s o u r c e
t e r m s in o u r i n f i n i t e m e d i u m e q u a t i o n , E q . (9-1), to z e r o :
c 00
Z s ( E ) < t > ( E ) = f dE'Zs(E'Ê)<t>(E').

'o
(9-7)
T h e n w e c l a i m t h a t the s o l u t i o n to this e q u a t i o n , r e g a r d l e s s of the d e t a i l e d f o r m of

t h e s c a t t e r i n g cross section, m u s t b e j u s t t h e n e u t r o n f l u x c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n e u t r o n s in
t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m a t t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e T as the s c a t t e r i n g m e d i u m :
p ( - - | ) ,
(9-8)
w h e r e n0 is t h e n e u t r o n n u m b e r d e n s i t y in t h e m e d i u m . T h i s result is a c o n s e q u e n c e
of the p r i n c i p a l of d e t a i l e d b a l a n c e , f o r w e c a n use E q . (9-5) to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
</>M is i n d e e d a s o l u t i o n of E q . (9-7):
/ 00
2S()?>M() = /
J
o
dE'^{E'Ê)v'n0M{E')
= ( X d E ' ^ { E - ^ E ' ) v n 0 M { E ) = ^s(E)<$>u{E).

Jr\
(9-9)
379
H e n c e t h e p r i n c i p l e of d e t a i l e d b a l a n c e e n s u r e s t h a t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s p e c t r u m of
t h e n e u t r o n s (in t h e a b s e n c e of a b s o r p t i o n , sources, leakage, etc.) will b e a
" M a x w e l l i a n " c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e T t h a t is, t h a t the
n e u t r o n s will e v e n t u a l l y c o m e i n t o t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e m o d e r a t o r nuclei.
I n this sense, t h e n e u t r o n s b e h a v e as a very d i l u t e gas t h a t will g r a d u a l l y c o m e i n t o
t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m n a m e l y , " t h e r m a l i z e " w i t h the s y s t e m t h r o u g h w h i c h it is
d i f f u s i n g . F r o m t h e p r o p e r t i e s of the M a x w e l l - B o l t z m a n n d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n w e
k n o w t h a t t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e n e u t r o n e n e r g y a n d s p e e d in s u c h a s i t u a t i o n are t h e n
given in t e r m s of t h e s y s t e m t e m p e r a t u r e T a s :
Most probable energy =
M o s t p r o b a b l e s p e e d = vT=
= k T = 8.62X 1 0 " 5 r ( e V )
= 1.28X 1 0 4 V r ( c m / s e c ) .
(9-10)
F o r e x a m p l e , at T = 2 9 3 K , T = .025 eV while vr = 22x 10 5 c m / s e c . ( A l t h o u g h at

typical r e a c t o r c o r e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s , T= 5 9 0 K c o r r e s p o n d s to ET= .051 eV
a n d t>T = 3.1 x 10 5 c m / s e c . )
T h e d e t a i l e d b a l a n c e p r o p e r t y o n l y g u a r a n t e e s t h a t t h e n e u t r o n s will b e in
t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e m e d i u m if t h e r e a r e n o m e c h a n i s m s p r e s e n t t h a t t e n d
to i n t r o d u c e n o n e q u i l i b r i u m b e h a v i o r . Of course, in a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e even f o r
a very t h e r m a l r e a c t o r t h e n e u t r o n d i s t r i b u t i o n will n e v e r b e precisely in t h e r m a l
e q u i l i b r i u m b e c a u s e of o n e of t h e f o l l o w i n g e f f e c t s : (a) p r e s e n c e of a b s o r p t i o n , (b)
p r e s e n c e of sources, (c) l e a k a g e of n e u t r o n s , or (d) time d e p e n d e n c e .
T h e s e e f f e c t s all act t o p e r t u r b the n e u t r o n d i s t r i b u t i o n a w a y f r o m t h e r m a l
e q u i l i b r i u m . I n f a c t , n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n c a n physically b e r e g a r d e d as a
c o m p e t i t i o n p r o c e s s b e t w e e n t h e m o d e r a t o r a t o m s a t t e m p t i n g to " t h e r m a l i z e " the
neutron distribution into thermal equilibrium with them, a n d those effects tending
t o p e r t u r b or distort the t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m f r o m this e q u i l i b r i u m distribution.
B. Nonequilibrium Thermal Spectra

T h e p r e s e n c e of a b s o r p t i o n or l e a k a g e or a slowing d o w n s o u r c e c a n a c t to
d i s t o r t the t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m , t h a t is, t h e s o l u t i o n <(.) to E q . (9-1), f r o m a
M a x w e l l i a n f l u x < M (). W e will c o n s i d e r later p r o c e d u r e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r m a l
s p e c t r a to a n y desired a c c u r a c y b y solving E q . (9-1) directly in Section 9-III.
H o w e v e r it is u s e f u l to give a s o m e w h a t m o r e qualitative discussion of n o n e q u i l i b r i u m n e u t r o n s p e c t r a at this p o i n t to lay the g r o u n d w o r k f o r this s u b s e q u e n t
discussion.
C o n s i d e r first t h e a d d i t i o n of a n a b s o r p t i o n t e r m t o E q . (9-7). O n e t h e n f i n d s
t h a t t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m will b e slightly s h i f t e d to h i g h e r energies, a l m o s t
as if its t e m p e r a t u r e w e r e effectively i n c r e a s e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n of a b s o r p t i o n (see
F i g u r e 9-1). T h i s " a b s o r p t i o n h e a t i n g " of t h e s p e c t r u m c a n b e easily u n d e r s t o o d ,
h o w e v e r , w h e n it is recalled t h a t m o s t a b s o r p t i o n cross sections b e h a v e essentially
as 1 / E x / 1 f o r l o w energies. H e n c e t h e l o w e r e n e r g y n e u t r o n s in t h e s p e c t r u m will
t e n d to b e p r e f e r e n t i a l l y d e p l e t e d b y a b s o r p t i o n , a n d this l e a d s to a n e f f e c t i v e shift
(at least in t h e n o r m a l i z e d s p e c t r u m ) to h i g h e r energies.
E x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t o c c u r s w h e n o n e a c c o u n t s f o r n e u t r o n leakage. T h i s
c a n b e m o d e l e d b y a d d i n g a t e r m of t h e f o r m D ( E ) B } to t h e total cross section in
Absorption
Maxwellian
flux
(b)
Leakage
A
vD(E)
(c) Slowing d o w n source
(d) T h e r m a l
resonance
0.001
0.01
0.1
(eV)
FIGURE 9-1.
380
Effects of nonequilibrium perturbations on thermal neutron flux spectra.
10
381
E q . (9-1). N o t e t h a t this l e a k a g e t e r m a p p e a r s as a n effective a b s o r p t i o n . N o w since

t?Z)(') = t ; [ 3 2 t r ( , ) ] ~ 1 t e n d s to i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g energy, o n e f i n d s t h a t
h i g h e r e n e r g y n e u t r o n s will t e n d t o leak m o r e r a p i d l y f r o m t h e system. T h i s c a u s e s
t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s p e c t r u m to s h i f t to lower e n e r g i e s t h a t is, to a " d i f f u s i o n
cooling" effect.
O b v i o u s l y t h e p r e s e n c e of a s o u r c e t e r m in E q . (9-1) will also p e r t u r b t h e
s p e c t r u m . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e is m o s t c o m m o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a s o u r c e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o n e u t r o n slowing d o w n f r o m h i g h e r energies. I n this case o n e
e x p e c t s t h e n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m to b e h a v e a s 1 / E f o r energies a b o v e several eV.
Several o t h e r e f f e c t s a c t to p e r t u r b the t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m a w a y f r o m e q u i l i b r i u m .
F o r e x a m p l e , c e r t a i n n u c l i d e s s u c h as 1 3 5 Xe, 2 3 5 U , or 2 3 9 P u , h a v e low-lying reso n a n c e s in t h e t h e r m a l r a n g e . T h e n e u t r o n f l u x will b e d e p r e s s e d in the vicinity of
t h e s e r e s o n a n c e s , as s h o w n in F i g u r e 9-1. S u c h low-lying r e s o n a n c e e f f e c t s are
p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t o w a r d t h e e n d of c o r e life in r e a c t o r s f u e l e d w i t h lowe n r i c h m e n t u r a n i u m , since t h e a p p r e c i a b l e i n v e n t o r y of t h e p l u t o n i u m p r o d u c e d
c a n c a u s e a s t r o n g d i s t o r t i o n of t h e t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m .
C. Effective Neutron Temperature Models

W e h a v e seen t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of a b s o r p t i o n (or l e a k a g e ) to a s y s t e m t e n d s to
s h i f t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m to h i g h e r (or lower) energies, m u c h as
w o u l d o c c u r if o n e w e r e to c h a n g e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the M a x w e l l B o l t z m a n n d i s t r i b u t i o n . F o r t h a t r e a s o n , early studies of n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n
r e p r e s e n t e d t h e n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m b y a M a x w e l l i a n w i t h a n effective t e m p e r a t u r e
Tn=T:*>9
<t>(E) = M(E,Tn)=
<t>T~~~
I
exp
/8rn\1/2
Since a b s o r p t i o n w a s t h e d o m i n a n t loss m e c h a n i s m in large t h e r m a l r e a c t o r cores,

t h e effective neutron temperature
Tn w a s m o d e l e d as d e p e n d i n g o n l y o n the relative
a b s o r p t i o n in the c o r e
(9-12)
w h e r e T w a s the m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d A w a s a d i m e n s i o n l e s s c o e f f i c i e n t t h a t
h a d to b e d e t e r m i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y b y p e r f o r m i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l s p e c t r u m m e a s u r e m e n t s o n t h e a s s e m b l y of interest (typically, ^ 4 ~ 1 . 2 - 1 . 8 ) . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t
the p a r a m e t e r V t h a t a p p e a r s in this expression is j u s t t h e inverse of the m o d e r a t i n g
r a t i o t h a t m e a s u r e s the e f f e c t i v e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a b s o r p t i o n a n d s c a t t e r i n g in
determining the thermal spectrum.
T h e simple e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e m o d e l given b y E q . (9-11) is i n c o r r e c t at high
energies since it fails to yield t h e " 1 / " b e h a v i o r c a u s e d b y a slowing d o w n
source. T h i s c a n b e easily c o r r e c t e d b y a d d i n g to the m o d e l a slowing d o w n t e r m
A
<K) = <fM(,rn) + A
(E/kTn)
E
(9-13)
w h e r e A ( E / k T ) is a " j o i n i n g f u n c t i o n " c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n the
382
M a x w e l l i a n a n d t h e s l o w i n g d o w n s p e c t r u m (see F i g u r e 9-2) while A is a n o r m a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r given b y
T h e e f f e c t i v e n e u t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e m o d e l p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t role i n early
r e a c t o r a n a l y s i s a n d still is u s e f u l in o b t a i n i n g a q u a l i t a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s p e c t r a . It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t if i n d e e d t h e n e u t r o n f l u x
c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a M a x w e l l i a n <j>M(E, Tn) a t a t e m p e r a t u r e Tni t h e n t h e
total flux characterizing the thermal group would be just
J r
r oo
O
/ dE<f>M(E,Tn)=^vTn0,
J
o
VTT
dE<f>M(E,Tn>
(9-15)
w h e r e w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e n e u t r o n s p e e d vT~ \ f l k T J m . H e n c e
w e f i n d t h a t <J>T d e p e n d s o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e u t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e Tn.
A n i n t e r e s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n of this result is t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e s
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s . F i r s t recall t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e cross s e c t i o n s w h i c h
m u s t b e u s e d w o u l d b e a v e r a g e d over a d i s t r i b u t i o n of n u c l e a r s p e e d s a t s o m e
t e m p e r a t u r e T. T h a t is, t h e e f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n r a t e d e p e n d s b o t h o n t h e c o r e
t e m p e r a t u r e T a n d t h e n e u t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e Tn:
(EcdE2(E,T)<t>M(E,Tn).
F=
(9-16)
N o w m o s t t h e r m a l a b s o r p t i o n cross sections b e h a v e as 1 / v in t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n
r a n g e . I n C h a p t e r 2, w e f o u n d t h a t w h e n a v e r a g e d over t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of n u c l e a r
s p e e d s , t h e e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a 1 / v a b s o r b e r w a s
i n d e p e n d e n t of t e m p e r a t u r e a n d d e p e n d e d o n n e u t r o n s p e e d v a s
FIGURE 9-2.
'
2a(0H
v
The joining function, A ( / k T ) .
(9-17)
383
w h e r e 2 a = UqE^^q) is j u s t t h e a b s o r p t i o n f r e q u e n c y e v a l u a t e d a t a n y r e f e r e n c e
s p e e d v0. H e n c e the a b s o r p t i o n r a t e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s is j u s t
= f ^ d E v ^ E , T)n0M
J
o
(E, Tn) =
Za(E0)v0n0
= Wo)*o>
(9-18)
w h e r e <p0 is t h e n e u t r o n f l u x e v a l u a t e d at t h e r e f e r e n c e s p e e d u 0 .
Since m o s t n e u t r o n cross sections are m e a s u r e d in m a t e r i a l s at the a m b i e n t
t e m p e r a t u r e T = 20.46 C, it h a s b e c o m e c u s t o m a r y to t a b u l a t e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n
cross section d a t a a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s p e e d v0=(2kT/m)x^2
2200 m / s e c or
e n e r g y E0 = kT=0.025
eV. T h a t is, o n e t a b u l a t e s HJÊQ). T h e r e f e r e n c e flux <f>0 is
t h e n r e f e r r e d to as t h e 2200 meter-per-second
flux. If w e w a n t to r e l a t e these
q u a n t i t i e s to t h e t h e r m a l flux <f>T c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e Tn, w e first
note
(9-19)
W e c a n also express the t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a \ / v a b s o r b e r in a

M a x w e l l i a n f l u x in t e r m s of S a ( ' 0 ) as
a t h
=^(^)
1 / 2
).
(9-20)
N o t e t h a t o n e m u s t t a k e c a r e to distinguish b e t w e e n the 2200 m / s e c cross section

S a ( ' 0 ) a n d t h e t h e r m a l l y - a v e r a g e d cross section at a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 a h =
( 7 7 / 4 ) 1 / 2 E a ( 0 ) , w h i c h d i f f e r b y s o m e 12%.
O n e c a n m o d i f y these results to c a l c u l a t e t h e M a x w e l l i a n - a v e r a g e d t h e r m a l
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s of n o n - l / u a b s o r b e r s in this f o r m b y i n s e r t i n g a n o n - 1 / v f a c t o r
ga(rn)
to
write
/
( T
S a ^ ^ ^ r j ^ j
2a(0).
(9-21)
S u c h n o n - 1 / v f a c t o r s h a v e b e e n t a b u l a t e d f o r a n u m b e r of isotopes of interest. 1 0
H o w e v e r , since we will m a k e little use of the effective t e m p e r a t u r e m o d e l in our
s t u d y of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n spectra, w e will a v o i d a f u r t h e r discussion of such
n o n - 1 / v corrections.
T h e r e a r e several i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s f o r a b a n d o n i n g the effective n e u t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e m o d e l in f a v o r of a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t r e a t m e n t of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n
s p e c t r a . First, this r a t h e r simple m o d e l r e q u i r e s a g o o d d e a l of empirical guess w o r k
in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a b s o r p t i o n h e a t i n g c o e f f i c i e n t A a n d t h e transition f u n c t i o n
&(E/kT).
F u r t h e r m o r e o n e f i n d s in p r a c t i c e t h a t this m o d e l is i n a d e q u a t e w h e n
t h e r e is either s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n (i.e., T > 0 . 1 ) or w h e n the s p e c t r u m is a p p r e c i a b l y
i n f l u e n c e d b y r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in t h e t h e r m a l r a n g e . Since T for a typical
L W R r a n g e s f r o m a v a l u e of 0.2 f o r b e g i n n i n g of c o r e life (with zero void f r a c t i o n
c o o l a n t ) to as high as 0.6 at t h e e n d of c o r e life (with high-quality s t e a m
384
c o n d i t i o n s ) , it is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e m o d e l h a s little r e l e v a n c e
t o this class of r e a c t o r s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p r e s e n c e of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r b e r s in t h e
t h e r m a l r a n g e (e.g., 2 3 9 P u ) t h a t c a n b u i l d u p t o a p p r e c i a b l e levels n e a r t h e e n d of
c o r e life also a c t t o i n v a l i d a t e this m o d e l .
D. An Overview of Techniques for Calculating Thermal Spectra

M o s t s c h e m e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r a directly solve
infinite m e d i u m spectrum equation for the thermal energy range
2t(W)=
(EcdE'29(E'^>E)<l>(E')
o
+ S(E),
0 <E<EC.
the
(9-22)
H e r e S(E) is u s u a l l y t a k e n as a slowing d o w n source, a n d t h e cutoff e n e r g y Ec is

t a k e n s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t h a t n o a p p r e c i a b l e u p s c a t t e r i n g o u t of t h e t h e r m a l r a n g e
occurs.
If t h e cross s e c t i o n s a r e k n o w n , t h e n E q . (9-22) c a n b e w r i t t e n in a f i n e - s t r u c t u r e
m u l t i g r o u p f o r m a n d solved directly. T h e r e a r e several difficulties w i t h s u c h a b r u t e
f o r c e s o l u t i o n , h o w e v e r . First, t h e p o i n t w i s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e d e t a i l e d cross
section d a t a i n a n u c l e a r d a t a file s u c h a s E N D F / B is q u i t e e x t e n s i v e a n d c a n
r e q u i r e large a m o u n t s of d a t a h a n d l i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e s c a t t e r i n g kernels). I n
f a c t , it is s o m e t i m e s p r e f e r a b l e t o directly g e n e r a t e t h e t h e r m a l c r o s s s e c t i o n d a t a
f r o m s u i t a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l s of t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r
p r o b l e m of interest. F u r t h e r m o r e t h e f a c t t h a t a p p r e c i a b l e u p s c a t t e r i n g o c c u r s in
t h e t h e r m a l r a n g e m e a n s t h a t t h e m u l t i g r o u p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of E q . (9-22) involves
full s c a t t e r i n g m a t r i c e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e l o w e r t r i a n g u l a r s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a p p e a r
w h e n t r e a t i n g n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n . T h i s implies t h a t t h e m u l t i g r o u p t h e r m a l i z a t i o n e q u a t i o n s m u s t b e solved s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r a t h e r t h a n successively f r o m u p p e r
to lower energy groups, as were the multigroup slowing d o w n equations. Such a
s o l u t i o n u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s iterative t e c h n i q u e s (similar t o t h o s e u s e d in m u l t i d i m e n sional diffusion calculations).
H o w e v e r in c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s o n e c a n m o d e l t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l i n s u c h a
w a y so as t o r e d u c e t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n (9-22) t o a s i m p l e s e c o n d - o r d e r d i f f e r e n tial e q u a t i o n , w h i c h is c o n s i d e r a b l y easier t o solve. O n e very p o p u l a r s u c h m o d e l
r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o d e r a t o r a s a n i d e a l gas of u n b o u n d h y d r o g e n a t o m s (or p r o t o n s )
w h i c h is in t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m at a given t e m p e r a t u r e T. B e c a u s e t h e p r o t o n gas
m o d e l is e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l f o r m o d e l i n g t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n b e h a v i o r in L W R s , w e
will c o n s i d e r its d e v e l o p m e n t i n s o m e detail in this c h a p t e r .
II. APPROXIMATE MODELS OF NEUTRON

THERMALIZATION
A. The Proton Gas (Wigner-Wilkins) Model11
12
P e r h a p s t h e simplest d e s c r i p t i o n of n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n y i e l d i n g results of
s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y f o r u s e in r e a c t o r d e s i g n is t h a t w h i c h m o d e l s t h e r e a c t o r c o r e
a s a p r o t o n gas ( m a s s n u m b e r A = 1) i n t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m at a t e m p e r a t u r e T.
S u c h a m o d e l o b v i o u s l y i g n o r e s b o t h c h e m i c a l b i n d i n g a n d d i f f r a c t i o n . H o w e v e r it
does describe upscattering a n d has been proven remarkably successful for generating t h e r m a l s p e c t r a u s e f u l in L W R design.
T o b e m o r e specific, w e will c o n s i d e r t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e i n f i n i t e m e d i u m
s p e c t r u m e q u a t i o n (9-22) w i t h t h e s o u r c e t e r m o m i t t e d . W e will i n c l u d e t h e
385
p r e s e n c e of a s o u r c e b y d e m a n d i n g t h a t <t>(E) b e p r o p e r l y n o r m a l i z e d f o r large
energies t o yield t h e p r o p e r slowing d o w n b e h a v i o r . W e will e x a m i n e this e q u a t i o n
f o r the case of a f r e e p r o t o n gas u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n s :
(1) T h e m i c r o s c o p i c s c a t t e r i n g cross section erf is i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e relative
velocity vr b e t w e e n n e u t r o n a n d p r o t o n .
(2) T h e a b s o r p t i o n cross section b e h a v e s as a a ( v T ) = y / v T . (This a s s u m p t i o n
c a n b e r e l a x e d in p r a c t i c e . )
(3) T h e p r o t o n gas is in t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m at a t e m p e r a t u r e T. I n this case
w e c a n u s e t w o - b o d y k i n e m a t i c s to c a l c u l a t e t h e t h e r m a l l y a v e r a g e d
d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section (cf. Section 2 - I - D ) as
>f
erf
V^ '
SH
E'
E'>
E
(9-23)
{E'-E)
exp
E'<E
kT
I n E q . (9-23) w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e free atom scattering cross section of h y d r o g e n ,

=
W e c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e m a c r o s c o p i c s c a t t e r i n g cross s e c t i o n b y
i n t e g r a t i n g 1L (E'>E) o v e r all f i n a l n e u t r o n energies t o f i n d
2.()= f
C C
d E ' 2
( E - ^ E ' ) =
(9-24)
(ZZ/v)V(E),
where we have defined
(9-25)
W e n o t e d t h e f o r m of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section f o r a p r o t o n g a s in
F i g u r e 2-15. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e f o u n d t h a t it a p p r o a c h e d t h e u s u a l slowing d o w n
form
E'>E
0,
E'<E
(9-26)
f o r large
E'^>kT.
It s h o u l d also b e n o t e d f r o m E q . (9-23) t h a t 2 s ( ' - > ) h a s a
d i s c o n t i n u o u s first derivative a t E=E\
I n f a c t , t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e scattering
k e r n e l H ^ E ' ^ E ) is v e r y similar t o t h a t w e e n c o u n t e r e d f o r the G r e e n ' s f u n c t i o n s
of s e c o n d - o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s (cf. Section 5-II). T h a t is, E q . (9-22) is of the
form
a (x)4>(x) = fbdx'
Ja
w h e r e G(x,x')
(9'27)
G (x, *>(*')
is t h e G r e e n ' s f u n c t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t i a l o p e r a t o r
LG (x9x')
= a{x) ^ 2
dx
+ b(x)^~
+ c{x)G
dx
(*,*')
- 8 (x - x').
(9-28)
386
H e n c e if o n e c a n d e t e r m i n e L , t h e n b y o p e r a t i n g w i t h L o n E q . (9-27) as
cb
LA(X)</>(X) = | d:C/LG(X,X')^>(A:')
Jn
o n e c a n c o n v e r t t h e o r i g i n a l integral e q u a t i o n
differential equation:
= ^>(X),
(9-29)
into a second-order
ordinary
(9-30)
T h i s p r o c e d u r e w a s utilized b y W i g n e r a n d W i l k i n s 1 1 t o c o n v e r t E q . (9-22) i n t o a
differential equation for $ =
$(E)/[EM{E)]>:
1
dx [ P(x)
dx
[V(x)
+ T ] t ( x ) \ + lw(x)[V(x)
+T]-
$(x)
=0
(9-31)
where
W(x)
X'
P(x)
P\x)
P (x) = E-*2 +
r=
VTT
K T )
(
V kT
I
(9-32)
x erf (A:),
Na
VTNTJOI1
25
E q . (9-31) is k n o w n n a t u r a l l y e n o u g h as t h e Wigner-Wilkins
equation. T o it o n e
a p p e n d s t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e f l u x v a r i a b l e v a n i s h as x>0 [ i s - 0 ] a n d
b e n o r m a l i z e d t o t h e slowing d o w n s o u r c e f o r x > l
[E^>kT].
T h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s e q u a t i o n h a s b e e n s t u d i e d a n a l y t i c a l l y in e x h a u s t i v e detail
u s i n g a w i d e v a r i e t y of a p p r o x i m a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s n o n e of w h i c h really c o n c e r n us
h e r e . 1 Of m u c h m o r e i n t e r e s t is t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h s e c o n d - o r d e r O D E s c a n b e very
easily solved o n a digital c o m p u t e r . T o f a c i l i t a t e this solution, o n e first i n t r o d u c e s a
c h a n g e of d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e t o recast E q . (9-31) i n t o a n o n l i n e a r
first-order
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n (a Ricatti e q u a t i o n ) m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n :
dJ
dE
S(E)
+
2 kT
__
IE
J(E)
-J'itf),
(9-33)
where
{E)=
exp
q i e )
] [ ' ]] 1' -
p{E>)+1 _ 1+E /kT
f*iTlF[
(9 34)
while
(9-35)
S a ( E ) + DB
? ( ); = P + - ^ e r f x + lf
x
2
\ VkT
ki
^fr

H e r e w e h a v e m o d i f i e d this d e r i v a t i o n t o i n c l u d e a n o n - l / u
m o d e l e d l e a k a g e w i t h a D(E)B2
term where
Z)(^) = (32tr)-1=[3(Ea + Es(l-/I0))]-1.
387
absorption
and
(9-36)
A l t h o u g h t h e e q u a t i o n f o r J(E)
looks r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d it is in f a c t q u i t e
simple t o solve n u m e r i c a l l y . T h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c o d e s b a s e d o n s o l u t i o n s of the
W i g n e r - W i l k i n s e q u a t i o n a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d to as S O F O C A T E - t y p e
m e t h o d s 1 2 ( a f t e r t h e early t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c o d e s u s e d f o r L W R calculations).
I n m o s t of t h e s e c o d e s , E q . (9-33) is first solved f o r J(E)
n u m e r i c a l l y using
M i l n e ' s p r e d i c t o r - c o r r e c t o r m e t h o d . 1 3 T o get this m e t h o d s t a r t e d , a n a s y m p t o t i c
s o l u t i o n f o r E<.kT is u s e d . O n c e J(E) is k n o w n , (E) is t h e n d e t e r m i n e d f r o m E q .
(9-34) u s i n g a n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n (e.g., t r a p e z o i d a l rule). T y p i c a l l y o n t h e o r d e r
of 5 0 - 6 0 m e s h p o i n t s a r e f o u n d to yield s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y o v e r the interval
0 < < 1 eV. (It is a m u s i n g to n o t e t h a t E q . (9-33) is i n t e g r a t e d f r o m l o w e r to
h i g h e r energies, in c o n t r a s t t o f a s t s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s w h i c h a l w a y s p r o c e e d
d o w n w a r d in e n e r g y o r u p w a r d s in lethargy, t h e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t v a r i a b l e f o r
slowing d o w n c a l c u l a t i o n s . )
T h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s e q u a t i o n c a n b e a p p l i e d to m i x t u r e s of s c a t t e r i n g isotopes
b y simply r e p l a c i n g t h e f r e e a t o m cross s e c t i o n b y a n e f f e c t i v e s c a t t e r i n g cross
section c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e m i x t u r e :
(9-37)
j
I n f a c t s o m e t i m e s ( a l t h o u g h very i n f r e q u e n t l y ) t h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s e q u a t i o n is
a p p l i e d b y this m o d i f i c a t i o n to t h e a n a l y s i s of n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s m e d i a in t h e h o p e
t h a t t h e a c t u a l s p e c t r u m will n o t b e t o o sensitive to t h e details of the s c a t t e r i n g
process.
I n F i g u r e (9-3) w e h a v e illustrated t h e s h a p e of t h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s s p e c t r u m f o r
a l / i ; a b s o r b e r , a slowing d o w n source, a n d a t h e r m a l r e s o n a n c e (recall F i g u r e
9-1). It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t this m o d e l yields n o t only t h e c o r r e c t s o l u t i o n s f o r
2a0[<|>><?>M] a n d
AT[</>l/is], b u t also a c c o u n t s f o r b o t h a b s o r p t i o n
" h e a t i n g " e f f e c t s as well as f l u x d e p r e s s i o n in t h e vicinity of a t h e r m a l r e s o n a n c e .
10
0)
>
<2
O)
cc
0.001
0.01
0.1
N e u t r o n energy e V
FIGURE 9-3.
Calculated thermal flux shapes.
388
O n e can n o w generate thermal group constants by simply performing

n u m e r i c a l l y t h e a v e r a g e s of t h e m i c r o s c o p i c cross section d a t a over these c o m p u t e d
thermal spectra.
It is very i m p o r t a n t t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e spatial h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s p r e s e n t in a
reactor core w h e n generating thermal group constants because the thermal
n e u t r o n m f p is f r e q u e n t l y s m a l l c o m p a r e d to t h e d i s t a n c e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e c o r e
lattice s t r u c t u r e . F o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e a r e p r o c e d u r e s a v a i l a b l e b y w h i c h o n e c a n m a k e
simple m o d i f i c a t i o n s to i n f i n i t e m e d i u m s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s t o a c c o u n t f o r these
spatial effects, t h e r e b y a v o i d i n g a d e t a i l e d m u l t i g r o u p c a l c u l a t i o n of n e u t r o n
d i f f u s i o n . W e will r e t u r n to discuss t h e s e m e t h o d s in m o r e d e t a i l in C h a p t e r 10.
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e p r o t o n g a s m o d e l effectively c o n v e r t s a n integral
e q u a t i o n (9-22) i n t o a n o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n . S u c h a result is of s o m e
significance w h e n considering n u m e r i c a l solutions, since these differential
e q u a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y easier t o solve t h a n t h e full m a t r i x e q u a t i o n s t h a t arise
f r o m discretizing t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n directly. I n p a r t i c u l a r it allows u s to
c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n at o n e e n e r g y m e s h p o i n t directly f r o m the
p r e v i o u s o n e o r t w o m e s h p o i n t s , so t h a t o n l y a small c o m p u t e r m e m o r y is r e q u i r e d
a n d iterative m e t h o d s a r e a v o i d e d .
T h e r e a r e o t h e r m o d e l s of n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n t h a t exploit t h e t e c h n i q u e s of
c o n v e r t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n (9-22) i n t o a d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r
m a c h i n e c a l c u l a t i o n s . W e will n e x t e x a m i n e a m o d e l t h a t c a n b e utilized f o r s u r v e y
e s t i m a t e s of t h e t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m w h e n t h e m o d e r a t o r m a s s n u m b e r A is large
(e.g., I 2 C).
B. The Heavy Gas Model14

O b v i o u s l y t h e p r o t o n gas m o d e l is of l i m i t e d utility in a n a l y z i n g n e u t r o n
t h e r m a l i z a t i o n in n o n h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s . A l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s a r e n e e d e d f o r
h e a v i e r m a s s m o d e r a t o r s s u c h as g r a p h i t e , w h i c h is u s e d in g a s - c o o l e d r e a c t o r s .
O n e of t h e simplest t h e r m a l i z a t i o n m o d e l s is b a s e d o n e x p a n d i n g t h e c r o s s section
f o r a f r e e g a s of a r b i t r a r y m a s s n u m b e r A in p o w e r s of 1 / A , h e n c e a r r i v i n g a t a n
a p p r o x i m a t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d b e valid f o r large m a s s n u m b e r s .
T h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section f o r a f r e e gas c a n b e d e r i v e d in a
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , if s o m e w h a t c u m b e r s o m e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t w o - b o d y k i n e m a t i c s
(similar to t h a t of Section 2 - I - D ) . T h i s cross section c a n b e w r i t t e n as
e)
2 Ef
| |êrf(0V ' p V e ) e r f ( # V c ' H - p V e )
+ erf(0V pVc
Terf(#Ve + p V 7 ) } ,
(9-38)
where
(.4 + 1)
v=
(A-1)
,
2VA
p=
,
2 VA
If w e n o w e x p a n d in inverse m a s s n u m b e r A
e = -p=
(9-39)
k T
a n d r e t a i n o n l y lowest o r d e r terms,
389
w e arrive at the heavy gas model of the s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l

(E+E')
[8'(E-
E') + kT8"(E-
E')]
(9-40)
H e r e 5 ' a n d S " a r e t h e first a n d s e c o n d derivatives of t h e D i r a c 8 - f u n c t i o n a n d a r e

d e f i n e d in A p p e n d i x C. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section f o r this
m o d e l is
(9-41)
If w e n o w s u b s t i t u t e this r a t h e r singular s c a t t e r i n g kernel b a c k i n t o o u r integral
e q u a t i o n a n d n o t e t h a t f o r large A 9 / A , such t h a t
d2
2 a ( ) * ( ) = { 2 f r EkT^
+
<}>() .
(9-43)
T h i s simple s e c o n d - o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n is k n o w n as t h e heavy gas equation.

I n m a n y w a y s t h e h e a v y gas a p p r o x i m a t i o n is similar to the age a p p r o x i m a t i o n w e
d e v e l o p e d to d e s c r i b e n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in h e a v y m a s s m o d e r a t o r s , a n d in the
h i g h - e n e r g y limit t h e h e a v y gas m o d e l j u s t r e d u c e s to age t h e o r y .
U s i n g the u s u a l t e c h n i q u e s f r o m the t h e o r y of s e c o n d - o r d e r o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l
e q u a t i o n s , o n e c a n l a b o r i o u s l y g e n e r a t e a s y m p t o t i c solutions to this e q u a t i o n f o r
different a b s o r p t i o n cross section energy d e p e n d e n c e s f o r example, 2a(Zs)
c o n s t a n t = 2 a , o r 2 a ( i s ) = y/v.
It c a n also b e i n t e g r a t e d directly to g e n e r a t e
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r a f o r m o d e r a t o r s s u c h as g r a p h i t e . F o r e x a m p l e , the n u m e r i cal solution of t h e h e a v y gas e q u a t i o n ( a s s u m i n g 1 / v a b s o r p t i o n ) is s h o w n in
F i g u r e 9-4 f o r several d i f f e r e n t values of t h e p a r a m e t e r r = 2 a ( / c r ) / 2 f r .
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t as t h e m o d e r a t o r m a s s b e c o m e s increasingly heavier (i.e.,
smaller), the m o d e r a t o r is increasingly less c a p a b l e of slowing d o w n n e u t r o n s a n d
h e n c e the s p e c t r u m h a r d e n s . I n this m o d e l , then, a heavier gas is e q u i v a l e n t to the
a d d i t i o n of a b s o r p t i o n .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e h e a v y gas (or even f r e e gas)
p r e d i c t i n g t h e r m a l s p e c t r a in g r a p h i t e m o d e r a t e d
t h a n is the p r o t o n gas m o d e l f o r t h e L W R 1 5 b e c a u s e
b i n d i n g effects. T h i s h a s led to a r a t h e r limited use
m o d e l is f a r less effective at
r e a c t o r s (such as t h e H T G R )
of the significance of c h e m i c a l
of this m o d e l in p r a c t i c e .
C. Synthetic Scattering Kernel Models

I n o u r t w o p r e v i o u s m o d e l s of n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n w e f o u n d t h a t the
s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l 2 g ( i s ' - > i i ) w a s of s u c h a f o r m t h a t w e c o u l d t r a n s f o r m the
390
FIGURE 9-4
The neutron spectrum predicted by the heavy gas model.
i n t e g r a l f o r m of t h e i n f i n i t e m e d i u m s p e c t r u m e q u a t i o n (9-1) i n t o a d i f f e r e n t i a l
equation that was far better suited to m a c h i n e computation.
It is n a t u r a l t o seek o t h e r m o d e l s of n e u t r o n t h e r m a l i z a t i o n w h i c h a l s o l e a d t o
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s . O n e s u c h m o d e l is t h e generalized
heavy gas o r primary
model16
p r o p o s e d b y H o r o w i t z in w h i c h t h e s c a t t e r i n g t e r m s i n E q . (9-1) a r e
m o d e l e d b y a d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n very similar t o t h e h e a v y gas m o d e l (9-42):
EkT-^+(E-kT)4>
(9-44)
H e r e f ( E ) is a n a r b i t r a r y f u n c t i o n t h a t m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d either b y f i t t i n g t o
e x p e r i m e n t a l s p e c t r u m m e a s u r e m e n t s or b y a fit t o a n i n t e g r a l of t h e s c a t t e r i n g
k e r n e l itself H,s(Ef->E).
T h e p r i m a r y m o d e l satisfies t h e d e t a i l e d b a l a n c e c o n d i t i o n
a n d i n c l u d e s s o m e a c c o u n t i n g f o r c h e m i c a l b i n d i n g effects. M o r e o v e r t h e s t o r a g e
r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d m a c h i n e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o solve t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n
g e n e r a t e d b y E q . (9-44) a r e q u i t e small w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e m a c h i n e l a b o r
i n v o l v e d in solving t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n (9-1) directly.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e p r i m a r y m o d e l d u e t o H o r o w i t z fails to yield s a t i s f a c t o r y
results w h e n s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n is p r e s e n t p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e vicinity of t h e r m a l
r e s o n a n c e s . T o c i r c u m v e n t this, C a d i l h a c 1 7 d e v e l o p e d a slightly m o r e e l a b o r a t e
391
a p p r o x i m a t i o n k n o w n as the secondary model c o n t a i n i n g t w o ( r a t h e r t h a n o n e ) f r e e

f u n c t i o n s . O n e first writes t h e s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l as the p r o d u c t of these t w o
a r b i t r a r y f u n c t i o n s u(E) a n d v(E) s u c h t h a t
(>("),
E>E'
u(E')v(E)9
E<Ef.
(9-45)
( N o t e a g a i n the d i s c o n t i n u o u s derivative at E' = E.) T h e n o n e f i n d s that the

i n f i n i t e m e d i u m s p e c t r u m e q u a t i o n (9-1) c a n b e w r i t t e n as the c o u p l e d set of
differential equations
Za(E)<t>(E)=^
w h e r e j ( E ) a n d k(E)
S(E),
dq
HE)
dE
M(E)
=j(E)q(E)-
a r e given in t e r m s of t h e " f r e e " f u n c t i o n s , u(E)
-jL
(9-46)
dE
[v(E)k{E)l
a n d v(E),
as
1h(E)=fJdE'v(E'),
k(E)=[M(E)2t(E)]~\
(9-47)
/JL
\kT
FIGURE 9-5.
Comparison of the primary and secondary synthetic kernel model predictions for
the flux in the neighborhood of the 2 4 0 Pu resonance (moderator is graphite).
392
T h i s m o d e l is p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting since f o r p r o p e r choices of u(E) a n d v(E) it

will r e d u c e to several of o u r earlier m o d e l s i n c l u d i n g the p r o t o n gas m o d e l , the
h e a v y gas (or p r i m a r y ) m o d e l , the F e r m i age m o d e l , or t h e G o e r t z e l - G r e u l i n g
m o d e l . H e n c e the s e c o n d a r y m o d e l is e v i d e n t l y c a p a b l e of b r a c k e t i n g the therm a l i z a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of t h e t r u e s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l 2 S ( " ^ ) .
O n e c a n c h o o s e the f r e e f u n c t i o n s u(E) a n d v(E) in a n y of a n u m b e r of ways.
F o r e x a m p l e , o n e c a n c h o o s e these f u n c t i o n s b y d e m a n d i n g t h a t the first t w o
e n e r g y m o m e n t s of t h e true s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l 2 S ( " > ) b e p r e s e r v e d b y t h e
a p p r o x i m a t e m o d e l [Eq. (9-45)]. T h e s p e c t r a p r e d i c t e d b y t h e s e c o n d a r y m o d e l are
f r e q u e n t l y in excellent a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e results of a b r u t e f o r c e n u m e r i c a l
solution of E q . (9-1) u s i n g t h e t r u e s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l
T h i s is t r u e even in
the vicinity of t h e r m a l r e s o n a n c e s , as illustrated in F i g u r e 9-5.
A l t h o u g h t h e s e c o n d a r y m o d e l is u s u a l l y n o t u s e d f o r d e t a i l e d t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m
studies, it is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to g e n e r a t e the initial guesses of the s p e c t r u m u s e d in
m o r e e l a b o r a t e iterative c a l c u l a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y to solve t h e i n f i n i t e m e d i u m
s p e c t r u m e q u a t i o n (9-1) directly.
III. GENERAL CALCULATIONS OF THERMAL NEUTRON

SPECTRA
A. Generation of Thermal Cross Section Data
A s we h a v e m e n t i o n e d , t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross sections a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y a
sensitive d e p e n d e n c e o n the t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c h e m i c a l s t a t e of t h e s c a t t e r i n g
m a t e r i a l . A l t h o u g h such cross section i n f o r m a t i o n is t a b u l a t e d a n d s t o r e d in
n u c l e a r d a t a sets such as E N D F / B , it is u s e f u l to discuss briefly h o w these b a s i c
d a t a a r e c a l c u l a t e d . It is c u s t o m a r y to express the d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross
section < J s ( i T ' i n t e r m s of a q u a n t i t y , ^ ( a , / ? ) 1 " 6 , 1 5 k n o w n as t h e scattering law f o r t h e m a t e r i a l of i n t e r e s t :
S2'->Q) =
( -T ) :2 e x p ( - |
)abS
).
(9-48)
H e r e , a b is t h e b o u n d a t o m cross section, while a a n d fi a r e r e l a t e d to the n e u t r o n

m o m e n t u m a n d e n e r g y e x c h a n g e in a s c a t t e r i n g collision:
a=(E'
+ E-2VWE
S2
p~(Ef~E)/kT.
S2')/,kT,
(9-49)
S ( a , / ? ) d e p e n d s in a very c o m p l i c a t e d m a n n e r o n t h e d e t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e a n d
d y n a m i c s of t h e s c a t t e r i n g m a t e r i a l . M o s t c o m m o n l y , h o w e v e r , o n e i n t r o d u c e s
several h o r r i f y i n g l y b r u t a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s (at least to t h e solid-state physicist,
a l t h o u g h n o t to t h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r ) in o r d e r to allow the c a l c u l a t i o n of S ( a , f i ) .
F i r s t o n e a c c o u n t s f o r only i n c o h e r e n t s c a t t e r i n g (i.e., n o d i f f r a c t i o n ) such t h a t
S ( a , / $ ) is r e p l a c e d b y t h e i n c o h e r e n t p a r t of t h e s c a t t e r i n g law, Ss(a,P).
T h e n this
393
q u a n t i t y is c a l c u l a t e d in t h e so-called G a u s s i a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n 1 8 in w h i c h
= -L f ^ J r e ^ e x p [ - aw2(r)
Ss(a,p)
2/
W
< >= I
dHP{H)
],
/ f i ]
(9-50)
/3sinh(/3/2)
T h e entire d e p e n d e n c e of the n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g o n the m o t i o n of t h e m o d e r a t o r

a t o m s is c o n t a i n e d in t h e f u n c t i o n p(j8) o r equivalently, p(co), a>= kTfi/h.
For a
h a r m o n i c solid, o n e w o u l d i d e n t i f y p(<o) as the p h o n o n f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n .
All of t h e essential physics e n t e r s i n t o m o d e l i n g the f o r m of the f u n c t i o n p(w). I n
liquid m o d e r a t o r s s u c h as w a t e r , o n e uses m o d e l s t h a t a c c o u n t f o r t h e v i b r a t i o n s ,
h i n d e r e d r o t a t i o n s , a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e w a t e r m o l e c u l e (this gives rise to the
so-called N e l k i n s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l 1 - 6 u s e d f o r w a t e r or t h e St. J o h n - B r o w n 1 " 6 k e r n e l
f o r D 2 0 ) . F o r p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s g r a p h i t e , t h e details of lattice
v i b r a t i o n s m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . ( T h e u s u a l m o d e l u s e d to d e s c r i b e g r a p h i t e
is k n o w n a s t h e P a r k ' s s c a t t e r i n g kernel 1 " 6 .) It is necessary to use these m o r e
e l a b o r a t e m o d e l s of t h e m i c r o s c o p i c d y n a m i c s of the m o d e r a t o r in p e r f o r m i n g
d e t a i l e d r e a c t o r studies.
T h e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e r m a l cross section d a t a usually begins w i t h the c a l c u l a t i o n
of the s c a t t e r i n g l a w S ( a , f i ) f o r a given p h o n o n f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n p(to) u s i n g a
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s u c h as t h e G A S K E T c o d e . 1 9 A s u p p l e m e n t a r y c a l c u l a t i o n is
t h e n n e e d e d to g e n e r a t e t h e a c t u a l s c a t t e r i n g k e r n e l
>ST) f r o m the
s c a t t e r i n g l a w (e.g., t h e F L A N G E code). 2 0 T h e s e d a t a c a n t h e n either b e u s e d to
p r e p a r e a r e s t r i c t e d t h e r m a l cross section library, or t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o a c o m p l e t e
n u c l e a r d a t a set s u c h as E N D F / B .
B. Thermal Spectrum Calculations

F o r a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n spectra a n d the g e n e r a t i o n of
t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , o n e m u s t p e r f o r m a direct solution of the i n f i n i t e m e d i u m
s p e c t r u m e q u a t i o n (9-1) b y w r i t i n g it in a discrete m u l t i g r o u p f o r m
2v<fv+S
(9-51)
n'= 1
w h e r e n is t h e f i n e g r o u p i n d e x . Since the t h e r m a l energy r a n g e is r a t h e r n a r r o w

( 0 < < 1 eV), a n d typically f r o m 50 to 100 e n e r g y g r o u p s a r e used, o n e c a n
usually j u s t use i n p u t cross section d a t a o n a pointwise basis ( e v a l u a t e d a t the
c e n t e r of a g r o u p , f o r e x a m p l e ) .
A c t u a l l y E q . (9-1) is a bit t o o simplified, since o n e usually a d d s in a c r u d e spatial
t r e a t m e n t u s i n g t h e Px o r Bx m e t h o d in a m a n n e r similar to t h a t u s e d to c a l c u l a t e
f a s t spectra. T h e n the t h e r m a l l e a k a g e is d e t e r m i n e d b y s p e c i f y i n g a n e q u i v a l e n t
geometric buckling
Such i n f i n i t e m e d i u m s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s m u s t also b e c o r r e c t e d for core
heterogeneities. I n the n e x t c h a p t e r w e will d e v e l o p several p r e s c r i p t i o n s f o r
394
m o d i f y i n g t h e t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s to a c c o u n t f o r f l u x n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s w h i c h
arise in a f u e l lattice cell.
C. Coupling between Fast and Thermal Spectrum Calculations

I n a r i g o r o u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the f a s t a n d t h e r m a l n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m ,
t h e f a s t a n d t h e r m a l e n e r g y r e g i o n s will b e c o u p l e d t o g e t h e r . D o w n s c a t t e r i n g f r o m
h i g h e r energies p r o v i d e s t h e s o u r c e t e r m in t h e t h e r m a l range, while t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n i n d u c e d fission r e a c t i o n s will give rise to the fission s o u r c e in the fast
n e u t r o n region. I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e m a y b e s o m e m i l d i n f l u e n c e o n t h e l o w e r energy
b e h a v i o r of t h e f a s t s p e c t r u m d u e to u p s c a t t e r i n g of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s .
F o r t u n a t e l y t h e c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n f a s t a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m r e g i o n s is
sufficiently w e a k t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f a s t a n d t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r a are
usually p e r f o r m e d separately. H o w e v e r m a n y f a s t s p e c t r u m c o d e s will g e n e r a t e the
P0 a n d Px slowing d o w n s o u r c e s to b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s .
U s u a l l y all d o w n s c a t t e r e d n e u t r o n s f r o m t h e f a s t r e g i o n a r e a s s u m e d to go i n t o the
highest e n e r g y t h e r m a l g r o u p , e x c e p t f o r h y d r o g e n e o u s m o d e r a t o r s in w h i c h t h e
slowing d o w n n e u t r o n s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r all t h e r m a l g r o u p s . If u p s c a t t e r i n g o u t
of t h e t h e r m a l r e g i o n is allowed, these n e u t r o n s a r e u s u a l l y a s s u m e d to g o i n t o the
lowest e n e r g y f a s t g r o u p .
REFERENCES

Amsterdam (1966).
2. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, New York (1970),
Chapter 7.
3. K. H. Beckurts and K. Wirtz, Neutron Physics, Springer, Berlin (1964).
4. Neutron Thermalization and Reactor Spectra, International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna (1968), Vols. III.
5. I. I. Gurevich and L. V. Tarasov, Low Energy Neutron Physics, Wiley, New York (1968).
6. D. E. Parks, M. S. Nelkin, N . F. Wikner, and J. R. Beyster, Slow Neutron Scattering and
Thermalization with Reactor Applications, Benjamin, New York (1970).
7. A. C. Zemach and R. L. Glauber, Phys. Rev. 101, 118 (1956).
8. R. F. Coveyou, R. R. Bate, and R. K. Osborn, ORNL-1958 (1955).
9. E. R. Cohen, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 2, 227 (1957).
10. C. H. Westcott, Effective cross section values for well-moderated thermal reactor
spectra, AECL-1101, 1962 (3rd Edition).
11. E. P. Wigner and J. E. Wilkins, AECD-2275 (1944); M. M. R. Williams, The Slowing
Down and Thermalization of Neutrons, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1966), p. 75.
12. H. Amster and R. Suarez, The calculation of thermal constants averaged over a Wigner
Wilkins flux spectrum; SOFOCATE, WAPD-TM-39 (1957).
York (1969) p. 386.
14. J. E. Wilkins, USAEC Document CP-2481 (1944); Ann. Math. 49, 189 (1948).
15. J. R. Beyster, N . Corngold, H. C. Honeck, G. D. Joanou and D. E. Parks, P / 2 5 8 in
Third U. N. Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (1964).
Amsterdam (1966), p. 273.
17. M. Cadilhac, J. Horowitz, J. L. Soule, and O. Tretiakoff, Proceedings BNL Conference
on Thermalization 2, 1962; M. Cadilhac, et. al., Third U . N . Conference on Peaceful Uses
395
of Atomic Energy (1964); M. M. R. Williams, The Slowing Down and Thermalization of

Neutrons, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1966), p. 292.
18. P. A. Egelstaff and P. Schofield, Nucl Sci. Eng. 12, 260 (1962).
19. J. U. Koppel, J. R. Triplett and Y. D. Naliboff, GASKET, a unified code for thermal
neutron scattering, General Atomic Report GA-7417 (1966).
20. H. C. Honeck and D. R. Finch, F L A N G I I (Version 71-1), a code to process thermal
neutron data from an E N D F / B tape, Savannah River Laboratory Report DP-1278
(1971).
PROBLEMS
9-1
Show that the scattering cross

characterizing a perfectly bound
doh
onstrate that a b = 4?r
section a f r of a free nucleus is related to that

nucleus o h by a b = (l + ^4 _ 1 ) 2 a f r . (Hint: First dem-
- dOfT
4 <77
dQ
COS0- 1
. Then use the expression for
doh/dQ
cos 0 = 1
for s-wave scattering.)

9-2. Generalize the definition of the slowing down density q(r,E) given by Eq. (8-18) to
account for upscattering as well as downscattering.
9-3 Using the definition of the slowing down density for energies E > Ec in the infinitemedium spectrum equation (9-1), derive the balance condition Eq. (9-4).
9-4 Check by explicit calculation whether the detailed balance condition holds for the
scattering kernels characterizing: (a) a free proton gas, (b) the heavy gas model, and
(c) a free gas of arbitrary mass number A.
9-5 Give three reasons why the neutron energy distribution in a thermal homogeneous
reactor is not Maxwellian. What specific physical effects cause deviations at high
energies and what physical effects give rise to deviations at low energies?
9-6 Calculate the average energy and velocity of neutrons in a Maxwellian distribution at
a temperature Tn.
9-7 Plot the behavior of E<f>(E) against E for the effective temperature model given by Eq.
(9-13). In particular show that the peak of E<f>(E) occurs at
E~2kTn.
9-8 Suppose that a 1/D absorber is suddely inserted uniformly into an infinite medium
containing a well-established Maxwellian distribution of neutrons.
(a) Show that the total density of neutrons in the medium steadily decreases in time,
but that the neutron energy distribution, and hence the effective neutron temperature, does not change.
(b) Discuss qualitatively the change in the energy distribution for a n o n - l / t ; absorber.
[Hint: Solve the time-dependent infinite medium spectrum equation as an initial value
problem subject to the initial condition, ^ ( , / = 0) = <^M(').]
/
9-9 A water-moderated thermal reactor operating at 300C has a computed average
thermal flux of 2 x 1014 neutrons/cm 2 -sec. Compute the absorption rate density in the
/
water in this reactor. [Take p H 2 O =0.72 g / c m 3 (at 155 bar).]
n^9-10 Demonstrate with equations how to measure the neutron temperature in the center of
a reactor core by simultaneous activation of manganese ( \ / v neutron absorber) and
lutetium (.142 eV resonance absorber) foils in the core.
9-11 Sketch the dependence of the thermal group constants characterizing a \ / v absorber
on r = 2 a / 2 s if the thermal spectrum is characterized by a Maxwellian flux
4> m (, Tn) with an effective neutron temperature Tn 7^(1 + ,4r).
9-12 Demonstrate that the requirement expressed by equation (9-3) demands that we
choose the "joining function" normalization as X Vn </>Tr/2(l T) in the effective
temperature model, if we assume a slowing down source into the thermal group of
q(Ec) = a s \ .
396
9-13
9-14

Verify the expression given for "2S(E) characterizing a free proton gas by explicitly
integrating the form given in Eq. (9-23) for 2 S (.E").
The second energy moment of the scattering kernel,
M2 = z
(kT)
9-15
9-16
9-17
9-18
9-19
9-20
9-21
(*>dEM(E')(E'-E)2oXE'-*E)
dE'
Jo
is a measure of the mean squared energy exchanged between the neutron and the
scattering atoms. Demonstrate that for a free proton gas M2 2V2 a f r .
Derive the Wigner-Wilkins equation (9-31) from the infinite medium spectrum
equation (9-22) characterizing a proton gas. [Refer to E. P. Wigner and J. E. Wilkins,
A E C D 2275 (1944) or M. Williams, Thermalization and Slowing Down of Neutrons,
North Holland, Amsterdam (1967), p. 77 for assistance.]
Using the variable transformation defined by Eq. (9-34), derive the Ricatti equation
(9-33) from the Wigner-Wilkins equation.
Write a computer program that integrates the nonlinear differential equation (9-33)
characterizing a free proton gas. Use either a predictor-corrector or Runge-Kutta
scheme with an energy mesh size of AE = 0.001 eV. Determine the flux <t>(E) from
J (E) by performing the integration indicated in Eq. (9-34) using trapezoidal quadrature. For convenience, choose a \ / v absorption cross section 2 a ( , ) = 2 / V ' . Allow
2, 2fj!, B2, and T to be read in as inputs to the code.
Use the computer code written in Problem (9-17) to determine the spectrum in water
at room temperature. Compare this spectrum with that predicted by the effective
temperature model.
Run a SOFOCATE-type thermal spectrum code to generate the thermal neutron
spectrum for a typical P W R and BWR core using the parameters tabulated in
Appendix H. Use exit coolant conditions.
Repeat the spectrum calculation in Problem 9-19 for the P W R with boron added to
the water moderator in concentrations of 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm (parts-per-million).
Derive the heavy gas equation from the infinite medium spectrum equation (9-22) by
expanding <$>(E') in the scattering integral in a Taylor series about E, and then
truncating all terms of order higher than (E E')2. It will be helpful to note that for
1,
[O0dEos(E,^>E)(E,-E)^-ôh(E,-2kT),
Jo
^
fdEas(E'~>E)(E,-E)2^~'aftE,kT.
J0
A
9-22
Demonstrate that for E^>kT,
9-23
Determine the choice of the functions u(E) and v(E) of the secondary model that will
yield the proton gas model and the heavy gas model.
A very useful approximation to the thermal neutron scattering kernel 2 S (" '^>E) is
the so-called synthetic or simple degenerate kernel (SDK) model
9-24
2s(E'Ê)
the solution to the heavy gas equation is just <f>(E)~C/
p2s(E')vM(E)2s(E),
where
(dEvM(E)^(E).
Jo
[See N. Corngold, P. Michael, and W. Wollman, NucL ScL Eng. 15, 13 (1963).]
Demonstrate that this kernel preserves the correct total scattering cross section 2 S (")
and also satisfies the principle of detailed balance.

9-25
9-26
397
Solve the infinite medium spectrum equation for the flux resulting from an arbitrary
source S(E) using the SDK model.
The S D K model can be used to study the time-dependent thermalization of a neutron
pulse injected into a moderator at an energy E0. To this end, consider the initial value
problem
fdE'2s(E'Ê)<t>(E',t)
subject to the initial condition
<*>(, 0) =
9-27
9-28
9-29
9-30
<t>08(E-E0).
Assuming an absorption 2 a (.E) = 2 / t ; and the SDK model, solve this problem for
</>(,/). (Hint: Use a Laplace transform in time.)
Age-diffusion theory can be used to provide the effective slowing down source for the
neutron diffusion equation characterizing the thermal group. In this manner, determine the distribution of thermal neutrons resulting from an isotropic point source of
monoenergetic fast neutrons located at the origin. In particular, discuss the asymptotic behavior of your solution far from the source for V r s L.
Describe possible experimental techniques for measuring: (a) the neutron age to
thermal and (b) the thermal neutron diffusion length. Assume that the only available
neutron source is a fast (2 MeV) source. Justify your discussion by simple calculations. Then discuss how your experiments would differ for graphite and for light
water.
Neutrons of lethargy zero are produced uniformly throughout an infinite medium.
Assume that they then slow down by elastic collisions until they reach Eih and there
enter a one-speed diffusion process. The medium is characterized by the macroscopic
cross sections 2 S , 2 a , 2 f , and 2 t , which are all independent of neutron energy for all
energies. Find the fraction of fissions caused by the thermal neutrons. Assume that
the age approximation is valid, that is, #(w) = 2t<J>(w).
Demonstrate that when age-diffusion theory is used to describe neutron slowing
down, and one-speed diffusion theory is used to describe thermal neutron diffusion,
then the multiplication factor for a bare, homogeneous reactor is
exp -
9-31
B^t
Compute and plot the critical mass and the fast and slow nonleakage probabilities for
a spherical assembly of 2 3 5 U and moderator as a function of the radius of the
assembly for the following moderators: (a) H 2 0 , (b) D 2 0 , (c) Be, and (d) graphite.
Determine the minimum critical mass in each case. (Use the parameters listed in
Table 8-7.)
10
Cell Calculations
for
Heterogeneous Core Lattices
T h u s f a r w e h a v e restricted ourselves to t h e s t u d y of r e a c t o r cores in w h i c h fuel,

m o d e r a t o r , c o o l a n t , a n d s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s w e r e a s s u m e d to b e i n t i m a t e l y a n d
h o m o g e n e o u s l y m i x e d . H o w e v e r , n u c l e a r r e a c t o r cores a r e of c o u r s e c o n s t r u c t e d in
a highly h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n to facilitate t h e r m a l design ( c o o l a n t c h a n n e l s ,
h e a t - t r a n s f e r surfaces), m e c h a n i c a l design ( s t r u c t u r a l integrity, f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n a n d
h a n d l i n g ) , a n d reactivity c o n t r o l ( c o n t r o l r o d s , b u r n a b l e poisons, i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ) .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d recall t h e r a t h e r detailed s t r u c t u r e of t h e typical
P W R c o r e illustrated in F i g u r e s 3-6 a n d 3-7. Such heterogeneities in t h e r e a c t o r
f u e l a r r a y o r lattice m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in n u c l e a r design since t h e y will
c a u s e a local spatial v a r i a t i o n in t h e n e u t r o n flux w h i c h m a y strongly i n f l u e n c e
core multiplication.
T h e d e g r e e to w h i c h c o r e lattice effects m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in r e a c t o r
design d e p e n d s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i m e n s i o n s of t h e lattice s t r u c t u r e , f o r exa m p l e , t h e d i a m e t e r of a f u e l p i n or t h e s p a c i n g b e t w e e n f u e l elements, c o m p a r e d
to t h e m e a n f r e e p a t h of n e u t r o n s in t h e core. F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e L W R the
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n m e a n f r e e p a t h is typically o n t h e o r d e r of o n e cm, c o m p a r a b l e to
the f u e l p i n d i a m e t e r . H e n c e the flux d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e f u e l m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to
b e quite d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t in t h e m o d e r a t o r o r c o o l a n t c h a n n e l , t h e r e b y necessit a t i n g a d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t of t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y . By w a y of c o n t r a s t , t h e m u c h
longer m e a n f r e e p a t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e n e u t r o n s in a f a s t r e a c t o r (typically tens
of c e n t i m e t e r s ) allows a m u c h grosser t r e a t m e n t of lattice effects.
Of course, a detailed t r e a t m e n t of t h e c o r e lattice o n a scale sufficiently f i n e to
a c c o u n t f o r t h e spatial v a r i a t i o n of t h e f l u x in t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d of a given f u e l
e l e m e n t is clearly o u t of t h e q u e s t i o n , since it w o u l d require a n u n m a n a g e a b l y large
a r r a y of m e s h p o i n t s in a m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n (typical L W R s h a v e over
50,000 f u e l elements). I n d e e d d u e to their strongly a b s o r b i n g n a t u r e , f u e l a n d
398
CELL CALCULATIONS FOR HETEROGENEOUS CORE LATTICES
399
c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s in t h e c o r e f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e a m o r e a c c u r a t e t r e a t m e n t of
n e u t r o n transport than that provided by diffusion theory. H e n c e one must adopt a
m o r e p i e c e m e a l a p p r o a c h b y seeking to selectively " h o m o g e n i z e " the analysis of
t h e core, u s u a l l y b y p r o v i d i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n s f o r i n c l u d i n g lattice e f f e c t s into existing
i n f i n i t e m e d i u m n e u t r o n e n e r g y - s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s or b y c a l c u l a t i n g f e w - g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n spatially a v e r a g e d over t h e f i n e r details of the flux
d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e lattice.
Of course, t h e type of t r e a t m e n t o n e c h o o s e s will d e p e n d o n the p u r p o s e of the
c a l c u l a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e c a n c o n t r a s t a h a n d c a l c u l a t i o n b a s e d o n the
s i x - f a c t o r f o r m u l a suitable f o r a c r u d e survey e s t i m a t e with a n extremely detailed
t r a n s p o r t c a l c u l a t i o n t h a t m i g h t b e u s e d in a c o m p a r i s o n with a critical e x p e r i m e n t
o r p e r h a p s as a b e n c h m a r k f o r the testing of o t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n a l schemes. O u r
c o n c e r n in this c h a p t e r is with m o r e r o u t i n e design c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t m u s t b e
p e r f o r m e d very f r e q u e n t l y a n d h e n c e p l a c e a p r e m i u m o n c a l c u l a t i o n a l ease. F o r
s u c h s c h e m e s t o yield s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y , o n e is f o r c e d to rely o n f r e q u e n t cross
c a l i b r a t i o n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t t h a t is, to a c c e p t a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of e m p i r i c i s m
( f u d g i n g ) in t h e t e c h n i q u e . A n d of c o u r s e as in m o s t f a s t y e t a c c u r a t e m e t h o d s , o n e
relies heavily o n a c a n c e l l a t i o n of errors.
F o r e x a m p l e , in a L W R c o r e study, o n e m i g h t a t t e m p t to g e n e r a t e g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s f o r a f e w - g r o u p d i f f u s i o n analysis u s i n g a S O F O C A T E - M U F T s c h e m e
similar to t h a t discussed in C h a p t e r s 8 a n d 9. Y e t of c o u r s e t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s
p e r f o r m c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r a h o m o g e n e o u s m e d i u m in w h i c h only gross l e a k a g e
e f f e c t s a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r via t h e Px or Bx a p p r o x i m a t i o n . H e n c e o u r objective h e r e
is to p r o v i d e a p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r m o d i f y i n g these h o m o g e n e o u s results to a c c o u n t f o r
h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattice effects. T h e g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h is to divide t h e p e r i o d i c a r r a y
of t h e r e a c t o r lattice i n t o a n u m b e r of i d e n t i c a l unit cells a n d t h e n calculate the
e f f e c t i v e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g o n e s u c h cell. T h e d e t a i l e d analysis of a
u n i t cell m u s t a c c o u n t f o r t h e s t r o n g spatial v a r i a t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n energy
s p e c t r u m w i t h i n the cell. T h e cell is h o m o g e n i z e d b y a v e r a g i n g the g r o u p c o n s t a n t s
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g m a t e r i a l s in the cell over t h e spatial f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e cell
to p r o d u c e cell-averaged or so-called self-shielded g r o u p c o n s t a n t s t h a t c a n t h e n be
u s e d in a m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n analysis of t h e e n t i r e core.
I n this c h a p t e r w e d e v e l o p several p r o c e d u r e s a p p l i c a b l e f o r p e r f o r m i n g such cell
c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d t h e r e b y g e n e r a t i n g cell-averaged g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . T h e highly
a b s o r b i n g n a t u r e of t h e f u e l r e g i o n in a r e a c t o r lattice cell will necessitate a
t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n flux, b a s e d o n either so-called collision
p r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s o r a direct solution of t h e t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n itself (or p e r h a p s
a M o n t e C a r l o calculation). Since the t r e n d in r e c e n t y e a r s h a s b e e n t o w a r d m o r e
d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t s of t h e h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s in c o r e lattices, w e will i n c l u d e a
brief d i s c u s s i o n of b o t h a n a l y t i c a l a n d direct n u m e r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s for s t u d y i n g
n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t w i t h i n lattice cells.
I. LATTICE EFFECTS IN,NUCLEAR REACTOR ANALYSIS

A. A Qualitative Discussion of Heterogeneous Effects on Core
Multiplication in Thermal Reactors
B e f o r e w e l a u n c h i n t o a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of h o w lattice e f f e c t s a r e i n c l u d e d in
r e a c t o r c o r e analysis m e t h o d s , it is u s e f u l to give a simple q u a l i t a t i v e discussion of
t h e e f f e c t s of f u e l l u m p i n g o n core m u l t i p l i c a t i o n in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s , since this
400
reveals m o s t of t h e r e l e v a n t physics. T o this e n d w e will s i m p l y e x a m i n e h o w e a c h

of t h e v a r i o u s t e r m s in t h e six-factor f o r m u l a a r e m o d i f i e d in p a s s i n g f r o m a
h o m o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r core, in w h i c h t h e f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r a r e i n t i m a t e l y m i x e d ,
t o a h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattice, i n w h i c h t h e f u e l is l u m p e d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e
m o d e r a t o r . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n a c t u a l l y h a s a r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g historical significance,
since w i t h o u t f u e l l u m p i n g it w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e a critical
a s s e m b l y u s i n g n a t u r a l u r a n i u m a n d g r a p h i t e in F e r m i ' s " p i l e " a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of
C h i c a g o in 1942. M o r e specifically, f o r a n a t u r a l u r a n i u m system, 77 = 1.33 w h i l e
= 1.05. If o n e studies / a n d p f o r v a r i o u s h o m o g e n e o u s m i x t u r e s of n a t u r a l
u r a n i u m a n d g r a p h i t e , t h e n , a t b e s t o n e f i n d s f p = 0.59. 1 H e n c e , f o r a h o m o g e n e o u s
r e a c t o r c o r e c o m p o s e d of these m a t e r i a l s , k ^ < ( 1 . 3 3 ) (1.05) (0.59) = 0.85. O b v i o u s l y
s u c h a s y s t e m c o u l d n e v e r b e m a d e critical.
F e r m i a n d Szilard 2 n o t e d t h a t if t h e f u e l w e r e l u m p e d i n t o a h e t e r o g e n e o u s
lattice, t h e n t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y p w o u l d i n c r e a s e d r a m a t i c a l l y . T h i s
o c c u r s b e c a u s e n e u t r o n s t h a t a r e slowed d o w n t o r e s o n a n c e e n e r g i e s in t h e
m o d e r a t o r a r e p r i m a r i l y a b s o r b e d in t h e o u t e r r e g i o n s of t h e f u e l e l e m e n t h e n c e
l e a d i n g t o a d e p r e s s i o n in t h e n e u t r o n f l u x w i t h i n t h e f u e l at r e s o n a n c e energies
(see F i g u r e 10-1). T h a t is, t h e o u t e r layers of t h e f u e l t e n d t o shield its i n t e r i o r f r o m
resonance energy neutrons, thereby decreasing the net resonance absorption a n d
'fission
FIGURE 10-1.
Flux behavior in the neighborhood of a fuel pin.
401
h e n c e i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y p. T h i s " s e l f - s h i e l d i n g " e f f e c t is
sufficiently s t r o n g t h a t k ^ i n c r e a s e s to a v a l u e of 1.08 in a g r a p h i t e - n a t u r a l
u r a n i u m lattice. (It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t this spatial self-shielding
is in m a n y w a y s
a n a l o g o u s to t h e energy self-shielding
w e e n c o u n t e r e d in o u r d i s c u s s i o n of the
D o p p l e r e f f e c t in r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n . B o t h e f f e c t s t e n d to d e c r e a s e r e s o n a n c e
absorption, thereby increasing the resonance escape probability.)
T h e r e a r e o t h e r e f f e c t s d u e to f u e l l u m p i n g , h o w e v e r . O n the positive side, the
f a s t fission f a c t o r will i n c r e a s e s o m e w h a t in a h e t e r o g e n e o u s a s s e m b l y b e c a u s e
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a f a s t n e u t r o n s u f f e r i n g a collision with a f u e l n u c l e u s while its
e n e r g y is still a b o v e t h e f a s t fission t h r e s h o l d will increase. O n the n e g a t i v e side, the
t h e r m a l utilization / will d e c r e a s e s o m e w h a t b e c a u s e the t h e r m a l flux t e n d s to b e
d e p r e s s e d in t h e fuel, h e n c e y i e l d i n g less a b s o r p t i o n in the f u e l at t h e r m a l energies
(again d u e to self-shielding). Since t h e r m a l a b s o r p t i o n in t h e f u e l (in c o n t r a s t to
e p i t h e r m a l r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n ) u s u a l l y leads to fission, the n e t result is a
d e c r e a s e in c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n d u e to / . F o r t u n a t e l y this d e c r e a s e is f a r o u t w e i g h e d
b y the i n c r e a s e in p.
T o e x a m i n e t h e s e e f f e c t s in s o m e w h a t m o r e detail, we will n o w c o n s i d e r the
i n f l u e n c e of f u e l l u m p i n g o n e a c h t e r m in t h e six-factor f o r m u l a . T h e n in later
sections of this c h a p t e r , w e will t u r n to t h e m o r e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m of j u s t h o w s u c h
e f f e c t s a r e i n c l u d e d in c o r e n e u t r o n i c s analysis.
F i r s t recall t h a t 17 d e p e n d s o n l y o n the m a c r o s c o p i c cross sections c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
the fuel
vof F
j
(10-1)
j
( w h e r e the latter e x p r e s s i o n h o l d s f o r a m i x t u r e of f u e l isotopes). H e n c e o n e w o u l d

n o t expect f u e l l u m p i n g to a p p r e c i a b l y a f f e c t this ratio. In a c t u a l i t y , h o w e v e r , the
cross sections t h a t a p p e a r in 17 are g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the t h e r m a l
e n e r g y g r o u p . T h e s e a r e d e p e n d e n t , of c o u r s e , o n the t h e r m a l n e u t r o n e n e r g y
s p e c t r u m , a n d this s p e c t r u m d e p e n d s , in t u r n , o n the f u e l - m o d e r a t o r lattice
c o n f i g u r a t i o n . H e n c e t h e r e will b e a slight m o d i f i c a t i o n in rj w h e n g o i n g to a
h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattice. T h i s c h a n g e is usually i g n o r e d in less s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e r m a l
s p e c t r u m c o d e s t h a t i n c l u d e h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s via t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s . M o r e
e l a b o r a t e cell c a l c u l a t i o n s a c c o u n t i n g f o r s p a c e - e n e r g y e f f e c t s w i t h i n t h e cell will
i n c l u d e this c o r r e c t i o n a u t o m a t i c a l l y .
I n o u r earlier t r e a t m e n t of h o m o g e n e o u s s y s t e m s w e d e f i n e d t h e t h e r m a l utilizat i o n / as t h e r a t i o of the r a t e of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n in the f u e l to the total
r a t e of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n in all m a t e r i a l s . T h i s d e f i n i t i o n c a n b e a p p l i e d
a s well to a h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o r e b y w r i t i n g
f
/=
^2aF(r)<Hr)
(10-2)
H e r e we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o r e to b e m a d e u p of o n l y two types of m a t e r i a l , fuel,

d e n o t e d b y t h e s u p e r s c r i p t " F " , a n d m o d e r a t o r , d e n o t e d b y " M " . ( T h e e x t e n s i o n to
402 /
m o r e t h a n t w o r e g i o n s will b e given later.) Since t h e c o r e is m a d e u p of a n u m b e r

of i d e n t i c a l f u e l cells, w e c a n c o n s i d e r t h e a v e r a g e in E q . (10-2) as b e i n g t a k e n only
over t h e v o l u m e F c e l l of o n e s u c h cell. N o w if w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e m a c r o s c o p i c
cross sections 2 a ( r ) a n d 2 ^ ( r ) a r e a c t u a l l y c o n s t a n t over t h e v o l u m e VF of t h e f u e l
a n d VM of t h e m o d e r a t o r respectively, a n d v a n i s h elsewhere, w e c a n limit t h e r a n g e
of i n t e g r a t i o n t o e a c h of t h e s e regions a n d pull t h e c r o s s sections o u t of t h e
integrals t o w r i t e
2 a FJf
dH(r)
vp
7
s n
d3r<p(r)
d r<j>(r) + ^ (
Vf
(10-3)
VM
N e x t , s u p p o s e w e d e f i n e t h e spatially a v e r a g e d f l u x in e a c h r e g i o n as
F JVF
d3r<t>(r),
d3r<f>(r).
' M
(10-4)
Vm
T h e n w e c a n r e w r i t e t h e t h e r m a l utilization / in t e r m s of t h e s e a v e r a g e s a s
/=
s r ^ F
_
M
(10-5)
or, d i v i d i n g b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r b y <f>F VF,

2F
w h e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e thermal disadvantage
f l u x in t h e m o d e r a t o r to t h a t in t h e f u e l
factor
J as t h e r a t i o of t h e a v e r a g e
(10-7)
T h i s t e r m i n o l o g y arises b e c a u s e t h e t h e r m a l flux t e n d s t o b e d e p r e s s e d in t h e h i g h l y
a b s o r b i n g f u e l region, l e a d i n g t o a v a l u e of f > 1. H e n c e since t h e a v e r a g e f l u x is
s o m e w h a t h i g h e r i n t h e m o d e r a t o r t h a n i n t h e fuel, t h e f u e l n u c l e i a r e at a relative
FIGURE 10-2
A two-region unit fuel cell.
403
d i s a d v a n t a g e in c o m p e t i n g with m o d e r a t o r nuclei f o r t h e c a p t u r e of t h e r m a l
neutrons.
T h e d e p r e s s i o n of t h e t h e r m a l flux in t h e f u e l is a g a i n a c o n s e q u e n c e of the
self-shielding e f f e c t . T h a t is, n e u t r o n s b o r n in fission events in the f u e l will t e n d to
t h e r m a l i z e in t h e m o d e r a t o r a n d t h e n m u s t e v e n t u a l l y d i f f u s e b a c k i n t o t h e f u e l to
i n d u c e a f u r t h e r fission. H o w e v e r the highly a b s o r b i n g n u c l e i n e a r the s u r f a c e of
t h e f u e l p i n t e n d to a b s o r b t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s d i f f u s i n g b a c k in f r o m the
m o d e r a t o r a n d h e n c e in e f f e c t shield t h e f u e l n u c l e i in the interior of t h e p i n . T h i s
leads to the observed flux depression.
W e c a n c o m p a r e this m o r e g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e r m a l utilization / with o u r
earlier e x p r e s s i o n f o r a h o m o g e n e o u s system
^Fhom
j*hom _
Fhom
2&
(10-8)
Mhom
+ 2&
if w e c o n s i d e r t h e h o m o g e n e o u s system to consist of u n i t cells of the s a m e v o l u m e

^ceii ~ ^ f + ^ m a s o u r h e t e r o g e n e o u s cell, b u t with t h e f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r n o w
s p r e a d u n i f o r m l y over t h e cell. H e n c e w e w o u l d n o w f i n d t h e f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r
n u m b e r densities in t h e h o m o g e n e o u s cell as
N
Fm=
cell
^Mm=
cell
'
(10-9)
If w e n o w n o t e t h a t t h e m a c r o s c o p i c cross sections f o r the h o m o g e n e o u s cell are

2
Fhom
= i V
hom
^Mhom
^hom
fhom
find
f r Q m
(1
Q_9)
2f
2f + 2aM(FM/KF)
(10-10)
C o m p a r i n g this w i t h o u r m o r e g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n f o r a h e t e r o g e n e o u s s y s t e m in E q .
(10-6), w h i c h w e will n o w r e f e r to a s / h e t , w e n o t e t h a t in g e n e r a l / h e t < / h o m , since
f > 1 (as t h e f l u x d e p r e s s i o n in t h e f u e l w o u l d imply). T h e r e f o r e l u m p i n g t h e fuel
i n t o a h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattice will a c t u a l l y l o w e r t h e r m a l utilization, t h e r e b y d e c r e a s ing c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n .
O n e c a n generalize t h e c o n c e p t of t h e r m a l utilization even f u r t h e r to a c c o u n t f o r
a m u l t i r e g i o n f u e l cell. C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , a t h r e e - r e g i o n f u e l cell c o m p o s e d of
fuel, clad, a n d m o d e r a t o r m a t e r i a l . T h e n in a n a l o g y with o u r t w o - r e g i o n e x a m p l e ,
we would write
/=
=
ZlV F <t> F + ^ V M < t > M +
.
^Vc<l)c
(10-11)
If w e n o w d i v i d e t h r o u g h b y t h e a v e r a g e f l u x in t h e fuel, w e f i n d t h a t the t h e r m a l
utilization / involves t w o t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s , o n e f o r t h e f u e l to m o d e r a tor, </>M/</>F, a n d o n e f o r the f u e l to clad, </>c/<j>F.
A s y e t w e h a v e said n o t h i n g c o n c e r n i n g j u s t h o w o n e calculates these t h e r m a l
d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s . Of course, it m i g h t b e a r g u e d t h a t the c o n c e p t of t h e r m a l
utilization w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e six-factor f o r m u l a h a s very limited utility aside
f r o m c r u d e survey estimates. W e will see later, h o w e v e r , t h a t the d i s a d v a n t a g e
f a c t o r f c a n b e u s e d to spatially a v e r a g e t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s over u n i t fuel
cells, a n d h e n c e p l a y s a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t role in r e a c t o r design. H e n c e w e will
d e v o t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d its c a l c u l a t i o n in t h e n e x t
404 /
section. W e will e x a m i n e b o t h a p p r o x i m a t e ( " q u i c k a n d d i r t y " ) w a y s to e s t i m a t e f

a s well a s m o r e e l a b o r a t e s c h e m e s b a s e d o n t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y a n d c o l l i s i o n probability methods.
Since the f a s t n e u t r o n m f p is typically large c o m p a r e d to the scale of lattice
d i m e n s i o n s , o n e usually n e e d o n l y c o n s i d e r t h e t h e r m a l n o n l e a k a g e p r o b a b i l i t y
/* T N L . L a t t i c e e f f e c t s e n t e r p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h a c h a n g e in t h e t h e r m a l g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r spatial flux v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n a cell. I n p a r t i c u l a r o n e
c a n s h o w t h a t t h e d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o r e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y j u s t t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a p u r e m o d e r a t i n g m e d i u m d e c r e a s e d b y the
t h e r m a l utilization
(1 f ) (see P r o b l e m 10-3). H o w e v e r since l e a k a g e f r o m
a large t h e r m a l r e a c t o r c o r e is a relatively m i n o r effect, w e will a v o i d a n explicit
d i s c u s s i o n of h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s o n PTNL since it will h a v e a small e f f e c t o n core
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ( a n d will b e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y u s i n g cell-averaged g r o u p c o n s t a n t s in
a n y event).
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t d u e to h e t e r o g e n e o u s a r r a n g e m e n t of f u e l in a
t h e r m a l r e a c t o r is a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y p. T h i s
m o d i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s as a c o n s e q u e n c e of t w o p h e n o m e n a . F i r s t t h e r e is a g e o m e t r i cal e f f e c t arising b e c a u s e t h e p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n of the f u e l a n d t h e m o d e r a t o r will
a l l o w s o m e n e u t r o n s to slow d o w n w i t h o u t ever e n c o u n t e r i n g the f u e l . T h i s e f f e c t is
of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e to the p h e n o m e n o n of self-shielding, h o w e v e r .
T o u n d e r s t a n d this s e c o n d e f f e c t m o r e clearly, c o n s i d e r the d i a g r a m of the
spatial d e p e n d e n c e of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x at several d i f f e r e n t energies c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a
r e s o n a n c e given in F i g u r e 10-1. Of c o u r s e at fission energies w e m i g h t e x p e c t the
f l u x to p e a k in t h e f u e l since t h e fission sources are c o n f i n e d to the fuel. H o w e v e r
o n c e w e h a v e d r o p p e d in e n e r g y m u c h b e l o w t h e fission e n e r g y , w e will b e g i n to
see a flux d e p r e s s i o n in the f u e l . T h i s arises b e c a u s e the fission n e u t r o n s m u s t
e s c a p e t h e f u e l p i n i n t o t h e m o d e r a t o r in o r d e r to b e a p p r e c i a b l y m o d e r a t e d .
( N u c l e a r inelastic s c a t t e r i n g f r o m f u e l i s o t o p e s as well as elastic s c a t t e r i n g f r o m
light i s o t o p e s s u c h a s o x y g e n a d m i x e d i n t o the f u e l c a u s e s o m e m o d e r a t i o n , b u t
this is a s e c o n d a r y e f f e c t in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s . ) H e n c e t h e m o d e r a t o r p r e s e n t s
effectively a v o l u m e t r i c s o u r c e of n e u t r o n s a p p e a r i n g at the lower energies. T h e s e
n e u t r o n s m u s t t h e n either d o w n s c a t t e r to even lower energies or d i f f u s e i n t o the
fuel where they are absorbed.
T h e f u e l p r e s e n t s a very highly a b s o r b i n g m e d i u m to t h e n e u t r o n s of r e s o n a n c e
e n e r g y d i f f u s i n g in f r o m t h e m o d e r a t o r . T h i s a b s o r p t i o n is s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t h a t
m a n y of the n e u t r o n s i n c i d e n t o n t h e f u e l a r e a b s o r b e d in t h e o u t e r layers of the
f u e l p i n . H e n c e t h e f u e l n u c l e i in the p i n i n t e r i o r see a s o m e w h a t d e p r e s s e d f l u x
d u e to the e f f e c t i v e shielding p r e s e n t e d b y the f u e l nuclei n e a r the f u e l p i n s u r f a c e .
S u c h self-shielding is p r e s e n t to a c e r t a i n d e g r e e at all energies b e l o w fission
energies. H o w e v e r it b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e p r o n o u n c e d w h e n the f u e l a b s o r p t i o n
cross section is l a r g e s u c h as at a r e s o n a n c e in the a b s o r p t i o n cross section o r in
the t h e r m a l e n e r g y r a n g e .
T h i s e f f e c t is q u i t e p r o n o u n c e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of n a t u r a l u r a n i u m u n i f o r m l y m i x e d w i t h m o d e r a t i n g m a t e r i a l is
a b o u t 2 8 0 b ; l u m p i n g t h e u r a n i u m , w e c a n r e d u c e the r e s o n a n c e integral to a v a l u e
of 9 b a 3 0 - f o l d r e d u c t i o n . W e will see later t h a t o n e c a n usually write the
e f f e c t i v e r e s o n a n c e integral in t h e f o r m
/-c, + c 2 (^)
(10-12)
w h e r e AF is the s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e f u e l l u m p a n d MF is its m a s s ( p r o p o r t i o n a l to its
405
v o l u m e ) . A s ( A / M ) d e c r e a s e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o r e highly h e t e r o g e n e o u s
lattice c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t h e r e s o n a n c e integral d e c r e a s e s .
T o t r e a t t h e e f f e c t s of h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e use of
several c o n c e p t s f r o m t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y . Since this s u b j e c t is of c o n s i d e r a b l e
i m p o r t a n c e in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r design, w e will discuss it in s o m e d e t a i l in Section
10-111.
T h e f a s t fission f a c t o r c is also i n c r e a s e d s o m e w h a t b y g o i n g to a h e t e r o g e n e o u s
lattice. T o u n d e r s t a n d w h y , o n e n e e d o n l y recall t h a t t h e e n e r g y of a n e u t r o n m u s t
b e a b o v e a c e r t a i n t h r e s h o l d in o r d e r to i n d u c e a fast fission r e a c t i o n in a
f i s s i o n a b l e i s o t o p e s u c h as 2 3 8 U . By l u m p i n g t h e fuel, o n e effectively i n c r e a s e s the
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a h i g h - e n e r g y fission n e u t r o n will e n c o u n t e r a f u e l n u c l e u s b e f o r e
it is slowed d o w n b e l o w t h e f a s t fission e n e r g y t h r e s h o l d , either b y elastic s c a t t e r i n g
collisions w i t h m o d e r a t o r nuclei or inelastic s c a t t e r i n g f r o m f u e l nuclei.
I n s u m m a r y , t h e n , l u m p i n g t h e f u e l i n t o a h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattice c a n significantly
i n c r e a s e k ^ f o r n a t u r a l a n d slightly e n r i c h e d (^5%) u r a n i u m cores. T h e d o m i n a n t
e f f e c t is c o n t a i n e d in t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e t h e r m a l utilization / a n d t h e r e s o n a n c e
e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y p. T o illustrate these t r e n d s , w e h a v e i n d i c a t e d in F i g u r e 10-3 the
v a r i a t i o n of e a c h of t h e f a c t o r s in t h e f o u r - f a c t o r f o r m u l a w i t h h e t e r o g e n e i t y (in
this case m e a s u r e d b y t h e f u e l p i n p i t c h / d i a m e t e r ratio) f o r a typical P W R lattice.
Pitch/diameter
FIGURE 10-3.
Effect of fuel lumping on k^.
406 /
B. Core Homogenization
T o b e m o r e specific, let us o u t l i n e o n e possible a p p r o a c h to t h e t r e a t m e n t of
c o r e lattice e f f e c t s . W e b e g i n b y n o t i n g t h a t r e a c t o r cores h a v e a r e g u l a r o r p e r i o d i c
l a t t i c e s t r u c t u r e in w h i c h o n e s u b e l e m e n t o r so-called unit cell is r e p e a t e d
t h r o u g h o u t the core. F o r e x a m p l e , a f u e l s u b a s s e m b l y or g r o u p of f u e l s u b a s s e m b lies s u c h as t h o s e s k e t c h e d in F i g u r e 10-4 c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a u n i t cell. O n a
m o r e d e t a i l e d scale, a given f u e l e l e m e n t a n d a d j a c e n t c o o l a n t c h a n n e l m i g h t b e
c h o s e n as t h e u n i t cell ( F i g u r e 10-5). I n f a c t , f o r r e a c t o r types u s i n g c o a t e d p a r t i c l e
fuels, o n e is f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d to c o n s i d e r a f u e l m i c r o s p h e r e o r " g r a i n " as a u n i t
cell.
Of c o u r s e the r e a c t o r lattice s t r u c t u r e is n o t precisely r e g u l a r b e c a u s e of c o n t r o l
or i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n devices, n o n u n i f o r m f u e l l o a d i n g s a n d c o o l a n t densities, c o r e
b o u n d a r i e s , a n d so o n . T h e s e lattice irregularities a r e usually h a n d l e d w i t h i n the
g l o b a l m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e core f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n . F o r the
p u r p o s e s of o u r p r e s e n t analysis, w e will i g n o r e these gross lattice irregularities a n d
a s s u m e t h a t t h e c o r e c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d as a n i n f i n i t e a r r a y of i d e n t i c a l lattice
cells.
T h e essential s c h e m e is t h e n to p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of the flux
d i s t r i b u t i o n in a given u n i t cell of t h e l a t t i c e u s u a l l y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e r e is z e r o
n e t n e u t r o n c u r r e n t a c r o s s the b o u n d a r y of t h e cell (using a r g u m e n t s b a s e d o n the
s y m m e t r y of t h e lattice). T h e v a r i o u s m u l t i g r o u p cross sections c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
m a t e r i a l s in t h e cell a r e t h e n spatially a v e r a g e d over t h e cell, u s i n g the flux
d i s t r i b u t i o n as a w e i g h t i n g f u n c t i o n . I n this w a y o n e c a n c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e cell b y
e f f e c t i v e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e i n h o m o g e n e o u s f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e
cell. T h i s s c h e m e essentially r e p l a c e s t h e a c t u a l u n i t cell b y a n e q u i v a l e n t homogeneous u n i t cell c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y these e f f e c t i v e cross sections.
F o r e x a m p l e , o n e usually b e g i n s b y c o n s i d e r i n g a typical f u e l c e l l n a m e l y , f u e l
p l u s c l a d plus c o o l a n t . T h e f u e l cell is first r e d u c e d to a n e q u i v a l e n t cell of simpler
g e o m e t r y to e x p e d i t e c a l c u l a t i o n s (see F i g u r e 10-6a) ( t a k i n g c a r e to p r e s e r v e
volume fractions).
O u r p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t is usually c o n c e r n e d w i t h the g e n e r a t i o n of e f f e c t i v e fast
a n d t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r s u c h a cell. I n t h e f a s t r a n g e , t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s
e n t e r p r i m a r i l y as m o d i f i c a t i o n s to the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y a n d f a s t
fission cross sections. H e n c e it is usually s u f f i c i e n t t o s i m p l y p e r f o r m t h e u s u a l
i n f i n i t e m e d i u m f a s t s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n , t a k i n g care, h o w e v e r , to a c c o u n t f o r
h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s in r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n a n d f a s t fission via t e c h n i q u e s t h a t
will b e d i s c u s s e d later in this c h a p t e r .
The m u c h shorter m e a n free p a t h characterizing thermal neutrons necessitates a
s o m e w h a t m o r e d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t of h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t h e r m a l
f l u x s p e c t r u m in a f u e l cell. F o r less d e t a i l e d c o r e c a l c u l a t i o n s , o n e c a n f r e q u e n t l y
get b y w i t h s i m p l y m o d i f y i n g t h e results of a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m
c a l c u l a t i o n (e.g., S O F O C A T E ) to a c c o u n t f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n s in a v e r a g e f l u x in the
fuel, <f>F, t h e m o d e r a t o r , </>M, a n d t h e clad, <f>c. Of p r i m a r y c o n c e r n h e r e is t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e so-called thermal disadvantage factors, <j>M/<l>F a n d <pC/<F>F> w h i c h
e n t e r i n t o m o d i f y i n g the i n f i n i t e m e d i u m s p e c t r u m results. M o r e d e t a i l e d calculations of t h e r m a l s p e c t r a usually involve a direct s o l u t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t
e q u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e cell. B o t h s c h e m e s will b e d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 10-11.
S u c h f u e l cell c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c u s t o m a r i l y p e r f o r m e d u n d e r the a s s u m p t i o n of
z e r o n e t n e u t r o n l e a k a g e b e t w e e n cells ( w h i c h d e c o u p l e s t h e f u e l cells f r o m o n e
a n o t h e r ) . A c t u a l l y s u c h single f u e l r o d s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e of q u e s t i o n a b l e
407
Fuel assembly w i t h
rodcluster c o n t r o l
Fuel assembly w i t h o u t
rodcluster c o n t r o l
Fuel rod
PWR assemblies
Fuel pin
HTGR
C o o l a n t channel
assemblies
^ fir
I
ooooooo
ooooooo
OOOOOQP ooooooo
ooooodb ooooooo
ooooooo
o o o o o o o
ooooooo
o o o o o o o
ooooooo ooooooo
ooooooo, y ) O O O O O Q
Control
blade
V
BWR assemblies
FIGURE 10-4.
Typical fuel assemblies.
validity w h e n r o d n e i g h b o r s i n c l u d e w a t e r holes, p o i s o n shims, c o n t r o l rods, or

P u - l o a d e d f u e l pins, since o n e t h e n n e e d s to a c c o u n t f o r cell-to-cell leakage. 3
F o r c o a t e d p a r t i c l e fuels, s u c h a s t h o s e utilized in t h e H T G R , a d d i t i o n a l
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s m u s t b e u s e d t o a c c o u n t f o r the h e t e r o g e n e i t y r e p r e s e n t e d b y the
m i c r o s c o p i c g r a i n s t r u c t u r e of t h e f u e l in the c a l c u l a t i o n of cell-averaged t h e r m a l
spectra and group constants.4
T h e n e x t s t e p in t h e analysis of t h e c o r e is to c o n s i d e r a typical f u e l a s s e m b l y or
g r o u p i n g of f u e l assemblies, i n c l u d i n g c o n t r o l o r s h i m e l e m e n t s ( F i g u r e 10-6b). T h e
f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c a l c u l a t e d f o r the f u e l cell c a n b e used to d e s c r i b e m o s t of the
a s s e m b l y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of c o n t r o l m a t e r i a l w h i c h requires r a t h e r specialized
F I G U R E 10-5.
Typical unit fuel assemblies.
(a) Fuelcell homogenization
OOOOOO
oommoo
o#oo#o
00#00l
o#oo#o
OOOOOO
(b) Fuelassembly homogenization
(c) Core homogenization

FIGURE 10-6.
408
Reactor-core homogenization.
409
t e c h n i q u e s . U s u a l l y a d e t a i l e d m u l t i g r o u p t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n or t r a n s p o r t
c o d e is u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e f l u x in* such a n a s s e m b l y , a n d t h e n o n c e a g a i n these
fluxes a r e u s e d to g e n e r a t e a s s e m b l y a v e r a g e d g r o u p c o n s t a n t s .
T h e f i n a l step is to use either these a s s e m b l y - a v e r a g e d g r o u p c o n s t a n t s (or, in
very d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n s , the original f u e l cell g r o u p c o n s t a n t s ) to d e t e r m i n e the
f l u x a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e e n t i r e core. T h e s y m m e t r y of the core will
f r e q u e n t l y allow o n e to c o n s i d e r only o n e q u a d r a n t in detail. It m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y
b e d e s i r a b l e to h o m o g e n i z e t h e c o r e still f u r t h e r to facilitate gross survey calculat i o n s (as in F i g u r e 10-6c).
C. Cell-Averaging Techniques
T h e g o a l of m o s t of o u r analysis in this c h a p t e r will b e to c a l c u l a t e effective
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n spatially a v e r a g e d over t h e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in a
lattice cell a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n b e u s e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e cell in s u b s e q u e n t
m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s in w h i c h t h e cell s t r u c t u r e is i g n o r e d . T o discuss
this s u b j e c t of cell a v e r a g i n g in m o r e detail, let us c o n s i d e r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the
c e l l - a v e r a g e d g r o u p c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a t w o - r e g i o n cell in w h i c h m a t e r i a l
c o m p o s i t i o n is u n i f o r m in e a c h region. W e will a g a i n d e n o t e these r e g i o n s b y " M "
a n d " F " f o r c o n v e n i e n c e (refer to F i g u r e 10-2.)
T h e cell-averaged
t h e n b e d e f i n e d as
group
constant
f
2
>
E g
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a g e n e r a l cross section w o u l d
~ldE f
g/cell
d3rS(r,E)<l>(r,E)
^
* t?
(10-13)
r ^ d E l
d3r<t>(r,E)
J
J
Eg
V cctt
S u c h cell-averaged g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d to as self-shielded
or
simply shielded g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , since a v e r a g i n g over t h e spatial f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in
t h e cell a c c o u n t s f o r t h e flux d e p r e s s i o n c a u s e d b y self-shielding. W e c a n use the
f a c t t h a t the cross section 2 ( r , ) is c o n s t a n t w i t h i n e a c h r e g i o n to r e w r i t e < 2 g ) c e l l
as
<Vce.i=
T e
Je
(10-14)
Eg
w h e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e cell-averaged i n t r a g r o u p fluxes as
=
d3r<f>(r,E),
N o w if in f a c t t h e n e u t r o n f l u x in the cell w e r e separable

that
d3r<t>(r,E).
(10-15)
in s p a c e a n d energy such
=
t h a t is, if b o t h regions of t h e cell w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the s a m e
(10-16)
intragroup
410 /
s p e c t r u m , t h e n o n e c o u l d collapse Eq. (10-14) to
(^g)cell ~
>V>M + VF<PF
i H V u / v *
"
w h e r e the regionwise g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e d e f i n e d as
'-ldE2
(E)if,(E)/f
E g
- l d E f ( E ) , etc.,
(10-18)
Eg
while the spatial flux averages a r e d e f i n e d as

d3r<j>(r), etc.,
K
(10-19)
VM
a n d the cell-disadvantage f a c t o r is d e f i n e d as b e f o r e ,
.!:
(10-20)
Of course the n e u t r o n flux in a typical lattice cell is rarely s e p a r a b l e in space a n d

energy. N e v e r t h e l e s s in m a n y cell h o m o g e n i z a t i o n schemes such separability is
a s s u m e d in o r d e r to s e p a r a t e the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m \p(E) to b e
u s e d as the weighting f u n c t i o n in energy a v e r a g i n g f r o m the c a l c u l a t i o n of the
d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r f to b e u s e d as the weighting p a r a m e t e r in spatial cellaveraging. Such p r o c e d u r e s b e g i n b y h o m o g e n i z i n g fuel, coolant, c l a d a n d so o n
over the fuel cell v o l u m e a n d t h e n calculating the n e u t r o n energy s p e c t r u m \p(E)
f o r this h o m o g e n i z e d cell using a n i n f i n i t e - m e d i u m s p e c t r u m code. N e x t this
s p e c t r u m is u s e d to calculate g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r e a c h region of the cell [e.g., 2 F
a n d 2^*]. A n auxiliary o n e - s p e e d spatial c a l c u l a t i o n of the cell d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r
f is p e r f o r m e d , usually at a n average energy c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the g r o u p of interest,
a n d finally the regionwise g r o u p c o n s t a n t s 2 ^ a n d 2 F are c o m b i n e d using f to
o b t a i n the cell-averaged g r o u p c o n s t a n t < 2 > cell . This s c h e m e is i n d i c a t e d schematically in F i g u r e 10-7.
A m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n of this s c h e m e w o u l d b e t o calculate a n e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t
d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r f (E) b y simply allowing the o n e - s p e e d cross sections a p p e a r ing in f o r m u l a s f o r J t o b e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t . 5 T h e n o n e c a n i n t e r c h a n g e the spatial
a n d e n e r g y - a v e r a g i n g to first calculate the spatial average
Sr(E)
< * * - -
+^ ( E ) ( V
1H V , / v
/V
)S(E)
) U E )
<10 21
- >

VM
411
VM
Lag, trg
FIGURE 10-7.
Various schemes for computing cell-averaged group constants.
a n d t h e n t h e e n e r g y a v e r a g e over
<2g>cell =
\p(E)
g l
(10-22)
~ dE$(E)
T h i s latter s c h e m e h a s also b e e n s k e t c h e d in F i g u r e 10-7. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that in

m o s t cases t h e use of e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s f (E) f o r cell a v e r a g ing yields results t h a t a r e v e r y c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e using t h e s o m e w h a t simpler
d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r f s i m p l y c a l c u l a t e d a t t h e m e a n e n e r g y of t h e g r o u p .
T h e m o s t serious l i m i t a t i o n of b o t h of the a b o v e s c h e m e s is t h e a s s u m p t i o n of
s p a c e - e n e r g y s e p a r a b i l i t y . O n e p r o c e d u r e f o r o v e r c o m i n g this is to first p e r f o r m a
s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a h o m o g e n e o u s m i x t u r e of cell c o n s t i t u e n t s . 6 T h e fewg r o u p c o n s t a n t s g e n e r a t e d f r o m this h o m o g e n e o u s s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n are t h e n
u s e d in a f e w - g r o u p o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l spatial c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l u x in the cell. T h e
spatial f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n o b t a i n e d in this c a l c u l a t i o n is then u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the
a p p r o p r i a t e d i s a d v a n t a g e or shielding f a c t o r s . T h e s e f a c t o r s c a n t h e n b e u s e d to
a d j u s t t h e f i n e - g r o u p cross section d a t a u s e d in t h e s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n . T h e
s p e c t r u m o b t a i n e d f r o m these s h i e l d e d or cell-averaged f i n e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s will
usually b e m u c h closer to t h e a v e r a g e s p e c t r u m in t h e cell, a n d a v e r a g i n g the
shielded f i n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s over this s p e c t r u m will usually p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e
c e l l - a v e r a g e d cross sections.
I n c e r t a i n cases it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of the
spatially d e p e n d e n t s p e c t r u m <|>(r,) in t h e cell a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e cell-averaged
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s directly f r o m t h e r i g o r o u s d e f i n i t i o n given b y E q . (10-13). B e c a u s e
this latter p r o c e d u r e is b e c o m i n g increasingly c o m m o n in p r o v i d i n g cell-averaged
412 /
THE MULTIGROUP DIFFUSION METHODC/
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r a c c u r a t e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e s t i m a t e s of c o r e p a r a m e t e r s , w e
will c o n s i d e r o n e s u c h d i r e c t a p p r o a c h b a s e d o n c o l l i s i o n - p r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s in
Section 10-II-C.
It is i m p o r t a n t t o stress o n c e a g a i n t h a t t h e e f f e c t of f i n e - s c a l e l a t t i c e
heterogeneities enter reactor calculations through group constants that are adjusted
to a c c o u n t f o r t h e spatial v a r i a t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x w i t h i n t h e lattice. M o s t
frequently such group constants are modified by using disadvantage factors for the
lattice cell of interest. H e n c e t h e p r i m a r y e f f o r t i n v o l v e d in a c c o u n t i n g f o r lattice
e f f e c t s involves t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of these d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s . A s w e will f i n d ,
d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y is usually i n a d e q u a t e f o r s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s , a n d t r a n s p o r t m e t h o d s
must be used.
W e p e r h a p s s h o u l d m e n t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r p r e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t p r o v e very
u s e f u l f o r d e f i n i n g cell-averaged a b s o r p t i o n cross sections in the i n s t a n c e t h a t t h e
c e n t r a l r e g i o n ( " F " ) is very highly a b s o r b i n g (as it w o u l d b e f o r either a f u e l p i n or
a c o n t r o l r o d ) . S u c h s c h e m e s u s u a l l y p r o c e e d b y d e m a n d i n g t h a t the r a t e of
a b s o r p t i o n c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e e f f e c t i v e c e l l - a v e r a g e d cross section b e i d e n t i c a l to
the t r u e a b s o r p t i o n r a t e in the r e g i o n F .
F o r e x a m p l e , if 2 f f is the e f f e c t i v e cell a b s o r p t i o n cross section, while </>hom is the
a v e r a g e f l u x in t h e cell w h i c h h a s b e e n h o m o g e n i z e d , t h e n o b v i o u s l y w e r e q u i r e
Cell a b s o r p t i o n r a t e = 2 f ^ h o m K c e l l = 2 a F ^ F F F .
(10-23)
( H e r e w e h a v e n e g l e c t e d the a b s o r p t i o n of t h e r e g i o n M . ) H e n c e the e f f e c t i v e
a b s o r p t i o n cross section f o r t h e cell is given b y
w h e r e w e h a v e d e f i n e d t h e self-shielding
factor
o-25)
0hom
w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r the f l u x
n e e d o n l y scale t h e cross
decrease 2 a by the volume
d e p r e s s i o n o r self-shielding
we c a n w r i t e
V j h
S
VF$F + ^ M
d e p r e s s i o n in r e g i o n F. T h e r e f o r e to c a l c u l a t e 2ff w e
section f o r t h e f u e l r e g i o n b y (VF/Vce[\)fsthat
is,
f r a c t i o n o c c u p i e d b y the fuel, as well as b y t h e f l u x
factor
Since ^ h o m = ( V F / K c e l l )$ F +
(VM/Vcell)
( V ^ / V t )
(^cell/^F)
1 + ( VM/
FF)(0M/^F)
+ ( ^M/
VP)S
[ N o t e t h a t w e c a n t h e n i d e n t i f y E q . (10-24) as e q u i v a l e n t to o u r earlier result f o r

t h e case in w h i c h
0.]
413
Y e t a t h i r d s c h e m e f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d to s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h the region F is very

highly a b s o r b i n g (e.g., a c o n t r o l r o d ) is to e q u a t e ;
Absorption rate _
in cell
yefrr
^
_ o r _ r a t e at w h i c h n e u t r o n s
e n t e r the r e g i o n F
'
n n
{
w h e r e SF is t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of r e g i o n F, while JF is the a v e r a g e n e u t r o n c u r r e n t
d e n s i t y i n t o t h e a b s o r b i n g r e g i o n at this s u r f a c e . T h e n
cc
^F
(10-28)
cell <J>h(om
O n c e a g a i n w e a r e f a c e d with d e t e r m i n i n g a f a c t o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e spatial
v a r i a t i o n of t h e f l u x in t h e cell, / F /</> h o m .
H e n c e all of t h e s e h o m o g e n i z a t i o n s c h e m e s r e q u i r e a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e spatial
v a r i a t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x in t h e cell. W e will s e p a r a t e o u r s t u d y of t h e spatial
t r a n s p o r t of n e u t r o n s in a lattice cell i n t o t w o p a r t s . F i r s t w e will c o n c e r n ourselves
with t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s a n d t h e n later w i t h f a s t n e u t r o n s . T h e physics of e a c h of
t h e s e p r o b l e m s is a bit d i f f e r e n t , since t h e d o m i n a n t lattice e f f e c t s o n t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n b e h a v i o r e n t e r as a d e c r e a s e in the t h e r m a l utilization, while t h e d o m i n a n t
f a s t n e u t r o n e f f e c t s a r e to e n h a n c e t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y a n d the fast
fission f a c t o r .
II. HETEROGENEOUS EFFECTS IN THERMAL NEUTRON

PHYSICS
A. Thermal Utilization, Disadvantage Factors, and Cell-Averaged
Thermal Group Constants
A s w e h a v e seen, t h e c o r e of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r is c o m p r i s e d of t h o u s a n d s of
i n d i v i d u a l f u e l cells, e a c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e f u e l e l e m e n t itself, u s u a l l y s o m e
c l a d d i n g m a t e r i a l ( s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e f u e l e l e m e n t b y a gap), a n d a n a d j a c e n t
m o d e r a t o r t h a t m a y also serve as a c o o l a n t (see F i g u r e 10-5). W e h a v e also n o t e d
t h a t it w o u l d b e prohibitively expensive to p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d f e w - g r o u p d i f f u s i o n
c a l c u l a t i o n t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d e t a i l e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d c o m p o s i t i o n of e a c h
f u e l c e l l i n d e e d , the very h i g h a b s o r p t i o n p r e s e n t in the f u e l e l e m e n t r e n d e r s the
use of t h e d i f f u s i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n itself h i g h l y q u e s t i o n a b l e .
I n s t e a d t h e a p p r o a c h is t o p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of the f l u x in only o n e
typical f u e l cell a n d t h e n to use this f l u x t o spatially a v e r a g e t h e t h e r m a l g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s o v e r t h e cell. Let u s illustrate this b y a n e x a m p l e : C o n s i d e r a typical
s q u a r e lattice f u e l cell w i t h a cylindrical f u e l p i n . O n e first replaces this g e o m e t r y
b y a n e q u i v a l e n t u n i t cell to simplify the c a l c u l a t i o n s , t a k i n g c a r e to p r e s e r v e the
s a m e v o l u m e of f u e l VF a n d m o d e r a t o r VM.
W e will n o w c a l c u l a t e the t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r this cell u s i n g the simplest
of t h e cell-averaging t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e d in the p r e v i o u s section. T h a t is, w e first
p e r f o r m a t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m of i d e n t i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n as t h e cell, h o w e v e r , with the n u m b e r densities of f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r ( a n d
c l a d ) b e i n g u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d over the cell. T h e n u s i n g this h o m o g e n e o u s cell
s p e c t r u m f h o m ( ) , we c o m p u t e the t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g e a c h
414 /
cell region, f o r e x a m p l e ,
2 ^ , 2 ^ , 2 , a n d *>2f. ( H e r e w e h a v e l e f t t h e t h e r m a l
g r o u p i n d e x a s u n d e r s t o o d . ) If w e c a n t h e n d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e cell f , w e c a n c o m p u t e t h e cell-averaged t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s
( f o r a t w o - r e g i o n cell) a s
_2aF + SaM(FM/FFK
<2a>cell
l + (VM/VF)S
'
<2tr)cel.
1+ ( F
'
/ F p ) f
(10-29)
r2f
1 + W F K
W e c o u l d also c a l c u l a t e the t h e r m a l utilization f o r the cell as
sr
/ =
2r + 2aM(FM/FFK
(10-30)
T h u s w e o n c e a g a i n f i n d t h a t the k e y to i n c l u d i n g h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in the g e n e r a t i o n
of t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s rests o n o u r ability to e s t i m a t e t h e spatial d e p e n d e n c e
of the t h e r m a l f l u x in t h e c e l l t h a t is, to d e t e r m i n e t h e t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e
factor f.
F o r the large n a t u r a l u r a n i u m - g r a p h i t e m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r s of i n t e r e s t d u r i n g the
early y e a r s of the n u c l e a r e n e r g y p r o g r a m , o n e c o u l d utilize o n e - s p e e d d i f f u s i o n
t h e o r y t o c a l c u l a t e f . H o w e v e r in the m o r e h i g h l y e n r i c h e d a n d tightly p a c k e d c o r e
lattices utilized in t o d a y ' s m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r s , d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y e s t i m a t e s a r e
q u i t e p o o r . H e n c e w e will d e s c r i b e t w o a l t e r n a t i v e s c h e m e s u s e f u l f o r d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r , b o t h of w h i c h a r e b a s e d o n t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y . T h e
first m e t h o d is a n a n a l y t i c s c h e m e first p r o p o s e d b y A m o u y a l , Benoist, a n d
H o r o w i t z , 7 a n d r e f e r r e d to a s t h e A B H m e t h o d . It relies o n the c o n c e p t of a n
e s c a p e or collision p r o b a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t in t h e cell. T h e
s e c o n d s c h e m e w e shall discuss a c t u a l l y solves t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t n e u t r o n
t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n directly f o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t cell of interest t o g e n e r a t e t h e t h e r m a l
f l u x a n d p e r f o r m spatial a v e r a g i n g over t h e cell. T h i s s c h e m e , k n o w n a s T H E R M O S 8 , discretizes t h e integral f o r m of the t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g it t o
a s y s t e m of a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s solvable o n a c o m p u t e r .
T h e r e a r e still o t h e r m e t h o d s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g spatially d e p e n d e n t t h e r m a l n e u t r o n
s p e c t r a , r a n g i n g all t h e w a y f r o m t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a f u n d a m e n t a l s p a t i a l m o d e
( s u c h as w a s u s e d in t h e BN or PN m e t h o d s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 8) to d i r e c t SN
s o l u t i o n s of t h e t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n or M o n t e C a r l o c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e c h o i c e of the
m e t h o d will d e p e n d o n b o t h t h e d e t a i l r e q u i r e d in the design a n d c o m p u t e r
415
c a p a b i l i t y ( a n d a l l o w a b l e expense). I n r e c e n t years, the t r e n d h a s b e e n t o w a r d

m o r e c a r e f u l t r e a t m e n t of t h e spatial detail of t h e lattice a n d m o r e precise t r a n s p o r t
d e s c r i p t i o n s , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g use of M o n t e C a r l o t e c h n i q u e s . 9
B. Escape Probability Methods in Cell Calculations

W e will first investigate a n a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of cell
d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s t h a t utilizes the c o n c e p t of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n b o r n
in o n e r e g i o n will e s c a p e t h e r e g i o n b e f o r e s u f f e r i n g a collision. T h e use of such
" e s c a p e " p r o b a b i l i t i e s is q u i t e c o m m o n in s t u d y i n g n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t in highly
a b s o r b i n g m e d i a (e.g., f u e l ) . 1 0 - 1 2 W e will o u t l i n e the specific a p p l i c a t i o n of such
c o n c e p t s in a s c h e m e , d e v e l o p e d b y A m o u y a l , Benoist, a n d H o r o w i t z (the A B H
method).
T h e A B H m e t h o d c o m b i n e s a s p e c t s of t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y , collision p r o b a b i l i t y
m e t h o d s , a n d d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y to c a l c u l a t e t h e t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a u n i t f u e l cell. M o r e specifically, d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y is u s e d to
d e s c r i b e t h e f l u x in t h e m o d e r a t o r , a l t h o u g h a t r a n s p o r t c o r r e c t i o n is i n t r o d u c e d
i n t o t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n at t h e m o d e r a t o r - f u e l i n t e r f a c e . N e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t in
t h e f u e l is d e s c r i b e d b y m u l t i p l e collision e s c a p e probabilities. All of these calculations a r e p e r f o r m e d in t h e o n e - s p e e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n a n d yield in t e r m s of the
o n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g m a t e r i a l s in t h e cell.
B e f o r e w e b e g i n o u r d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e m e t h o d , let u s b e a bit m o r e precise in o u r
d e f i n i t i o n of a u n i t f u e l cell. W e will m a k e f o u r a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the
t r e a t m e n t of t h e cell:
(1) T h e r e a r e n o n e u t r o n s slowing to t h e r m a l energies in the f u e l region. T h i s
a s s u m p t i o n is q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e in t h e r m a l p o w e r r e a c t o r lattices, since
m o d e r a t i o n in t h e f u e l o c c u r s o n l y via inelastic s c a t t e r i n g o r elastic
s c a t t e r i n g f r o m a d m i x e d m a t e r i a l s s u c h as o x y g e n or c a r b o n , b o t h of
w h i c h yield i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l m o d e r a t i o n w h e n c o m p a r e d to t h e s u r r o u n d ing m o d e r a t i n g region.
(2) W e c a n t r e a t t h e spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n of n e u t r o n s slowing d o w n w i t h i n the
m o d e r a t o r r e g i o n as u n i f o r m . T o m o t i v a t e this a s s u m p t i o n , n o t i c e t h a t in
m o s t cases t h e d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e d to slow a fission n e u t r o n to t h e r m a l
energies ( V 6 T ) is q u i t e large c o m p a r e d to the lattice s p a c i n g or pitch.
F o r e x a m p l e , in a L W R t h e r m s d i s t a n c e to slow d o w n is r o u g h l y 15 cm,
c o m p a r e d to a typical lattice p i t c h of 1 - 2 c m . H e n c e the n e u t r o n s slowing
d o w n w i t h i n a n y m o d e r a t i n g r e g i o n c o m e f r o m a large n u m b e r of the
s u r r o u n d i n g f u e l pins. T h i s t e n d s to yield a m o r e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
slowing d o w n s o u r c e .
(3) W e will finally a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e is n o n e t flow of n e u t r o n s b e t w e e n the
cells. Surely this r e q u i r e m e n t w o u l d b e t r u e f o r a n i n f i n i t e lattice of
i d e n t i c a l f u e l cells. It w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to b r e a k d o w n o n l y n e a r the core
b o u n d a r i e s or n e a r to c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s or f u e l p i n s of n o n u n i f o r m
e n r i c h m e n t o r c o m p o s i t i o n (e.g., P u - l o a d e d f u e l p i n s , w h i c h a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n r e s o n a n c e s in t h e
eV range).
(4) W e will a s s u m e t h a t a o n e - s p e e d t r e a t m e n t of the n e u t r o n f l u x in the cell
is s u f f i c i e n t . A c t u a l l y , a o n e - s p e e d c a l c u l a t i o n i g n o r e s the f a c t t h a t the
f l u x in t h e cell is f r e q u e n t l y i n s e p a r a b l e in space a n d energy, b u t p r o v i d e d
416 /

t h e p r o p e r t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e u s e d in t h e o n e - s p e e d t r e a t m e n t ,
this l a t t e r c o r r e c t i o n c a n f r e q u e n t l y b e i g n o r e d .
W e will n o w u s e this m o d e l t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e cell. A c t u a l l y t h e A B H m e t h o d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g f
s o m e w h a t i n d i r e c t l y b y first c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t h e r m a l utilization / f o r t h e
t h e n u s i n g this q u a n t i t y a n d E q . (10-6) t o i n f e r t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r f
factor f
proceeds
cell, a n d
as
(10-31)
T h e k e y q u a n t i t y i n v o l v e d in c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t h e r m a l utilization is t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
t h a t a n e u t r o n a p p e a r i n g u n i f o r m l y a n d i s o t r o p i c a l l y in t h e m o d e r a t o r (i.e., slowing
d o w n s o u r c e ) will b e a b s o r b e d i n t h e f u e l r e g i o n . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s u c h p r o b abilities is f a r f r o m trivial, p a r t i c u l a r l y if o n e of t h e cell r e g i o n s is s u f f i c i e n t l y
highly absorbing to invalidate diffusion theory. However approximate schemes can
b e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s e p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t utilize t h e c o n c e p t s of e s c a p e a n d
collision p r o b a b i l i t i e s .
1. ESCAPE PROBABILITIES
T o b e m o r e specific, w e will c o n s i d e r a t w o - r e g i o n cell s u c h as t h a t i l l u s t r a t e d
in F i g u r e 10-8. T h e n w e d e f i n e t h e absorption probabilities
characterizing the two
r e g i o n s of t h e cell a s
probability that a n e u t r o n appearing uniformly a n d isotropically
in r e g i o n F will e v e n t u a l l y b e a b s o r b e d in r e g i o n F ,
(10-32)
p
_ p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n , a p p e a r i n g u n i f o r m l y a n d isotropically
FM
in r e g i o n F will e v e n t u a l l y b e a b s o r b e d i n r e g i o n M ,
a n d similarly f o r PMM a n d PM. N o t i c e t h a t since t h e cell h a s o n l y t w o regions

w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e all space, w e m u s t h a v e
(10-33)
FIGURE 10-8.
The absorption probabilities characterizing a two-region cell
417
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of these p r o b a b i l i t i e s is c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y m u s t
a c c o u n t f o r s c a t t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n e a c h r e g i o n as well as i n s t a n c e s in w h i c h a
n e u t r o n m a y s c a t t e r b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e r e g i o n s several times b e f o r e finally
being absorbed.
A l t h o u g h t h e s e a b s o r p t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s m a y b e very difficult t o c a l c u l a t e in
p r a c t i c e , t h e y d o exhibit several simple a n d u s e f u l p r o p e r t i e s . T h e a b s o r p t i o n
p r o b a b i l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g cross-region t r a n s f e r o b e y a r e c i p r o c i t y r e l a t i o n of the
form:
KF2^FM = K
2^
M F
(10-34)
T h i s v e r y u s e f u l r e l a t i o n c a n b e p r o v e n (see P r o b l e m 10-10) b y n o t i n g t h a t t h e
G r e e n ' s f u n c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e cell is s y m m e t r i c s u c h t h a t G ( r , r ' ) = G ( r ' , r )
( w h e t h e r d e s c r i b e d b y o n e - s p e e d d i f f u s i o n o r t r a n s p o r t theory 1 1 ).
T h i s f e a t u r e of a b s o r p t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s is p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of
t h e t h e r m a l utilization / , f o r b y d e f i n i t i o n / is j u s t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n is a b s o r b e d b y t h e f u e l . T h a t is, / is j u s t P M F , since w e h a v e a s s u m e d t h a t
all t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s first a p p e a r as a s l o w i n g d o w n s o u r c e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d in
t h e m o d e r a t o r . W e c a n t h e r e f o r e use E q . (10-34) t o write
/ = V =
\ w -
h ^ r
(10-35)
T h u s w e a r e n o w f a c e d w i t h c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a b s o r p t i o n p r o b a b i l i t y f o r the f u e l
r e g i o n to m o d e r a t o r r e g i o n
T h i s q u a n t i t y is s o m e w h a t easier t o a p p r o x i m a t e ,
since t h e f u e l is usually sufficiently highly a b s o r b i n g t h a t n e u t r o n s t e n d to m a k e
v e r y f e w collisions in t h e f u e l r e g i o n b e f o r e b e i n g a b s o r b e d .
So h o w d o w e c a l c u l a t e
W e b e g i n b y b r e a k i n g it u p i n t o t w o f a c t o r s
Pfm = PFPM
(10-36)
where
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n b o r n u n i f o r m l y a n d isotropically
in t h e f u e l e s c a p e s f r o m t h e f u e l b e f o r e b e i n g a b s o r b e d ,
(10-37)
conditional probability that the neutron, having escaped
f r o m t h e fuel, will t h e n b e a b s o r b e d in t h e m o d e r a t o r .
W e will r e f e r to PF as t h e escape probability
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f u e l region, since it
gives the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n e v e n t u a l l y e s c a p e s t h e f u e l (possibly a f t e r a
n u m b e r of s c a t t e r i n g collisions) w i t h o u t b e i n g a b s o r b e d . I n a similar m a n n e r w e
c a n i d e n t i f y /? M as a m e a s u r e of t h e b l a c k n e s s of the m o d e r a t o r region, since it
m e a s u r e s the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n e n t e r i n g this region will b e a b s o r b e d . O u r
g o a l t h e n is to c a l c u l a t e t h e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PF f o r t h e f u e l region a n d the
c o n d i t i o n a l " a b s o r p t i o n " p r o b a b i l i t y /? M f o r t h e m o d e r a t o r .
A w o r d of c a u t i o n a t this p o i n t is a d v i s a b l e . T h e r e a r e a variety of d i f f e r e n t
d e f i n i t i o n s of " e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s " a n d "collision p r o b a b i l i t i e s " f l o a t i n g a r o u n d in
t h e r e a c t o r p h y s i c s literature. Since this c o n c e p t w a s originally i n t r o d u c e d to
d e s c r i b e t r a n s p o r t in p u r e l y a b s o r b i n g m e d i a in w h i c h a n y collision within the f u e l
418 /
r e s u l t e d in n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n , 1 0 t h e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y is o c c a s i o n a l l y d e f i n e d as
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n escapes t h e r e g i o n w i t h o u t s u f f e r i n g a n y k i n d of a
collision. W e will d e n o t e this latter c o n c e p t as t h e first-flight
escape
probability,
h o w e v e r , since it c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e n e u t r o n s t r e a m i n g o u t of t h e f u e l w i t h o u t
interacting.
2. F I R S T - F L I G H T ESCAPE PROBABILITIES A N D COLLISION
PROBABILITIES
Since t h e f u e l is u s u a l l y v e r y highly a b s o r b i n g , o n e c a n f r e q u e n t l y c a l c u l a t e
t h e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PF i n t e r m s of a m u c h simpler q u a n t i t y P F O , t h e first-flight
escape probability
defined by
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n o r i g i n a t i n g u n i f o r m l y a n d isoP0=
tropically in t h e f u e l will m a k e its n e x t collision i n t h e

m o d e r a t o r ( t h a t is, will e s c a p e t h e f u e l w i t h o u t m a k i n g
a collision).
(10-38)
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of P F O is s i m p l y a g e o m e t r i c a l p r o b l e m , since o n e n e e d o n l y
d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n will s t r e a m o u t of t h e f u e l r e g i o n b e f o r e it
collides w i t h a n y t h i n g . T h e first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s P F O h a v e b e e n c a l c u l a t e d 1 0 a n d t a b u l a t e d 1 3 f o r m o s t of t h e c o m m o n f u e l g e o m e t r i e s a n d w e will a v o i d
w a d i n g t h r o u g h t h e solid g e o m e t r y n e c e s s a r y t o r e p e a t t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s h e r e . It is
u s e f u l t o n o t e several specific cases, h o w e v e r . F o r a very small f u e l r e g i o n w e
evidently must have
small
Pro~*
(10-39)
fuel
lump
(since t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l e a k i n g o u t b e f o r e s u f f e r i n g a collision m u s t b e a l m o s t
FIGURE 10-10.
First-flight escape probability
419
PFOi0.
unity). F o r a large f u e l region s u c h t h a t t h e f u e l d i m e n s i o n s a r e large c o m p a r e d to

a mfp, one finds10
large
fuel
lump
4F
F
F
Sf
1
w h e r e SF is t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e f u e l r e g i o n while 2 f is t h e t o t a l cross s e c t i o n of
t h e f u e l . T h e collision p r o b a b i l i t y f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e size regions (size c o m p a r a b l e to
a m f p ) is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d . W e h a v e i n c l u d e d a p l o t of PFO f o r several c o m m o n
g e o m e t r i e s in F i g u r e 10-10.
A closely r e l a t e d c o n c e p t is t h e collision probability
characterizing a region
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n o r i g i n a t i n g u n i f o r m l y a n d isoPFC = tropically in t h e f u e l will m a k e first collision in the
(10-41)
fuel before escaping.

F r o m this d e f i n i t i o n it is a p p a r e n t t h a t
^fc=1-^FO-
(10-42)
W e will f i n d it m o r e c o n v e n i e n t to w o r k w i t h t h e first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PFO,

I n t h e special case of a p u r e l y a b s o r b i n g or " b l a c k " f u e l l u m p , t h e e s c a p e
p r o b a b i l i t y PF is j u s t e q u a l t o t h e first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PFO, since a n y
collision results in a b s o r p t i o n . M o r e generally, h o w e v e r , t h e n e u t r o n m a y scatter
several t i m e s b e f o r e b e i n g a b s o r b e d o r e s c a p i n g . H e n c e w e s h o u l d really write PF
420 /
i n t e r m s of " m u l t i p l e c o l l i s i o n " e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s
PF PF o +
^F2
(10-43)
^Fn'
n= 0
w h e r e t h e PFn a r e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of t h e first flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PFO w h i c h

describe the probability that the neutron escapes f r o m the fuel l u m p after
s c a t t e r i n g n t i m e s w i t h i n t h e f u e l . W e c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s in t e r m s of P F O
if w e a s s u m e t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of first, s e c o n d , a n d f u r t h e r collisions is u n i f o r m .
F o r example,
(10-44)
A r
Similarly
^F2 = ( l - ^ F 0 ) ~ ( l - J P
F 0
)d,/
(10-45)
a n d so o n . T h u s u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n of spatially u n i f o r m collision densities, w e

f i n d t h e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y is given b y
J.. c
^ F ^FO 1 + ( 1 - ^ f o ) ^ F + ( 1 - ^ F O ) .
T
I
i-
'"7
r
i +
2a F ( 1 - - P F O )
-1
(10-46)
FO
2f
l ^ - r ,
w h e r e w e h a v e s u m m e d t h e g e o m e t r i c series. A c t u a l l y in t h e A B H m e t h o d this
result is i m p r o v e d s o m e w h a t b y a c c o u n t i n g f o r a n o n u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n of first
collisions. 7 I n this case PF is given f o r a c y l i n d r i c a l f u e l p i n of r a d i u s a b y
- I
Zf
(I-^FO)
1+
2f
FO
i +
i t r
+ a2!
(10-47)
w h e r e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a a n d fi a r e given f o r c y l i n d r i c a l f u e l in F i g u r e 10-11. [ N o t e
t h a t if a = /? = 0, this is i d e n t i c a l t o E q . (10-46).]
3. T H E ABH M E T H O D
O u r f i n a l t a s k is t o c a l c u l a t e /J M , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n e s c a p i n g t h e
f u e l will b e a b s o r b e d i n t h e m o d e r a t o r . I n t h e A B H m e t h o d , this is a c c o m p l i s h e d
b y c o m b i n i n g E q s . (10-35) a n d (10-36) t o w r i t e
^"(^X^jp/MF-
(10-48)

0.2 J
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.15
a,.
V 0.1
0.05
0
/ l
421
1 1 11
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 II
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 l I i I 1 I 1 f 1 1 1 1i
oiL*
FIGURE 10-11.
The ABH parameters a and ft.1
T o c a l c u l a t e /? M , w e n o w a p p r o x i m a t e PF b y u s i n g its v a l u e f o r a large, p u r e l y
absorbing fuel lump
(10-49)
Then
Pm
Ay Myy
M
(10-50)
MF'
y
N o w all w e n e e d d o is c a l c u l a t e P M F , t h e t r a n s f e r p r o b a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s o u r c e
n e u t r o n s b o r n in t h e m o d e r a t o r e s c a p i n g to t h e f u e l w h e r e t h e y a r e t h e n a b s o r b e d .
A h , b u t isn't P M F j u s t the t h e r m a l utilization, t h a t w e w e r e t r y i n g to calculate
originally? Yes, t h a t is true. H o w e v e r t h e key i d e a in the A B H m e t h o d is to n o t e
t h a t o n e c a n u s e a relatively c r u d e s c h e m e to c a l c u l a t e P M F in o b t a i n i n g /? M ,
p r o v i d e d t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s u s e d in c o m p u t i n g / a r e t r e a t e d a d e q u a t e l y . T h a t is,
o n e c a n r e w r i t e E q . (10-35) as
1
(H-
I-/-/*M
^F
(10-51)
a n d t h e n n o t e t h a t since the s e c o n d t e r m o n t h e r i g h t - h a n d side is small, relatively

c r u d e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of it will suffice. If w e rewrite E q . (10-51) u s i n g a n d
E q . (10-49), w e f i n d
(H-(fR)**
MF
dyMv
(10-52)
MF
H e n c e w e n e e d o n l y e s t i m a t e PMF. T h i s c a n b e d o n e to s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y using
d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y w i t h a t r a n s p o r t - c o r r e c t e d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n at t h e f u e l -
422 /
FIGURE 10-12.
Fuel cell geometry for calculating PMF.
m o d e r a t o r i n t e r f a c e a n d a s s u m i n g Pmf~Pm-
T h a t is, w e solve
^ m ^ M O O - s ^ M ' ) - - ? . .
subject to b o u n d a r y conditions:
(a)
(b)
V 7
dr
= 0
(10-53)
r= b
- L ^ i
<t>M dr
f o r t h e g e o m e t r y i n d i c a t e d in F i g u r e 10-12. H e r e we h a v e u s e d a t r a n s p o r t b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n at r= a, involving a p a r a m e t e r d w h i c h is given in F i g u r e 10-13

in t e r m s of t h e f u e l r a d i u s a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t m e a n f r e e p a t h . W e n e e d o n l y solve
this d i f f u s i o n p r o b l e m , a n d t h e n use t h e f a c t t h a t
2iraDM d<f>M
%vM
(10-54)
dr
in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e PM. A v o i d i n g t h e details, w e will o n l y give t h e f i n a l result

V
Uad
2 VFL2M
a n d E is a lattice function,7
where
=
takes the f o r m
\ ^M
^M /
w h i c h f o r cylindrical g e o m e t r i e s
(10-56)
2 aL M
( i W t M t W t )

1.4
423
1-2
Small black cylinder
Probable shape of dependence for a
cylinder of finite radius
1.0
Large black cylinder
0.8
0.6
Radius of black cylinder R
The transport boundary correction d. 13
FIGURE 10-13.
Hence our final expression becomes
z!Vi
<z2f
1+ a
FO
ad
2 L
1 ~PF O
1+
- a 2
1.
V
^ M
(10-57)
Similar results f o r a t h r e e - r e g i o n cell ( i n c l u d i n g c l a d ) c a n b e o b t a i n e d . 5 , 1 4

T h e A B H m e t h o d a c t u a l l y gives r e m a r k a b l y g o o d results. F o r a r a n g e of
f u e l - t o - m o d e r a t o r ratios, the values of <j>M/<pF c a l c u l a t e d b y the A B H m e t h o d a r e
within 0.5% of t h o s e c a l c u l a t e d b y a t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y analysis. I n F i g u r e 10-14 w e
h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e A B H m e t h o d results f o r a cylindrical p i n w i t h the results of a
m o r e accurate transport calculation ( T H E R M O S ) .
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e A B H m e t h o d
d e p e n d o n v a r i o u s m a c r o s c o p i c cross sections. T h e m o s t c o m m o n s c h e m e is to
c o n s i d e r these cross sections as b e i n g e v a l u a t e d at the m e a n e n e r g y of the
M a x w e l l i a n s p e c t r u m c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r it is
possible to also r e g a r d t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s a s d e p e n d i n g implicitly o n energy
via the e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n c e of t h e cross sections t h a t a p p e a r in t h e m . T h a t is, o n e
c a n c a l c u l a t e a d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r f o r e a c h e n e r g y p o i n t utilized in the t h e r m a l
spectrum calculation. These energy-dependent disadvantage factors can then be
utilized to d e t e r m i n e cell-averaged g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , as w e i n d i c a t e d in Section
10-1-3.
10
Fuel Radius (cm)
1.35
1.28
-Jwj
%
U_
1.21
a)
m
CO
cre
S 1.14
03
t/>
1.07
1.0
Nh/Nu
+
Thermos (Nelkin Scattering Kernel)
A A B H (using Nelkin
Kernel)
O A B H (using proton gas Kernel)
Diffusion T h e o r y (using proton gas Kernel)
X B N L Experimental
Values
FIGURE 10-14.
Comparison of Disadvantage Factor Calculations for Cylindrical Fuel Pins of
1.3% Enrichment Fuel, H 2 0 Moderator.
424
425
C. Integral Transport Methods for Thermal Cell Calculations

(THERMOS)
T h u s f a r w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d m e t h o d s f o r i n c l u d i n g lattice h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in
t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t essentially s e p a r a t e the t r e a t m e n t of t h e spatial
a n d e n e r g y d e p e n d e n c e of the n e u t r o n flux. T h a t is, t h e spatial b e h a v i o r of t h e flux
in t h e u n i t cell is t r e a t e d in t h e o n e - s p e e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n (such as in t h e A B H
m e t h o d ) , a n d t h e n t h e t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m this spatial
a n a l y s i s a r e u s e d to g e n e r a t e cell-averaged o r " s e l f - s h i e l d e d " t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s u s i n g t h e results of a n i n f i n i t e h o m o g e n e o u s m e d i u m t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m code.
S u c h a s c h e m e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m i n i m a l c a l c u l a t i o n a l e f f o r t while still
p r o d u c i n g results of s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y f o r m a n y r e a c t o r d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s .
H o w e v e r o c c a s i o n a l l y a m o r e d e t a i l e d analysis of the spatial d e p e n d e n c e of the
t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m in a f u e l cell is r e q u i r e d , f o r w h i c h the a s s u m p t i o n of s p a c e e n e r g y s e p a r a b i l i t y is i n a d e q u a t e . F o r s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s it is usually also n e c e s s a r y
t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e m o r e d e t a i l e d n a t u r e of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g in the
m o d e r a t o r u s i n g t h e s c a t t e r i n g kernels g e n e r a t e d b y m o r e e l a b o r a t e m e t h o d s (e.g.,
G A S K E T ) t h a n t h o s e s u c h as t h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s s c h e m e .
S u c h a n a n a l y s i s usually r e q u i r e s a d e t a i l e d solution of the e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t
t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the cell. P e r h a p s the m o s t p o p u l a r of such
t r a n s p o r t m e t h o d s is t h e T H E R M O S c o d e d e v e l o p e d b y H o n e c k , 8 w h i c h uses a n
i n t e g r a l f o r m of t h e t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n to c a l c u l a t e the spatially d e p e n d e n t t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m in a cell c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y m m e t r y (usually
cylindrical). T h e feasibility of t h e a p p r o a c h u s e d in T H E R M O S relies h e a v i l y o n
t h e a s s u m p t i o n of isotropic scattering.
T o s k e t c h t h e m e t h o d , let u s first recall t h e f o r m of t h e
t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n , a s s u m i n g isotropic s o u r c e s a n d s c a t t e r i n g :
[EcdE'f
477 Jq
energy-dependent
d&^(r,E'->E)<p(r,E'Mf)+
,
477
JAm
0 <E<EC,
(10-58)
w h e r e w e h a v e n o t e d t h a t f o r such t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m p r o b l e m s , o n e is usually
i n t e r e s t e d in energies E b e l o w s o m e cutoff e n e r g y Ec (typically of the o r d e r of 1
eV). T h e s o u r c e t e r m a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t s n e u t r o n s slowing d o w n b e l o w Ec f r o m
h i g h e r energies:
r co
S(r,E)=
/ dE'^{r,E'Ê)<t>(r,E').
J
EC
(10-59)
N o w n o t i c e t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t E q . (10-58) c o n t a i n s only a single d e r i v a t i v e in

s p a c e . H e n c e o n e c a n use s t a n d a r d i n t e g r a t i n g f a c t o r t e c h n i q u e s (refer b a c k to
S e c t i o n 4 - I V - C ) to i n t e g r a t e this e q u a t i o n o v e r space. A f t e r a s u b s e q u e n t integrat i o n over angle, o n e arrives at the so-called " i n t e g r a l f o r m " of t h e n e u t r o n
transport equation
<p(r,E) = Jd3r'T(r,r',E)
j*'dE'W,E'Ê)${r',E')
+S{x',E)
(10-60)
426
where
exp
T(t,T',E)
(10-61)
4 7 r | r - r '/|2
N o t e h e r e t h a t T(r,r',E)
is, in f a c t , the u n c o l l i d e d flux a t r of energy E f r o m a u n i t
p o i n t source a t r' of the s a m e e n e r g y E. It is s o m e t i m e s k n o w n as the transport o r
first-flight
kernel, a n d w e will later see t h a t it is closely related to a n escape
probability.
T h i s e q u a t i o n is n o w solved n u m e r i c a l l y f o r a u n i t f u e l cell, a s s u m i n g zero net
n e u t r o n c u r r e n t across cell b o u n d a r i e s a n d a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d slowing d o w n
source only in t h e m o d e r a t o r . T h e integral t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n is first w r i t t e n in
multigroup form
= Jd3rT(
r,r',
2
2SJr'U,(r')+5g(r')
r' = l
l < g < G .
(10-62)
T o h a n d l e t h e spatial variable, the cell is divided i n t o N subregions. O n e t h e n

a s s u m e s t h a t <f
p(r) is spatially i n d e p e n d e n t w i t hi n e a c h s u b r e g i o n such t h a t E q .
(10-62) c a n b e written as
N
(10-63)
2
m= 1
where
T L = y J
d\'T(r,r',Eg
d3rf
).
(10-64)
N o t i c e h e r e t h a t T%n c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as the t r a n s f e r o r c o u p l i n g coefficient

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t b e t w e e n subregions n a n d m. I n fact, if w e d e n o t e
by
the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n of energy Eg a p p e a r i n g in region m will s u f f e r
its next collision in region n, t h e n the e s c a p e probabilities
are r e l a t e d to the
c o u p l i n g coefficients
by:
(10-65)
m
T h e T H E R M O S m e t h o d first calculates the c o u p l i n g coefficients T*m f o r the cell

of interest, usually b y n u m e r i c a l l y p e r f o r m i n g the i n t e g r a t i o n i n d i c a t e d in Eq.
(10-61). T h e n the N XG m u l t i g r o u p , spatially discretized e q u a t i o n s a r e solved using
s t a n d a r d iterative t e c h n i q u e s (e.g., overrelaxation). As o n e m i g h t expect, the
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e T%m is very t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e since we a r e actually
solving a discretized integral e q u a t i o n in space (as o p p o s e d to a differential
e q u a t i o n ) , it is n o t surprising to f i n d t h a t the m a t r i c e s involved are full (that
427
restricts o n e in p r a c t i c e to using a small n u m b e r of subregions).

T H E R M O S w o r k s b e s t f o r tight, highly a b s o r b i n g lattices with r a p i d l y spatially
v a r y i n g p r o p e r t i e s . O n c e h a v i n g o b t a i n e d the spatially d e p e n d e n t flux in the cell
4>(T,E)9 o n e c a n directly c a l c u l a t e the cell-averaged or self-shielded cross sections as
f
<2W()>
d3r Nj (r)o^\E)<f>(r,
cell=
E)
.
(10-66)
d r<j>(ryE)
Of c o u r s e o n e c a n also c a l c u l a t e t h e r m a l d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s ,
-J-f
y
M Vm
d3r*(r,E)
$ { E ) = ~
- f f
V
(10-67)
d r<f>(r,E)
VF
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h c o d e s s u c h as T H E R M O S w h i c h a t t e m p t to c a l c u l a t e in s o m e
detail t h e s p a t i a l d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f l u x in a u n i t f u e l cell is o n e of cost relative to
less s o p h i s t i c a t e d s c h e m e s s u c h as t h e A B H m e t h o d . T y p i c a l r u n n i n g times f o r
s u c h d e t a i l e d t r a n s p o r t c o d e s a r e several o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e longer t h a n t h o s e f o r
s c h e m e s b a s e d o n relatively simple e s t i m a t e s of t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s . H e n c e
t h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e is to c a l c u l a t e t h e fine s t r u c t u r e within f u e l cells using
T H E R M O S o n l y in d e t a i l e d design studies. T h e s e results a r e t h e n u s e d to
h o m o g e n i z e o r self-shield g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r a f e w g r o u p , t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
d i f f u s i o n o r t r a n s p o r t c a l c u l a t i o n p e r f o r m e d o n a f u e l s u b a s s e m b l y o r g r o u p of
s u b a s s e m b l i e s . T h e p r o c e d u r e is usually a u g m e n t e d b y a f e w e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
obtained corrections.
III. HETEROGENEOUS EFFECTS IN FAST NEUTRON

PHYSICS
A. Resonance Escape Probabilities in Lumped Fuels
1. T H E S L O W I N G D O W N EQUATIONS F O R A T W O - R E G I O N CELL
I n o u r i n t r o d u c t o r y discussion of lattice e f f e c t s o n c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , it was
stressed t h a t f u e l l u m p i n g c a n c a u s e r a t h e r d r a m a t i c c h a n g e s in r e s o n a n c e
a b s o r p t i o n d u e to self-shielding effects. I n d e e d t h e effective r e s o n a n c e integrals f o r
t h e f u e l c a n b e d e c r e a s e d f r o m their h o m o g e n e o u s v a l u e s b y as m u c h as a n o r d e r
of m a g n i t u d e . H e n c e it is essential t h a t w e discuss s c h e m e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e
r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattices. It is e v i d e n t t h a t such
s c h e m e s m u s t a c c o u n t f o r t h e spatial d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f l u x in t h e f u e l cell. O n c e
a g a i n t h e m e t h o d we will use is b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t of collision o r e s c a p e
p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t is, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n o r i g i n a t i n g in o n e region will
m a k e its n e x t collision in a n o t h e r region.
F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , we will c o n s i d e r t h e f u e l cell t o b e c o m p o s e d of only two
species, f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r . ( T h e e x t e n s i o n to m u l t i p l e isotopes or m o d e r a t o r
a d m i x e d i n t o t h e f u e l is given in m a n y of the s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s 1 5 - 1 7 o n this
428
s u b j e c t . ) O u r first t a s k is t o w r i t e a b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e n e u t r o n f l u x in
t h e cell. R e c a l l t h a t t h e b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g n e u t r o n s l o w i n g d o w n i n a n
i n f i n i t e , homogeneous
m e d i u m is
e
c ^
2?(E')<t>(E')dE'
C M
^f(E')$(E')dE'
W e will d e v e l o p a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of this e q u a t i o n t o a c c o u n t f o r a h e t e r o g e n e o u s
f u e l cell b y d e f i n i n g t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n t first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s :
PFO(E) = p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n of e n e r g y E o r i g i n a t i n g in t h e f u e l will m a k e
its n e x t collision in t h e m o d e r a t o r ( t h a t is, will e s c a p e t h e f u e l w i t h o u t
s u f f e r i n g a collision),
PMO(E) = p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a n e u t r o n of e n e r g y E o r i g i n a t i n g in t h e m o d e r a t o r will
m a k e its n e x t collision in t h e fuel.
W e c a n n o w u s e t h e s e first flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s t o d e v e l o p a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of
E q . (10-68). F o r s u p p o s e w e i n t e r p r e t
a n d </>M(.E) as t h e v o l u m e - a v e r a g e d
f l u x in t h e f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r , respectively. T h e n f o r e x a m p l e ,
i .
<io-7o>
0 - , y
r e p r e s e n t s t h e a v e r a g e r a t e a t w h i c h n e u t r o n s slow d o w n t o a n e n e r g y E i n t h e
m o d e r a t o r . H e n c e b y m u l t i p l y i n g this e x p r e s s i o n b y PMO(E)
we can compute the
r a t e a t w h i c h n e u t r o n s of e n e r g y E a r e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e m o d e r a t o r i n t o t h e
f u e l . I n a similar f a s h i o n , o n e c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e r a t e at w h i c h n e u t r o n s slowing
d o w n t o e n e r g y E in t h e f u e l s u f f e r their n e x t collision in t h e f u e l a s
[1-JWJOlKp
dE'
(10-71)
T h e s u m of t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s m u s t e q u a l t h e t o t a l r a t e a t w h i c h collisions a r e
o c c u r r i n g in t h e f u e l ; h e n c e w e arrive a t t h e b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n f o r t h e f u e l
KF2r(>F(ir)=FF[l-i>FO(i?)]
dE'
f .
+ VMPMO(E)J
dE'
(1 - A
) E '
(10-72)
429
W e c a n write a similar b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n f o r t h e m o d e r a t o r r e g i o n :
FmE^)<J>m(^)=Fm[1-7>mo()] I
dE'
( 1
a M )
J E
+ VFPFO(E)
dE>
(10-73)
J e
T h e s e t w o e q u a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n
(10-68) to a h e t e r o g e n e o u s t w o - r e g i o n cell. A s t h e y s t a n d , these c o u p l e d integral
e q u a t i o n s a r e exact. H o w e v e r t h e y a r e o n l y f o r m a l until t h e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s
PFO(E)
a n d PMO(E)
h a v e b e e n specified (in m u c h the s a m e sense t h a t the
m u l t i g r o u p e q u a t i o n s w e r e also e x a c t b u t of o n l y a f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e until the
m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d ) . I n p r a c t i c e , these e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s a r e
usually c o m p u t e d o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y b y a s s u m i n g t h a t the s o u r c e n e u t r o n s in e a c h
region a p p e a r u n i f o r m l y a n d isotropically. (This is r e f e r r e d to as t h e flat source
approximation.)
T h e s e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s in e f f e c t allow u s to s e p a r a t e the t r e a t m e n t of the
spatial a n d e n e r g y v a r i a b l e s in t h e s t u d y of n e u t r o n slowing d o w n in t h e cell. T h e
first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s PFO(E)
a n d PMO(E)
will b e c a l c u l a t e d b y c o n s i d e r ing spatial n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t at a given e n e r g y E. O n c e d e t e r m i n e d , these e s c a p e
p r o b a b i l i t i e s will b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n s involving o n l y the
e n e r g y v a r i a b l e . F i r s t w e will p r o c e e d to a p p l y E q s . (10-72) a n d (10-73) to the s t u d y
of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in lattices, a n d d e f e r u n t i l later t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the
escape probabilities.
It is possible t o d e c o u p l e t h e s e e q u a t i o n s b y m a k i n g the n a r r o w
approximation for the moderator
jô rP>
|M = (
resonance
(10-74)
so t h a t w e c a n r e p l a c e t h e a v e r a g e f l u x in the m o d e r a t o r b y its a s y m p t o t i c f o r m
(10-75)
[Here w e h a v e a g a i n n o r m a l i z e d t h e f l u x f a r a b o v e the r e s o n a n c e b y r e m o v i n g the
f a c t o r 2 S in $(E)~
\/2sE,
w h e r e f o r a h e t e r o g e n e o u s cell, I S ^ d p S p K p
^ceii* T h e n in this region, <t>M(E)~<pF(E)~\/E.]
If w e n o w use this
in the s e c o n d t e r m o n t h e R H S of E q . (10-72) c o r r e s p o n d i n g to slowing d o w n in
t h e m o d e r a t o r , w e f i n d t h a t it b e c o m e s
esm(>m(')
r ^
VMPmo(E)
I
JE
dE'
l_
a M ) E
Ssm
=V
M O
(E)^r.
(10-76)
430
H e n c e b y s u b s t i t u t i n g this N R f o r m i n t o E q . (10-72) w e will h a v e e l i m i n a t e d t h e

a p p e a r a n c e of t h e m o d e r a t o r f l u x in t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e f u e l region, t h e r e b y
d e c o u p l i n g this e q u a t i o n f r o m t h e m o d e r a t o r r e g i o n b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n .
It is u s e f u l t o m a k e o n e f u r t h e r m a n i p u l a t i o n b e f o r e i n s e r t i n g t h e N R
a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r t h e m o d e r a t o r i n t o E q . (10-72). O n e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e
first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s , 1 7 w h e n c a l c u l a t e d a s s u m i n g a f l a t s o u r c e i n e a c h of
t h e f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r regions, m u s t s a t i s f y a r e c i p r o c i t y t h e o r e m similar t o E q .
(10-34);
Pfo(E)2*(E)Vf
If w e
= Pmo(E)^(E)VM.
(10-77)
f u r t h e r m o r e a s s u m e t h a t a b s o r p t i o n is n e g l i g i b l e
w e c a n r e w r i t e E q . (10-76) as
in
the
moderator
VMPMo(E)
dE'
'
= V
E ) ^ .
(10-78)
JE
H e n c e our slowing d o w n equation for the fuel region becomes
S f t S ^ l O - n - I W S ) ] I
oK
dE'
(10"79)
O n c e w e k n o w PFO(E)
w e c a n solve this e q u a t i o n f o r </> F (ii)either u s i n g
a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s or d i r e c t n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d s a n d t h e r e b y c a l c u l a t e t h e
effective resonance integral for the resonance:
1 = f dEo*(E)4>F(E)
(10-80)
( w h e r e o n c e a g a i n w e s h o u l d k e e p in m i n d t h e n o r m a l i z a t i o n t h a t <#>() l / E f a r
above the resonance).
2. A P P R O X I M A T E C A L C U L A T I O N S O F T H E R E S O N A N C E I N T E G R A L S
W e will n o w i n t r o d u c e t h e s t a n d a r d N R a n d N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n s i n t o o u r
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l . F i r s t c o n s i d e r t h e n a r r o w r e s o n a n c e
a p p r o x i m a t i o n ( N R ) in w h i c h w e c a n a p p r o x i m a t e
d E
'
<10-8"
If w e s u b s t i t u t e this i n t o E q . (10-79), w e c a n i m m e d i a t e l y solve f o r t h e f l u x in t h e

f u e l as
2jt h,
431
H e n c e t h e N R a p p r o x i m a t i o n to t h e r e s o n a n c e integral b e c o m e s j u s t
NR
(10-83)
- / f
w h e r e w e h a v e c a n c e l l e d o u t t h e f u e l n u m b e r d e n s i t y NF.
It is c u s t o m a r y to express the first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PFO(E) in t e r m s of a
" p s e u d o " cross section <re k n o w n as t h e escape cross section, w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s
n e u t r o n r e m o v a l f r o m t h e f u e l l u m p via l e a k a g e to t h e m o d e r a t o r :
or
ae+crtr
(10-84)
\ l
FO /
T h a t is, if a e is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a n e u t r o n l e a k i n g o u t of the f u e l
b e f o r e s u f f e r i n g its n e x t collision, t h e n since a e H - a t F c h a r a c t e r i z e s n e u t r o n loss
e i t h e r via a b s o r p t i o n or collisions w i t h f u e l nuclei, this p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a e
is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o u r earlier i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PFO(E).
Of
c o u r s e , in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e a e w e m u s t first c a l c u l a t e PFO(E)
a n d t h e n use E q .
(10-84). H o w e v e r a e is p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l since it t e n d s to b e o n l y w e a k l y d e p e n d e n t o n e n e r g y ( m u c h like a p o t e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross section).
If w e insert E q . (10-84) i n t o t h e r e s o n a n c e integral a n d n o t e
_ F a_ F , a a F
p +
e t
(10-85)
we find
dE K
NR
e)*
(10-86)
af+a(
B u t recall t h a t o u r earlier result f o r a h o m o g e n e o u s system w a s
NR|
f d E
(10-87)
Ihom
H e n c e it is a p p a r e n t t h a t w e c a n o b t a i n the h e t e r o g e n e o u s result [Eq. (10-86)] f r o m

t h e h o m o g e n e o u s r e s o n a n c e integral [Eq. (10-87)] b y simply r e p l a c i n g
2M
NF
e'
(10-88)
T h e s e results give rise to w h a t are c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to as t h e

equivalence
relationships
f o r r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n : (a) h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattices w i t h the s a m e
v a l u e s of a e will h a v e t h e s a m e r e s o n a n c e integral, regardless of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
m o d e r a t o r a n d (b) a h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattice w i t h a given v a l u e of a e will h a v e the
s a m e r e s o n a n c e integral as a h o m o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r w i t h
>a e .
432
A v e r y similar result c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r t h e N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n . I n this case,

one finds
J NRIM
f dE
l-(l-P
FO<
F O
f dE
J
)(af/af)
E<
+ a
<
Of c o u r s e b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r w e m u s t still d e t e r m i n e h o w t o c a l c u l a t e t h e
e s c a p e cross s e c t i o n a e o r e q u i v a l e n t l y , t h e first-flight e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y
PFO(E).
R e c a l l t h a t w e h a d a l r e a d y a s s u m e d t h a t PFO(E)
a n d Puo(E)
could be calculated
u s i n g t h e f l a t s o u r c e a p p r o x i m a t i o n . A l t h o u g h this a p p r o x i m a t i o n m i g h t b e
r e a s o n a b l e f a r f r o m t h e r e s o n a n c e e n e r g y , it is c e r t a i n l y n o t strictly valid a t this
e n e r g y since t h e f l u x in t h e f u e l e l e m e n t is q u i t e s t r o n g l y v a r y i n g d u e to
self-shielding. H o w e v e r s u c h a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n is f o u n d t o b e a d e q u a t e in m o s t
a p p l i c a t i o n s of interest.
H e n c e w e a r e n o w f a c e d w i t h c a l c u l a t i n g PFO(E),
the probability that a neutron
b o r n u n i f o r m l y a n d isotropically in t h e f u e l m a k e s its n e x t collision in t h e
m o d e r a t o r . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l is n o t overly sensitive to t h e
d e t a i l e d b e h a v i o r of PFO(E).
I n f a c t , it is u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o i n t r o d u c e a
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r PFO(E)
first s u g g e s t e d b y W i g n e r . 1 8 F i r s t
recall t h a t w e k n o w t h e limiting b e h a v i o r of PFO(E)
f o r b o t h small a n d l a r g e f u e l
lumps. F o r small fuel lumps, obviously
as
-^->0.
(10-90)
F o r large f u e l l u m p s , w e c a n effectively u s e t h e b l a c k l u m p result

SF
H
VF
-^r- oo.
as
(10-91)
W i t h these limits in m i n d , W i g n e r c h o s e a simple i n t e r p o l a t i o n f o r m u l a b e t w e e n

t h e limits ( k n o w n as t h e Wigner rational
approximation)
(SF/4FF2f)
f FoO V{ E 7) =
;
;
=r .
l + (SF/4FF2f)
(10-92)
7
T h i s r a t h e r c r u d e a p p r o x i m a t i o n is usually v a l i d to w i t h i n 10% in m o s t lattices of

interest. If w e n o w c o m p a r e E q . (10-92) w i t h o u r earlier d e f i n i t i o n of a e given b y
E q . (10-84), w e c a n i d e n t i f y
Rational
approximation
1
4 VFNF
NF(R}F
(10-93)
H e r e w e h a v e n o t e d t h a t 4 F f / 5 ' f c a n b e s h o w n to b e g e o m e t r i c a l l y e q u a l to t h e
433
a v e r a g e l e n g t h of a c h o r d d r a w n a c r o s s the f u e l region. 1 0 , 1 9 (See P r o b l e m 10-15.)

H e n c e the o n l y p l a c e t h a t t h e f u e l g e o m e t r y e n t e r s is into t h e e s c a p e cross section
a e . A s w e h a v e seen, w e c a n n o w a d a p t o u r earlier h o m o g e n e o u s r e s o n a n c e integral
results to h e t e r o g e n e o u s lattices b y m e r e l y r e p l a c i n g 2 ^ / N F - a e ~ S ' F / 4 K F i V F .
T o p r o c e e d f u r t h e r , n o t i c e t h a t w e c a n rewrite E q . (10-83) as t w o t e r m s
NRR
JN
=
If dE <P
IC qdE^
ro{<V F
(10
.94)
w h e r e t h e first t e r m is i d e n t i c a l to the N R a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m
c o m p o s e d o n l y of fuel, while t h e s e c o n d t e r m d e p e n d s o n g e o m e t r y t h r o u g h PFO.
F r o m E q . (10-92) it is a p p a r e n t t h a t PFO~SF/
VFNF~(SF/MF)
in the r a t i o n a l
a p p r o x i m a t i o n , w h e r e MF is t h e m a s s of t h e f u e l l u m p . H e n c e E q . (10-94) suggests
t h a t w e c a n write t h e r e s o n a n c e integral in the f o r m
A s we will see in a m o m e n t , this r e l a t i o n s h i p is b o r n o u t b y

measurements.
If we n o w s u b s t i t u t e in the D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d r e s o n a n c e f o r m s
experimental
o? = o * + o ! = o 0 ^ ( t ; , x ) + o 0 ^ ( t ; , x ) + o l
(10-96)
(where w e h a v e a g a i n n e g l e c t e d i n t e r f e r e n c e scattering), we c a n write E q . (10-94) as

( a^T
/ N R
= " FV7
aor
E0
(10-97)
E0
w h e r e w e recall
rD
>
o
J(S,P)=
dx
'
W ^ +p
(10-98)
while
F
Jq
where
4V
2F
,=
W e have encountered the

function before. The
t a b u l a t e d f o r c o m m o n lattice g e o m e t r i e s . 2 0
(10-100)
6) function has been
434
A v e r y similar result c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r t h e N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n
(10-101)
where
(10-102)
Since t h e N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n results in i g n o r i n g s c a t t e r i n g f r o m t h e a b s o r b e r , w e
h a v e c h o s e n t o g e n e r a l i z e o u r result s o m e w h a t b y i n c l u d i n g a m o d e r a t o r a d m i x e d
i n t o t h e f u e l l u m p 1 5 , 1 6 (e.g., o x y g e n in U 0 2 fuels) d e n o t e d b y a p o t e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g
cross s e c t i o n 2 Jpm'
L.
3. R O D S H A D O W I N G A N D T H E D A N C O F F C O R R E C T I O N
T h u s f a r w e h a v e t r e a t e d r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n i n a f u e l l u m p a s if t h e u n i t
f u e l cell w e r e t r u l y isolated f r o m o t h e r f u e l cells. H o w e v e r , if t h e f u e l r o d s in a
lattice a r e in f a c t s e p a r a t e d b y a m o d e r a t o r t h a t is n o t m a n y m e a n f r e e p a t h s thick,
it is possible f o r n e u t r o n s w i t h energies in t h e r e s o n a n c e r e g i o n t o p a s s f r o m o n e
f u e l l u m p t o a n o t h e r . T h i s i n v a l i d a t e s o u r earlier c a l c u l a t i o n b a s e d o n collision
probabilities, for in that calculation we assumed that the escape probability f r o m
t h e f u e l PFO i m p l i e d t h a t o n e s c a p i n g f r o m t h e fuel, t h e n e u t r o n w o u l d s u f f e r its
n e x t collision in t h e m o d e r a t o r . H o w e v e r if o t h e r f u e l l u m p s a r e n e a r b y , this n e x t
collision m i g h t a l s o o c c u r in t h e fuel. H e n c e w e s h o u l d try t o c a l c u l a t e a m o d i f i e d
e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y PFO t h a t a s o u r c e n e u t r o n b o r n in t h e f u e l s u f f e r s its n e x t
collision in t h e m o d e r a t o r e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e m a y b e a d j a c e n t f u e l e l e m e n t s . T h e n
w e c a n u s e o u r earlier analysis, m e r e l y r e p l a c i n g PFO b y
W e shall n o t d e v e l o p a d e t a i l e d d e r i v a t i o n 2 1 , 2 2 of a m o d i f i e d collision p r o b a b i l i t y
PFO i n c l u d i n g r o d s h a d o w i n g e f f e c t s here, b u t m e r e l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e result of
s u c h a c a l c u l a t i o n is
(1 - C )
(10-103)
1 C (1 2 f </? > F ^ F o )
w h e r e ( R } F is t h e a v e r a g e c h o r d length c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f u e l l u m p [<7?) F = 2 ^
f o r a n infinitely l o n g cylinder] while C is a t a b u l a t e d p a r a m e t e r k n o w n as t h e
D a n c o f f - G i n s b e r g f a c t o r 2 2 t h a t d e p e n d s o n t h e f u e l g e o m e t r y a n d cross section.
A c t u a l l y this m e r e l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o i n c r e a s i n g t h e a v e r a g e c h o r d l e n g t h in t h e f u e l
FIGURE 10-15.
Rod-shadowing effects.

l u m p b y a f a c t o r (1 - C )
435
t h a t is,
(no shadowing)
(shadowing)
H e n c e the D a n c o f f - G i n s b e r g f a c t o r simply d e c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t i v e l e a k a g e f r o m the

l u m p ( t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t the possibility t h a t the n e u t r o n m i g h t e v e n t u a l l y b e
a b s o r b e d in a n e i g h b o r i n g f u e l l u m p ) .
O n e c a n n o w m e r e l y use PFO in p l a c e of PFO in the c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e r e s o n a n c e
integrals f o r t h e lattice of interest. T h e e f f e c t of s u c h a c o r r e c t i o n is to d e c r e a s e the
s u r f a c e a r e a of a single f u e l e l e m e n t b y a f a c t o r of 1 C. T h i s f a c t is of p a r t i c u l a r
use if o n e of t h e v a r i o u s c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e integral is to b e u s e d . W e
h a v e given a s h o r t t a b l e of the D a n c o f f f a c t o r C in T a b l e 10-1.
TABLE 10-1 Dancoff Corrections C for Two Parallel Circular Cylinders22
Pitch/2,
2.0
2.25
2.5
2.75
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
.182
.155
.136
.122
.111
.081
.065
.054
.046
.040
.036
.032
(radius/2,)
0.25
0.50
.170
.132
.107
.088
.074
.040
.024
.015
.0094
.006
.004
.0028
.160
.114
.0849
.0649
.0505
.0205
.0091
.0043
.0021
.0011
.0006
.0003
1.0
1.5
2.0
.144
.086
.0550
.0362
.0244
.0057
.0015
.0004
.0001
.132
.067
.0364
.0208
.0122
.0016
.0003
.123
.0522
.0245
.0122
.0062
.0005
N o t i c e t h a t d e c r e a s i n g t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of a f u e l l u m p will r e d u c e t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s o n a n c e integral f r o m its v a l u e f o r a n isolated f u e l e l e m e n t . H e n c e
one finds that the Dancoff correction for neighboring fuel elements corresponds
effectively to a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e s h a d o w i n g of o n e f u e l e l e m e n t b y a n o t h e r .
4. E M P I R I C A L C O R R E L A T I O N S F O R R E S O N A N C E I N T E G R A L S
A n u m b e r of e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s of r e s o n a n c e integrals h a v e b e e n
p e r f o r m e d t h a t p a r a m e t e r i z e t h e d a t a as e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s of t h e f o r m of E q .
(10-95). F o r e x a m p l e , t h e total r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l (i.e., over all r e s o n a n c e s ) in U 0 2
a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of 2 0 C c a n b e w r i t t e n e i t h e r 2 3 as
, / 2 8 = 11.6 + 2 2 . 8 ( S F / M F ) ,
or as
7 2 8 = 4.15 + 2 6 . 6 \ / s f / A / F
[These f o r m s c a n actually b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e expressions (10-97) a n d (10-101) in

c e r t a i n limits.] B o t h of these expressions a r e f o u n d to w o r k equally well over the
r a n g e of SF/MF
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of U 0 2 f u e l lattices.
436
E x p e r i m e n t a l c o r r e l a t i o n s h a v e also b e e n d e t e r m i n e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n c e of t h e r e s o n a n c e integral. F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
r a n g e f r o m 2 0 - 6 0 0 C o n e c a n use 2 3
/ 2 8 = / 2 8 ( 3 0 0 K ) [ l + ( V T - V300K ) ]
(10-105)
where
.006-.008, d e p e n d i n g o n f u e l t y p e a n d r o d r a d i u s . A very c o n v e n i e n t
c o r r e l a t i o n h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y S t r a w b r i d g e a n d B a r r y 5 to c h a r a c t e r i z e b o t h
lattice p a r a m e t e r s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s :
/ 2 8 = 2 . 1 6 * + 2.56 + [ .0279.x - .0537 ] V T
where
(10-106)
x =
F
<*>F*28
while C is t h e D a n c o f f - G i n s b e r g f a c t o r a n d { R } F is t h e m e a n c h o r d l e n g t h of t h e
f u e l p i n . T y p i c a l results f r o m this c o r r e l a t i o n a r e s h o w n f o r several d i f f e r e n t f u e l
t e m p e r a t u r e s in F i g u r e 10-16.
x
FIGURE 10-16.
Comparison of metal-oxide resonance integral correlation with Hellstrand's
correlations for isolated rods. s
437
A l t h o u g h such c o r r e l a t i o n s c a n n o t b e u s e d directly in r e a c t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s (since

t h e c o r e lattice d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e p u r e U 0 2 lattice d e s c r i b e d b y the
c o r r e l a t i o n ) , t h e y d o p r o v e e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l in n o r m a l i z i n g r e s o n a n c e integral
c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h i n f a s t s p e c t r u m codes, as w e will see in Section 10-III-C.
B. Modifications in the Treatment of Fast Fission

A l t h o u g h the n u m b e r of f a s t fission e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g in a t h e r m a l r e a c t o r is
n o t large, s u c h r e a c t i o n s c a n b e q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t since t h e y c a n p r o v i d e a sizable
f r a c t i o n of t h e excess reactivity of a core. I t is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t to t a k e s o m e
a c c o u n t of t h e e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a f a s t fission r e a c t i o n b y f u e l
l u m p i n g . T h i s will c a u s e t h e f a s t fission f a c t o r c to b e i n c r e a s e d f r o m its v a l u e f o r a
h o m o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r core.
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of h e t e r o g e n e o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s to t h e f a s t fission f a c t o r is
c o n s i d e r e d i n detail in several of t h e s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s . 2 4 , 2 5 W e will f o c u s o u r
a t t e n t i o n i n s t e a d o n t h e m o r e p r a c t i c a l q u e s t i o n of j u s t h o w h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s
a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t of f a s t fission in c o n v e n t i o n a l f a s t s p e c t r u m c o d e s .
T h e r a t e a t w h i c h f a s t fission r e a c t i o n s o c c u r d e p e n d s o n t h e m a g n i t u d e of the
f a s t n e u t r o n f l u x in the f u e l region. F r o m o u r earlier discussion, w e e x p e c t this fast
f l u x (say, in t h e e n e r g y r a n g e . 5 - 1 0 M e V ) t o b e s o m e w h a t larger in the f u e l t h a n in
t h e m o d e r a t o r , since o n c e n e u t r o n s h a v e e n t e r e d t h e m o d e r a t o r , t h e y a r e r a p i d l y
s l o w e d d o w n b e l o w the f a s t fission energy t h r e s h o l d . H e n c e w e m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t a
h o m o g e n e o u s f a s t s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n will t e n d to u n d e r p r e d i c t t h e a m o u n t of
f a s t fission o c c u r r i n g , since it will use t h e a v e r a g e f l u x c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a h o m o geneous system.
T o c o r r e c t this, o n e c a n f o l l o w a p r o c e d u r e very similar to t h a t u s e d in o u r
t r e a t m e n t of t h e r m a l fission b y d e f i n i n g a fast utilization factor (similar t o the
t h e r m a l u t i l i z a t i o n f a c t o r ) w h i c h is t h e r a t i o of t h e n e u t r o n r e m o v a l r a t e in the f u e l
to the total r a t e of f a s t n e u t r o n r e m o v a l . N o t i c e t h a t w e i n c l u d e in this d e f i n i t i o n
all m e c h a n i s m s f o r n e u t r o n r e m o v a l , i n c l u d i n g n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n , elastic a n d
inelastic s c a t t e r i n g . T h e n it is e v i d e n t in a n a l o g y to o u t t r e a t m e n t of the t h e r m a l
utilization t h a t
/F~
(10-107)
H e r e 2 R is t h e r e m o v a l cross section f o r f a s t n e u t r o n s . W e will n o w i n t r o d u c e a

flux fast advantage factor, d e f i n e d as
(10-108)
( N o t i c e t h a t at fission n e u t r o n energies, the f u e l is n o w at a n advantage

in
c o m p e t i n g w i t h the m o d e r a t o r f o r n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n ) . U s i n g this d e f i n i t i o n a n d
o u r e x p r e s s i o n f o r / F , w e c a n solve f o r t h e f a s t a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r in t e r m s of the f a s t
utilization f a c t o r as
O n c e w e h a v e d e t e r m i n e d f F , we c a n c a l c u l a t e n e w g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
the f a s t r a n g e t h a t i n c l u d e the e f f e c t of f a s t f l u x e n h a n c e m e n t d u e to f u e l l u m p i n g .
438
Of c o u r s e t h e success of this t e c h n i q u e is c o n t i n g e n t o n o u r ability to c a l c u l a t e

/ F . O n e c o u l d a l w a y s use b r u t e f o r c e m e t h o d s b a s e d o n M o n t e C a r l o c a l c u l a t i o n s ,
b u t it is f a r m o r e c o m m o n to use a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s 2 6 b a s e d o n successive
collision p r o b a b i l i t i e s v e r y similar to t h o s e u s e d in t h e A B H m e t h o d . T h i s latter
a p p r o a c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e since the i n c l u s i o n of lattice e f f e c t s in fast
fission is n o t n e a r l y so critical as in t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t g e n e r a t i o n . I n d e e d
e r r o r s in the t r e a t m e n t of fast fission r a r e l y lead to a n e r r o r of over 0.1% in core
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . H e n c e r a t h e r c r u d e m e t h o d s a r e usually s u f f i c i e n t f o r a c c o u n t i n g
f o r lattice h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in f a s t fission f o r t h e r m a l r e a c t o r design. W e will a v o i d a
d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of the a p p l i c a t i o n of the t e c h n i q u e s d e v e l o p e d in Section
10-II-B a n d i n s t e a d r e f e r t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r to s t a n d a r d s o u r c e s s u c h as
S t r a w b r i d g e a n d Barry 26
C. The Inclusion of Heterogeneous Effects in Fast Spectrum Codes

A s w e h a v e seen, the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s of a h e t e r o g e n e o u s f u e l arr a n g e m e n t o n the c a l c u l a t i o n of f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s e n t e r i n t o t h e t r e a t m e n t of
r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n , a l t h o u g h m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e f r e q u e n t l y also i n c l u d e d in the
t r e a t m e n t of f a s t fission.
T h e d o m i n a n t h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t in r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s
is t h a t of self-shielding, w h i c h s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e s t h e v a l u e of the r e s o n a n c e
integral. O n e c a n i n c l u d e this e f f e c t in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l s b y
u s i n g collision p r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s . F o r c r u d e t r e a t m e n t s , o n e c a n s i m p l y use the
r a t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n to c a l c u l a t e t h e effective e s c a p e cross section f o r t h e lattice
g e o m e t r y of interest, a n d t h e n use 2 ^ / 7 V A - a e in t h e u s u a l h o m o g e n e o u s calculations. M o r e a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n a m o r e realistic e s t i m a t e of t h e e s c a p e
p r o b a b i l i t y PFO r e q u i r e a n e v a l u a t i o n of b o t h the
a n d L(t,,(i)
factors.
R o d - s h a d o w i n g e f f e c t s a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y u s i n g the D a n c o f f f a c t o r in the
c a l c u l a t i o n of I .
T h e r e s o n a n c e integrals f o r e a c h f i n e - s p e c t r u m g r o u p c a n t h e n b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d
u s e d to c a l c u l a t e either t h e e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n cross section f o r t h e g r o u p
a'A 2
i,
/en
(10-110)
or the r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r t h e g r o u p ,
N.
/>n = e x p
2//
s
(10-111)
/n
Of c o u r s e to p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d r e s o n a n c e
integral f o r e a c h resolved r e s o n a n c e w o u l d b e p r o h i b i t i v e l y expensive. H e n c e o n e
c u s t o m a r i l y o n l y a c c o u n t s f o r D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n i n g a n d h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s in t h e
m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t r e s o n a n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , in a slightly e n r i c h e d u r a n i u m - f u e l e d
t h e r m a l r e a c t o r , o n e m i g h t o n l y p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n f o r t h e lowest
e n e r g y r e s o n a n c e s of 2 3 8 U a n d 2 4 0 P u . T h e r e m a i n i n g r e s o n a n c e s w o u l d t h e n b e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y their z e r o - t e m p e r a t u r e , h o m o g e n e o u s r e s o n a n c e integrals.
T h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s f o r e a c h g r o u p a r e a d j u s t e d ( f u d g e d ) so t h a t
t h e t o t a l r e s o n a n c e integral agrees w i t h a n e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h the
a m o u n t of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n a s s i g n e d to e a c h m i c r o g r o u p in the f a s t s p e c t r u m
439
c o d e will v a r y w i t h the details of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n ) . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e s c h e m e m i g h t

b e to m u l t i p l y every r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y pn f o r 2 3 8 U b y t h e s a m e f u d g e
f a c t o r L , a n d t h e n v a r y L until 7 2 8 w h e n c a l c u l a t e d a s s u m i n g z e r o a b s o r p t i o n f o r
all o t h e r e l e m e n t s agrees with the S t r a w b r i d g e a n d B a r r y c o r r e l a t i o n 5 [this is k n o w n
as t h e "co*-search," w h e r e co* = ( l
~p2S)/p28].
I n f a s t r e a c t o r analysis, t h e small s p a c i n g b e t w e e n f u e l e l e m e n t s a n d t h e large
n e u t r o n m f p allows o n e t o largely i g n o r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of
r e s o n a n c e integrals. F u r t h e r m o r e f o r t h e h i g h - e n e r g y r e s o n a n c e s of i m p o r t a n c e to
f a s t r e a c t o r b e h a v i o r , 2 7 t h e N R a p p r o x i m a t i o n is usually valid. O t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s
arise, h o w e v e r , such as u n r e s o l v e d r e s o n a n c e s a n d p - w a v e r e s o n a n c e s , s o m e w h a t
c o m p l i c a t i n g the a n a l y s i s of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in f a s t systems.
T h e cross s e c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f a s t m i c r o g r o u p s c a n b e scaled to a c c o u n t
f o r f a s t f l u x p e a k i n g , w h i c h t e n d s to e n h a n c e f a s t fission. S u c h a n e f f e c t c a n b e
i n c l u d e d in b o t h t h e r m a l a n d f a s t r e a c t o r analysis.
W i t h t h e s e a d j u s t e d r e s o n a n c e integrals a n d f a s t cross sections, o n e c a n n o w
c o n t i n u e o n to c a l c u l a t e t h e f a s t n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m a n d g e n e r a t e t h e fast
f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . H e n c e as in the case of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n physics, o n e f i n d s
t h a t t h e e f f e c t s d u e to lattice h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s e n t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t of f a s t n e u t r o n
p h y s i c s via a simple m o d i f i c a t i o n of f a s t - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r the
spatial f l u x v a r i a t i o n in t h e lattice cell (i.e., s p a t i a l self-shielding).
IV. SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE MULTIGROUP

DIFFUSION METHOD
I n t h e p a s t f o u r c h a p t e r s w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h e p r i n c i p a l t o o l of n u c l e a r
r e a c t o r analysis, m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y . T h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s
a r e c a p a b l e of yielding t h e n e u t r o n f l u x in a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e t o a n a c c u r a c y
s u f f i c i e n t f o r m o s t r e a c t o r design p r o b l e m s , p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e c a r e is t a k e n in the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s e n t e r i n g these e q u a t i o n s .
I n d e e d w e h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e solution of t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s is
r a t h e r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . M o s t of o u r e f f o r t w a s e x p e n d e d in d e v e l o p i n g suitable
p r e s c r i p t i o n s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , f o r these g r o u p c o n s t a n t s h a d to
a c c o u n t f o r t h e r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d e n e r g y d e p e n d e n c e of the i n t r a g r o u p fluxes
u s e d in a v e r a g i n g b a s i c cross section d a t a , as well as f o r spatial n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t
e f f e c t s arising in c o r e lattices.
H e n c e a m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n analysis of a r e a c t o r c o r e really consists of t w o
p r i n c i p a l t a s k s : (a) g e n e r a t i o n of t h e m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , a n d (b) solution of the
multigroup diffusion equations proper.
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t v a r i o u s i n p u t d a t a a r e n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e
t h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e o b v i o u s l y requires b a s i c cross s e c t i o n d a t a
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e v a r i o u s isotopes a p p e a r i n g in the r e a c t o r . T h i s is usually p r o v i d e d
in t h e f o r m of f a s t a n d t h e r m a l cross s e c t i o n libraries w h i c h give these d a t a as
f i n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s ( j u s t the b a s i c cross section d a t a a v e r a g e d over e a c h of the
f i n e g r o u p s t o b e u s e d in t h e f a s t a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m calculations).
N e x t o n e r e q u i r e s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d g e o m e t r y of the
core. Since t h e c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n will v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o r e (e.g., in v a r i o u s
z o n e s of d i f f e r i n g f u e l e n r i c h m e n t or m o d e r a t o r density), o n e will u s u a l l y b e
r e q u i r e d t o g e n e r a t e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r e a c h r e g i o n of the c o r e in w h i c h
t h e gross c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n is significantly d i f f e r e n t . O n a f i n e r scale, o n e m u s t
p r o v i d e t h e d i m e n s i o n s of t h e lattice u n i t cell f o r w h i c h the g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e to
440
b e g e n e r a t e d . F i n a l l y o n e m u s t i n p u t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s of e a c h of t h e m a j o r
c o m p o n e n t s of t h e cell (e.g., f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e ) .
T h e b a s i c d i m e n s i o n s of t h e lattice g e o m e t r y c a n easily b e p r o v i d e d a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e c o r e analysis. H o w e v e r t h e n e c e s s a r y i n p u t d e s c r i b i n g t h e cell
c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t e m p e r a t u r e m u s t first b e c a l c u l a t e d , since these will d e p e n d o n
considerations such as fuel depletion a n d isotope buildup, control insertion, a n d
t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c b e h a v i o r of the core. A s w e will see later, this i n f o r m a t i o n is
u s u a l l y s u p p l i e d b y o t h e r c o m p u t a t i o n a l m o d u l e s in a r e a c t o r c o r e a n a l y s i s m o d e l
(or c o m p u t e r c o d e ) .
N o w t h a t w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d the b a s i c m o d e l u s e d to d e s c r i b e t h e n e u t r o n i c
b e h a v i o r of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t w e t u r n to a d i s c u s s i o n of h o w
this m o d e l is a p p l i e d in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of m u l t i g r o u p
d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y to r e a c t o r a n a l y s i s will d e p e n d to s o m e d e g r e e o n t h e r e a c t o r t y p e
a n d t h e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n desired. I n t h e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s of this text, w e will
c o n c e r n ourselves w i t h v a r i o u s e x a m p l e s of h o w s u c h a m o d e l is a p p l i e d t o n u c l e a r
r e a c t o r analysis, a n d in p a r t i c u l a r , t o h o w s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n s i n t e r a c t w i t h o t h e r
f a c e t s of r e a c t o r c o r e analysis a n d d e s i g n .
REFERENCES
1. S. Glasstone and M. C. Edlund, The Elements of Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand,
Princeton, N.J. (1952), Chapter 9.
2. H. D. Smyth, Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
N J . (1945).
3. R. L. Hellens, The physics of P W R reactors, in New Developments in Reactor Physics
and Shielding, CONF-720901, (1972) Vol. I, p. 3.
4. M. H. Merrill, Nuclear design methods and experimental data in use at Gulf General
Atomic, Gulf-GA-A12652 (1973).
5. L. W. Strawbridge and R. F. Barry, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 23, 58 (1965).
Atomic, Gulf-GA-A12652 (1973) Chapter 3.
7. A. Amouyal, P. Benoist, and J. Horowitz, J. Nucl Energy 6, 79 (1957); J. R. Lamarsh,
Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. (1966), pp.
382-389.
8. H. C. Honeck, T H E R M O S , a thermalization transport code for reactor lattice calculations, BNL-5826 (1961); Nucl. Sci. Eng. 8, 193 (1960).
9. R. L. Crowther, Physics of measurements of BWR reactors and comparison with theory,
in New Developments in Reactor Physics and Shielding, CONF-720901, Vol. I. p. 114.
10. K. M. Case, F. de Hoffmann, and G. Placzek, Introduction to the Theory of Neutron
Diffusion, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report (1953).
12. G. C. Pomraning, Transport methods for the calculation of spatially dependent thermal
spectra, in Reactor Physics in the Resonance and Thermal Regions, A. J. Goodjohn and G.
C. Pomraning (Eds.), M. I. T. Press, Cambridge (1966), p. 207; D. R. Askew, Proceedings of Conference on Numerical Reactor Calculations, IAEA, Vienna (1972), pp.
185-196.
13. Reactor Physics Constants, USAEC Document ANL-5800 (2nd Edition) (1963).
14. A. Amouyal, P. Benoist, and J. Horowitz, J. Nucl. Eng. 23, 58 (1965).
15. L. Dresner, Resonance Absorption in Nuclear Reactors, Pergamon, New York (1960).
(1966), 390-401.
17. J. H. Ferziger and P. F. Zweifel, The Theory of Neutron Slowing Down in Nuclear
Reactors, M. I. T. Press, Cambridge (1966).
441
18. E. P. Wigner, et al., J. Appl Phys. 2, 257 (1955).

19. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J.
(1970), Chapter 8.
20. F. T. Adler and L. W. Nordheim, Tables for the computation of resonance integrals,
GA-377 (1958).
21. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J.
(1970), p. 123.
22. Reactor Physics Constants, USAEC Document ANL-5800 (2nd Edition) (1963), p. 280.
23. E. Hellstrand, P. Blomberg and S. Horner, NucL Sci. Eng. 8, 497 (1960); E. Hellstrand,
J. Appl. Phys., 28, 1493 (1957).
(1966), pp. 402-408.
25. R. V. Meghreblian and D. K. Holmes, Reactor Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York
(1960), pp. 692-698.
26. L. W. Strawbridge and R. F. Barry, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 23, 58 (1965); R. L. Hellens and H.
C. Honeck, IAEA Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 12, 27 (1962).
27. J. Chernick, Reactor Techn. 13, 368 (1971).
28. P. F. Zweifel, Reactor Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York (1973), p. 166.
PROBLEMS
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
Determine the ratio of neutron mfp to lattice dimension (e.g., fuel-pin diameter or
lattice pitch) in LWR, HTGR, and LMFBR cores for both fast and thermal
neutrons. Also compare the ratio of core size to migration length in these reactors.
Derive an expression for the thermal utilization of a three-region lattice cell (including fuel, clad, and moderator) in terms of thermal disadvantage factors. Also derive
an expression for the cell-averaged group constants characterizing this cell in terms
of the appropriate disadvantage factors.
Show that the diffusion length characterizing a heterogeneous lattice cell can be
written approximately as L2~Lm( \ / ) , where / is the thermal utilization for the
cell. Does the nonleakage probability /VNL characterizing a bare, uniform core
increase or decrease when going from a homogeneous to a heterogeneous lattice?
Calculate the disadvantage factor f characterizing a two-region slab geometry
consisting of a fuel region of width 2a, surrounded by moderating regions of width b.
Use one-speed diffusion theory. (See Figure 10-17.)
Fuel cell
b
Moderator
FIGURE 10-17.
A two-region slab fuel cell.
Moderator
442
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10

Calculate the self-shielding factor for the lattice cell of Figure 10-17. (Assume that
one-speed diffusion theory is valid.)
Calculate the effective absorption cross section characterizing the cell of Figure
10-17 using the definition given by Eq. (10-28). Compare this with the cell-averaged
absorption cross section calculated using the disadvantage factor or the self-shielding
factor.
Derive the following formulas for the radius of the equivalent unit cell in terms of
the lattice pitch p (i.e., the distance between fuel pin centerlines in the lattice):
(a) r 0.564/?, square lattice
(b) r = 0.525 p, hexagonal lattice (see Figure 12-14).
Prove that the Green's function characterizing a lattice cell has the property
G(r,r') = G(r',r) when described by one-speed diffusion theory.
Repeat Problem 10-8 for the case when G(r,r') is described by one-speed, isotropic
scattering transport theory.
Using the symmetry of the Green's function G(r,r') for the cell, prove the reciprocity
relation:
V ^ P FM = ^ M ^ ^ M F -
10-11
10-12
10-13
10-14
10-15
Explain the physical difference between the absorption probability PFM the escape
probability PF, and the first-flight escape probability PFO,
Calculate the absorption probability PFM for the simple slab cell of Figure 10-17.
Use one-speed diffusion theory.
Calculate the escape probability PF for the slab cell of Figure 10-17 using one-speed
diffusion theory.
Calculate the first-flight collision probability PFO for the cell of Figure 10-17.
Demonstrate that the average chord length characterizing a non-reentrant geometry
volume is given by
(R}
10-16
10-18
10-19
10-20
10-21
4V/S.
(The reader might find it useful to refer to Case, de Hoffmann, and Placzek 10 or
Meghreblian and Holmes 25 or Bell and Glasstone. 21 )
Demonstrate that the first-flight escape probability for a non-reentrant volume can
be written generally as
(R ) F 2 F
10-17
f R m & x d R (1 exp 2{7? )<p(R),
where Rm&x and Z?min are the maximum and minimum chord lengths of the volume
and <p(R) is the chord length distribution function such that <p(R)dR is the
probability that a chord length lies between R and R + dR.10'21,25
Using the result of Problem 10-16 demonstrate that the first-flight escape probability
characterizing a large lump is given by P F o = S / 4 K 2 f .
Derive an expression for the cell-averaged macroscopic absorption cross section
<2 a ) c e ii characterizing a three-region fuel cell in terms of thermal disadvantage
factors. Describe qualitatively how you might calculate these disadvantage factors. 5
Find the escape probability for a slab of half-thickness a and scattering and
absorption cross sections 2 S and 2 a using one-speed diffusion theory.
Verify the ABH expression for [ 1 / / - 1 ] as given by Eq. (10-57) by solving the
diffusion problem [Eq. (10-53)] to obtain P M F .
Using the ABH method, compute the thermal utilization for one of the P W R core
designs given in Appendix H assuming 2.8% enrichment fuel and a water density of
= 0.71 g / c m 3 . Also determine the thermal disadvantage factor for this lattice.
(Use the thermal cross section data in Appendix A.)
P H

10-22
10-23
10-24
443
Derive the integral form of the transport equation (10-60). [Hint: Follow the analysis
of Section 4-IV-B.]
Prove the identity Eq. (10-65) relating the transfer coefficients r m n and the firstflight escape probabilities
Prove that the first-flight escape probabilities satisfy the reciprocity relation:
VF2?(E)PFO(E)=
10-24
10-25
10-26
VMT?{E)PMO{E).
Derive the expression (10-97) for the Doppler-broadened N R resonance integral.

Derive the expression (10-101) for the N R I M form of the resonance integral.
An improved rational approximation 2 8 is given by
.Ppo
10 + 5 ( R ) F S f + 5 ( ( R ) F 2 f ) 2
5
r
10+ 1 4 < R ) F 2 f + 5 ( ( R ) F 2 f ) + 5 R > F 2 f )
Graphically compare this to the Wigner rational approximation for < R ) F 2 f ranging
from 0.1 to 10.0.
T h e f o l l o w i n g s t u d y ( P r o b l e m s 10-27-32) of a w a t e r - m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r lattice
will r e q u i r e t h e use of a M U F T - t y p e f a s t - s p e c t r u m c o d e a n d a S O F O C A T E - t y p e
t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c o d e . T h e o b j e c t i v e of these p r o b l e m s is to investigate t h e e f f e c t s
of e n r i c h m e n t , m o d e r a t o r - t o - f u e l r a t i o ( N M / N F % m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d fuel
t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e i n f i n i t e lattice m u l t i p l i c a t i o n characteristics of a typical P W R
c o r e design. U s e t h e c o r e d a t a f o r o n e of the P W R designs given in A p p e n d i x H .
10-27
10-28
10-29
10-30
10-31
10-32
Determine volume fractions of H 2 0 , U 0 2 , and Zr.

Calculate the thermal spectrum and spectrum-averaged 2-group constants for the
reactor at zero power and operating temperature. Plot and compare with a Maxwellian distribution in pure water at 300C.
Calculate the fast spectrum and spectrum-averaged group constants for the same
conditions.
Determine the following parameters for the uncontrolled core: 00 ,/>,/? 28 ,e,/,Tj,T,L 2 ,
and C R (conversion ratio).
Estimate the concentration of boron in the coolant necessary for k ^ = 1. Recalculate
the thermal spectrum and compare with the spectrum for the zero boron concentration lattice.
Reevaluate the parameters in Problem 10-30 for the lattice containing the critical
boron concentration.
4
An Introduction to
Nuclear Reactor Core
Design
11
General Aspects of Nuclear Reactor Core
Design
T h e p r i m a r y responsibility f o r the n u c l e a r design of a r e a c t o r core rests with the

n u c l e a r engineer. H e m u s t d e t e r m i n e t h a t set of system p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h will yield
safe, reliable, a n d e c o n o m i c a l r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n at t h e r a t e d p o w e r level over the
d e s i r e d core lifetime. T h e p r i n c i p a l tools u s e d b y t h e n u c l e a r engineer in this task
consist of a n u m b e r of m o d e l s of n e u t r o n b e h a v i o r in the r e a c t o r t h a t are
i m p l e m e n t e d b y a multiplicity of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s or codes u s e d to s i m u l a t e the
n u c l e a r b e h a v i o r of the r e a c t o r core. T h e n u c l e a r analysis of the core c a n n o t b e
p e r f o r m e d i n a n i n d e p e n d e n t m a n n e r (as w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d it thus f a r in this text),
b u t r a t h e r it m u s t i n t e r a c t strongly with o t h e r aspects of core design, i n c l u d i n g
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of core cooling, s t r u c t u r a l analysis of core c o m p o n e n t s ,
e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d so o n . Such " n o n n u c l e a r " design c o n s i d e r a t i o n s will
p l a c e a n u m b e r of c o n s t r a i n t s o n the n u c l e a r design of t h e core. F o r example, the
c o r e size a n d g e o m e t r y will usually b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r m a l considerations, since
o n e m u s t i n s u r e t h a t core p o w e r densities a r e sufficiently low to p r e v e n t t e m p e r a tures in t h e core f r o m b e c o m i n g excessively high. A s yet a n o t h e r example, the
length of t i m e t h a t a fuel e l e m e n t c a n b e utilized in a r e a c t o r core is usually
d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y t h e d e p l e t i o n of fissile m a t e r i a l , b u t r a t h e r b y t h e ability of the
f u e l e l e m e n t to w i t h s t a n d t h e r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e a n d t h e r m a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l
stresses e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e r e a c t o r core e n v i r o n m e n t .
T h e n u c l e a r analysis of a given core c o n f i g u r a t i o n m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d m a n y
times d u r i n g t h e core design. R a t h e r c r u d e m o d e l s a r e used initially to i d e n t i f y the
m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t will b e p l a c e d o n t h e design. U s u a l l y in these p r e l i m i n a r y
design studies, o n e d r a w s heavily o n p a s t design experience. Such studies a r e used
to i d e n t i f y t h e r a n g e over w h i c h system p a r a m e t e r s c a n b e v a r i e d while still
c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s p l a c e d o n c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h r o u g h o u t this a n a l y 447
448
AN INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTOR CORE DESIGN
sis, the n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r will i n t e r a c t strongly w i t h o t h e r design e f f o r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

w i t h t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis.
A s m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n is a c c u m u l a t e d , t h e d e s i g n e f f o r t a d v a n c e s to i n c r e a s i n g l y
d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s in a n e f f o r t to n a r r o w in o n a r e f e r e n c e design w i t h w h i c h o n e c a n
p e r f o r m t r a d e o f f studies in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e b e s t c h o i c e of s y s t e m p a r a m e t e r s
to a c h i e v e t h e o p t i m u m c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h design c o n s t r a i n t s .
N a t u r a l l y d u r i n g these latter stages of t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s t h e a n a l y t i c a l m o d e l s u s e d
t o p r e d i c t c o r e b e h a v i o r b e c o m e m o r e d e t a i l e d ( a n d m u c h m o r e e x p e n s i v e to
apply).
It is c o n v e n i e n t to s e p a r a t e t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e design
i n t o several g e n e r a l a r e a s i n c l u d i n g n u c l e a r design, t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c design,
s t r u c t u r a l a n d m a t e r i a l s design, a n d , of c o u r s e , e c o n o m i c a n d reliability (safety)
e v a l u a t i o n s of c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e . A l t h o u g h o u r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n is w i t h t h e n u c l e a r
analysis a n d d e s i g n of the core, it is i m p o r t a n t to p r e s e n t this t o p i c w i t h i n t h e m o r e
g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e d e s i g n t o illustrate the s t r o n g i n t e r p l a y
b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e design p r o c e d u r e .
Of course, t h e specific details of c o r e d e s i g n will d e p e n d strongly o n t h e r e a c t o r
t y p e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n (as well as p a s t e x p e r i e n c e of t h e designer). M o r e specific
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g c o r e design c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m a n u m b e r of sources,
i n c l u d i n g several a d v a n c e d m o n o g r a p h s . 1 - 5 A l t h o u g h t h e specific details of m a n y
a s p e c t s of c o r e design a r e r e g a r d e d as p r o p r i e t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n b y r e a c t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s , m a n y of t h e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of s u c h design m e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e in a
n u m b e r of r e p o r t s . A n a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n is c o n t a i n e d in t h e s a f e t y
analysis r e p o r t s ( P S A R ' s or F S A R ' s ) r e q u i r e d of every n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t
licensed in t h e U n i t e d States. 6
O u r d i s c u s s i o n h e r e is of a m u c h m o r e i n t r o d u c t o r y n a t u r e , w i t h t h e p r i m a r y
i n t e n t of p r o v i d i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e a t m o s p h e r e f o r illustrating h o w the f u n d a m e n t a l
c o n c e p t s a n d m o d e l s d e v e l o p e d in the earlier p o r t i o n s of this text a r e a p p l i e d in
p r a c t i c e to n u c l e a r r e a c t o r design. W e first give a brief o v e r v i e w of the specific
design p r o b l e m s f a c e d b y the n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r , t h e n briefly c o n s i d e r h o w these
p r o b l e m s a r e c o n s t r a i n e d b y o t h e r f a c e t s of t h e n u c l e a r c o r e design, a n d finally,
p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w of r e a c t o r c a l c u l a t i o n a l m o d e l s usually i m p l e m e n t e d in the
f o r m of c o m p u t e r c o d e p a c k a g e s c a p a b l e of p e r f o r m i n g a variety of c a l c u l a t i o n s of
i n t e r e s t in r e a c t o r design.
I. NUCLEAR CORE ANALYSIS

A. Design Functions of the Nuclear Engineer
Since o u r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n is w i t h t h e n u c l e a r analysis of a r e a c t o r core, w e
will b e g i n w i t h a brief d i s c u s s i o n of the p r i n c i p a l design activities of t h e n u c l e a r
engineer, w h i c h c a n b e c o n v e n i e n t l y g r o u p e d i n t o t h r e e g e n e r a l a r e a s :
1. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F C O R E CRITICALITY A N D P O W E R
DISTRIBUTIONS
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d f l u x or p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n is, of
c o u r s e , t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e of analysis p e r f o r m e d in n u c l e a r c o r e studies. [This
explains o u r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h this s u b j e c t d u r i n g the earlier c h a p t e r s of this text.]
T h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o r e p o w e r
GENERAL ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORE DESIGN
449
d i s t r i b u t i o n since it is of c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e to b o t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g t h e r m a l
analysis a n d f u e l d e p l e t i o n studies of t h e core. F o r e x a m p l e , o n e w o u l d like to
design a c o r e t h a t will result in a f l a t r a d i a l a n d axial p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n
t h r o u g h o u t c o r e life a n d also p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t reactivity t o yield a d e q u a t e f u e l
b u r n u p s while m a i n t a i n i n g a d e q u a t e r e a c t o r c o n t r o l . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of c o r e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n s will d e p e n d sensitively o n p a r a m e t e r s s u c h as c o r e e n r i c h m e n t ,
m o d e r a t o r - t o - f u e l ratio, c o r e g e o m e t r y , t h e l o c a t i o n a n d types of reactivity control,
a n d f u e l e l e m e n t design. T h e c o r e p o w e r d e n s i t y will also d e p e n d o n b o t h s p a c e
a n d t i m e ( b e c a u s e of f u e l b u r n u p a n d i s o t o p e p r o d u c t i o n over c o r e life).
W e will later f i n d t h a t t h e p a r a m e t e r s of g r e a t e s t interest to t h e c o r e t h e r m a l
d e s i g n e r a r e the r a t i o s of the p e a k - t o - a v e r a g e p o w e r densities in t h e c o r e (so-called
" h o t c h a n n e l " o r " p o w e r p e a k i n g " f a c t o r s ) w h i c h , a l o n g w i t h t h e axial c o r e p o w e r
profile, a l l o w t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n core p e r f o r m a n c e will b e e x c e e d e d b y a given c o r e design. W e will also f i n d t h a t t h e r e is a
s t r o n g f e e d b a c k f r o m t h e t h e r m a l c o r e analysis, since the c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e will
s t r o n g l y a f f e c t c o o l a n t d e n s i t y a n d r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n , w h i c h , in t u r n , will a f f e c t
reactivity.
T h e n u c l e a r d e s i g n e r m u s t also d e t e r m i n e t h e f u e l l o a d i n g w h i c h will g u a r a n t e e
r e a c t o r criticality over t h e d e s i r e d c o r e lifetime. T h i s requires c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r f u e l
d e p l e t i o n as well as reactivity e f f e c t s d u e to b o t h t e m p e r a t u r e f e e d b a c k a n d fission
p r o d u c t b u i l d u p . A t this p o i n t v a r i o u s details of t h e f u e l design enter, s u c h as the
m o d e r a t o r - t o - f u e l ratio, the f u e l e l e m e n t d i m e n s i o n s a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n , a n d enrichment.
2. REACTIVITY A N D C O N T R O L ANALYSIS
A n analysis m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d to d e t e r m i n e the a m o u n t of n e g a t i v e reactivity or c o n t r o l r e q u i r e d to c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e excess reactivity c o n t a i n e d in the
initial f u e l l o a d i n g as well as t o allow f o r flexible a n d s a f e r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n . O n e
m u s t a l l o c a t e this reactivity a m o n g several d i f f e r e n t c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m s , i n c l u d i n g
m o v a b l e c o n t r o l r o d s , soluble n e u t r o n p o i s o n s in the c o o l a n t ( " c h e m i c a l shim"),
a n d n e u t r o n p o i s o n s t h a t b u r n o u t o v e r c o r e life ( " b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s " or
" m e c h a n i c a l s h i m " ) . It is i m p o r t a n t to s t u d y the i n t e r a c t i o n of s u c h c o n t r o l
e l e m e n t s w i t h t h e n u c l e a r b e h a v i o r of the core, b o t h in static a n d d y n a m i c
situations. S u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y to p e r f o r m t h e d e t a i l e d design of
i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s , as well as c o n t r o l r o d p a t t e r n s a n d w i t h d r a w a l a n d
insertion sequences during reactor operation (rod "programming").
O n e m u s t also s t u d y t h e i n h e r e n t reactivity c h a n g e s t h a t will o c c u r in the core
w i t h p o w e r a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s b y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s reactivity f e e d b a c k
c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t d e t e r m i n e the s h o r t - t i m e k i n e t i c b e h a v i o r of t h e core. Of p a r t i c u l a r
c o n c e r n a r e t h e reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g c o o l a n t or m o d e r a t o r density
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s , a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity f o r the f u e l
( p r i m a r i l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e D o p p l e r effect).
T h e r e will also b e l o n g e r t e r m reactivity e f f e c t s s u c h as t h o s e d u e to the b u i l d u p
of fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n s w h i c h m u s t b e s t u d i e d .
3. D E P L E T I O N ANALYSIS
D u r i n g r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n t h e f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n will c h a n g e as fissile isotopes
a r e c o n s u m e d a n d fission p r o d u c t s are p r o d u c e d . T h e n u c l e a r d e s i g n e r m u s t
m o n i t o r these p r o c e s s e s over c o r e life in a n e f f o r t to a s c e r t a i n fuel c o m p o s i t i o n a n d
450 /
reactivity as a f u n c t i o n of e n e r g y r e m o v a l . T h i s r e q u i r e s s t u d y i n g the d e p l e t i o n a n d
p r o d u c t i o n c h a i n s f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l isotopes (e.g., 2 3 5 U - 2 3 8 U or 2 3 3 U - 2 3 2 T h ) c o u p l e d
w i t h t h e e q u a t i o n s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n e u t r o n flux in t h e core. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the
c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n m u s t b e m a d e m a n y times o v e r the
o p e r a t i n g lifetime of the c o r e as the c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n c h a n g e s . T h e s t u d y of the
i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h t h e t i m e - d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c t i o n or
d e p l e t i o n of n u c l e i in t h e c o r e is k n o w n as depletion o r burnup analysis. It is p e r h a p s
t h e m o s t t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d e x p e n s i v e a s p e c t of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r a n a l y s i s a n d
also p e r h a p s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t (aside f r o m r e a c t o r s a f e t y analysis), since it will
i n d i c a t e t h e e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e n u c l e a r r e a c t o r . D e p l e t i o n a n a l y s i s is
closely r e l a t e d to t h e topic of n u c l e a r f u e l m a n a g e m e n t in w h i c h o n e tries to
o p t i m i z e t h e f u e l l o a d i n g , a r r a n g e m e n t , a n d r e l o a d i n g in o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e m o s t
e c o n o m i c a l p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e design c o n s t r a i n t s (e.g., s a f e t y m a r g i n s )
placed on reactor operation.
F r o m this d i s c u s s i o n it is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e responsibilities of t h e n u c l e a r
d e s i g n e r a r e q u i t e v a r i e d a n d n u m e r o u s . H e m u s t establish t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o n a n d
d e t e r m i n e t h e values of t h e f u e l - t o - m o d e r a t o r v o l u m e ratio, t h e f u e l r o d d i a m e t e r ,
a n d the f u e l e l e m e n t a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e f u e l l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t m u s t t h e n b e
d e t e r m i n e d , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p o w e r reactivity d e f e c t s , f u e l
d e p l e t i o n , a n d fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p . C o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t n e x t b e e s t a b lished, i n c l u d i n g reactivity r e q u i r e m e n t s , c o n t r o l r o d g e o m e t r y a n d p a t t e r n s , a n d
the possible use of c h e m i c a l s h i m a n d b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s . T h e f u e l d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d
r e f u e l i n g a r r a n g e m e n t m u s t t h e n b e s t u d i e d in o r d e r to a c h i e v e e c o n o m i c f u e l
m a n a g e m e n t w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d b y s a f e r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n . T h e kinetic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the r e a c t o r m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d f o r s a f e t y a n a l y s e s of core
o p e r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e v a r i o u s reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t arise, fission p r o d u c t
p o i s o n i n g , a n d t h e a n a l y s e s of v a r i o u s h y p o t h e t i c a l a c c i d e n t s .
All of these design f u n c t i o n s rely o n t h e b a s i c t h e o r y of n u c l e a r c h a i n r e a c t i o n s
t h a t w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d in the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s . H o w e v e r b e c a u s e of the
a c c u r a c y a n d d e t a i l of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r a c t u a l r e a c t o r d e s i g n , r a t h e r
s o p h i s t i c a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s of this t h e o r y a r e n e c e s s i t a t e d , w h i c h , in t u r n , r e q u i r e the
extensive use of m o d e r n digital c o m p u t e r s .
B. Models of Core Nuclear Behavior

As we have mentioned, m o d e r n nuclear reactor design depends heavily on
v a r i o u s m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s of t h e n u c l e a r fission c h a i n r e a c t i o n a p p l i e d to core
analysis u s i n g digital c o m p u t e r s . T h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s or " c o d e s " t h a t r e p r e s e n t
these m a t h e m a t i c a l s i m u l a t i o n s of the r e a c t o r c o r e a r e g e n e r a l l y q u i t e c o m p l e x a n d
a r e f r e q u e n t l y the result of m a n y y e a r s of extensive d e v e l o p m e n t a n d testing a t the
v a r i o u s n u c l e a r l a b o r a t o r i e s in this c o u n t r y a n d a b r o a d . 8 M o r e recently, s u c h c o d e s
h a v e b e c o m e t h e s u b j e c t of v a r i o u s p r o p r i e t a r y restrictions, a n d while their g e n e r a l
f e a t u r e s a r e usually c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e , t h e details of t h e c o d e s u s e d in p r e s e n t d a y r e a c t o r d e s i g n a r e classified as p r o p r i e t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n b y the r e a c t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s . H e n c e o u r d i s c u s s i o n h e r e m u s t b e of a g e n e r a l n a t u r e . O n e c a n generally
g r o u p s u c h c o d e s i n t o o n e of f o u r d i f f e r e n t types.
1. CROSS SECTION LIBRARY PROCESSING CODES
W e n o t e d in C h a p t e r 2 t h a t t h e b a s i c s o u r c e of n u c l e a r cross section d a t a f o r
n u c l e a r design in this c o u n t r y is the E N D F / B file, w h i c h c o n t a i n s d a t a c o m p i l e d
a n d e v a l u a t e d f r o m all k n o w n cross section i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e a m o u n t of s u c h d a t a
451
r e q u i r e s t h a t it b e s t o r e d o n m a g n e t i c t a p e a n d m a n i p u l a t e d u s i n g c o m p l e x d a t a
h a n d l i n g c o d e s . 7 S u c h c o d e s n o t o n l y select t h e cross section d a t a of interest a n d
p r e p a r e t h e m in a f o r m s u i t a b l e f o r i n p u t to r e a c t o r design c o d e s , b u t also
i n t e r p o l a t e existing d a t a to fill a n y g a p s w h i c h m a y exist, as well a s a p p l y v a r i o u s
t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l s ( s u c h a s t h e o p t i c a l m o d e l of n u c l e a r s t r u c t u r e ) to g e n e r a t e cross
section d a t a in t h o s e r e g i m e s in w h i c h n o existing d a t a exist. T h e s e l i b r a r y c o d e s
also g e n e r a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross sections, r e s o n a n c e integrals, a n d t h e r m a l
e n e r g y s c a t t e r i n g kernels.
T h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g cross s e c t i o n s f o r elastic s c a t t e r i n g a r e
g e n e r a t e d a s a s e q u e n c e of t e r m s in a L e g e n d r e p o l y n o m i a l e x p a n s i o n . By
c o n t r a s t , inelastic s c a t t e r i n g a n d ( n t 2 n ) p r o c e s s e s a r e u s u a l l y a s s u m e d
i s o t r o p i c in t h e l a b o r a t o r y s y s t e m a n d c a l c u l a t e d using a v a i l a b l e d a t a
a p p r o p r i a t e n u c l e a r states or a t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l of the nucleus.
usually
w a y of
to be
o n the
O n e of t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t a s p e c t s of cross section g e n e r a t i o n c o n c e r n s the

t r e a t m e n t of r e s o n a n c e cross sections. B e c a u s e s u c h r e s o n a n c e s a r e u s u a l l y q u i t e
large in m a g n i t u d e a n d yet q u i t e n a r r o w c o m p a r e d to even the e n e r g y intervals
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e cross section d a t a , it is n e c e s s a r y to m a k e s o m e a t t e m p t to
a c c o u n t f o r f l u x d e p r e s s i o n in t h e r e s o n a n c e s in o r d e r to i n c l u d e effective reso n a n c e i n t e g r a l s in t h e cross section d a t a set. I n the r e g i m e in w h i c h the
r e s o n a n c e s a r e i s o l a t e d a n d m e a s u r e d , this c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g the s t a n d a r d
t e c h n i q u e s (e.g., t h e N R or N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n s ) . V a r i o u s n u c l e a r m o d e l s c a n b e
u s e d t o g e n e r a t e r e s o n a n c e p a r a m e t e r s f o r the e n e r g y r a n g e in w h i c h the reso n a n c e s a r e still i s o l a t e d b u t n o t m e a s u r e d . T h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t a r e a to t r e a t is the
e n e r g y r a n g e in w h i c h t h e r e s o n a n c e s a r e n o t o n l y u n r e s o l v e d b u t o v e r l a p so
a p p r e c i a b l y t h a t t h e y c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . It is also usually
n e c e s s a r y to a c c o u n t f o r h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s (see C h a p t e r 10), t e m p e r a t u r e
e f f e c t s o n t h e r e s o n a n c e s t r u c t u r e , a n d o v e r l a p of r e s o n a n c e s of d i f f e r e n t materials.
2. M U L T I G R O U P C O N S T A N T (MGC) G E N E R A T I O N CODES
A s w e h a v e seen, t h e e n e r g y r a n g e s p a n n e d b y t h e n e u t r o n s a s t h e y a r e b o r n
in fission a n d slow d o w n to e v e n t u a l c a p t u r e o r leakage a t t h e r m a l energies (at
least in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s ) is e n o r m o u s , c o v e r i n g s o m e eight o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e .
Since t h e cross sections t h e m s e l v e s d e p e n d sensitively o n energy, it is a p p a r e n t t h a t
o n e m u s t p r o c e e d r a t h e r c a r e f u l l y in g e n e r a t i n g f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r use in
multigroup diffusion calculations.
O n e usually p r o c e e d s in t w o steps. T h e e n e r g y r a n g e of interest is first d i v i d e d u p
i n t o a very f i n e m u l t i g r o u p s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e cross section d a t a s u p p l i e d b y a
l i b r a r y c o d e a r e simply a v e r a g e d over these g r o u p s (for e x a m p l e , in t h e slowing
d o w n r a n g e o n e m i g h t use a l / E s p e c t r u m ) . A p p r o p r i a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to the
e f f e c t i v e r e s o n a n c e integrals of interest a r e also i n c l u d e d in this set of " f i n e - g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s . " T h e s e f i n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s t h e n serve as t h e m i c r o s c o p i c cross section
d a t a u s e d in f a s t a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c o d e s t h a t p e r f o r m a n a p p r o x i m a t e
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n c e f o r the n u c l e a r a s s e m b l y of interest,
a n d t h e n a v e r a g e or collapse the f i n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s i n t o f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s
o v e r these a p p r o x i m a t e s p e c t r a . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t w h e r e a s f i n e - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e u s u a l l y e v a l u a t e d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to the d e t a i l e d s y s t e m u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e s p e c t r u m g e n e r a t i o n c o d e s g e n e r a t e f e w g r o u p M G C f o r the specific
system of interest. T h e s e M G C a r e t h e n u s e d in static a n d kinetic design analysis.
Of course, t h e trick e n a b l i n g o n e to p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of the n e u t r o n
e n e r g y s p e c t r u m is the t e m p o r a r y neglect of the d e t a i l e d spatial d e p e n d e n c e of the
452 /
n e u t r o n flux. It is c u s t o m a r y t o a s s u m e a s i m p l e single m o d e f l u x s h a p e t h a t is, t o

a s s u m e a b u c k l i n g t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e r e g i o n of t h e c o r e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
T h e a n g u l a r f l u x d e p e n d e n c e is simplified u s i n g e i t h e r t h e Pl or Bx a p p r o x i m a t i o n
( a l t h o u g h s o m e t i m e s h i g h e r o r d e r i? N m e t h o d s m a y b e used).
H o w e v e r t h e success of M G C g e n e r a t i o n c o d e s f r e q u e n t l y d e p e n d s o n h o w t h e s e
c o d e s a r e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e r a t h e r s t r o n g s p a t i a l d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f l u x t h a t o c c u r s
in t h e vicinity of t h e f u e l r o d or c o n t r o l r o d . W e h a v e a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d several
m e t h o d s f o r c o r r e c t i n g cross section g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r these h e t e r o g e n e o u s
effects, s u c h as d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s a n d collision p r o b a b i l i t i e s . I n t h e f a s t region,
it is u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o m e r e l y c o r r e c t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r e s o n a n c e integrals
f o r self-shielding e f f e c t s u s i n g e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t i e s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e cell g e o m e t r y
of interest. I n t h e t h e r m a l r a n g e , o n e m a y u s e either a p p r o x i m a t e t e c h n i q u e s s u c h
a s t h e A B H m e t h o d t o d e t e r m i n e d i s a d v a n t a g e f a c t o r s , o r m o r e e l a b o r a t e cellc a l c u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s s u c h a s T H E R M O S 9 t o directly c a l c u l a t e t h e self-shielded
c r o s s sections.
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e s e M G C a r e u s u a l l y t h e n spatially a v e r a g e d o v e r t h e f u e l
cell or p e r h a p s a f u e l a s s e m b l y i n o r d e r t o g e n e r a t e " h o m o g e n i z e d " cross sections
m o s t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s p a t i a l m e s h t o b e u s e d in t h e f e w - g r o u p m u l t i g r o u p
diffusion calculation.
W e have already referred to the various c o m m o n schemes to generate few-group
constants for L W R s - n a m e l y , M U F T - G A M - 1 0 type calculations for the fast
spectrum, a n d S O F O C A T E 1 1 or T E M P E S T - 1 2 t y p e calculations for the thermal
s p e c t r u m , i n c l u d i n g p e r h a p s a T H E R M O S c a l c u l a t i o n f o r cell analysis. T h e corr e s p o n d i n g t y p e s of c o d e f o r H T G R s i n c l u d e G A M 1 3 o r M I C R O X 1 4 f o r t h e
fast-group constants and G A T H E R 5 for thermal-group constants. The group
s t r u c t u r e n e c e s s a r y f o r f a s t r e a c t o r a n a l y s i s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e detailed,
a n d u l t r a f i n e g r o u p s t r u c t u r e s s u c h as t h o s e e m p l o y e d in M C 2 a r e u s e d t o g e n e r a t e
M G C f o r f a s t a s s e m b l y analysis.
3. STATIC D E S I G N C O D E S
Static d e s i g n c o d e s a r e u s e d to o b t a i n t h e g l o b a l s p a t i a l d e p e n d e n c e of t h e
n e u t r o n f l u x t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e a c t o r core. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is r e q u i r e d f o r a c c u r a t e
p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e f u e l l o a d i n g , p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of
reactivity, excess reactivity, s h u t d o w n m a r g i n s , shielding r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d o t h e r
quantities. These codes are usually few-group diffusion or transport codes that
utilize t h e M G C g e n e r a t e d b y t h e s p e c t r u m c o d e s d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e v i o u s section.
O n e c u s t o m a r i l y uses s u c h c o d e s to d e t e r m i n e t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n f a c t o r (eigenv a l u e ) a n d f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e s y s t e m of interest. U s u a l l y m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l
d i f f u s i o n c o d e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r this task. H o w e v e r o c c a s i o n a l l y t r a n s p o r t c o d e s
a r e n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e cell-correction f a c t o r s in t h e vicinity of s t r o n g a b s o r b e r s
o r voids.
Indeed before a diffusion theory calculation can be performed the heterogeneities in t h e c o r e m u s t b e h o m o g e n i z e d . A l t h o u g h M G C g e n e r a t i o n c o d e s a u g m e n t e d with p r e s c r i p t i o n s s u c h as t h o s e p r o v i d e d b y t h e A B H m e t h o d usually
p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y f o r this p u r p o s e , it is o c c a s i o n a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a
t r a n s p o r t c o d e s u c h as A N I S N 1 5 or T W O T R A N 1 6 . W i t h s u c h c o r r e c t i o n s , m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c o d e s a r e u s u a l l y a d e q u a t e f o r a w i d e class of p r o b l e m s , i n c l u d i n g
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e over-all flux a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e e f f e c t s of f u e l
zoning, reactivity p r e d i c t i o n s , a n d so o n .
453
S u c h c o d e s c a n also b e u s e d to c a l c u l a t e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p o w e r c o e f f i c i e n t s of
reactivity. T h i s is u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d b y m e r e l y c a l c u l a t i n g the core m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
f o r several d i f f e r e n t core t e m p e r a t u r e s or p o w e r levels (using d i f f e r e n t M G C f o r
e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e , of course).
4. T I M E - D E P E N D E N T D E S I G N CODES
T h e f o u r t h class of c o d e s a t t e m p t to explicitly t r e a t the time d e p e n d e n c e of
t h e n u c l e a r b e h a v i o r of t h e core. Of c o u r s e b y i n c l u d i n g this a d d i t i o n a l variable,
o n e is u s u a l l y f o r c e d t o utilize a c o a r s e r d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e m a i n i n g v a r i a b l e s - f o r
e x a m p l e , s p a c e a n d energy. S u c h c o d e s c a n t h e m s e l v e s b e b r o k e n i n t o three
s e p a r a t e classifications:
(a.) DEPLETION
CODES
I n a d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n , o n e is c o n c e r n e d with m o n i t o r i n g t h e c o r e c o m p o sition a n d f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e r e a c t o r o v e r t h e core life. I n p a r t i c u l a r o n e m u s t

t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e time- a n d s p a c e - d e p e n d e n c e of fissile m a t e r i a l d e p l e t i o n , the
t r a n s m u t a t i o n of fertile to fissile m a t e r i a l , fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p , a n d the a d j u s t m e n t of c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s to m a i n t a i n c o r e criticality. D e p l e t i o n c o d e s involve
t h e solution of t h e r a t e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g i s o t o p e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , as well as the
n e u t r o n b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g c o r e criticality. B e c a u s e of t h e m a n y
v a r i a b l e s involved, s u c h as p o w e r density, r e l o a d f r e q u e n c y , excess reactivity
r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d v a r y i n g r e l o a d p a t t e r n s , even the simplest d e p l e t i o n p r o b l e m
m a y r e q u i r e solutions a t m a n y p o i n t s in time.
B e c a u s e of their low c o m p u t e r cost a n d g e n e r a l flexibility, extensive use is m a d e
of z e r o - d i m e n s i o n a l d e p l e t i o n c o d e s f o r s u r v e y c a l c u l a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , m o r e detailed a n a l y s e s will r e q u i r e t h e u s e of o n e - or t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d e p l e t i o n c o d e s in
o r d e r to a c c o u n t f o r the s p a t i a l flux v a r i a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l - r o d a n d r e l o a d p a t t e r n s .
(b.) FUEL CYCLE
ANALYSIS
O n e of t h e m a j o r a p p l i c a t i o n s of f u e l d e p l e t i o n c o d e s is to the analysis of fuel

cycle s t r a t e g y t h a t is, a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e o p t i m u m f u e l r e l o a d i n g strategy f o r
m i n i m i z i n g t h e f u e l cycle costs. S u c h e s t i m a t e s of initial c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d
reload fuel composition must take into account the requirements for heat removal,
c o o l a n t p u m p i n g p o w e r , p e a k f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d so o n , a n d h e n c e a r e inv a r i a b l y a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h a t c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n e n t a i l i n g t h e lowest f u e l
cycle cost a n d t h a t c o m p o s i t i o n resulting in a c c e p t a b l e s y s t e m t e m p e r a t u r e s .
(c.) REACTOR
KINETICS
ANALYSIS
I n o r d e r to a n a l y z e t h e t r a n s i e n t r e s p o n s e of the r e a c t o r to b o t h n o r m a l
o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d p o s t u l a t e d a c c i d e n t situations, o n e m u s t utilize c o d e s
b a s e d o n t h e n u c l e a r r e a c t o r kinetics e q u a t i o n s discussed in C h a p t e r 6. S u c h
c a l c u l a t i o n s d i f f e r d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s in t w o respects: (a) the
t i m e scale of r e a c t o r t r a n s i e n t b e h a v i o r is u s u a l l y of the o r d e r of m i n u t e s or less,
w h e r e a s d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h core b e h a v i o r over times as l o n g
as several y e a r s a n d (b) in kinetics c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e r e a c t o r is usually s u b j e c t to a
n o n z e r o n e t reactivity ( d u e to control, o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , etc.). I n a d e p l e t i o n
c a l c u l a t i o n , o n e a l w a y s a s s u m e s t h a t c o n t r o l is a d j u s t e d to h o l d t h e c o r e critical at
all times. H e n c e , in a d e p l e t i o n calculation, o n e is a c t u a l l y only c o n c e r n e d with the
steady-state equations describing the neutronics.
454 /
R e a c t o r kinetics analysis plays a n i m p o r t a n t role in c o r e design, since it is

n e c e s s a r y to assess s a f e t y m a r g i n s , to select a n d place c o n t r o l a n d s a f e t y instrum e n t a t i o n , to d e s i g n t h e c o n t r o l a n d p r o t e c t i v e systems, a n d to d e t e r m i n e the n e e d
a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s of e n g i n e e r e d s a f e g u a r d s .
Of c o u r s e a t t h e h e a r t of s u c h c o d e s is a n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n of t h e r e a c t o r
kinetics e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e n e u t r o n f l u x t i m e b e h a v i o r in the core. H o w e v e r
o n e m u s t also a c c o u n t f o r c o o l a n t f l o w a n d h e a t t r a n s f e r in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e
f e e d b a c k reactivity. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is s t r o n g c o u p l i n g to o t h e r d y n a m i c p r o cesses in t h e N S S S , s u c h as t h e p r i m a r y c o o l a n t loop, s t e a m g e n e r a t o r , c o o l a n t
p u m p s , a n d f e e d w a t e r system. H e n c e t h e s t u d y of r e a c t o r d y n a m i c s c a n b e c o m e
quite complicated.
A s i n p u t to s u c h c o d e s o n e r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y b a s i c n u c l e a r d a t a , s u c h as cross
sections, t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s , a n d so on, b u t t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c i n f o r m a t i o n as
well. T h e s e latter q u a n t i t i e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g static design codes.
T h e simplest level of d e s c r i p t i o n w o u l d b e t h e use of p o i n t - r e a c t o r kinetics to
d e s c r i b e t h e c o r e n e u t r o n i c s . H o w e v e r , in m a n y i n s t a n c e s t h e spatial d e p e n d e n c e of
t h e f l u x is i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h e n either t i m e - d e p e n d e n t m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c o d e s or
h y b r i d s c h e m e s s u c h a s synthesis m u s t b e utilized f o r a n a d e q u a t e d e s c r i p t i o n .
II. OTHER AREAS OF REACTOR CORE ANALYSIS

W e h a v e o u t l i n e d t h e v a r i o u s types of c a l c u l a t i o n r e q u i r e d in t h e n u c l e a r
analysis a n d design of a r e a c t o r core. T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of core
criticality a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s , f u e l
l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d c o r e a r r a n g e m e n t , reactivity c o n t r o l c a l c u l a t i o n s , f u e l
d e p l e t i o n studies, a n d r e a c t o r s a f e t y analysis. T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s c o n s t r a i n t s
i m p o s e d o n such n u c l e a r design. Of c o u r s e t h e c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n
m u s t b e c h o s e n s u c h t h a t s u f f i c i e n t excess reactivity is a v a i l a b l e f o r p o w e r g e n e r a tion over a r e a s o n a b l e time p e r i o d (usually o n t h e t i m e scale of years). T h e
reactivity c o n t r o l m u s t b e c a p a b l e of e n s u r i n g t h e safe a n d reliable o p e r a t i o n of the
r e a c t o r over c o r e life. A n d these r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t b e m e t while a t t h e s a m e time
m i n i m i z i n g t h e e c o n o m i c cost of t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n . T h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s a r e
f r e q u e n t l y in c o n f l i c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e is i n c e n t i v e to o p e r a t e
t h e r e a c t o r a t t h e largest possible p o w e r d e n s i t y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g f u e l
a n d c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w limits set b y s a f e t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Y e t s u c h a h i g h
p o w e r d e n s i t y f r e q u e n t l y d o e s n o t l e a d to the o p t i m u m e c o n o m i c p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n
over t h e e n t i r e c o r e life, since t h e f l u x a n d h e n c e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n will shift a s the
f u e l is d e p l e t e d .
T h e n u c l e a r analysis a n d design of t h e c o r e c a n n o t b e d e c o u p l e d f r o m o t h e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u c h as t h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o r of the c o r e o r t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e
v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s t h a t c o m p r i s e the core. T h i s c a n p e r h a p s b e u n d e r s t o o d m o r e
clearly b y b r i e f l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e o t h e r t y p e s of analysis t h a t arise in r e a c t o r c o r e
design.
A. Thermal Core Analysis

T h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d in n u c l e a r fission a p p e a r s as k i n e t i c e n e r g y of fission
r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s a n d e v e n t u a l l y as h e a t g e n e r a t e d in the r e a c t o r f u e l elements.
T h i s h e a t m u s t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e r e a c t o r c o r e a n d u s e d to g e n e r a t e electrical
455
p o w e r . T h e s t u d y of t h e s e q u e n c e of p r o c e s s e s involved in t h e t r a n s p o r t a n d
utilization of fission h e a t e n e r g y is m o s t p r o p e r l y the c o n c e r n of the m e c h a n i c a l
e n g i n e e r . H o w e v e r since it h a s such a s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g o n the n u c l e a r design of
the core, w e will d e v o t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of C h a p t e r 12 to a s u m m a r y of the
t h e r m a l analysis of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r cores.
T h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e s of t h e r m a l c o r e design i n c l u d e a c h i e v i n g a high p o w e r
d e n s i t y (to m i n i m i z e c o r e size), a high specific p o w e r (to m i n i m i z e f u e l inventory),
a n d high c o o l a n t exit t e m p e r a t u r e s (to m a x i m i z e t h e r m o d y n a m i c efficiency). H o w ever these o b j e c t i v e s are s u b j e c t to several i m p o r t a n t c o n s t r a i n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e
m u s t a l w a y s e n s u r e t h a t t h e c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s r e m a i n b e l o w t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t s of
c o r e c o m p o n e n t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r the f u e l a n d the clad). T h e r e a r e also f r e q u e n t l y
limits o n h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e b e t w e e n t h e f u e l e l e m e n t a n d t h e c o o l a n t , since if this
h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e b e c o m e s t o o large, f i l m b o i l i n g of liquid c o o l a n t s m a y o c c u r
w h i c h will result in a r a p i d rise in clad t e m p e r a t u r e s . H y d r a u l i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s also
e n t e r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o o l a n t p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e c o r e m u s t b e k e p t l o w to
m i n i m i z e p u m p i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s as well as h y d r a u l i c stresses o n c o r e c o m p o n e n t s .
S u c h t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o n s t r a i n t s m u s t b e s t u d i e d over c o r e life, since as t h e
p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e c o r e c h a n g e s d u e to f u e l b u r n u p or core r e l o a d i n g , the
t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n will similarly c h a n g e . F u r t h e r m o r e since t h e cross sections
g o v e r n i n g t h e n e u t r o n i c s of t h e c o r e a r e s t r o n g l y t e m p e r a t u r e - a n d d e n s i t y - d e p e n d e n t , t h e r e will b e a s t r o n g c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d
n e u t r o n i c b e h a v i o r of t h e r e a c t o r core. W e will see in C h a p t e r 12 t h a t this c o u p l i n g
h a s a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o n the m a n n e r in w h i c h r e a c t o r criticality c a l c u l a t i o n s m u s t
be performed.
B. Mechanical Analysis of Reactor Cores

It is of vital i m p o r t a n c e t o c h o o s e m a t e r i a l s a n d design c o r e c o m p o n e n t s
c a p a b l e of w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t of i n t e n s e r a d i a t i o n , high pressure, a n d
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core. Of c e n t r a l c o n c e r n is t h e s t r u c t u r a l
d e s i g n of f u e l e l e m e n t s s u b j e c t t o r a t h e r severe m e c h a n i c a l stresses. F o r e x a m p l e ,
as the f u e l p r o d u c e s e n e r g y via fission r e a c t i o n s , it will also p r o d u c e fission p r o d u c t
gases ( r o u g h l y 27 a t o m s of s u c h gases will b e p r o d u c e d p e r 100 a t o m s fissioned). 1 7
T h e s e gases will d i f f u s e t h r o u g h t h e f u e l p i n a n d i n t o the f u e l - c l a d gap, w h e r e they
will a c c u m u l a t e , p r o d u c i n g r a t h e r sizable p r e s s u r e s o n t h e i n n e r clad surface.
T y p i c a l l y a n a t t e m p t is m a d e to k e e p t h e s e p r e s s u r e s b e l o w the design c o o l a n t
p r e s s u r e s . H o w e v e r t h e i n t e r n a l f u e l e l e m e n t gas p r e s s u r e m u s t n o t b e c o m e too
low, o r else t h e c l a d m a y fail d u e to t h e o u t s i d e c o o l a n t p r e s s u r e (for e x a m p l e ,
s h o u l d a g a p a p p e a r b e t w e e n t w o f u e l pellets). T h e fission e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g in the
f u e l will also c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l e swelling of t h e f u e l pellets, w h i c h p l a c e s a d d i t i o n a l
i n t e r n a l stresses o n t h e clad. T h e r e a r e o t h e r stresses o n t h e f u e l e l e m e n t , such as
t h o s e f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l c o o l a n t p r e s s u r e . T h e e n o r m o u s t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s across
t h e f u e l p i n a n d clad, as well as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s ( t h e r m a l cycling)
a c c o m p a n y i n g c h a n g e s in r e a c t o r p o w e r level, r e n d e r the m e c h a n i c a l design 1 8 of
t h e f u e l e l e m e n t even m o r e difficult, as d o a n u m b e r of o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
i n v o l v i n g r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e . T h e s e f a c t o r s a r e discussed b e l o w .
T h e m e c h a n i c a l design of o t h e r core c o m p o n e n t s m u s t also b e c o n s i d e r e d in core
design. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e v a r i o u s i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e d to s u p p o r t t h e fuel,
f l o w b a f f l e s , a n d c o n t r o l r o d assemblies m u s t b e d e s i g n e d to w i t h s t a n d t h e i n t e n s e
456
c o r e e n v i r o n m e n t . A n d of c o u r s e t h e r e a c t o r p r e s s u r e vessel itself r e p r e s e n t s a
f o r m i d a b l e m e c h a n i c a l design p r o b l e m , since it m u s t w i t h s t a n d e x t r e m e l y h i g h
p r e s s u r e s a n d r a d i a t i o n i n t e n s i t y over t h e o p e r a t i n g l i f e t i m e of t h e r e a c t o r ( 3 0
years). O n e m u s t k e e p in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e f a b r i c a t i o n costs a n d m a i n t e n a n c e
of t h e m e c h a n i c a l assemblies in t h e c o r e (with p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o m o v e m e n t of
control rod assemblies a n d refueling operations).
C. Materials Problems in Reactor Core Design

A s w e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y v e r y h i g h pressures, large t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s , a n d i n t e n s e n u c l e a r
radiation, which place very stringent d e m a n d s on the materials comprising core
c o m p o n e n t s . T h e b e h a v i o r of m a t e r i a l s s u b j e c t e d to large m e c h a n i c a l a n d t h e r m a l
stresses is n o t a n e w a r e a of i n v e s t i g a t i o n (except p o s s i b l y to t h e e x t r e m e s
e n c o u n t e r e d in m o d e r n r e a c t o r design), a n d a great d e a l is k n o w n a b o u t the
f a b r i c a t i o n of h i g h - s t r e n g t h alloys a n d c e r a m i c s w h i c h c a n w i t h s t a n d t h e s e stresses.
However the nuclear reactor core subjects materials to an additional d e m a n d , that
p o s e d b y the i n t e n s i v e b o m b a r d m e n t b y n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n to w h i c h m a t e r i a l s in t h e
c o r e a r e e x p o s e d . O v e r a p e r i o d of time, s u c h r a d i a t i o n c a n d r a m a t i c a l l y alter t h e
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s . 1 9 F o r e x a m p l e m e t a l s will b e c o m e brittle a n d swell
a n d c o r r o s i o n is e n h a n c e d . T h e r e a c t o r e n g i n e e r m u s t b e v e r y c a r e f u l to a n t i c i p a t e
s u c h r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e in his design, a s well as t o a d o p t a s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n s e r v a t i v e
d e s i g n to c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e l a c k of e x p e r i e n c e a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h e b e h a v i o r of
materials u n d e r very high irradiation fluences.
T h e s e e f f e c t s of r a d i a t i o n o n r e a c t o r m a t e r i a l s h a v e b e c o m e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in t o d a y ' s m a t u r i n g n u c l e a r r e a c t o r i n d u s t r y . I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e lowest
p o s s i b l e p o w e r costs, n u c l e a r f u e l e l e m e n t s m u s t b e u s e d in a r e a c t o r a s l o n g a s
p o s s i b l e (i.e., h i g h b u r n u p ) . A c t u a l l y t h e p r i n c i p a l l i m i t a t i o n o n t h e a m o u n t of
b u r n u p is n o t t h e loss of 2 3 5 U or 2 3 9 P u n u c l e i t h r o u g h fission, b u t r a t h e r t h e
a t t e n d a n t r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e to t h e f u e l a n d t h e c l a d d i n g m a t e r i a l , w h i c h w o u l d
l e a d to f u e l e l e m e n t f a i l u r e if the f u e l is left in t h e c o r e t o o long. 2 0 H e n c e w h e r e a s
n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s w e r e l i m i t e d b y n u c l e a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e 1950s, a n d b y
t h e r m a l d e s i g n d u r i n g t h e 1960s, t o d a y ' s m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r s a r e p r i m a r i l y
limited b y t h e r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e w h i c h c a n b e w i t h s t o o d b y r e a c t o r m a t e r i a l s .
T h i s s i t u a t i o n b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e d i f f i c u l t in f a s t - b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s b e c a u s e of the
i n t e n s i t y of f a s t n e u t r o n r a d i a t i o n . It h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t stainless steel (a m a j o r
s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t of the f a s t b r e e d e r ) swells r a t h e r d r a m a t i c a l l y (several p e r c e n t ) w h e n i r r a d i a t e d o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e b y f a s t n e u t r o n s . 2 1 S u c h swelling
m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in t h e m e c h a n i c a l d e s i g n of t h e f a s t r e a c t o r c o r e (with a
considerable associated economic penalty).
W e h a v e seen t h a t t h e r e a r e several t y p e s of h i g h - e n e r g y r a d i a t i o n p r e s e n t in a
n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core. M o s t of these result f r o m the n u c l e a r fission r e a c t i o n itself,
a l t h o u g h lesser a m o u n t s arise f r o m a s s o c i a t e d r e a c t i o n s s u c h as r a d i a t i v e n e u t r o n
c a p t u r e . Of c o u r s e , m o s t fission e n e r g y is c a r r i e d b y t h e m a s s i v e f i s s i o n - f r a g m e n t
nuclei. T h e s e c a u s e c a t a s t r o p h i c d a m a g e t o t h e a d j a c e n t f u e l m a t e r i a l , b u t b e c a u s e
of their large electrical c h a r g e , t h e r a n g e of t h e fission f r a g m e n t s is e x t r e m e l y s h o r t
( < 2 0 j u m ) ; a n d h e n c e this d a m a g e is localized in t h e f u e l w i t h i n t h e i m m e d i a t e
vicinity of t h e fission event. A p o t e n t i a l l y m o r e serious type of r a d i a t i o n is t h a t d u e
t o f a s t n e u t r o n s . B e c a u s e of their n e u t r a l i t y , n e u t r o n s h a v e r a t h e r l o n g r a n g e s (as
457
m u c h as several meters). H e n c e t h e y c a n d a m a g e m a t e r i a l l o c a t e d a n y w h e r e in the

r e a c t o r core. G a m m a r a d i a t i o n is also c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y large ranges, b u t is of
s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e to f a s t n e u t r o n d a m a g e .
T h e a c t u a l e f f e c t of r a d i a t i o n o n a m a t e r i a l d e p e n d s sensitively o n t h e t y p e of
m a t e r i a l , t h e t y p e of r a d i a t i o n , a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e t i m e of i r r a d i a t i o n
( s u c h as t e m p e r a t u r e ) . H o w e v e r s o m e g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e . F o r
e x a m p l e , f o r i r r a d i a t e d metals, h a r d n e s s , tensile strength, a n d i m p a c t resistance
i n c r e a s e , while ductility d e c r e a s e s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a n i n c r e a s e in brittleness).
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e in r e a c t o r c o r e d e s i g n b e c o m e s p a r t i c u l a r l y
a p p a r e n t w h e n o n e e x a m i n e s n u c l e a r f u e l p e r f o r m a n c e in t h e L W R . A s w e will see,
t h e low cost of n u c l e a r f u e l (relative to fossil f u e l ) is t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r t h a t l e a d s
t o t h e e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e s of n u c l e a r p o w e r . T h a t s u c h costs a r e realizable is d u e
in n o s m a l l m e a s u r e to t h e significant a d v a n c e s m a d e in n u c l e a r f u e l design a n d
p e r f o r m a n c e since t h e mid-1960s. N u c l e a r f u e l e l e m e n t s m u s t b e d e s i g n e d s u b j e c t
t o several criteria 2 2 i n t e n d e d to g u a r a n t e e t h e f u e l p e r f o r m a n c e u p t o the lifetime
limit: (a) t h e f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e h o t t e s t p o i n t a l w a y s m u s t b e b e l o w the
m e l t i n g p o i n t , (b) a n y f u e l d i s p l a c e m e n t t h a t m i g h t i n f l u e n c e c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d m u l t i p l i c a t i o n m u s t b e m i n i m i z e d , (c) t h e c l a d d i n g m u s t r e m a i n
l e a k - p r o o f , a n d (d) t h e o u t e r g e o m e t r y of t h e f u e l p i n (length, d i a m e t e r , straightness) is s u b j e c t to very small t o l e r a n c e s .
A s w e h a v e seen, n u c l e a r f u e l e l e m e n t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o intensive i r r a d i a t i o n .
T h e y a r e f u r t h e r m o r e s u b j e c t to e x t r e m e l y large t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s . T h i s is
c a u s e d to a large d e g r e e b y t h e r a t h e r p o o r ability of t h e p r i n c i p a l types of n u c l e a r
f u e l , u r a n i u m o x i d e or c a r b i d e , t o c o n d u c t h e a t . S u c h t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s p l a c e
e n o r m o u s t h e r m a l stresses o n t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s a n d i n t e r a c t s t r o n g l y with the
c h a n g e s in t h e f u e l i n d u c e d b y i r r a d i a t i o n .
T h e p r i n c i p a l r a d i a t i o n e f f e c t s t h a t m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in f u e l e l e m e n t design
i n c l u d e : 2 2 (a) f u e l c r e e p a n d swelling, f i s s i o n gas release, p o r e m i g r a t i o n , c h e m i c a l
c h a n g e s , a n d c h a n g e in r a d i a t i o n a n d axial f u e l d e n s i t y profile, (b) c l a d d i n g
m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , swelling b y v o i d f o r m a t i o n , a n d c o r r o s i o n , (c) f u e l p i n r a d i a l
heat transfer a n d temperature distribution, mechanical a n d chemical interaction
b e t w e e n f u e l a n d c l a d d i n g , swelling a n d b o w i n g of t h e p i n , a n d (d) f u e l b u n d l e
c h a n g e s in c o m p o n e n t g e o m e t r y a n d i n t e r a c t i o n of f u e l p i n s a n d spacers.
S u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h a v e led to a n u m b e r of m o d i f i c a t i o n s in f u e l e l e m e n t
d e s i g n s f o r m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r s . C u r r e n t designs p r o v i d e f o r i n c r e a s e d void
v o l u m e to a c c o m m o d a t e f u e l swelling a n d fission gas release a s s o c i a t e d with the
h i g h e r b u r n u p s u s e d in p r e s e n t - d a y p o w e r r e a c t o r s . T h e excellent c o r r o s i o n resist a n c e of z i r c o n i u m a n d stainless steel alloys h a s led to their a l m o s t exclusive use as
a c l a d d i n g m a t e r i a l . A s t h e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y o b t a i n s m o r e o p e r a t i n g exp e r i e n c e w i t h f u e l d e s i g n a n d b e h a v i o r u n d e r l o n g - t e r m i r r a d i a t i o n , it will b e m o r e
a b l e t o d e v e l o p a d v a n c e d designs c a p a b l e of very h i g h b u r n u p s a n d p o w e r
densities.
T h e c o m m e r c i a l success of t h e L M F B R will also b e critically d e p e n d e n t o n the
a t t a i n m e n t of low f u e l cycle costs a n d t h e r e f o r e o n t h e ability to r u n f u e l e l e m e n t s
t o very h i g h b u r n u p s . O n l y r a t h e r r e c e n t l y h a s a n y a p p r e c i a b l e e x p e r i e n c e in the
b e h a v i o r of m a t e r i a l s in h i g h f a s t n e u t r o n f l u x e n v i r o n m e n t s b e e n available.
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c e f f e c t t h u s f a r o b s e r v e d o c c u r s in s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s
s u c h as stainless steel. A f t e r l o n g p e r i o d s of i r r a d i a t i o n b y f a s t n e u t r o n s , t h e steel is
o b s e r v e d to swell. C l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h e p r e s e n c e of small v o i d s in the
458 /
i r r a d i a t e d m a t e r i a l . Of c o u r s e s u c h swelling a n d v o i d f o r m a t i o n a r e highly u n d e sirable in a r e a c t o r c o r e in w h i c h m e c h a n i c a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l t o l e r a n c e s m u s t b e

k e p t v e r y r e f i n e d over t h e lifetime of t h e c o r e ( u p t o 30 years).
T h e v o i d s a r e c a u s e d b y f a s t n e u t r o n s t h a t rip t h r o u g h t h e c r y s t a l lattice,
k n o c k i n g a t o m s o u t of their lattice p o s i t i o n s . T h e s e v a c a n c i e s t e n d to m i g r a t e
t o g e t h e r to f o r m voids a n d h e n c e i n d u c e t h e swelling. By r a i s i n g t h e steel t o h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e s t h e voids c a n b e a n n e a l e d o u t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y at t h e a n t i c i p a t e d
o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s of t h e L M F B R s u c h swelling c a n b e q u i t e p r o n o u n c e d a n d
m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in c o r e design.
D. Economic Analysis23
25
T h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s m u s t reside in their e c o n o m i c
a d v a n t a g e s over m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l s o u r c e s of electrical p o w e r . T h e cost of
electrical p o w e r c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o a n u m b e r of f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c a p i t a l
cost of c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p l a n t , t h e a n n u a l cost of o p e r a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g t h e
p l a n t , a n d t h e a n n u a l costs f o r f u e l . T h e c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e d f o r t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s is u s u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r
c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , o p e r a t i n g a n d m a i n t e n a n c e costs a c c o u n t
f o r o n l y a small f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l cost of p r o d u c i n g electricity. H e n c e t h e
p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e e n j o y e d b y n u c l e a r p o w e r is in t h e l o w e r cost of its f u e l .
It is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t n u c l e a r f u e l s a r e totally d i f f e r e n t f r o m fossil fuels, b o t h in t h e i r p r o c e s s i n g a n d utilization, as well a s in their costs. T h e r e
a r e a large n u m b e r of s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d e x p e n s i v e p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d
b y t h e f u e l b e f o r e it is i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e r e a c t o r c o r e . It is t h e n " b u r n e d " in t h e
r e a c t o r f o r several y e a r s b e f o r e b e i n g r e m o v e d . E v e n a f t e r several y e a r s of u s e in a
r e a c t o r , the f u e l possesses a sizable c o n c e n t r a t i o n of fissile m a t e r i a l . H e n c e it m u s t
b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e core, r e p r o c e s s e d , a n d r e f a b r i c a t e d i n t o n e w f u e l e l e m e n t s .
T h e b y p r o d u c t w a s t e f r o m t h e r e p r o c e s s e d f u e l is highly r a d i o a c t i v e a n d m u s t b e
d i s p o s e d of w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e c a r e .
T h o s e o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d in t h e e x t r a c t i o n , p r e p a r a t i o n , utilization, r e p r o c e s s i n g
a n d d i s p o s i n g of n u c l e a r f u e l s a r e r e f e r r e d to as t h e nuclear fuel cycle. S u c h a cycle
e x t e n d s o v e r a p e r i o d of several y e a r s , a n d th^ costs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n u c l e a r
f u e l cycle m u s t b e m o n i t o r e d o v e r this p e r i o d of t i m e . I n this sense, n u c l e a r f u e l
costs a r e m u c h d i f f e r e n t t h a n fossil-fuel costs, since a n u m b e r of c h a r g e s o t h e r t h a n
d i r e c t m a t e r i a l s costs a r e i n v o l v e d w h i c h m a y either l e a d or lag u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e
f u e l m a t e r i a l b y several years. T h e p r i m a r y costs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n u c l e a r f u e l
cycle i n c l u d e the f o l l o w i n g :
(1) C o s t s of n e t i s o t o p e c o n s u m p t i o n t h a t result f r o m t h e c o n v e r s i o n of
u r a n i u m a n d p l u t o n i u m i n t o fission p r o d u c t s a n d f r o m t h e r e d u c t i o n in
t h e 2 3 5 U - e n r i c h m e n t of t h e u r a n i u m r e m a i n i n g in t h e s p e n t f u e l . T h e s e
costs a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x p l o r a t i o n , m i n i n g , a n d e n r i c h m e n t of t h e
uranium.
(2) P r o c e s s i n g costs, s u c h a s t h o s e i n c u r r e d in u r a n i u m p u r i f i c a t i o n , c o n v e r sion, f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n , a n d r e p r o c e s s i n g .
(3) F i n a n c i n g costs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e large w o r k i n g - c a p i t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of
t h e n u c l e a r f u e l cycle.
T h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e v a r i o u s activities i n v o l v e d in o b t a i n i n g , i r r a d i a t i n g , a n d
d i s p o s i n g of f u e l m a t e r i a l s is r e f e r r e d t o as nuclear fuel management
a n d is a
26
p r i n c i p a l c o n c e f t i of n u c l e a r engineering.
S u c h activities m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d
459
s u b j e c t t o several v e r y i m p o r t a n t c o n s t r a i n t s . Of c o u r s e o n e desires t o m i n i m i z e
electrical g e n e r a t i o n costs, b u t m u s t also e n s u r e t h a t t h e s a f e t y of t h e r e a c t o r is n o t
compromised. F o r instance, the fuel temperature must always be kept below
m e l t i n g p o i n t s a n d t h e c o n t r o l m a r g i n m u s t b e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h i n s a f e limits.
N e e d l e s s t o say, t h e c o m p l e x i t y of a c c o u n t i n g f o r n u c l e a r f u e l costs a n d c a p i t a l
p l a n t i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e s a r a t h e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d e c o n o m i c s a n a l y s i s of the p l a n t
design. N u c l e a r p o w e r costs will d e p e n d o n p a r a m e t e r s t h a t v a r y widely, d e p e n d i n g
o n the l o c a t i o n of t h e p l a n t , t h e t y p e of t h e r e a c t o r , a n d e v e n t h e t i m e a t w h i c h t h e
e c o n o m i c s t u d y is p e r f o r m e d . S u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m a k e it a p p a r e n t t h a t e a c h
r e a c t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r a n d utility h a v e access t o a t e c h n i c a l g r o u p c a p a b l e of
p r e d i c t i n g t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e n u c l e a r fuel, p e r f o r m i n g a n e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s of
s u c h f u e l utilization a n d a n a l y z i n g t h e t o t a l p o w e r s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s involving
t h e p l a n t ( i n c l u d i n g o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d n u c l e a r p l a n t s in t h e system).
E. Safety and Regulatory Considerations27"29

Of c o u r s e , all r e a c t o r designs a r e s u b j e c t e d t o e x t r e m e l y t h o r o u g h studies to
e n s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h existing s a f e t y a n d r e g u l a t o r y s t a n d a r d s . F o r
e x a m p l e , t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e r e a c t o r design to reactivity i n s e r t i o n s resulting f r o m
severe d i s t u r b a n c e s t h a t c o u l d arise o n l y u n d e r t h e m o s t e x t r e m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
must be determined.
T h e p r i n c i p a l s a f e t y c o n c e r n i n h e r e n t in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n d o e s n o t
involve t h e possibility of a n u c l e a r explosion. S u c h a n event is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e in
t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s , a n d it r e q u i r e s a n agile m i n d to c o n c o c t a s u f f i c i e n t l y f a n t a s t i c
s c e n a r i o t o initiate s u c h a n e x p l o s i o n e v e n in a f a s t r e a c t o r . R a t h e r , t h e p r o b l e m is
t h e large i n v e n t o r y of r a d i o a c t i v e fission p r o d u c t s t h a t a c c u m u l a t e in t h e r e a c t o r
f u e l . A s l o n g a s these fission p r o d u c t s r e m a i n in t h e fuel, t h e y r e p r e s e n t n o h a z a r d
t o either p l a n t p e r s o n n e l or n e a r b y p o p u l a t i o n . Y e t s h o u l d t h e y b e r e l e a s e d a n d
t r a n s p o r t e d t o p o p u l a t e d areas, s u b s t a n t i a l d a n g e r s c o u l d arise.
H e n c e nuclear reactors must b e designed such that under no credibleor even
incredibleoperating situation could such radioactive material be released f r o m
t h e core. T o a c h i e v e this g u a r a n t e e , n o t o n l y m u s t t h e r e a c t o r c o r e a n d c o o l a n t
s y s t e m b e c a r e f u l l y d e s i g n e d a g a i n s t e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e a c c i d e n t situation, b u t
auxiliary s y s t e m s m u s t b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e c o r e as w e l l s o - c a l l e d engineered
safeguardsto
e n s u r e t h a t fission p r o d u c t s a r e c o n t a i n e d in a n y f o r e s e e a b l e accident.
T h e s u b j e c t of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s a f e t y is exceedingly c o m p l e x , e n m e s h e d in a
l a b y r i n t h of c o m p l e x technical, r e g u l a t o r y , political, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d e v e n e m o t i o n a l issues. W e will a v o i d a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of these topics in this section,
c h o o s i n g i n s t e a d t o m e r e l y illustrate several of t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t arise in
reactor safety.
A s w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d , the p r i m a r y c o n c e r n in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s a f e t y analysis is
t h a t the l a r g e fission p r o d u c t i n v e n t o r y p r o d u c e d in t h e r e a c t o r c o r e is k e p t i n t a c t
a n d n o t r e l e a s e d in a n y c o n c e i v a b l e a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e a r e several b a r r i e r s to
s u c h fission p r o d u c t release. T h e p r i m a r y b a r r i e r is t h e m e t a l c l a d of the f u e l itself,
w h i c h isolates t h e f u e l pellets f r o m t h e c o o l a n t . S h o u l d this c l a d b e r u p t u r e d , the
p r e s s u r e vessel c o n t a i n i n g t h e r e a c t o r c o r e a n d t h e c o o l a n t will t h e n a s s u m e the
role of a s e c o n d a r y b a r r i e r to fission p r o d u c t release. I n t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c e v e n t of
f a i l u r e of t h e p r i m a r y c o o l a n t p i p i n g o r p r e s s u r e vessel, t h e c o n t a i n m e n t s t r u c t u r e
itself p r o v i d e s y e t a t h i r d b a r r i e r to fission p r o d u c t release.
It is t h e t a s k of t h e n u c l e a r r e a c t o r d e s i g n e r to d r e a m u p p o s s i b l e a c c i d e n t
460 /
s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h o n e or m o r e of these c o n t a i n m e n t b a r r i e r s m i g h t b e b r e a c h e d ,
a n d t h e n to d e s i g n the n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s y s t e m so t h a t if s u c h s i t u a t i o n s d i d arise,
t h e r e w o u l d still b e n o d a n g e r t o t h e p u b l i c . T h e r e a r e essentially t h r e e lines of
defense against such accident.
First, of c o u r s e , is t h e c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n to design, c o m p o n e n t f a b r i c a t i o n ,
c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d p l a n t o p e r a t i o n . S u c h m o n i t o r i n g is r e f e r r e d t o a s
quality
assurance or safety assurance a n d is of c e n t r a l c o n c e r n in n u c l e a r p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n .
S e c o n d l y t h e r e a r e s e p a r a t e s a f e t y s y s t e m s d e s i g n e d to t a k e p r o t e c t i v e a c t i o n in t h e
c a s e of a b n o r m a l r e a c t o r b e h a v i o r . E x a m p l e s w o u l d i n c l u d e t h e s c r a m c o n t r o l
s y s t e m s d e s i g n e d t o s h u t t h e r e a c t o r d o w n if a b n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e
encountered. Finally, nuclear plants are equipped with various engineered
s a f e g u a r d s s y s t e m s t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of highly u n l i k e l y b u t
possible catastrophic accidents.
All n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s possess s u c h e n g i n e e r e d s a f e g u a r d s s y s t e m s to p r e v e n t
fission p r o d u c t release in t h e e v e n t of a n a c c i d e n t . It is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o
t h o r o u g h l y a n a l y z e the b e h a v i o r of t h e r e a c t o r s y s t e m in t h e e v e n t of a n a c c i d e n t
s i t u a t i o n , n o t o n l y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e n g i n e e r e d s a f e g u a r d s systems, b u t
also to s t u d y t h e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d i n t e r a c t i o n of these s y s t e m s u n d e r p o s t u l a t e d
a c c i d e n t c o n d i t i o n s . H o w e v e r since t h e p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of s a f e g u a r d s r e q u i r e d
d e p e n d sensitively o n t h e r e a c t o r t y p e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , w e will a v o i d a n y
d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s a f e t y s y s t e m s h e r e .
III. REACTOR CALCULATION MODELS

A s w e h a v e r e p e a t e d l y stressed t h r o u g h o u t this text, the c o m p l e x i t i e s of
m o d e r n n u c l e a r r e a c t o r design r e q u i r e t h a t t h e v a r i o u s theories of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r
b e h a v i o r w e h a v e b e e n s t u d y i n g b e i m p l e m e n t e d in a f o r m s u i t a b l e f o r digital
c o m p u t e r c a l c u l a t i o n s . A variety of s u c h c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s or c o d e s h a v e b e e n
d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e y e a r s to assist t h e e n g i n e e r in all f a c e t s of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r
analysis.
F r e q u e n t l y , a n u m b e r of s u c h c o d e s a r e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r i n t o code
packages
w h i c h c a n b e a p p l i e d to a v a r i e t y of design tasks. Since o u r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n is w i t h
t h e n u c l e a r a n a l y s i s of a r e a c t o r core, w e will c o n f i n e o u r a t t e n t i o n to a g e n e r a l
d i s c u s s i o n of t h o s e c o d e p a c k a g e s w h i c h u s u a l l y c o m p r i s e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a l m o d e l
f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e n u c l e a r b e h a v i o r of t h e core. 3 0 " 3 2
H o w e v e r , w e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e n u c l e a r b e h a v i o r of t h e c o r e
f r e q u e n t l y serves a s t h e i n p u t t o o t h e r a s p e c t s of c o r e design. F o r e x a m p l e , the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x in t h e c o r e implies t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n
w h i c h is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis, f u e l d e p l e t i o n studies, a n d the
o p t i m i z a t i o n of p l a n t e c o n o m i c p a r a m e t e r s :
Thermalhydraulics
Neutron flux
Power density
Economics
T h e r e will, of c o u r s e , b e c o n s i d e r a b l e f e e d b a c k f r o m these latter d e s i g n f u n c t i o n s

b a c k t o the n u c l e a r analysis. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c a l c u l a t i o n s will
461
d e t e r m i n e b o t h c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d c o o l a n t densities essential to the g e n e r a t i o n

of m a c r o s c o p i c g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . T h e d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n will d e t e r m i n e the
isotopic c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e f u e l t h r o u g h o u t c o r e life.
A l t h o u g h t h e details of s u c h n u c l e a r c o d e p a c k a g e s or c o m p u t e r m o d e l s will v a r y
f r o m o n e d e s i g n g r o u p t o a n o t h e r (or f o r o n e a p p l i c a t i o n o r a n o t h e r ) , t h e g e n e r a l
f e a t u r e s a r e u s u a l l y very similar. Of c o u r s e all a s p e c t s of the n e u t r o n i c analysis of
t h e r e a c t o r c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n , b u t as w e h a v e
r e p e a t e d l y e m p h a s i z e d , t h e direct s o l u t i o n of this e q u a t i o n is usually q u i t e i n t r a c t ible. H e n c e n u m e r o u s a p p r o x i m a t i o n s a r e usually r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to d e v e l o p the
m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s t h a t serve as t h e basis of r e a c t o r d e s i g n c o d e s . Typically,
t h e s e c o d e s s u p p r e s s c e r t a i n i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s in o r d e r to allow a d e t a i l e d
analysis of t h e p r o c e s s of interest. F o r e x a m p l e , m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t g e n e r a t i o n
c o d e s u s u a l l y s u p p r e s s spatial d e p e n d e n c e e i t h e r b y a s s u m i n g a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m
o r a n e f f e c t i v e b u c k l i n g m o d e i n o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e a d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t of the
n e u t r o n e n e r g y . I n a similar sense, static design c o d e s e m p l o y a r a t h e r c o a r s e
m u l t i g r o u p s t r u c t u r e in o r d e r to a l l o w a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of the spatial d e p e n d e n c e of
t h e n e u t r o n flux. I n t i m e - d e p e n d e n t c o d e s o n e f r e q u e n t l y i g n o r e s b o t h spatial a n d
energy dependence.
T h e p r o p e r utilization of s u c h n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o d e s r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y a t h o r o u g h
k n o w l e d g e of t h e v a r i o u s a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t h a t h a v e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of the c o d e , b u t a g o o d d e a l of c o m m o n sense, experience, a n d j u s t p l a i n
o l d - f a s h i o n e d g o o d luck as well.
I n F i g u r e 11-1 w e h a v e illustrated t h e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s (code modules) of a
c o m p u t a t i o n a l m o d e l (code package)
s u i t a b l e f o r t h e n u c l e a r a n a l y s i s of a r e a c t o r
c o r e . F o r p u r p o s e s of r e f e r e n c e w e h a v e i n d i c a t e d o n this d i a g r a m t h e c h a p t e r of
this text in w h i c h the u n d e r l y i n g t h e o r y of e a c h m o d u l e h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d .
H o w e v e r , f o r c o m p l e t e n e s s , w e will review the f u n c t i o n of e a c h m o d u l e h e r e .
T h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e of t h e m o d e l consists of a m o d u l e t o g e n e r a t e m a c r o s c o p i c
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , f o l l o w e d b y a m o d u l e to utilize these g r o u p c o n s t a n t s in a
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , flux, a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n t h e n b e u s e d as t h e i n p u t to a t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s m o d u l e w h i c h
solves t h e e q u a t i o n s of h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d f l u i d f l o w t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
a n d c o o l a n t d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e core. Of course, this latter i n f o r m a t i o n is
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of m a c r o s c o p i c g r o u p c o n s t a n t s ; h e n c e f e e d b a c k to the
earlier M G C m o d u l e ( a n d p o s s i b l e i t e r a t i o n ) will b e necessary.
A t this p o i n t o n e h a s p r e s u m a b l y c a l c u l a t e d t h e core m u l t i p l i c a t i o n k e f f a n d
p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , b u t in g e n e r a l t h e c o r e will n o t b e critical (k e f f = 1). H e n c e a
c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t m o d u l e is n e c e s s a r y to c a l c u l a t e t h e degree of c o n t r o l e l e m e n t
w i t h d r a w a l or i n s e r t i o n t o r e t u r n the c o r e to a critical state ( a g a i n via a n iterative
process).
W h e n a critical c o r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d , o n e passes to a d e p l e t i o n
m o d u l e t h a t uses t h e resulting f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n a s i n p u t f o r a s o l u t i o n of the r a t e
e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g f u e l i s o t o p e d e p l e t i o n , fertile i s o t o p e t r a n s m u t a t i o n , a n d
fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p f o r a given p e r i o d of r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n . A f t e r this d e p l e t i o n
step, the n e w i s o t o p i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e f u e l is r e t u r n e d t o the g r o u p - c o n s t a n t
m o d u l e , a n d t h e entire c a l c u l a t i o n is r e p e a t e d (since the c o r e is n o w n o l o n g e r
critical).
A f t e r a series of d e p l e t i o n steps, t h e fissile i n v e n t o r y d r o p s sufficiently low t h a t
t h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m c a n n o l o n g e r r e t u r n t h e c o r e to criticality. A t this p o i n t , the
462 /
FIGURE 11-1.
Computational model of a nuclear reactor.
u s e f u l o p e r a t i n g life of t h e c o r e is d e e m e d t o h a v e e n d e d , a n d o n e p a s s e s o n t o a n
e c o n o m i c s m o d u l e t h a t utilizes t h e t o t a l e n e r g y p r o d u c e d o v e r t h e c o r e lifetime a n d
t h e a m o u n t of fissile m a t e r i a l c o n s u m p t i o n ( a n d p r o d u c t i o n ) to c o m p u t e t h e f u e l
costs of the o p e r a t i n g cycle.
V a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t types of i n p u t d a t a a r e n e e d e d f o r this s e q u e n c e of calculations,
i n c l u d i n g t h e g e o m e t r y of t h e r e a c t o r core, lattice, a n d c o n t r o l system, t h e initial
c o r e l o a d i n g ( c o m p o s i t i o n , etc.), inlet c o o l a n t c o n d i t i o n s , a s well a s f u n d a m e n t a l
cross section d a t a .
A s o m e w h a t m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of e a c h of t h e c o d e m o d u l e s follows.
A. Macroscopic Cross Section Module

O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e m u l t i g r o u p
t r e a t m e n t of t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y d e p e n d e n c e (as is essentially all n u c l e a r d e s i g n ) is
t h e g e n e r a t i o n of f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . A s w e h a v e seen, s u c h g r o u p c o n s t a n t s are
f o r m e d b y a v e r a g i n g t h e m i c r o s c o p i c cross section i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m
e v a l u a t e d d a t a sets s u c h as E N D F / B o v e r n o t o n l y a n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m
h o p e f u l l y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h a t in t h e r e a c t o r c o r e of interest, b u t a v e r a g i n g these
cross sections a s well o v e r the d e t a i l e d spatial d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f l u x in a u n i t f u e l
463
cell in o r d e r to a c c o u n t f o r h e t e r o g e n e o u s e f f e c t s (such as self-shielding). A s i n p u t ,

s u c h m o d u l e s r e q u i r e t h e n u m b e r densities c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s in the fuel
cell to b e a n a l y z e d . T h e c o o l a n t density a n d a v e r a g e m o d e r a t o r , s t r u c t u r e , a n d fuel
t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e p r o v i d e d f r o m a t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c m o d u l e , while t h e f u e l density
(as well as fission p r o d u c t densities) a r e p r o v i d e d b y a d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e . T h e
densities of o t h e r m a t e r i a l s such as s t r u c t u r e a r e p r o v i d e d b y i n p u t specifications.
T h e e n e r g y - a v e r a g e d , self-shielded m a c r o s c o p i c g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e t h e n determ i n e d either b y p e r f o r m i n g f a s t a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the f u e l cell
of the specified c o m p o s i t i o n , or b y c o m p u t i n g a small n u m b e r of descriptive
p a r a m e t e r s t h a t c a n t h e n b e u s e d to o b t a i n the m a c r o s c o p i c g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f r o m
s u i t a b l e t a b l e s c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h e r e a c t o r c o r e of interest. ( T h e b u s i n e s s of g r o u p
c o n s t a n t p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n is a very u s e f u l a n d i m p o r t a n t t o p i c in d e p l e t i o n calculations b e c a u s e of t h e large n u m b e r of times s u c h g r o u p c o n s t a n t s m u s t b e g e n e r a t e d
o v e r c o r e life. W e will r e t u r n to c o n s i d e r it in greater detail later in C h a p t e r 13.)
S u c h g r o u p c o n s t a n t s m u s t b e g e n e r a t e d f o r e a c h region of the c o r e in w h i c h the
c o m p o s i t i o n is d i f f e r e n t . O n e m u s t also a c c o u n t f o r the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of fission
p r o d u c t s s u c h as x e n o n a n d s a m a r i u m a n d f o r c o n t r o l a b s o r p t i o n w h i c h m i g h t b e
p r e s e n t in t h e cell of interest. A s w e will see in C h a p t e r 14, the e f f e c t of c o n t r o l
e l e m e n t s or b u r n a b l e o r soluble p o i s o n s in t h e cell a r e usually i n c l u d e d b y
g e n e r a t i n g e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e c o n t r o l a b s o r b e r
a n d t h e n a d d i n g these to t h e a b s o r p t i o n g r o u p c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the cell.
T h e s e effective c o n t r o l cross sections c a n also f r e q u e n t l y b e p a r a m e t e r i z e d at
c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p u t a t i o n a l savings.
B. Flux-Power-Reactivity Module
A t the h e a r t of t h e n e u t r o n i c s c o d e p a c k a g e is the m o d u l e t h a t solves the
m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e the flux a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in the
c o r e as well as t h e core m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . W e h a v e a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d this p a r t i c u l a r
m o d u l e in s o m e detail in C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 7. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e h a v e s t u d i e d t w o
d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to this c a l c u l a t i o n : (a) t h a t b a s e d o n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l finited i f f e r e n c e s o l u t i o n o f ' t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s a n d (b) t h a t b a s e d o n
so-called n o d a l m e t h o d s w h i c h d e c o m p o s e t h e core i n t o " n o d e cells" a n d t h e n
c a l c u l a t e o n l y t h e a v e r a g e p o w e r or flux f o r e a c h of these cells. T h e latter s c h e m e is
p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l w h e n i n f o r m a t i o n is r e q u i r e d a b o u t t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l flux
d i s t r i b u t i o n in the core, since a direct f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s o l u t i o n of the m u l t i g r o u p
d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s is e x t r e m e l y expensive.
C. Thermal-hydraulic Module
T h e f l u x - p o w e r m o d u l e p r o v i d e s t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n r e q u i r e d b y the
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c m o d u l e w h i c h t h e n c a l c u l a t e s c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d h e a t fluxes
in o r d e r to m a k e c e r t a i n t h a t the t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s p l a c e d o n c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e
a r e n o t e x c e e d e d . T h e c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d c o o l a n t d e n s i t y p r o f i l e s are r e t u r n e d
to t h e m a c r o s c o p i c cross section m o d u l e . A s w e will see in m o r e detail in C h a p t e r
13, s o m e i t e r a t i o n b e t w e e n the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d n u c l e a r c o r e analysis is
usually necessary.
Since the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of a r e a c t o r core p l a y s such a n i m p o r t a n t
role in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r design, w e will d e s c r i b e in s o m e detail the v a r i o u s m o d e l s
a n d c o n c e p t s u s e d in this m o d u l e in C h a p t e r 12.
464 /
D. Control-Adjustment Module
T h e c o n t r o l - a d j u s t m e n t m o d u l e t a k e s the core m u l t i p l i c a t i o n c a l c u l a t e d b y
the f l u x - p o w e r m o d u l e a n d e s t i m a t e s t h e a m o u n t of c o n t r o l i n s e r t i o n or w i t h d r a w a l
n e c e s s a r y to r e t u r n the r e a c t o r to a critical state. I n d e t e r m i n i n g h o w to a d j u s t the
c o n t r o l reactivity (e.g., m o v a b l e r o d s or c h e m i c a l shim), the c o n t r o l m o d u l e m a y b e
g u i d e d b y a p r e s p e c i f i e d c o n t r o l m a n a g e m e n t s c h e m e . T h e c o n t r o l a p p e a r s in the
n u c l e a r a n a l y s i s as effective c o n t r o l cross section g r o u p c o n s t a n t s t h a t a r e a d d e d to
t h e a b s o r p t i o n g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h o s e c o r e regions in w h i c h a c o n t r o l
e l e m e n t is p r e s e n t . W e will d e v e l o p t h e n e c e s s a r y t h e o r y f o r c a l c u l a t i n g these
effective cross sections in C h a p t e r 14 ( a l t h o u g h w e m i g h t r e m a r k t h a t the b a s i c idea
is very similar to t h a t i n v o l v e d in c a l c u l a t i n g fuel-cell a v e r a g e d g r o u p c o n s t a n t s to
p e r m i t t h e analysis of a h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r lattice). T h e c o n t r o l m o d u l e t h e n
r e t u r n s the e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r the n e w c o n t r o l p a t t e r n t o the
m a c r o s c o p i c cross section m o d u l e f o r the n e x t criticality c a l c u l a t i o n .
E. Depletion Module
T h e d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e solves the r a t e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e isotopic
c h a n g e s in c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n d u r i n g r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n . S u c h e q u a t i o n s m u s t
a c c o u n t f o r f u e l b u r n u p , t h e c o n v e r s i o n of fertile to fissile m a t e r i a l , a n d the
b u i l d u p of n o n s a t u r a t i n g fission p r o d u c t s . T h e i n p u t to the d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e is the
f l u x c a l c u l a t e d b y the f l u x - p o w e r - r e a c t i v i t y m o d u l e , while the n u m b e r densities
c a l c u l a t e d b y the d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e a r e r e t u r n e d as i n p u t to the m a c r o s c o p i c cross
section m o d u l e . W e will discuss s u c h d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s in s o m e d e t a i l in
C h a p t e r 15.
F. Economics Module
S u c h c o d e p a c k a g e s will f r e q u e n t l y also c o n t a i n a m o d u l e t h a t uses i n f o r m a tion f r o m t h e d e p l e t i o n analysis t o d e t e r m i n e t h e cost of t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n (i.e.,
f u e l costs) f o r t h e p e r i o d . S u c h m o d u l e s m u s t a c c o u n t f o r t h e v a r i o u s costs
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n u c l e a r f u e l cycle f o r t h e c o r e u n d e r s t u d y . W e will n o t discuss
s u c h f u e l e c o n o m i c s c a l c u l a t i o n s h e r e , b u t will i n s t e a d r e f e r t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r to
a n u m b e r of s o u r c e s of a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n this topic. 2 3 " 2 5
G. Concluding Remarks
Of course, this r a t h e r brief d e s c r i p t i o n of the g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of c o m p u t e r
c o d e m o d e l s u s e d to a n a l y z e n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core b e h a v i o r d o e s n o t really d o
j u s t i c e to the c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n s existing a m o n g the v a r i o u s m o d u l e s or with
o t h e r a s p e c t s of the c o r e design. O t h e r n o n n u c l e a r a s p e c t s of the design such as
m e c h a n i c a l design or m a t e r i a l s l i m i t a t i o n s o n f u e l e l e m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e usually
e n t e r t h e n u c l e a r analysis m o d e l as c o n s t r a i n t s p l a c e d o n core p e r f o r m a n c e . F o r
e x a m p l e , the e x t e n t to w h i c h a fuel e l e m e n t c a n s u f f e r r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e w i t h o u t
e x p e r i e n c i n g a n a p p r e c i a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure will usually b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a
limit o n f u e l b u r n u p . C l a d s t r e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y a p p e a r in the c a l c u l a t i o n as a
l i m i t a t i o n o n c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e (or clad s u r f a c e h e a t flux).
F u r t h e r m o r e w e h a v e n o t d e s c r i b e d in a n y d e t a i l the e n o r m o u s v a r i e t y of design
p r o b l e m s to w h i c h s u c h a m o d e l c a n b e a p p l i e d . S o m e of these will b e i l l u s t r a t e d in
465
later c h a p t e r s , w h e n w e try to "fill in t h e g a p s " to c o m p l e t e o u r d e s c r i p t i o n of the

m o d e l s u s e d in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis.
F i n a l l y w e s h o u l d stress o n c e a g a i n t h a t such m a t h e m a t i c a l or c o m p u t e r m o d e l s
of a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x system such as a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r " w o r k " p r i m a r i l y
b e c a u s e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e ( r a t h e r t h a n e l e g a n t m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis) h a s i n d i c a t e d
t h e validity of t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s u s e d in d e v e l o p i n g the m o d e l ( a l t h o u g h s o m e times only b e c a u s e of a f o r t u n a t e c a n c e l l a t i o n of errors), a n d , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t ,
b e c a u s e s u c h m o d e l s h a v e b e e n " f i n e - t u n e d " b y e m p i r i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s of a n u m b e r
of p a r a m e t e r s a p p e a r i n g in t h e m o d e l . F o r this r e a s o n w e s h o u l d stress o n c e a g a i n
t h a t a given m o d e l ( c o d e p a c k a g e ) will r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e insight, ingenuity, a n d
a d o s e of g o o d f o r t u n e o n t h e p a r t of the u s e r if it is to b e e x t e n d e d i n t o a r e a s of
application that depart considerably f r o m the experience on which the model was
constructed.
REFERENCES
1. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, USAEC TID-26241 (1973).
2. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan Lecture Notes
(unpublished) (1969).
3. A. Radkowsky (Ed.) Naval Reactors Physics Handbook, Vol. I, USAEC (1964).
4. Reactor Physics Constants, USAEC Document ANL-5800, 2nd Edition (1963).
5. M. H. Merrill, Nuclear Design Methods and Experimental Data in use at Gulf General
Atomic, Gulf-GA-A 12652 (1973).
6. Standard Safety Analysis Reports, General Electric, Westinghouse, Combustion Engineering, Babcock and Wilcox, and Gulf General Atomics.
7. H. C. Honeck, E N D F / B : Specifications for an Evaluated Nuclear Data File for
Reactor Applications, USAEC Report BNL-50066, 1966; revised by S. Pearlstein (1967).
8. J. Chernick, Reactor Tech. 13, 368 (1971); Reactor Physics Constants, USAEC Document
ANL-5800, 2nd Edition (1963).
9. H. C. Honeck, T H E R M O S , BNL-5826 (1961); Nucl Sci. Eng. 8, 193 (1960).
10. H. Bohl, Jr., E. M. Gelbard, and G. H. Ryan, MUFT-4, WAPD-TM-22 (1957).
11. H. Amster and R. Suarez, SOFOCATE, WAPD-TM-39 (1957).
12. R. H. Shudde and J. Dyer, TEMPEST, N A A Program 3W-354 (1960).
13. G. D. Joanou, E. J. Leshan, and J. S. Dudek, GAM-1, GA-1850 (1961).
14. P. Walti and P. Koch, MICROXA Two-Region Flux Spectrum Code for the Efficient
Calculation of Group Cross Sections, Gulf-GA-A 10827 (1972).
15. W. W. Engle, Jr., A Users Manual for ANISN, A One Dimensional Discrete Ordinates
Transport Code with Anisotropic Scattering, USAEC Report K-1693 (1967).
16. K. D. Lathrop, T W O T R A N , A Fortran Program for Two-Dimensional Transport,
GA-8747 (1968).
17. W. B. Lewis, Nucl. Appl. 2, 171 (1966).
18. N. J. Palladino, Mechanical Design of Components for Reactor Systems, in The
Technology of Nuclear Reactor Safety, T. J. Thompson and J. G. Beckerley (Eds.), M.I.T.
Press, Cambridge (1973), Vol. II.
19. R. B. Holden, Ceramic Fuel Elements, Gordon and Breach, New York (1966).
20. P. G. Shewmon, in Education and Research in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle, D. M. Elliot and
L. E. Weaver (Eds.) Oklahoma University Press, Norman (1970).
21. C. M. Cox and F. J. Homan, Nucl. Appl. Tech. 9, 317 (1970); P. R. Huebotter, Reactor
Techn. 15, 156 (1972).
22. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis,USAEC TID-26241 (1973), Chapter 7.
23. D. M. Elliott and L. E. Weaver (Eds.) The Nuclear Fuel Cycle, Oklahoma University
Press, Norman (1972).
466
24. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, USAEC TID-26241 (1973), Chapters
2 and 3.
25. M. M. El-Wakil, Nuclear Energy Conversion, Intext, Scranton (1971), Chapter 17.
26. D. M. Elliott and L. E. Weaver (Eds.) The Nuclear Fuel Cycle, Oklahoma University
Press, N o r m a n (1972).
27. The Technology of Nuclear Reactor Safety, T. J. Thompson and J. G. Beckerley (Eds.),
28. An Assessment of Accident Risks in U. S. Commercial Nuclear Power Plants, USAEC
Document WASH-1400 (1974).
29. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, USAEC TID-26241 (1973), Chapter
6.
30. B. J. Toppel, The Argonne Reaction Computation (ARC) System, ANL-7332 (1967).
31. H. C. Honeck, et. al., JOSHUAReactor Physics Computational System, in Proceedings of Conference on the Effective Use of Computers in the Nuclear Industry,
Knoxville (1969), pp. 324-336.
32. Mathematical Models and Computational Techniques for Analysis of Nuclear Systems,
U S A E C Document CONF-730414, Vols. I and II (1973).
Several universities h a v e d e v e l o p e d s i m p l i f i e d r e a c t o r d e s i g n c o d e p a c k a g e s
w h i c h a r e f a r b e t t e r suited f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l u s e t h a n t h e p r o d u c t i o n c o d e s utilized
b y t h e n u c l e a r r e a c t o r i n d u s t r y . T w o p a r t i c u l a r l y flexible a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o d e
packages are:
N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p u t e r M o d u l e s , D e p a r t m e n t of N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g ,
V i r g i n i a P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e a n d State U n i v e r s i t y , B l a c k s b u r g , V a . (1974)
U M N E C o m p u t e r C o d e L i b r a r y , D e p a r t m e n t of N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g , T h e U n i v e r sity of M i c h i g a n , A n n A r b o r , Mi. (1971)
12
Thermal-Hydraulic Analysis of Nuclear
Reactor Cores
I. INTRODUCTION
A. The Relationship of Thermal Core Analysis to Nuclear Reactor
Design
A n u c l e a r p o w e r r e a c t o r is d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e h e a t t h a t c a n t h e n b e u s e d to
g e n e r a t e electrical energy, usually b y w a y of a n associated s t e a m t h e r m a l cycle.
O n c e w e h a v e a c k n o w l e d g e d the f a c t t h a t the p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e r e a c t o r is
really j u s t t h a t of a r a t h e r exotic h e a t s o u r c e f o r t u r n i n g w a t e r i n t o steam, it
b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d
h e a t t r a n s f e r rates, n a m e l y , t h e thermal analysis of the r e a c t o r core, m u s t p l a y a
very i m p o r t a n t role in r e a c t o r design. I n d e e d t h e design of a r e a c t o r core d e p e n d s
as m u c h o n t h e r m a l as n u c l e a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F o r o n e m u s t design the core in
s u c h a w a y t h a t it c a n p r o d u c e the desired t h e r m a l p o w e r w i t h o u t exceeding
t e m p e r a t u r e limitations o n core c o m p o n e n t s t h a t m i g h t lead to fuel failure a n d the
release of r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l i n t o the c o o l a n t .
Such t h e r m a l limitations c o n s t i t u t e the p r i m a r y f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g core size.
F o r as we h a v e seen, a critical m a s s of fissile m a t e r i a l c a n theoretically o p e r a t e d
a n y p o w e r level if sufficient cooling c a n b e p r o v i d e d . H e n c e o n e first d e t e r m i n e s
t h e c o r e p o w e r d e n s i t y t h a t c a n b e a c c o m m o d a t e d b y t h e i n t e n d e d p r i m a r y cooling
system, a n d t h e n d e t e r m i n e s t h e r e a c t o r c o r e size necessary to m e e t t h e desired
r e a c t o r t h e r m a l p o w e r o u t p u t at this p o w e r density. T h e efficient cooling of the
c o r e also p l a y s a very i m p o r t a n t role in the detailed f u e l e l e m e n t design. F o r
e x a m p l e , t h e desire f o r large c o n t a c t a r e a b e t w e e n f u e l a n d c o o l a n t to e n h a n c e h e a t
t r a n s f e r will i n f l u e n c e the choice of c o r e v o l u m e ratios (e.g., coolant-to-fuel).
F u r t h e r m o r e t h e h y d r o d y n a m i c b e h a v i o r of the c o o l a n t as it flows t h r o u g h the core
467
468
will p l a y a role in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e core lattice design. Since n u c l e a r p o w e r r e a c t o r s

o p e r a t e at f a r h i g h e r p o w e r densities t h a n t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g fossil-fueled s t e a m
g e n e r a t o r s , a core design to o p t i m i z e t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e is obviously of c o n s i d e r able importance.
A f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b a s i c f u e l e l e m e n t g e o m e t r y a n d core v o l u m e f r o m
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , o n e t h e n p e r f o r m s a n u c l e a r analysis of the core
to d e t e r m i n e t h e fissile f u e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n or l o a d i n g n e c e s s a r y to allow this core to
o p e r a t e at r a t e d p o w e r over the d e s i r e d c o r e lifetime. (Of c o u r s e the r e q u i r e d fuel
l o a d i n g is usually c o n s i d e r a b l y larger t h a n t h a t w h i c h w o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d b y
p u r e l y n u c l e a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . ) I n this sense, t h e n , the t h e r m a l analysis of the c o r e
usually d e t e r m i n e s the gross f e a t u r e s of the core g e o m e t r y p r i o r to t h e a c t u a l
n u c l e a r core analysis.
T h e n u c l e a r analysis of a r e a c t o r c o r e is r a t h e r i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d to its t h e r m a l
a n a l y s i s in o t h e r w a y s . W e h a v e seen t h a t n u c l e a r cross sections t h a t d e t e r m i n e
c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n d e p e n d sensitively o n t e m p e r a t u r e (e.g., t h e D o p p l e r effect).
F u r t h e r m o r e the m a t e r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e core d e p e n d s o n t h e r m a l c o n s i d e r a tions b e c a u s e of t h e d e n s i t y c h a n g e s a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e a d d i t i o n of h e a t e n e r g y to
the c o o l a n t (e.g., e x p a n s i o n or v a p o r f o r m a t i o n ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , since this h e a t
e n e r g y is g e n e r a t e d b y the fission r e a c t i o n s i n d u c e d b y the n e u t r o n f l u x in the
r e a c t o r , the t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n in the core will d e p e n d sensitively o n its
neutronic behavior.
T h e r m a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s also d o m i n a t e t h e s a f e t y analysis of the r e a c t o r design.
I n d e e d o n e of the m o s t critical a s p e c t s of m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r designs is t h a t of
p r o v i d i n g auxiliary c o o l i n g s y s t e m s t h a t c a n c o n t i n u e to r e m o v e h e a t f r o m t h e
r e a c t o r core s h o u l d the p r i m a r y c o o l a n t s y s t e m fail.
A n u c l e a r designer will f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the t h e r m a l
b e h a v i o r of the r e a c t o r core. H e n c e h e m u s t b e p r e p a r e d to either i n t e r f a c e with the
m e c h a n i c a l e n g i n e e r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r m a l core analysis or u n d e r t a k e this
a n a l y s i s himself.
H e n c e , w e feel it a d v i s a b l e to i n c l u d e a r a t h e r brief o v e r v i e w of t h e r m a l core
a n a l y s i s in this text. O u r i n t e n t is n o t to p r o v i d e a c o m p l e t e d e v e l o p m e n t of this
topic, b u t r a t h e r to i n d i c a t e t h o s e a r e a s in w h i c h t h e r m a l analysis will i n t e r a c t with
n u c l e a r design a n d h e n c e d r i f t i n t o the d o m a i n of n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g .
O u r p r e s e n t a t i o n will essentially f o l l o w the p a t h t r a c e d o u t b y t h e r m a l e n e r g y in
t h e r e a c t o r , f r o m its origin as fission h e a t e n e r g y in the f u e l u n t i l it is finally
r e m o v e d f r o m t h e r e a c t o r c o r e b y the c o o l a n t .
Fissionproduct
energy in fuel
Forced convection
, _
_ t
in coolant o u t of
Conduction
through fuel
Transfer f r o m
i ^
*
clad surface
*
i *
to coolant
core
Steam generator
Turbine
Transfer across
f u e l - c l a d gas gap
^
,
C o n d u c t i o n across
. .
clad
Condensor
A s w e h a v e seen, t h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d b y the n u c l e a r fission r e a c t i o n s a p p e a r s
THERMAL-HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES /
469
p r i m a r i l y as k i n e t i c e n e r g y of t h e v a r i o u s fission r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s . T h e b u l k of this
fission p r o d u c t e n e r g y is r a p i d l y d e p o s i t e d as h e a t in the f u e l m a t e r i a l very close to
t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e fission e v e n t . T h i s h e a t is t h e n t r a n s p o r t e d via t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i o n a c r o s s t h e f u e l e l e m e n t , a c r o s s t h e g a p s e p a r a t i n g the f u e l f r o m the
c l a d , a n d t h e n a c r o s s t h e c l a d to t h e c l a d s u r f a c e . It is t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m the
c l a d s u r f a c e t o t h e c o o l a n t b y f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n . T h e m a s s m o t i o n of t h e c o o l a n t
t h e n carries t h e t h e r m a l e n e r g y u p a n d o u t of t h e r e a c t o r core, either as sensible
h e a t (i.e., c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e rise) or l a t e n t h e a t (i.e., t h e r m a l l y i n d u c e d p h a s e
c h a n g e b o i l i n g ) . (See F i g u r e 12-1.)
T h e d i r e c t c o n c e r n of the n u c l e a r c o r e d e s i g n e r usually ceases at this p o i n t ,
a l t h o u g h t h e p o w e r - p l a n t e n g i n e e r m u s t c o n t i n u e to follow t h e h e a t e n e r g y as it is
u s e d to c o n v e r t f e e d w a t e r i n t o s t e a m , t h e n as t h e s t e a m is u s e d to drive a
t u r b o g e n e r a t o r , a n d t h e n finally r e c o n d e n s e d i n t o f e e d w a t e r . A c t u a l l y the rem a i n d e r of t h e t h e r m a l cycle will b e v e r y i n t i m a t e l y c o u p l e d to t h e r e a c t o r core
analysis since it will d e t e r m i n e v a r i a b l e s s u c h as p r i m a r y s y s t e m p r e s s u r e , inlet
c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d d e s i r e d c o o l a n t exit c o n d i t i o n s .
c
_cu
O
O
O
/ \
FIGURE 12-1.
A O
o
o
/ V
Reactor core cooling.
B. Objectives and Limitations of Thermal Design1
T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of o b v i o u s objectives f o r t h e t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e of a
r e a c t o r core. F o r e x a m p l e , o n e wishes to a c h i e v e as h i g h a c o r e p o w e r d e n s i t y as
possible since this will r e d u c e the core v o l u m e r e q u i r e d f o r a d e s i r e d t h e r m a l
o u t p u t . F u r t h e r m o r e h i g h f u e l specific p o w e r s ( p o w e r g e n e r a t e d p e r u n i t m a s s of
f u e l ) are d e s i r e d in o r d e r to m i n i m i z e t h e r e q u i r e d f u e l i n v e n t o r y . O n e also desires
h i g h c o o l a n t exit t e m p e r a t u r e s , since this n o t o n l y l e a d s to h i g h e r t h e r m o d y n a m i c
470
efficiencies, b u t also t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s t e a m t h a t will r e d u c e

the d e m a n d s placed on the turbine.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y o n e ' s ability t o a c h i e v e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s is r e s t r i c t e d b y a n u m b e r
of l i m i t a t i o n s i m p o s e d b y t h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o r of t h e core. It is u s e f u l t o discuss
b r i e f l y several of t h e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l i m i t a t i o n s o n c o r e t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e
b e f o r e w e c o n s i d e r t h e t h e r m a l analysis of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core.
1. F U E L T E M P E R A T U R E
LIMITATIONS
O n e of t h e p r i n c i p a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n a l l o w a b l e p o w e r densities in a r e a c t o r c o r e
arises f r o m t h e desire t o p r e v e n t t h e f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e a t a n y p o i n t in t h e c o r e f r o m
e x c e e d i n g its m e l t i n g p o i n t . T h e m e l t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e c e r a m i c f u e l s u s e d in m o s t
p o w e r r e a c t o r s is e x t r e m e l y high, b e i n g r o u g h l y 2 8 0 0 C f o r U 0 2 a n d 2 5 0 0 C f o r
U C . 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e p o w e r densities a c h i e v e d in m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r s a r e
sufficiently high that centerline fuel melting ( m a x i m u m fuel temperatures normally
o c c u r at t h e f u e l e l e m e n t c e n t e r l i n e ) r e p r e s e n t s a n i m p o r t a n t l i m i t a t i o n in r e a c t o r
c o r e design. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t s u c h t e m p e r a t u r e limits a r e sensitive to f u e l
i r r a d i a t i o n a n d t e n d t o d e c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g f u e l e x p o s u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
m e l t i n g p o i n t of U 0 2 f u e l is c o m m o n l y t a k e n a s 2 8 0 0 C w h e n first i r r a d i a t e d , a n d
t h e n r e d u c e d b y 3 2 C f o r e a c h 10,000 M W D / M T U b u r n u p . 7
T h e r e a r e o t h e r types of f u e l t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , in m e t a l l i c f u e l s
o n e m u s t hold fuel temperatures below those points at which phase changes in the
f u e l o c c u r (e.g., r = 6 6 7 C in u r a n i u m m e t a l ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l o w t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i v i t y of c e r a m i c f u e l s l e a d s to h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s t h a t c a n c a u s e
f u e l c r a c k i n g a n d swelling.
Fuel elements subjected to temperatures sufficiently high to induce centerline
m e l t i n g will e x p e r i e n c e a significantly h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y of failure. (By " f a i l u r e "
h e r e w e a r e r e f e r r i n g t o a loss in t h e f u n c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r of t h e f u e l e l e m e n t c a u s e d
b y a c h a n g e in its p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . ) H e n c e , a l t h o u g h n o t h i n g c a t a s t r o p h i c will
h a p p e n if a f e w f u e l e l e m e n t s in t h e c o r e t e m p o r a r i l y e x c e e d c e n t e r l i n e m e l t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e s , c o n s i d e r a b l e c a r e is t a k e n s u c h t h a t t h e s e limits will n o t b e e x c e e d e d
during normal core operating conditions.
W e will f i n d later t h a t t h e m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e a c h i e v e d in t h e f u e l is
relatively insensitive t o t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e f u e l r o d a n d d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n t h e
t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e f u e l a n d t h e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y in t h e c o r e . T h e r e f o r e
o n e u s u a l l y expresses t h e t h e r m a l limits i m p o s e d b y f u e l m e l t i n g in t e r m s of a
l i m i t a t i o n o n t h e m a x i m u m a c h i e v a b l e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y in t h e core. F o r
e x a m p l e , in U 0 2 - f u e l e d r e a c t o r s this l i m i t a t i o n is a b o u t 660 W / c m . P r e s e n t p o w e r
r e a c t o r s of this t y p e a r e usually d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e w i t h a m a x i m u m linear p o w e r
d e n s i t y of 4 6 0 - 5 0 0 W / c m u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
2. C L A D T H E R M A L
LIMITATIONS
A l t h o u g h t h e f u e l e l e m e n t c l a d d i n g in a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e will r a r e l y
e x p e r i e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e s a p p r o a c h i n g its m e l t i n g p o i n t (unless critical h e a t f l u x or
b u r n o u t conditions are exceeded), the clad thermal behavior does place limitations
o n t h e c o r e p o w e r d e n s i t y . T h e clad serves as a c o n t a i n m e n t b a r r i e r t o p r e v e n t
r a d i o a c t i v e fission p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d in t h e f u e l f r o m b e i n g r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e
c o o l a n t ( a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e i n g swept o u t of t h e r e a c t o r core). T h e c l a d d i n g is
THERMAL-HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES
471
s u b j e c t e d t o r a t h e r severe stresses, b o t h f r o m t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e c o o l a n t s u r r o u n d i n g
t h e f u e l e l e m e n t , a n d b y fission gas p r e s s u r e a n d f u e l swelling inside the fuel
e l e m e n t . T h e b u i l d u p of fission gas p r e s s u r e in t h e f u e l p e l l e t - c l a d g a p a n d the
c r a c k i n g a n d swelling of t h e f u e l pellet c a n b o t h c a u s e excessive c l a d d i n g stresses
a n d strains if n o t limited. S u c h p h e n o m e n a n o t only d e p e n d o n f u e l i r r a d i a t i o n , b u t
also o n t h e r m a l h i s t o r y (e.g., t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s d u e to r e a c t o r p o w e r level
changes). F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c l a d is s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h t h e r m a l stresses d u e to the
e n o r m o u s t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s a c r o s s t h e c l a d thickness. Since c l a d s t r e n g t h is a
sensitive f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e r m a l history, o n e m u s t limit c o r e t h e r m a l
p e r f o r m a n c e to a v o i d c l a d failure. (Such l i m i t a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e o n e of the m o t i v a t i o n s f o r u s i n g c o a t e d p a r t i c l e f u e l s such as in t h e H T G R in w h i c h t h e c l a d is
a c t u a l l y a c e r a m i c c o a t i n g of a tiny f u e l particle.)
A m o r e critical t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n is f r e q u e n t l y p l a c e d o n the h e a t flux t h a t c a n
b e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e c l a d t o t h e c o o l a n t in l i q u i d - c o o l e d r e a c t o r s (e.g., P W R s or
B W R s ) . A b o v e c e r t a i n h e a t f l u x m a g n i t u d e s , t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r to t h e c o o l a n t will
b e c o m e u n s t a b l e as a f i l m of v a p o r f o r m s to c o v e r t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s u r f a c e . A t this
p o i n t t h e c l a d t e m p e r a t u r e will i n c r e a s e d r a m a t i c a l l y (several h u n d r e d degrees)
l e a d i n g to c l a d failure. T h i s t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n , k n o w n as t h e critical heat flux, is of
p r i m a r y c o n c e r n in w a t e r - c o o l e d r e a c t o r c o r e s in w h i c h the c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e is
a l l o w e d to a p p r o a c h t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t .
3. C O O L A N T T E M P E R A T U R E L I M I T A T I O N S
I n m a n y r e a c t o r types, o n e wishes to limit t h e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e in o r d e r to

a c h i e v e s u i t a b l e c o o l a n t b e h a v i o r . F o r e x a m p l e , in a P W R o n e desires to k e e p the
b u l k c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e b e l o w its s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e so t h a t n o b u l k boiling
o c c u r s . Similarly in a L M F B R t h e r e is m o t i v a t i o n t o k e e p t h e s o d i u m t e m p e r a t u r e
s u f f i c i e n t l y l o w t h a t t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r c a p a b i l i t y of t h e c o o l a n t is m a x i m i z e d .
T h e r e a r e also l i m i t a t i o n s o n t h e a l l o w a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e rise of the c o o l a n t as it
p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e core. O n o n e h a n d , o n e w o u l d like this t e m p e r a t u r e rise to b e
large e n o u g h to allow e f f i c i e n t h e a t t r a n s f e r in t h e s t e a m g e n e r a t o r ; b u t t h e r e is
also s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n t o m i n i m i z e this t e m p e r a t u r e rise in o r d e r to lessen t h e r m a l
s h o c k s in t h e r e a c t o r c o r e (such as d u r i n g a r e a c t o r scram). T h e t e m p e r a t u r e rise in
w a t e r - m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r s is k e p t q u i t e s m a l l f o r e x a m p l e , in a P W R , t h e c o o l a n t
typically rises f r o m a n e n t r a n c e t e m p e r a t u r e of 293 C to a exit t e m p e r a t u r e of
3 1 5 C a t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e of only 2 2 C . I n a n L M F B R , this t e m p e r a t u r e rise
is s o m e w h a t larger, a m o u n t i n g to s o m e 140C, while in a H T G R , t h e h e l i u m
t e m p e r a t u r e rises b y as m u c h as 5 0 0 C . T h e s e c o o l a n t p a r a m e t e r s a r e s u m m a r i z e d
f o r several r e a c t o r types in A p p e n d i x H .
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t while s u c h t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t a t i o n s set u p p e r limits o n the
t e m p e r a t u r e s a c h i e v e d in t h e core, t h e r e a r e also lower limits i m p o s e d o n the inlet
c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e d u e to t h e a v a i l a b l e c o n d e n s o r cooling. T h e size of a r e a c t o r
c o r e will b e d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y the a m o u n t of h e a t t r a n s f e r a r e a n e c e s s a r y to
t r a n s f e r t h e d e s i r e d t h e r m a l p o w e r utilizing t h e given t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s .
4. O T H E R T H E R M A L L I M I T A T I O N S
T h e r e a r e o t h e r t y p e s of t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s p l a c e d o n c o o l a n t b e h a v i o r t h a t
h a v e a m o r e n u c l e a r origin. W e h a v e seen t h a t t h e c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n d e p e n d s
472
sensitively o n t h e c o o l a n t d e n s i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , in a L W R t h e c o o l a n t serves as a
m o d e r a t o r . D e c r e a s i n g t h e c o o l a n t d e n s i t y will r e d u c e m o d e r a t i o n a n d h e n c e
reactivity. By w a y of c o n t r a s t , in a L M F B R , d e c r e a s i n g c o o l a n t d e n s i t y will c a u s e a
h a r d e n i n g of t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m , w h i c h e n h a n c e s reactivity. Since t h e
c o o l a n t d e n s i t y d e p e n d s sensitively o n t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e r e is f r e q u e n t l y a v e r y
s t r o n g c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e t h e r m a l a n d n u c l e a r b e h a v i o r of a r e a c t o r . It is
essential to a c c o u n t f o r s u c h c o u p l i n g , b o t h in static r e a c t o r design a n d r e a c t o r
t r a n s i e n t studies. I n d e e d stability c o n s i d e r a t i o n s will f r e q u e n t l y p l a c e r e s t r i c t i o n s
o n t h e a l l o w a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s or h e a t fluxes a c h i e v e d in the core.
I n s u m m a r y t h e n , t h e p r i n c i p a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n core t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e i n c l u d e
t h e a v o i d a n c e of s i g n i f i c a n t c e n t e r l i n e f u e l m e l t i n g , m a i n t a i n i n g t h e h e a t f l u x b e l o w
t h e m a x i m u m v a l u e a l l o w e d b y c o o l a n t c o n d i t i o n s ( b u r n o u t ) , a n d limiting the
stresses d u e t o fission gas release, f u e l swelling, a n d t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s o n t h e c l a d .
T h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s p l a c e c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e s u r f a c e h e a t flux, t h e l i n e a r p o w e r
d e n s i t y , a n d t h e v o l u m e t r i c p o w e r d e n s i t y in t h e f u e l e l e m e n t . U s u a l l y o n e
determines the m a x i m u m heat flux allowed by b u r n o u t considerations, a n d then
adjusts the fuel r o d diameter to achieve a n o p t i m u m compromise between linear
p o w e r d e n s i t y (i.e., f u e l c e n t e r l i n e t e m p e r a t u r e ) a n d p o w e r d e n s i t y ( f u e l i n v e n t o r y ,
c o r e size). 4
It is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e first goal in t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s is to d e t e r m i n e t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o r e f o r a given fission p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n
a n d c o o l a n t inlet c o n d i t i o n , since o n e m u s t e n s u r e t h a t t h e m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e s
a c h i e v e d in t h e c o r e d o n o t e x c e e d a n y of t h e t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , o n e
w o u l d w a n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e o v e r p o w e r at w h i c h t h e r e a c t o r
c o u l d o p e r a t e a n d still b e w i t h i n t h e t h e r m a l d e s i g n c o n s t r a i n t s . It s h o u l d b e k e p t
in m i n d t h a t t h e fission p o w e r d e n s i t y is h i g h l y n o n u n i f o r m . H e n c e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n is similarly n o n u n i f o r m a n d , will d e p e n d o n time, since t h e fission
p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n will s h i f t o v e r c o r e life a s t h e f u e l b u r n s n o n u n i f o r m l y . T h e
u s u a l p r o c e d u r e is to e s t i m a t e t h e set of local o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g the
m o s t e x t r e m e case, (e.g., highest t e m p e r a t u r e s o r h e a t fluxes), a n d t h e n t o d e s i g n
t h e c o r e so as t o g u a r a n t e e s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r m a n c e f o r this " h o t s p o t , " 1 - 3 a l t h o u g h
it s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t this m a y , in f a c t , yield a n o v e r c o n s e r v a t i v e d e s i g n .
T h e t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s b e g i n s b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v o l u m e t r i c s o u r c e of fission h e a t
t h r o u g h o u t t h e core. Since this is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e fission r a t e d e n s i t y , o n e
r e q u i r e s a n initial e s t i m a t e of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e core. F o r t h e
p u r p o s e of m o s t t h e r m a l analysis, it is a s s u m e d t h a t this fission h e a t s o u r c e is
c o n f i n e d to t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s .
Since in t h e s t e a d y s t a t e this fission h e a t e n e r g y m u s t b e r e m o v e d b y t h e c o o l a n t ,
o n e c a n use a simple e n e r g y b a l a n c e to c a l c u l a t e t h e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e a s it
p a s s e s u p t h r o u g h t h e c o r e u s i n g t h e inlet c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e ( p r e s u m e d k n o w n ) .
T h e n o n e c a n w o r k b a c k w a r d to d e t e r m i n e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e rise a c r o s s t h e clad,
g a p , a n d f u e l e l e m e n t to t h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s of t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i o n ( F o u r i e r ' s law) a n d f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n ( N e w t o n ' s l a w of cooling). I n
simple analyses, one performs such a calculation only for a n average coolant
c h a n n e l a n d a h o t c o o l a n t c h a n n e l c h o s e n t o r e p r e s e n t t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e case. I n
m o r e realistic a n a l y s e s , o n e m u s t also t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t f l o w c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e
i n t e r m i x i n g of f l o w b e t w e e n c o o l a n t c h a n n e l s .
O n e is also o c c a s i o n a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l b e h a v i o r of a r e a c t o r
w h e n s u b j e c t e d t o p o w e r level or c o o l a n t f l o w r a t e c h a n g e s . S u c h t r a n s i e n t studies
THERMAL-HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES
473
a r e of very c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e in r e a c t o r s a f e t y studies a n d in t h e m o d e l i n g
of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r d y n a m i c s .
I n this c h a p t e r w e will s k e t c h t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t s a n d p r o c e d u r e s i n v o l v e d in the
t h e r m a l a n a l y s i s of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core. A l t h o u g h w e will usually try t o relate
t h e s e c o n c e p t s a n d m e t h o d s to w e l l - k n o w n laws of t h e r m o d y n a m i c s , w e will give
v e r y f e w d e r i v a t i o n s . W e d o n o t i n t e n d this c h a p t e r to b e a t h o r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t
of h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d f l u i d flow, b u t r a t h e r a brief d e s c r i p t i o n of h o w s t a n d a r d
c o n c e p t s f r o m these disciplines a r e a p p l i e d to n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis. W e h a v e
a t t e m p t e d to i n c l u d e s u f f i c i e n t e x p l a n a t i o n a n d discussion of these m e t h o d s to
allow t h e r e a d e r w i t h o n l y r u d i m e n t a r y e x p o s u r e t o h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d fluid f l o w to
still b e n e f i t f r o m t h e c h a p t e r . F o r m o r e d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t s of m a n y of t h e s e topics,
w e m u s t r e f e r t h e r e a d e r to o n e of several s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s . 8 - 1 0
II. POWER GENERATION IN NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES

T h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d in a n u c l e a r fission r e a c t i o n is d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g a
v a r i e t y of r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d i f f e r e n t r a n g e s a n d t i m e delays. I n
t h e r m a l design, t h e e n e r g y d e p o s i t i o n d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e c o o l a n t a n d s t r u c t u r a l
m a t e r i a l s is f r e q u e n t l y r e a s s i g n e d to t h e f u e l in o r d e r t o simplify the t h e r m a l
a n a l y s i s of t h e core. W e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e v o l u m e t r i c fission h e a t s o u r c e in the
c o r e q'"(r) b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e fission r e a c t i o n r a t e d e n s i t y f o r e a c h i s o t o p e b y wf(,),
t h e r e c o v e r a b l e e n e r g y released p e r fission event, to f i n d
?"'()= 2
JXdEaf'\E)<f>(r,E).
(12-1)
Of course, since t h e f l u x a n d n u m b e r d e n s i t y of t h e f u e l v a r y a c r o s s the r e a c t o r

core, t h e r e will b e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a r i a t i o n i n t h e fission h e a t source.*
T h e simplest m o d e l of fission h e a t d i s t r i b u t i o n w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d to a b a r e ,
h o m o g e n e o u s core. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e s h o u l d recall t h e o n e - g r o u p f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n
f o r several typical g e o m e t r i e s given in T a b l e 5-1. Of course, the g e o m e t r y of m o s t
interest will b e t h e cylindrical core, f o r w h i c h w e h a v e s k e t c h e d in F i g u r e 12-2 the
r a d i a l a n d axial f l u x profiles. W e h a v e also i n d i c a t e d the m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o these
p r o f i l e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e a d d i t i o n of r e f l e c t o r s (since m o s t p o w e r r e a c t o r designs
a r e r e f l e c t e d , either b y c o o l a n t b y p a s s flow, a d d i t i o n a l m o d e r a t i n g m a t e r i a l , or
p e r h a p s a b l a n k e t of fertile material).
T o a c c o u n t f o r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in t h e c o r e lattice, o n e c a n use t h e gross flux
p r o f i l e s to d e t e r m i n e t h e flux in e a c h of t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s of the core. U s u a l l y the
f u e l e l e m e n t cross section is so small c o m p a r e d to t h e c o r e size t h a t w e c a n a s s u m e
qf"(r) t o b e c o n s t a n t across t h e w i d t h of t h e f u e l r o d f o r m a n y c a l c u l a t i o n s . F o r
e x a m p l e , w e w o u l d t a k e t h e fission h e a t s o u r c e in a r o d a t a r a d i u s r f in a b a r e ,
*We will utilize the more or less conventional notation of mechanical engineers when referring to
heat densities in which the number of primes on q indicates the dimensionality of the density.
Hence q'" represents a volumetric heat source in units of W/cm 3 ; q" represents a heat flux
(W/cm 2 ); while q' represents a linear heat density (W/cm) typically used to describe the heat
generated per unit length of a fuel rod.
474
u n i f o r m cylindrical core to be
q'"(r) = w f W o (
/ 2.405 r f \
^ ) cos(^)
(12-2)
(where, f o r c o n v e n i e n c e , w e h a v e a s s u m e d o n l y o n e f u e l i s o t o p e a n d u s e d a
o n e - g r o u p r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) . H e r e R a n d H a r e t o b e r e g a r d e d as e f f e c t i v e c o r e
d i m e n s i o n s t h a t i n c l u d e e x t r a p o l a t i o n l e n g t h s a s well as a n a d j u s t m e n t t o a c c o u n t
f o r a r e f l e c t e d c o r e (i.e., r e f l e c t o r savings).
N o t i c e t h a t w h i l e w e c a n f r e q u e n t l y neglect t h e r a d i a l v a r i a t i o n s in t h e fission
h e a t g e n e r a t i o n in t h e f u e l r o d , w e c a n n o t i g n o r e t h e axial v a r i a t i o n . I n f a c t , if w e
r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e r e is a n a p p r e c i a b l e d e p r e s s i o n of t h e t h e r m a l f l u x in t h e f u e l r o d
d u e t o self-shielding, t h e n it is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e m a y e v e n b e s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h
w e m a y w a n t t o a c c o u n t f o r r a d i a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e fission h e a t g e n e r a t e d i n t h e r o d
( s u c h a s i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e D o p p l e r c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity).
T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t will p e r t u r b t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n of
t h e r e a c t o r core. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a c t o r is u s u a l l y n o t l o a d e d w i t h f u e l of
u n i f o r m e n r i c h m e n t . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of c o r e life, h i g h e r e n r i c h m e n t f u e l is
c o m m o n l y l o a d e d t o w a r d t h e e d g e of t h e c o r e - in o r d e r t o f l a t t e n t h e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n . D u r i n g c o r e o p e r a t i o n , t h e f u e l will b u r n n o n u n i f o r m l y , l e a d i n g t o
p o w e r n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s t h a t m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in t h e r m a l c o r e analysis.
F u r t h e r m o r e , s u b s e q u e n t r e f u e l i n g of t h e c o r e will n o t b e u n i f o r m a n d will l e a d t o
further variation in the power distribution.
C o n t r o l r o d s will also h a v e a m a j o r e f f e c t o n t h e axial a n d r a d i a l f l u x profiles.
T h e r e will also b e local p e a k i n g of t h e flux, f o r i n s t a n c e in w a t e r g a p s in L W R s or
n e a r r e f l e c t o r s . All of t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s in t h e f l u x a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s m u s t b e
THERMAL - HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES
475
p r e d i c t e d b y t h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r a n d i n c l u d e d in a s u b s e q u e n t t h e r m a l analysis of
t h e core.
F r o m the a b o v e discussion, it is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e fission p o w e r density will vary
c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r t h e core. S u c h v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r n o t only f r o m the usual flux
v a r i a t i o n s in a b a r e , h o m o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r core, b u t a l s o d u e to the h e t e r o g e n e o u s
n a t u r e of t h e core, t h e n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s of f u e l b u r n u p a n d f u e l loading, the
p r e s e n c e of c o o l a n t g a p s a n d c o n t r o l elements, a n d small v a r i a t i o n s d u e to
m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o l e r a n c e s of c o r e c o m p o n e n t s . T h e s e will c a u s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
v a r i a t i o n s in t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e core. A c o m m o n t e c h n i q u e for
a c c o u n t i n g f o r these v a r i a t i o n s is to e s t i m a t e a set of local o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s for
t h e " w o r s t c a s e " ( " w o r s t " in t h e sense of m o s t closely a p p r o a c h i n g t h e r m a l
limitations), a n d to e v a l u a t e t h e r e a c t o r p e r f o r m a n c e f o r this set of c o n d i t i o n s .
A s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c h local c o n d i t i o n s a r e so-called " h o t c h a n n e l " f a c t o r s relating
this e x t r e m e c a s e to t h e a v e r a g e c o r e b e h a v i o r .
O n e m o s t c o m m o n l y d e f i n e s t h e hot channel of the core as t h a t c o o l a n t c h a n n e l
w h e r e t h e c o r e h e a t flux a n d e n t h a l p y rise is a m a x i m u m . C o n d i t i o n s in the h o t
c h a n n e l a r e d e f i n e d b y several ratios of local c o n d i t i o n s to a v e r a g e c o n d i t i o n s , a n d
these ratios, t e r m e d t h e hot channel factors or power peaking factors, a r e c o n s i d e r e d
in s o m e detail in Section 12-VII.
T h e m a j o r results of t h e n u c l e a r c a l c u l a t i o n s o n a c o r e c a n f r e q u e n t l y b e relayed
t o t h e t h e r m a l designer in t e r m s of n u c l e a r h o t - c h a n n e l f a c t o r s . T h e s e factors,
t o g e t h e r w i t h a n e s t i m a t e of t h e axial p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s h a p e , c a n serve as t h e
b a s i s f o r t h e initial p l a n t t h e r m a l design, a l t h o u g h t h e r e will b e later i n t e r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e t h e r m a l a n d n u c l e a r designs.
O n c e we a r e given a n axial f l u x or p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d t h e c o o l a n t inlet
c o n d i t i o n s (e.g., t e m p e r a t u r e a n d pressure), w e c a n c o m p u t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s of the
c o o l a n t as it p a s s e s u p t h e c o o l a n t c h a n n e l t h r o u g h t h e c o r e of t h e r e a c t o r . Such a
c a l c u l a t i o n involves o n l y a simple e n e r g y b a l a n c e e q u a t i n g the h e a t f l u x p a s s i n g
i n t o t h e c o o l a n t f r o m t h e f u e l e l e m e n t to t h e c h a n g e in t e m p e r a t u r e (or, m o r e
generally, t h e e n t h a l p y ) of t h e c o o l a n t as it a b s o r b s this h e a t .
T h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t analysis c o n c e r n s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r a d i a l t e m p e r a t u r e
rise f r o m t h e c o o l a n t to t h e c l a d s u r f a c e , t h e n a c r o s s t h e c l a d a n d t h e g a p t o the
f u e l itself. S u c h a c a l c u l a t i o n involves a s t u d y of h e a t c o n d u c t i o n t h r o u g h the f u e l
e l e m e n t a n d f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e c l a d s u r f a c e to the c o o l a n t .
T h i s analysis is f r e q u e n t l y c o m p l i c a t e d b y a p h a s e c h a n g e of t h e c o o l a n t as it
passes u p the channel. Finally, we are usually also c o n c e r n e d with the
h y d r o d y n a m i c f l o w c o n d i t i o n s of t h e c o o l a n t , s u c h as the p r e s s u r e d r o p a l o n g the
c h a n n e l , f l o w mixing, a n d o t h e r characteristics of t h e c o o l a n t .
W e will c o n s i d e r e a c h of these topics in t u r n , first d e v e l o p i n g t h e relations
b e t w e e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e fuel, g a p , a n d c l a d u s i n g t h e t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i o n e q u a t i o n ; t h e n s t u d y i n g t h e t r a n s f e r of h e a t f r o m t h e c l a d s u r f a c e to
t h e c o o l a n t via f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n c o n s i d e r i n g b o t h single p h a s e a n d t w o - p h a s e
c o o l a n t s ; a n d f i n a l l y giving a brief o u t l i n e of t h e h y d r a u l i c analysis of t h e core.
III. RADIAL HEAT CONDUCTION IN REACTOR FUEL

ELEMENTS
A. The Equation of Heat Conduction
L e t us b e g i n b y quickly reviewing t h e t o p i c of h e a t t r a n s f e r in solids via
t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n . 8 - 1 0 If w e p e r f o r m a simple e n e r g y b a l a n c e f o r a n a r b i t r a r y
476
v o l u m e in t h e solid, w e arrive a t a n e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g t h e t i m e r a t e of e n e r g y
c h a n g e as t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e n e r g y a d d i t i o n d u e to d i s t r i b u t e d h e a t sources
q'"(r9t) a n d e n e r g y loss d u e to h e a t t r a n s p o r t :
^ ( p c T ) = q'"(T,t)-Vq"(r,t),
(12-3)
w h e r e T(r,t) is t h e local t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e solid, p ( M ) a n d c a r e its d e n s i t y a n d

specific h e a t , respectively, a n d q " ( r , t ) is t h e h e a t f l u x v e c t o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e r a t e at
w h i c h h e a t f l o w s a c r o s s a s u r f a c e . T h i s e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n is d e r i v e d in a
m a n n e r i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t u s e d in C h a p t e r 5 to d e r i v e the n e u t r o n d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n .
A n d a s in t h a t case, t h e b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n c o n t a i n s t w o u n k n o w n s , T(r, t) a n d
q"(r,0- W e will n o w i n t r o d u c e a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h a t is t h e direct a n a l o g t o the
d i f f u s i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n u s e d in n e u t r o n t r a n s p o r t b y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e h e a t flux
v e c t o r q " ( M ) is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t
q"(r,t)=-kVT(r,t).
(12-4)
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , k n o w n a s Fourier's law of thermal conduction,

is a v e r y g o o d
a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r m o s t m a t e r i a l s . T h e c o e f f i c i e n t of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y k is r e f e r r e d
t o a s t h e thermal conductivity.
[Of c o u r s e E q . (12-4) is t h e a n a l o g to F i c k ' s law.]
W h e n w e s u b s t i t u t e E q . (12-4) i n t o the e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n , w e a r r i v e at
t h e equation of thermal
conduction:
-^(pcT)
V-kVT=
q"'(r,t).
(12-5)
W e n e e d b o t h initial a n d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s to c o m p l e t e t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
d e s c r i p t i o n of h e a t c o n d u c t i o n . T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e d e r i v e d in a g e n e r a l
f a s h i o n u s i n g e n e r g y b a l a n c e ideas, b u t we will use p h y s i c a l a r g u m e n t s to m o r e
directly m o t i v a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e specific p r o b l e m s w e will
consider.
W e will generally c o n s i d e r t h e case of t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n t h e a t t r a n s p o r t , f o r
w h i c h E q . (12-5) simplifies to
-V-kVT(r)
= q"'(r).
(12-6)
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d h e r e t h a t t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y k a p p e a r i n g in this
e q u a t i o n is t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t in m o s t m a t e r i a l s . A l t h o u g h t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n c e is usually i g n o r e d in s t u d y i n g t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n in m a t e r i a l s
s u c h as the g a p or the c l a d in w h i c h a relatively small t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p o c c u r s , it
m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d in t r e a t i n g t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n t h r o u g h the fuel, since in this
case w e m a y h a v e a t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n of several t h o u s a n d degrees.
B. Heat Transfer in Cylindrical Fuel Elements

M o s t m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r cores a r e c o m p o s e d of cylindrical f u e l e l e m e n t s
t h a t c o n t a i n c e r a m i c f u e l pellets in metallic t u b e s (i.e., c l a d d i n g ) ( a l t h o u g h the
H T G R is a n o t a b l e exception). O u r g o a l will b e to c a l c u l a t e the t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p
f r o m the c e n t e r l i n e of t h e fuel, w h e r e t h e m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e n o r m a l l y o c c u r s ,
to t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c l a d in t e r m s of t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the f u e l
e l e m e n t . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this c a l c u l a t i o n , w e c a n r e g a r d t h e c l a d s u r f a c e
500
t e m p e r a t u r e a s a r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e , since it will b e d e t e r m i n e d in t e r m s of the

c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d e v e n t u a l l y in t e r m s of the c o o l a n t inlet c o n d i t i o n s a n d the
r e a c t o r p o w e r level. T o s i m p l i f y this c a l c u l a t i o n , w e will m a k e several u s e f u l
assumptions:
(1) W e will a s s u m e t h a t w e c a n neglect t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n in t h e axial
d i r e c t i o n . T h i s is a v a l i d a s s u m p t i o n since the t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t a c r o s s
t h e f u e l e l e m e n t in t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n is several o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e
l a r g e r t h a n t h a t in t h e axial d i r e c t i o n . A x i a l h e a t t r a n s f e r will o c c u r
o u t s i d e t h e f u e l e l e m e n t via f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n in t h e c o o l a n t .
(2) T h e fission e n e r g y will b e a s s u m e d t o a p p e a r as a u n i f o r m h e a t s o u r c e
d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h t h e fuel. A c t u a l l y t h e r e is s o m e v a r i a t i o n in this h e a t
s o u r c e since it is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e f l u x in t h e f u e l , a n d w e h a v e seen in
C h a p t e r 10 t h a t t h e r e is a n a p p r e c i a b l e f l u x d e p r e s s i o n in t h e f u e l d u e to
s e l f - s h i e l d i n g e f f e c t s . H o w e v e r n e g l e c t of this s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n is
f r e q u e n t l y a d e q u a t e in t h e r m a l c o r e analysis.
(3) O n l y s t e a d y - s t a t e h e a t t r a n s f e r in t h e c o r e will b e c o n s i d e r e d .
W e will n o w a p p l y t h e e q u a t i o n of h e a t c o n d u c t i o n to s t u d y t h e r a d i a l h e a t
t r a n s f e r in e a c h r e g i o n of t h e r e a c t o r f u e l e l e m e n t (see F i g u r e 12-3).
I
FIGURE 12-3.
Radial fuel element geometry.
1. F U E L
T h e h e a t c o n d u c t i o n e q u a t i o n f o r a cylindrical f u e l p i n w i t h a u n i f o r m
v o l u m e t r i c h e a t s o u r c e q'" in w h i c h axial h e a t c o n d u c t i o n c a n b e i g n o r e d takes the
form
w h e r e w e h a v e u s e d axial s y m m e t r y to o m i t t h e a n g u l a r d e p e n d e n c e .
If kF w e r e c o n s t a n t , w e c o u l d solve this e q u a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y f o r T(r). H o w e v e r
w e m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t kF will d e p e n d strongly o n t h e fuel t e m p e r a t u r e . H e n c e w e
will f o l l o w a s o m e w h a t less d i r e c t p a t h b y first i n t e g r a t i n g E q . (12-7) f r o m the f u e l
478
centerline at r = 0 to a radius r
k
(12
T*"'
"8)
N o w d i v i d e b y r a n d i n t e g r a t e o n c e a g a i n , this t i m e f r o m r = 0 t o t h e f u e l p i n
surface r = r F ,
C
/Tp
j kF(T)dT=\
rq,n
rl
(12-9)
Jo
w h e r e w e h a v e d e n o t e d t h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e a n d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s as T^ = T (0)
a n d T f = T(rF), respectively. If w e n o w d e f i n e a n a v e r a g e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r
the fuel
*F = L
iq- - lF
f T l dTkF(T),
JTf
(12-10)
w e c a n r e w r i t e E q . (12-9) to give t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e f u e l as
(12-H)
4 kF
I n t h e s i t u a t i o n w h e r e kF c a n b e a s s u m e d c o n s t a n t , o n e c a n a c t u a l l y d e t e r m i n e t h e
f u n c t i o n a l f o r m of T(r) b y i n t e g r a t i n g E q . (12-7) directly t o f i n d a p a r a b o l i c
temperature profile
q"'r2
(12-12)
L e t u s d e f i n e t h e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y of t h e f u e l e l e m e n t q' as t h e p o w e r
generated per unit length
qf = 7TrFqf".
(12-13)
T h e n E q . (12-11) c a n b e r e w r i t t e n i n t e r m s of q' as
Ar|
F U E L
=-4=.
47rkF
(12-14)
I n p a r t i c u l a r w e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p is n o t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e
f u e l r a d i u s . T h i s t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y q' a n d
t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e f u e l . T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y linear p o w e r d e n s i t y is a
useful core parameter.
T h e f u e l t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y is quite low f o r c e r a m i c s s u c h as U 0 2 , f o r w h i c h
kF is typically 0 . 0 2 0 - 0 . 0 3 0 W / c m K . n [ A l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t kF will
c h a n g e s o m e w h a t w i t h f u e l exposure.] T h i s low t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y l e a d s t o r a t h e r
large t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f u e l e l e m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , a l i n e a r p o w e r
d e n s i t y of 500 W / c m in a typical L W R w o u l d l e a d t o a t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e of
1400C.
Since t h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e t e m p e r a t u r e
is limited b y t h e f u e l m e l t i n g p o i n t t o
a b o u t 2 8 0 0 C f o r U 0 2 , it b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t o n e m u s t limit t h e l i n e a r p o w e r
d e n s i t y in o r d e r t o a v o i d f u e l c e n t e r l i n e m e l t i n g . F o r U 0 2 f u e l e l e m e n t s , t h e limit
479
o n linear p o w e r d e n s i t y is r o u g h l y 660 W / c m . M o s t p o w e r r e a c t o r s o p e r a t e such

t h a t t h e m a x i m u m linear p o w e r d e n s i t y is 4 2 0 - 4 6 0 W / c m .
It s h o u l d also b e n o t e d t h a t t h e w e a k d e p e n d e n c e of the t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p o n the
f u e l r a d i u s suggests that, at least f r o m a t h e r m a l s t a n d p o i n t , o n e c a n a c h i e v e the
s a m e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y w i t h o u t e x c e e d i n g c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t a t i o n s b y u s i n g
smaller f u e l r o d s . Since t h e use of smaller r o d s c a n r e d u c e f u e l i n v e n t o r y , this
f e a t u r e c a n h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g o n t h e e c o n o m i c s of c o r e design.
It is possible to r e p e a t o u r analysis of the h e a t t r a n s f e r in t h e f u e l f o r the
s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h w e explicitly a c c o u n t f o r the f l u x d e p r e s s i o n . S u c h a n analysis
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a u n i f o r m h e a t s o u r c e q'" a c t u a l l y implies a
s o m e w h a t larger A r | F U E L t h a n t h a t c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a d i s t r i b u t e d h e a t source.
T h e r e f o r e o u r c a l c u l a t i o n s a b o v e are s o m e w h a t o n t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e side.
2. G A P
I n r e a c t o r types in w h i c h t h e c e r a m i c f u e l pellets a r e e n c a s e d in a metallic
t u b e or clad, t h e r e will b e a small c l e a r a n c e or g a p b e t w e e n t h e f u e l a n d the clad
several t h o u s a n d s ' o f a c m in t h i c k n e s s w h i c h is usually filled with s o m e inert gas
s u c h as h e l i u m . A l t h o u g h t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e g a p is q u i t e small, t h e low t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i v i t i e s of gases will c a u s e a r a t h e r large t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p across t h e g a p . If
t h e g a p s p a c i n g w e r e u n i f o r m , w e c o u l d simply solve t h e e q u a t i o n of t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i o n f o r t h e gas in t h e g a p t o f i n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s the g a p .
M o r e specifically since t h e r e is n o h e a t p r o d u c t i o n in t h e g a p , w e w o u l d solve
If w e a s s u m e t h a t t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e gas kG is c o n s t a n t , a n d also n o t e
t h a t at t h e f u e l s u r f a c e w e m u s t satisfy c o n t i n u i t y of h e a t f l u x e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e
fuel by requiring
kG
q'
dT
dr
f r *
t h e n w e c a n i n t e g r a t e E q . (12-15) to f i n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e g a p as
a'" rl
|GAP=
- Tc=
rF+tG\
j,
02"17)
w h e r e tG is t h e g a p thickness a n d Tc is t h e inside s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e of the clad.

Since tG is u s u a l l y very small ( ~ .005 cm), w e c a n e x p a n d t h e log t e r m to write
A f t e r a p e r i o d of o p e r a t i o n , t h e g a p will c o n t a i n a m i x t u r e of t h e original fill gas

a n d fission p r o d u c t gases such as X e a n d K r . H e n c e t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y kG
will c h a n g e over c o r e life. T y p i c a l l y & H e = 0.002 W / c m K , while A; X e + K r = 0.0001
W / c m K . 1 2 H e n c e a linear p o w e r d e n s i t y of 500 W / c m a n d a g a p t h i c k n e s s of
tG = .005 c m w o u l d give rise to a t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s the g a p of 3 0 0 C or
more.
480
T h e r e is a n o t h e r m u c h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t b u r n u p effect, h o w e v e r . A s fission e v e n t s
o c c u r in t h e fuel, t h e f u e l pellets will swell a n d c r a c k a n d will a c t u a l l y c o m e i n t o
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c l a d in m a n y p l a c e s (see F i g u r e 12-4). S u c h a p h e n o m e n o n is very
d i f f i c u l t t o t r e a t analytically, a n d h e n c e o n e u s u a l l y d e f i n e s a n e f f e c t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t
of g a p h e a t t r a n s f e r hG s u c h t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e g a p is
A ^ I g a p = n| - -
(12-19)
T h e e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t hG will b e a f u n c t i o n of t h e m e a n g a p thickness, gas

c o n d u c t i v i t y , t h e c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n t h e f u e l pellet a n d t h e c l a d , s u r f a c e
r o u g h n e s s , c l a d m a t e r i a l , a n d , of course, b u r n u p . It typically r a n g e s in v a l u e
b e t w e e n 0.5 t o 1.1 W / c m 2 o K , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l type, t h e f u e l exposure,
a n d t h e c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n t h e c l a d a n d t h e pellet. 1 3
If w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e h e a t f l u x a c r o s s t h e g a p in t h e s t e a d y state m u s t b e j u s t
t h a t a m o u n t of h e a t p r o d u c e d i n t h e f u e l d i v i d e d b y t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e f u e l
q"'{-urlH)
q'"r
q>
t h e n w e c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e g a p as
l"'rF
q'
481
F o r a linear p o w e r d e n s i t y of 500 W / c m this t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e c a n r a n g e

f r o m 140 to 2 8 0 C , d e p e n d i n g o n the v a l u e c h o s e n f o r h G .
3. C L A D
If w e a s s u m e t h a t t h e clad t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y k c is c o n s t a n t a n d t h a t there
is n o h e a t p r o d u c t i o n in t h e clad, w e c a n solve
(12-22)
to f i n d the t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s the c l a d as
A71clad= T
q'"r%
rF+ tc
-Ts= In-,
zkc
rF
(12-23)
w h e r e Ts is the o u t e r c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t c is t h e clad thickness. ( W e

h a v e i g n o r e d t h e g a p t h i c k n e s s tG in this c a l c u l a t i o n . ) I n p r a c t i c e the c l a d thickness
tc is q u i t e small c o m p a r e d to t h e f u e l r o d d i a m e t e r , a n d h e n c e w e a r e o n c e a g a i n
j u s t i f i e d in e x p a n d i n g the log to write
q,ff rp tc
a'
tc
(12-24)
f o r the t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p across t h e c l a d . C l a d m a t e r i a l s are u s u a l l y c h o s e n to h a v e

large t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y (e.g., A;Zr = 0.11 W / c m K ) . T h i s f a c t , w h e n c o m b i n e d
w i t h t h e small c l a d t h i c k n e s s tc, l e a d s to relatively small t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s across
t h e clad. F o r e x a m p l e , at #' = 500 W / c m , a c l a d of thickness / c = . 0 5 3 c m w o u l d
e x p e r i e n c e a t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p of 7 8 C .
4. C L A D S U R F A C E TO COOLANT
H e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e c l a d s u r f a c e to t h e c o o l a n t is d e s c r i b e d b y
law of cooling
q" = hs(Ts-Tn),
Newton's
(12-25)
w h e r e hs is t h e c o n v e c t i v e h e a t - t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t . T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t will d e p e n d
u p o n t h e p r o p e r t i e s a n d f l o w c o n d i t i o n s of t h e c o o l a n t , a n d its d e t e r m i n a t i o n will
b e the s u b j e c t of t h e n e x t section of this c h a p t e r . F o r n o w , h o w e v e r , w e will a s s u m e
t h a t it is k n o w n , a n d p r o c e e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p to the c o o l a n t using
E q . (12-25) f o r q" to f i n d
A 7 1 C 0 0 L =
r S
" ^ ^
V(rF+/c) " W ' F + ' c )
'
(12
"26)
A s we will later f i n d , h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m the c l a d s u r f a c e to the c o o l a n t is an

extremely e f f i c i e n t p r o c e s s a n d values of hs r a n g e as high a s 4.5 W / c m 2 o K . I n a
L W R , A r | C O O L is typically o n l y a b o u t 1 0 - 2 0 C .
482

5. TOTAL T E M P E R A T U R E D R O P ACROSS T H E F U E L E L E M E N T
W e c a n s u m all of these s e p a r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s f r o m t h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e
to t h e c o o l a n t to write
1
Tfl
~ 2777-1
2/C,
+ 4^ +
K(r F +
(12-27)
tc)
N o w , in g e n e r a l , t h e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e is essentially f i x e d b y t h e r e m a i n i n g
t h e r m a l c o m p o n e n t s of t h e p l a n t (such a s the s t e a m g e n e r a t o r a n d c o n d e n s o r ) .
F u r t h e r m o r e , regardless of w h e r e w e a r e a l o n g t h e axis of the core, t h e c o o l a n t
t e m p e r a t u r e varies c o m p a r a t i v e l y little (e.g., in a L W R , t h e c o o l a n t rises f r o m 293
to 3 1 5 C , while in a L M F B R it rises f r o m 370 to 5 1 0 C ) . T h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e
t e m p e r a t u r e is c o n s t r a i n e d to r e m a i n b e l o w t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t of t h e f u e l (e.g.,
2 8 0 0 C ) . H e n c e t h e a l l o w a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e f u e l e l e m e n t is limited
b y the f u e l m e l t i n g p o i n t ; t h e r e will b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g limits o n t h e a l l o w a b l e linear
p o w e r d e n s i t y . T h i s m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e l i n e a r p o w e r d e n s i t y essentially d e t e r m i n e s t h e size of t h e r e a c t o r c o r e f o r a d e s i r e d p o w e r level. If w e r e w r i t e E q .
(12-27) as
2v(Tq:
-r
f l
qf - t
T>
1
2k,
1
rFhG
02-28)
1
kcrF
^.Of+'C
w e c a n see t h a t t h e r e is s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n to m a x i m i z e the h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s
hG, hs, kc, a n d kF in o r d e r t o m a x i m i z e t h e a l l o w a b l e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y a n d
h e n c e m i n i m i z e t h e r e q u i r e d c o r e size.
I n T a b l e 12-1 w e h a v e listed several t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o m m o n f u e l , clad,
a n d c o o l a n t m a t e r i a l s u s e d in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r cores. 3 By w a y of illustration, w e
h a v e u s e d these d a t a to c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s a c r o s s a L W R f u e l e l e m e n t
g e n e r a t i n g a linear p o w e r d e n s i t y of q' = 500 W / c m . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e a c r o s s
the f u e l e l e m e n t is s h o w n in F i g u r e 12-5.
TABLE 12-1:
Some Physical Properties of Interest in Fuel-Rod Design
Material
Temperature Density
C
g/cm3
Thermal
Conductivity
W/cmK
Linear Thermal
Expansion
Heat
Coefficient Capacity
m/mK
J/kg
U0 2 -Unirradiated (95% J o r ) t
540-2700
10.4
.024
1.75 X l O " 5
221
UC-Unirradiated (92%p T )
540-1400
12.6
.130
1.08 X 1 0 " 5
140
325
183
2930
698
Stainless steel (Type 304)

Zircaloy IV
Water at 155 bar
Sodium
Helium
Fission gas mixture (Xe + Kr)
^ - T h e o r e t i c a l density
340
340
300
540
340
340
8.0
6.44
0.72
0.81
.163
.107
.004
.542
.002
1.3X10"4
1.73X10"
6.10X10"6
483
200<
1001
FIGURE 12-5.
Temperature distribution in a cylindrical fuel pin.
IV. FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER IN SINGLEPHASE COOLANTS

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g section w e t r e a t e d t h e t r a n s f e r of h e a t f r o m t h e c l a d s u r f a c e
t o the c o o l a n t u s i n g N e w t o n ' s l a w of c o o l i n g
q" =
hs(Ts-Tn)
(12-29)
w h e r e hs is t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n v e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r . T h e m a g n i t u d e of hs varies
greatly f o r d i f f e r e n t types of c o o l a n t s a n d f l o w c o n d i t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , h s in w a t e r
c a n r a n g e f r o m .05 to as h i g h as 4.5 W / c m 2 o K (if boiling occurs), while f o r a gas
s u c h as h e l i u m , hs is o n l y . 0 0 5 - 0 5 W / c m 2 o K . W e will s t u d y h o w hs is d e t e r m i n e d
f o r t h e case of f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n h e a t t r a n s f e r n a m e l y , t h a t s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h
h e a t is t r a n s p o r t e d a w a y f r o m a s u r f a c e b y m a s s m o t i o n of a c o o l a n t a d j a c e n t to
t h e s u r f a c e m a i n t a i n e d b y a n externally i n d u c e d f l o w (e.g., c o o l a n t p u m p s ) , in
c o n t r a s t to n a t u r a l c o n v e c t i o n , in w h i c h the d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n in a t e m p e r a t u r e
g r a d i e n t i n d u c e s a f l o w (e.g., in a s w i m m i n g - p o o l reactor).
A. Hydraulic Flow in Channels

T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n v e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t hs f o r v a r i o u s
c o o l a n t a n d f l o w c o n d i t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of n u c l e a r p o w e r r e a c t o r s is intimately
r e l a t e d to t h e s u b j e c t of h y d r a u l i c s , t h a t is, t h e s t u d y of i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w in
c h a n n e l s . 1 4 W e will a v o i d a d e t a i l e d discussion of h y d r a u l i c s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of
h y d r o d y n a m i c s e q u a t i o n s to d e s c r i b e f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n in r e a c t o r cores in f a v o r of
a brief s u r v e y of t h e p r i n c i p a l results of s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r r e a c t o r analysis. Since the
c o o l a n t f l o w in m o s t p o w e r r e a c t o r s is highly t u r b u l e n t , the q u a n t i t a t i v e analysis of
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s in r e a c t o r cores h a s a highly e m p i r i c a l f l a v o r in a n y event.
484
T h e p r e s s u r e d r o p e x p e r i e n c e d b y a n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l u i d f l o w i n g in a c h a n n e l
of c i r c u l a r cross section c a n b e w r i t t e n as
A p = 2(L/D)pu&
(12-30)
w h e r e L is t h e l e n g t h of t h e c h a n n e l , D is its d i a m e t e r , p is t h e f l u i d density, a n d uz
is its m e a n f l o w velocity a l o n g t h e c h a n n e l . A n e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r / k n o w n a s the
Fanning friction factort,
h a s b e e n i n s e r t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e f f e c t of t u r b u l e n t
flow. I n g e n e r a l this f a c t o r will d e p e n d b o t h o n the r o u g h n e s s of the c h a n n e l wall
a n d the Reynold's number c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f l o w w h i c h is d e f i n e d b y
R e = pw z Z)/jLt,
(12-31)
w h e r e /i is t h e s h e a r viscosity of the f l u i d . F o r t u r b u l e n t flow, t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r /

m u s t b e m e a s u r e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y as a f u n c t i o n of b o t h R e a n d c h a n n e l s u r f a c e
r o u g h n e s s a n d is c u s t o m a r i l y p l o t t e d a g a i n s t these p a r a m e t e r s o n a c h a r t k n o w n as
a Moody diagram (see F i g u r e 12-6). O n this c h a r t t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m l a m i n a r to
t u r b u l e n t f l o w o c c u r s a t a critical R e y n o l d s n u m b e r of R e * = 2100.
.Average roughness e
000,005
000,001
FIGURE 12-6. The Moody diagram for the Fanning friction factor. [L. F. Moody, Trans.
ASME 66, 671 (1944)].
F o r l a m i n a r f l o w ( R e < 2 1 0 0 ) , o n e c a n explicitly solve t h e e q u a t i o n s of h y d r o d y n a m i c s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w in a circular p i p e (so-called H a g e n Poiseuille f l o w ) to o b t a i n the f r i c t i o n f a c t o r a s
/ = 16/Re,
Re < 2 1 0 0 (laminar flow).
(12-32)
F o r t u r b u l e n t f l o w ( R e > 2 1 0 0 ) o n e m u s t use e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e f r i c t i o n
^Note that one occasionally encounters an alternative factor known as the Darcy-Weisbach
friction factor. The relationship between the two friction factors is/Fanning=(l/4)/oarcey-weisbach-
THERMAL- HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES
485
f a c t o r . I n p a r t i c u l a r f o r t u r b u l e n t flow in s m o o t h pipes (such as arise in r e a c t o r

applications), o n e c u s t o m a r i l y uses the Blasius f o r m u l a 1 0
/ = 0.0791 R e " 0 - 2 5 ,
2100 < R e < 10 5 ( t u r b u l e n t flow).
(12-33)
F r e q u e n t l y it b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y to e x t e n d these results t o flow in c h a n n e l s of

n o n c i r c u l a r cross section. F o r this p u r p o s e , o n e replaces D b y a n
equivalent
hydraulic diameter Dh d e f i n e d b y
Dh=AS/Z
(12-34)
w h e r e S is the f l o w a r e a a n d Z is t h e w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r of t h e flow.
A s a n e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e w e c o n s i d e r f l o w t h r o u g h a b u n d l e of circular fuel
e l e m e n t s of d i a m e t e r d a n d s q u a r e p i t c h p. T h e n o n e d e f i n e s the e q u i v a l e n t
h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r b y l o c a t i n g a u n i t cell a n d c a l c u l a t i n g S a n d Z f o r this cell as
S=p27Td2/4,
Z = ird (see F i g u r e 12-7). H e n c e f o r this g e o m e t r y , w e f i n d
(12-35)
T h e h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r f o r t r i a n g u l a r lattice g e o m e t r i e s is given in F i g u r e 12-7.
T
d
Flow
F l o w channel
Square
lattice
&
FIGURE 12-7.
o.
o
channel^--<
Triangular
D,
lattice
2^/3
W W
Typical coolant channels.
I n s u m m a r y t h e n , o n e c a n use E q . (12-30) a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g expressions for /

a n d Dh to c a l c u l a t e the p r e s s u r e d r o p f o r either l a m i n a r or t u r b u l e n t flow of a fluid
in a c h a n n e l , s u c h as f o r a c o o l a n t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a r e a c t o r core. W e will utilize
these results later w h e n w e discuss the h y d r a u l i c analysis of c o o l a n t f l o w in a
r e a c t o r core. H o w e v e r w e will first t u r n to a n investigation of h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m a
s u r f a c e to a m o v i n g fluid.
B. Forced Convection Heat Transfer

W e h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o o l a n t f l o w in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r cores is highly
t u r b u l e n t . T h i s t u r b u l e n c e t e n d s to greatly e n h a n c e h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m the clad
s u r f a c e to t h e c o o l a n t over t h a t w h i c h w o u l d b e p r e s e n t if t h e f l o w w e r e l a m i n a r .
H o w e v e r the c o m p l e x i t y of f l u i d t u r b u l e n c e o n c e a g a i n f o r c e s us to rely o n various
486
e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g q u a n t i t i e s s u c h as t h e c o n v e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r
c o e f f i c i e n t hs.
T h e c o n v e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t hs is usually e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of t h e
t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e f l u i d k, t h e h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r of t h e c h a n n e l Dh, a n d a
dimensionless parameter N u
h=(k/Dh)
Nu
(12-36)
w h e r e N u is k n o w n as t h e Nusselt number w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s b o t h t h e p h y s i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e f l u i d a n d the d y n a m i c a l characteristics of its flow. F o r a f l o w t h a t
is l a m i n a r w i t h a c o n s t a n t wall h e a t f l u x p a s s i n g i n t o the fluid, o n e c a n solve the
e q u a t i o n s of h y d r o d y n a m i c s 8 " 1 0 to c a l c u l a t e N u = 4 8 / l l = 4 . 3 6 4 . F o r t u r b u l e n t
flow, o n e m u s t a g a i n rely o n e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s to d e t e r m i n e N u (in t h e s a m e
f a s h i o n a s w e u s e d t h e Blasius f o r m u l a to d e t e r m i n e t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r / ) .
F o r t u n a t e l y o n e c a n use d i m e n s i o n a l analysis to f i n d t h a t t h e N u s s e l t n u m b e r c a n
a t m o s t b e a f u n c t i o n of t w o o t h e r d i m e n s i o n l e s s p a r a m e t e r s , t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r
R e w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e flow, a n d a n e w p a r a m e t e r , t h e
Prandtl number Pr,
Pr=jnc/k,
(12-37)
w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s the p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o o l a n t f l u i d .
Several of t h e m o r e c o m m o n c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r the N u s s e l t n u m b e r ( a n d h e n c e the
c o n v e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , h ^ a r e t a b u l a t e d in T a b l e 12-2 f o r v a r i o u s
r a n g e s of P r a n d t l n u m b e r s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s u c h c o r r e l a t i o n s u s e d in r e a c t o r
analysis a r e t h e Dittus-Boelter
correlation, w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s f l u i d s w i t h P r 1
s u c h a s w a t e r or h e l i u m
N u = 0.023 P r 0 4 R e 0 8 ,
a n d t h e Lyon-Martinelli
correlation,
c o n s t a n t - w a l l h e a t flux:
w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s liquid m e t a l s s u b j e c t to a
N u = 6 . 3 + 0.030 ( R e P r ) 0 8 .
TABLE 12-2:
(12-38)
(12-39)
Common Forced Convection Correlations15
P r e 0.1 (liquid metals)

Nu = 6.3+ 0.03 (Re Pr)0'8
Nu = 4.8+ 0.03 (Re Pr)0'8
0.5 20 (oils and other viscous liquids)
Nu = 0.0118 Pr0*3 Re 0 9
(constant heat flux)

(constant temperature)
(constant heat flux)
(constant temperature)
C. Choice of Reactor Coolants

W i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g discussion of t h e analysis of f l u i d f l o w a n d h e a t t r a n s f e r
serving as a b a c k g r o u n d , let u s n o w t u r n b r i e f l y to the c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d in
c h o o s i n g a r e a c t o r c o o l a n t . F r o m a n u c l e a r s t a n d p o i n t , o n e desires c o o l a n t s w i t h
low n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n cross sections, l o w i n d u c e d r a d i o a c t i v i t y , g o o d r a d i a t i o n
487
stability, a n d , d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r o n e is c o n c e r n e d with t h e r m a l or f a s t reactors,

s t r o n g or w e a k m o d e r a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s . A n d , of course, o n e desires h i g h h e a t
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s , low p u m p i n g losses, a n d low cost.
Clearly, t w o of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of greatest c o n c e r n are the m a g n i t u d e of the
h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t hs a n d the size of t h e p u m p i n g p o w e r r e q u i r e d to p u m p the
c o o l a n t t h r o u g h the p r i m a r y c o o l a n t l o o p ( r e a c t o r core, piping, h e a t e x c h a n g e r s ,
etc.). T h e v a l u e of the h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t d e p e n d s o n m a n y f a c t o r s , s u c h as
t h e g e o m e t r i c a l s h a p e of the c h a n n e l , the f l o w rate, the h e a t flux, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ,
as well as the p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o o l a n t itself. T h e p u m p i n g p o w e r c a n b e
e s t i m a t e d in t e r m s of the p r e s s u r e d r o p A/? a c r o s s the c o r e as
p u m p i n g p o w e r = ApAcuz,
(12-40)
w h e r e Ac is t h e cross-sectional f l o w a r e a a n d uz is t h e m e a n f l o w velocity.
I n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e the suitability of v a r i o u s c a n d i d a t e s f o r r e a c t o r c o o l a n t s , we
h a v e c o m p a r e d a n u m b e r of t h e r m a l a n d h y d r a u l i c p a r a m e t e r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
typical c o o l a n t s in T a b l e 12-3.
TABLE 12-3:
Physical Properties of Some Typical Coolants

1
T
Coolant
H2O
He
Na
inlet
[C]
A *T core
[C]
Pressure
[bar]
A? core
[bar]
"z
[cm/sec]
Density
[g/cm 3 ]
[W/cm 2 o K]
300
500
400
20
400
150
100
40
10
400
16,000
400
.70
.0024
.85
2.8-4.5
.005-.05
2.2-5.5
1
10
Clearly in t e r m s of these q u a n t i t i e s , liquid m e t a l s w o u l d m a k e the best coolants.

H o w e v e r t h e r e a r e of course, a n u m b e r of n u c l e a r a d v a n t a g e s in c o o l a n t s s u c h as
w a t e r t h a t o f t e n o u t w e i g h t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r c a p a b i l i t y of liquid m e t a l s (e.g.,
m o d e r a t i n g p o w e r ) . O n e s h o u l d also n o t e h e r e t h e very high f l o w r a t e s r e q u i r e d in
o r d e r f o r a gas c o o l a n t t o achieve a h e a t - t r a n s f e r c a p a b i l i t y c o m p a r a b l e to t h a t of a
liquid. S u c h f l o w rates r e q u i r e r a t h e r large p u m p i n g p o w e r s . I n d e e d in a n H T G R
r o u g h l y 5 - 1 0 % of the p o w e r o u t p u t is r e q u i r e d j u s t to p u m p the c o o l a n t t h r o u g h
t h e core. A s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , t h e h e i g h t of a n L M F B R core is to a large d e g r e e
d e t e r m i n e d b y the a l l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e d r o p across the core (10 b a r ) w h i c h c a n b e
handled by the primary pumps.
W e will r e t u r n later to c o m p a r e t h e m o r e d e t a i l e d t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of
e a c h of t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a c t o r types. F o r n o w , h o w e v e r , we will p r o c e e d to discuss
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of axial t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s in a r e a c t o r c o r e c o o l e d b y a
single-phase c o o l a n t .
D. Axial Temperature Distributions

C o n s i d e r n o w the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the axial t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n in a
c h a n n e l c o n t a i n i n g a single-phase c o o l a n t . F o r p u r p o s e s of illustration, w e will first
a s s u m e t h a t the axial p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n is t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a b a r e , h o m o g e n e o u s
cylindrical c o r e a n d given b y E q . (12-1). F o r m o r e g e n e r a l axial p o w e r distributions, o n e will usually h a v e to resort to n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d s s u c h as t h o s e discussed
later in this c h a p t e r .
W e will c o n s i d e r a coolant
channel
in t h e r e a c t o r to b e d e f i n e d a s t h e flow a r e a
488
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o n e f u e l e l e m e n t . A s F i g u r e 12-7 indicates, s u c h c h a n n e l s a r e r a r e l y
c i r c u l a r in cross-section. H o w e v e r b y u s i n g a n e q u i v a l e n t h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r , w e
c a n a p p l y o u r earlier analysis.
T o c o m p u t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the c o o l a n t as it p a s s e s u p t h e c o o l a n t c h a n n e l ,
w e simply p e r f o r m a n e n e r g y b a l a n c e b y e q u a t i n g t h e h e a t e n e r g y g a i n e d b y t h e
c o o l a n t t o t h a t p r o d u c e d in t h e f u e l a n d p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c h a n n e l walls o v e r a
small d i s t a n c e dz
wcpdT=
q"(2<nrv)dz
= q'(z)dz9
(12-41)
w h e r e w is t h e m a s s f l o w r a t e a n d t h e l i n e a r p o w e r d e n s i t y is j u s t
q\z)
where
= qfQ cos(ttz j H )
q'0 = irr^w^^^J
(12-42)
(2.405 rt/R
).
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t b y restricting ourselves t o a s i n g l e - p h a s e c o o l a n t w e h a v e
a s s u m e d t h a t all t h e h e a t is a b s o r b e d as sensible h e a t a n d t h a t n o c o o l a n t p h a s e
c h a n g e is a l l o w e d t o o c c u r in t h e c h a n n e l . I n t h e m o r e g e n e r a l case, w e w o u l d u s e
t h e specific e n t h a l p y h (or e n e r g y c o n t e n t p e r u n i t m a s s of c o o l a n t ) t o w r i t e t h e
e n e r g y b a l a n c e [Eq. (12-41)] as simply
wdh q\z)dz.
(12-43)
W e c a n n o w i n t e g r a t e E q . (12-41) u p t h e c h a n n e l f r o m t h e c o o l a n t inlet at
z - H/2 t o f i n d
fTn
dT= q'Q fZ
inlet
dz' c o s ( - ^ V
(12-44)
' - H / 2
or
[ sin tf
+ s i n
(12-45)
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e exit c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e is given b y
êxit
exit
^"iniet
inlet
sin(\x 2 H
pw
'
7TC n W
f o r H~H.
(12-46)'
[ F o r e x a m p l e , in a L W R , (H-H)/H~20
c m / 3 6 6 cm.06.] W e have n o w
e v a l u a t e d t h e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n at a n y p o i n t z in t h e c h a n n e l :
q'0H
; i n ( - ^ - ) + sin(
n (*)-rinlet +
(12-47)
77 CpVV
H e n c e u s i n g o u r earlier w o r k o n t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n in r a d i a l f u e l e l e m e n t s , w e c a n
w o r k b a c k t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s in t h e c l a d a n d f u e l b y simply a d d i n g o n
t h e r e l e v a n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s , say, as given b y E q . (12-27). W e h a v e p l o t t e d
t h e axial t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e of t h e v a r i o u s f u e l e l e m e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s i n F i g u r e
489
12-8. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t while the p o w e r d e n s i t y in a b a r e , u n i f o r m c o r e p e a k s

a t t h e m i d p l a n e (z = 0), the f u e l e l e m e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s p e a k s o m e w h a t a b o v e this
p o i n t f o r t h e simple c o s i n e axial p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n .
FIGURE 12-8.
Axial temperature distributions for a cylindrical fuel element.
It is i m p o r t a n t to k e e p in m i n d t h e l i m i t e d validity of t h e a b o v e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n
g e n e r a l , t h e axial p o w e r p r o f i l e in a r e a c t o r c o r e is n o t of t h e f o r m given b y E q .
(12-42) d u e t o f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e h a v e
a s s u m e d in o u r analysis t h a t t h e t h e r m a l p a r a m e t e r s such as hs a n d c p are c o n s t a n t
w h e n in f a c t t h e y m a y v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y as o n e passes u p the c o o l a n t c h a n n e l .
F i n a l l y , w e h a v e i g n o r e d the possibility of c o o l a n t p h a s e c h a n g e w h i c h c a n very
s t r o n g l y m o d i f y these t e m p e r a t u r e profiles.
V. BOILING HEAT TRANSFER IN NUCLEAR REACTORS

A. Introduction
T h u s f a r w e h a v e restricted o u r analysis of h e a t t r a n s f e r b e t w e e n the clad
s u r f a c e a n d the c o o l a n t to situations in w h i c h t h e r e is n o p h a s e c h a n g e . H o w e v e r
m a n y types of p o w e r r e a c t o r s a r e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e so t h a t there will, in fact, b e
localized boiling at t h e c l a d s u r f a c e , since b o i l i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r is usually t h e m o s t
e f f i c i e n t h e a t t r a n s f e r m e c h a n i s m . S u c h localized boiling d o e s n o t necessarily lead
to b u l k boiling of the c o o l a n t , h o w e v e r . F o r e x a m p l e , in a P W R , t h e c l a d s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e is a l l o w e d to e x c e e d t h e s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e of the c o o l a n t .
H o w e v e r a l t h o u g h small v a p o r b u b b l e s will f o r m o n the c l a d surface, t h e y quickly
490
collapse as t h e y leave this s u r f a c e . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n , k n o w n a s subcooled boiling, is

an extremely efficient heat transfer mechanism.
By w a y of c o n t r a s t , in a B W R the b u l k c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e is a l l o w e d t o exceed
t h e s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e . Bulk or saturated boiling o c c u r s a n d results in a p p r e c i a b l e v a p o r ( s t e a m ) f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n t h e core.
T h e p r i m a r y f o r m of b o i l i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r u s e d in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s is so-called
nucleate boiling, in w h i c h m a n y small b u b b l e s f o r m a r o u n d small n u c l e a t i o n p o i n t s
o n t h e c l a d s u r f a c e a n d t h e n b r e a k a w a y i n t o t h e c o o l a n t . It is d e s i r a b l e t o o p e r a t e
in the n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g r e g i m e since this is the m o s t e f f i c i e n t f o r m of h e a t t r a n s f e r .
I n d e e d t h e e f f i c i e n c y of h e a t t r a n s f e r in the n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g r e g i m e is so h i g h t h a t
the c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e will rise n o m o r e t h a n 3 - 6 C a b o v e t h e fluid
s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e in a L W R .
T h e r e are d i s a d v a n t a g e s a c c o m p a n y i n g n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r , h o w e v e r .
T h e p r e s s u r e d r o p a s s o c i a t e d w i t h this m e c h a n i s m is s o m e w h a t larger t h a n t h a t
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s i n g l e - p h a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r . B u t e v e n m o r e serious is t h e f a c t t h a t h e a t
t r a n s f e r instabilities m a y set in. O n e m u s t t a k e c a r e t h a t t h e h e a t f l u x d o e s n o t
b e c o m e s u f f i c i e n t l y large t h a t t h e small b u b b l e s f o r m e d in n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g coalesce
i n t o a v a p o r f i l m t h a t covers t h e s u r f a c e , since t h e n t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y
d r o p s d r a m a t i c a l l y , a n d the c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e will rise b y several h u n d r e d
d e g r e e s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is k n o w n as the departure from nucleate boiling ( D N B ) a n d
will b e d i s c u s s e d in g r e a t e r detail later.
I n this section w e will briefly discuss several m o r e g e n e r a l a s p e c t s of b o i l i n g h e a t
t r a n s f e r , a n d t h e n w e will i n t r o d u c e t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s u s e d to a n a l y z e this
p h e n o m e n o n in t h e r m a l core analysis.
B. Boiling Heat Transfer

S u p p o s e w e first c o n s i d e r a h e a t i n g e l e m e n t s u b m e r g e d in a p o o l of s t a t i o n a r y
fluid. A s k e t c h of t h e h e a t f l u x t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m the h e a t i n g s u r f a c e to t h e fluid
versus the t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s u r f a c e a n d t h e b u l k f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e is s h o w n in F i g u r e 12-9. 15 F r o m this s k e t c h it is e v i d e n t t h a t o n e c a n
distinguish several d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s of h e a t t r a n s f e r .
0-a:
a-b:
a-c:
c:
c-d:
d-e:
e-f:
T h e r e is little liquid s u p e r h e a t ; h e a t t r a n s f e r is b y n a t u r a l c o n v e c tion.

A f e w b u b b l e s a r e f o r m e d b u t collapse a f t e r leaving t h e s u r f a c e
( a l t h o u g h a g i t a t i o n will i n c r e a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r ) .
T h e n u m b e r of b u b b l e s f o r m e d i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y t h i s is t h e nucleate
boiling regime.
" B u r n o u t " p o i n t or D N B is r e a c h e d .
B u b b l e s b e c o m e so n u m e r o u s t h a t they b e g i n to coalesce a n d c l u m p
n e a r t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e (the v a p o r c o v e r i n g the s u r f a c e acts as a
h e a t i n s u l a t o r ) t h i s is k n o w n as partial nucleate
boiling.
A c o n t i n u o u s b l a n k e t of v a p o r f o r m s over the h e a t i n g s u r f a c e f i l m
boiling r e g i m e .
Thermal radiation f r o m the surface comes into p l a y f i l m and
radiation regime.
It s h o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y b e n o t e d t h a t if t h e h e a t f l u x q" is the i n d e p e n d e n t variable,

t h e n i n c r e a s i n g q" b e y o n d t h e D N B p o i n t will result in a large i n c r e a s e in the
s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e f o r a given c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e (see F i g u r e 12-9.) T h i s
p h e n o m e n o n is k n o w n as burnout a n d m u s t b e a v o i d e d in r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n .
491
r s - rfl r c ]
FIGURE 12-9.
Heat flux versus temperature difference for pool-boiling heat transfer.
T h e s e c o n c e p t s also a p p l y in a f l o w i n g c h a n n e l . S u p p o s e w e c o n s i d e r a c h a n n e l
w i t h a u n i f o r m wall h e a t f l u x <^ a l l . T h e n o n e will f i n d t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s u p the
c h a n n e l a s s h o w n in F i g u r e 12-10. O n c e a g a i n w e c a n distinguish several regions of
heat transfer:
FIGURE 12-10.
Boiling-channel temperature profiles.
( 1 ) R e g i o n ( T ) : Single-phase c o n v e c t i o n .
I n this region, w e c a n use t h e analysis w e d e v e l o p e d in the p r e v i o u s
section to d e t e r m i n e the c o n v e c t i v e h e a t - t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t h s
a r i s i n g in N e w t o n ' s l a w of c o o l i n g
q" = hs(Ts-Tn).
(12-48)
F o r e x a m p l e , f o r t u r b u l e n t f l o w o n e c u s t o m a r i l y w o u l d use the
D i t t u s - B o e l t e r e q u a t i o n (12-38) to d e t e r m i n e N u a n d h e n c e /*. F o r
492

s u c h s i n g l e - p h a s e f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n , hs is relatively c o n s t a n t f o r
f i x e d v a l u e s of c o o l a n t velocity, f u e l g e o m e t r y , a n d c o o l a n t p r o p e r ties. Since t h e c o o l a n t f l o w is o u t s i d e a n d p a r a l l e l t o t h e f u e l
e l e m e n t s , o n e m u s t use t h e e q u i v a l e n t h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r in this
expression.
(2) R e g i o n ( 2 ) : S u b c o o l e d boiling: Ts> r s a t b u t Tn<

Tnt.
Once the clad surface temperature reaches the saturation temperat u r e of t h e c o o l a n t , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p is n o l o n g e r l i n e a r in t h e
h e a t flux. I n this region, t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s is e x t r e m e l y
efficient, a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e is q u i t e small c o m p a r e d to
t h e o t h e r t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c o r e . I n L W R s it is cust o m a r y t o use a n e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n d e v e l o p e d b y J e n s a n d
L o t t e s 1 6 in o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
the clad surface a n d the coolant:
A71COOl= 7 S - rfl = 4 5 e x p ( ^ ) ( O
a 2 5
(12-49)
w h e r e p is t h e p r e s s u r e in u n i t s of b a r a n d q" is t h e h e a t f l u x in
u n i t s of M W / m 2 . T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n is valid f o r pressures, t e m p e r a tures, a n d c o o l a n t flow r a t e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b o t h P W R s a n d
B W R s . F o r e x a m p l e , in a P W R a t 155 b a r w i t h a h e a t f l u x of
1.5 X 10 6 W / m 2 , o n e w o u l d f i n d a t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e of only
3 C . T h e r e will b e very little c h a n g e in t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e
w i t h h e a t flux i n this b o i l i n g regime. O n c e t h e c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e s t h e s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e c o o l a n t , it t e n d s
t o r e m a i n n e a r t h a t level unless t h e h e a t f l u x r e a c h e s t h e D N B
value.
O n e c a n use t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n z S C B at
w h i c h s u b c o o l e d boiling begins. W e e q u a t e Tn = r s a t in E q . (12-49):
Ts-r
s a t
= 45.exp(^)(^")0-25.
(12-50)
T h e n n o t i n g also t h a t
q" = hs(Ts-Tn),
(12-51)
we can find
T fll^SCB
J . =- TcS
q''
V
h
= rsat + 4 5 e x p ( - ^ ) ( 0 -
2 5
- J~ s
<12"52)
a n d t h e n solve this f o r t h e p o s i t i o n z S C B .
(3) R e g i o n ( T ) : S a t u r a t e d o r b u l k boiling: Tn = TsaV
E v e n t u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t h e a t is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e c o o l a n t t h a t it
r e a c h e s its s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d b e g i n s b u l k boiling. S u b s e q u e n t h e a t a d d i t i o n will c a u s e f u r t h e r boiling, a n d h e n c e t h e
c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e will r e m a i n essentially c o n s t a n t a n d e q u a l to
T s a t u p t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e c h a n n e l .
493
C. Two-Phase Flow
W h e n t h e c o o l a n t is a t w o - p h a s e m i x t u r e of liquid a n d v a p o r , t h e c o o l a n t
f l o w p a t t e r n c a n b e c o m e q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d . O n e c a n distinguish several types of
t w o - p h a s e flow, as s h o w n in F i g u r e 12-11. I t is u s e f u l to i n t r o d u c e s o m e d e f i n i t i o n s
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e v a p o r c o n t e n t of a c o o l a n t a t rest:
Static q u a l i t y = X;
Void f r a c t i o n s a =
m a s s of v a p o r in m i x t u r e
total m a s s of m i x t u r e
v o l u m e of v a p o r in m i x t u r e
t o t a l v o l u m e of l i q u i d - v a p o r m i x t u r e
(12-53)
W e c a n c o m p u t e these q u a n t i t i e s in t e r m s of the cross-sectional a r e a s in the

c h a n n e l s o c c u p i e d b y liquid ( A a n d v a p o r (A g ). T h e void f r a c t i o n is given b y
a =
(12-54)
A& + A<
Subcooled
boiling f l o w
FIGURE 12-11.
Flow patterns in a heated channel.
while the static q u a l i t y is

g
Xs
Pg^g + M /
1 +
Pg^g
P/ / 1 - a \
p0 V
(12-55)
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e v o i d f r a c t i o n is given f o r w a t e r at various qualities a n d pressures

in F i g u r e 12-12.
494
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Quality, x
FIGURE 12-12.
Void fraction versus quality for bulk boiling.
It is a l s o u s e f u l t o express t h e specific e n t h a l p y h in t e r m s of q u a l i t y . F i r s t recall

that for a single-phase fluid
h= h
(T)=f
dT'cp(T').
(12-56)
T'mclt
If w e d e n o t e t h e h e a t of v a p o r i z a t i o n of a liquid as /*fg, t h e n t h e e n t h a l p y of a
s a t u r a t e d v a p o r a t 7"sat is j u s t
(12-57)
If w e h a v e a m i x t u r e of liquid a n d v a p o r , t h e n t h e e n t h a l p y of t h e m i x t u r e is j u s t
^mixture = ( 1 ~ X s ) H ^sat) + X s
= M7- S at) + X s V
^sat)
(12-58)
W e c a n a c t u a l l y t u r n this a r o u n d t o c o m p u t e t h e q u a l i t y in t e r m s of t h e e n t h a l p y as
^mixture
x
(12-59)
E
fg
( N o t e E q . (12-59) c a n b e u s e d t o d e f i n e a n e g a t i v e quality.) T y p i c a l v a l u e s of
e n t h a l p y f o r v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d p r e s s u r e s a r e given in T a b l e 12-4 f o r
illustration. 1 7
THERMAL-HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR CORES /
495
TABLE 12-4 Thermodynamic Data on Steam

P(bar)
r s a t[C]
AfEMJ/kg]
/ifg[MJ/kg]
1
70
155
218
100
285
345
373
.419
1.26
1.68
2.10
2.26
1.51
.96
0
Xs
P//Pg
4.186
5.44
7.95
62
.1
.1
.1
.1
1602
20.6
5.9
1
.995
.7
.4
.1
W h e n the t w o - p h a s e m i x t u r e is flowing, w e m u s t b e m o r e c a r e f u l in our

d e f i n i t i o n s since t h e v a p o r h a s a t e n d e n c y t o slip p a s t t h e liquid b e c a u s e of its
b o u y a n c y . W e t h e n m u s t d e f i n e t h e quality in t e r m s of a p a r a m e t e r S k n o w n as the
slip ratio w h i c h relates t h e d i f f e r e n t f l o w velocities:
Slip ratio = S = vg/vr
T h e n we c a n d e f i n e a flow
(12-60)
quality
w
m a s s flow r a t e of v a p o r
*
total mass flow rate
wg + wl
(12-61)
Pg
or
Pg \
Is
O n e can invert this to write the void f r a c t i o n a as

1
a =
(12-63)
1+
Pi\
This latter e q u a t i o n is s o m e t i m e s k n o w n as the " 5 a x " relationship.
D. Heat Addition to Boiling Flow

C o n s i d e r n o w a fluid f l o w i n g t h r o u g h a c h a n n e l a d j a c e n t t o a f u e l e le m e n t
g e n e r a t i n g a linear p o w e r density q'(z). T h e n w e c a n write the energy b a l a n c e for
the fluid as
wdh = q\z)dz.
(12-64)
If we integrate this in the usual m a n n e r , we c a n f i n d the e n t h a l p y at a n y p o i n t in

the c o o l a n t c h a n n e l as
h{z) = h.miet+-
Cq\z)dz.
w Jo
(12-65)
496
N o w s u p p o s e t h a t b u l k b o i l i n g b e g i n s at a p o i n t z B B u p t h e c h a n n e l ; t h a t is, u p to
z B B t h e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e rises t o r s a t . A b o v e z B B , t h e r e is n o f u r t h e r t e m p e r a t u r e
change, but instead vapor formation occurs. W e can determine zBB f r o m Eq.
(12-65) b y solving
1
n bb_,,
M ^ s a t ) = > W + iW Jc\
fZhBq'(z)dz
'o
(12-66)
f o r z B B . N o w f o r z > z B B , t h e h e a t a d d i t i o n will c a u s e a p h a s e c h a n g e . T h e n o n e
f i n d s f r o m E q . (12-58) t h a t t h e e n t h a l p y c a n b e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of t h e f l o w
q u a l i t y as
H
) = ^mixture =
^sat)
+ X(^fg>
> ^BB'
(12-67)
If w e c o m b i n e E q s . (12-66) a n d (12-67), w e f i n d t h a t t h e q u a l i t y a t a n y p o i n t
z > z B B in t h e c h a n n e l c a n b e w r i t t e n a s
x (
J r
fZ<?'(z)dz>
(12-68)
O n c e w e k n o w x( z )> t h e n w e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e v o i d f r a c t i o n a(z) p r o v i d e d w e
k n o w t h e slip r a t i o S (z). I n general, S h a s a v a l u e of a b o u t 1 n e a r z B B a n d t e n d s to
i n c r e a s e f r o m this v a l u e t o a m a x i m u m of a b o u t 3 a s o n e p a s s e s u p t h e c h a n n e l .
A k n o w l e d g e of t h e v o i d f r a c t i o n is essential t o t h e n u c l e a r analysis of t h e core,
since a d e t e r m i n e s t h e c o o l a n t d e n s i t y a n d h e n c e t h e m a c r o s c o p i c c r o s s s e c t i o n of
t h e c o o l a n t . W e will later f i n d t h a t t h e r e is a v e r y s t r o n g c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e
t h e r m a l c o r e b e h a v i o r w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s a ( z ) a n d t h e axial f l u x p r o f i l e in r e a c t o r
c o r e s in w h i c h b o i l i n g o c c u r s . A s w e m e n t i o n e d earlier, t h e v o i d f r a c t i o n is
e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity. T h e r e is
v e r y s t r o n g c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e t h e r m a l c o r e b e h a v i o r w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s a(z) a n d
t h e axial f l u x p r o f i l e in b o i l i n g w a t e r r e a c t o r s .
E. Flow Boiling Crisis or DNB

O u r earlier d i s c u s s i o n of b o i l i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t if t h e wall h e a t
flux exceeded a certain magnitude, there would be an unstable transition f r o m
n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g t o f i l m b o i l i n g with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e in wall s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s " b o i l i n g crisis," in w h i c h t h e c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e rises
d r a m a t i c a l l y , c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s u d d e n d r o p in t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t hs d u e
t o a c h a n g e in t h e b o i l i n g m e c h a n i s m f r o m n u c l e a t e t o f i l m boiling. T h e boiling
crisis is k n o w n b y a n u m b e r of n a m e s , i n c l u d i n g burnout, critical heat flux, a n d
D N B . S u c h a p h e n o m e n o n in a f l o w i n g c o o l a n t is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n a
p o o l - b o i l i n g crisis d u e t o t h e a d d e d e f f e c t s of f o r c e d c o n v e n t i o n a n d b u b b l e
c l o u d i n g t h a t t e n d t o shield t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e . F l o w instabilities c a n also
c o m p l i c a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a s u d d e n d r o p in p r e s s u r e c a n i n c r e a s e t h e
local s u p e r h e a t a n d p e r h a p s l e a d t o D N B .
O n e s h o u l d b e a bit m o r e c a r e f u l in t e r m i n o l o g y here, since f o r low f l o w rates,
o n e m a y n o t h a v e n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g p r i o r t o e x c e e d i n g t h e critical h e a t flux, a n d
h e n c e strictly s p e a k i n g D N B d o e s n o t o c c u r . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e h e a t f l u x m a y b e
s u f f i c i e n t l y low so t h a t t h e s u b s e q u e n t t e m p e r a t u r e rise of t h e c l a d is still b e l o w
m e l t i n g or f a i l u r e limits. (This m i g h t o c c u r at h i g h exit qualities in a B W R in w h i c h
t h e wall h e a t f l u x w a s o n l y of t h e o r d e r of 3 X 10 5 W / m 2 . ) H o w e v e r , in m o s t p o w e r
497
r e a c t o r s , the h e a t flux a p p r o a c h e s 3 x l 0 6 W / m 2 , a n d e x c e e d i n g t h e critical h e a t

f l u x will a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y lead to c l a d failure.
T h e d e t a i l e d m e c h a n i s m i n v o l v e d in s u c h a f l o w crisis is closely r e l a t e d to the
f l o w p a t t e r n . T h e r e a r e basically t w o types of p h e n o m e n o n of interest in n u c l e a r
r e a c t o r studies (see F i g u r e 12-13):
(1) S u b c o o l e d or l o w - q u a l i t y D N B : H e r e D N B c a n b e c a u s e d b y d e t a c h m e n t
of t h e b u b b l e b o u n d a r y layer. T h i s is the t y p e of D N B t h a t o n e w o u l d
d e s i g n a g a i n s t in a P W R .
(2) B u r n o u t in h i g h - q u a l i t y r e g i o n : I n this p h e n o m e n o n , b u r n o u t o c c u r s in a
l i q u i d f i l m t h a t c o v e r s t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e . S u c h a p r o c e s s is of
c o n c e r n in B W R s . B u r n o u t in t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y region will o c c u r w h e n the
l i q u i d f i l m " d r i e s o u t . " T h i s p r o c e s s is slow c o m p a r e d to s u b c o o l e d D N B ,
since t h e high-velocity v a p o r c o r e p r o v i d e s fairly g o o d single-phase c o n vection heat transfer.
Subcooled or lowquality
FIGURE 12-13.
fit
Liquid
film
Burnout in highquality regions
DNB
Types of boiling-flow crisis.
It is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t to b e a b l e to d e t e r m i n e the critical h e a t flux at w h i c h

D N B will o c c u r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y this h e a t f l u x d e p e n d s o n a large n u m b e r of factors,
s u c h as c h a n n e l s h a p e , s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n , p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o o l a n t , a n d
flow conditions. Various empirical correlations based on experimental data have
b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r t h o s e r a n g e s of c o n d i t i o n s e n c o u n t e r e d in m o d e r n p o w e r
r e a c t o r s . H o w e v e r b e c a u s e of t h e c o m p l e x i t y ( a n d r a p i d o b s o l e s c e n c e ) of s u c h
c o r r e l a t i o n s , w e will r e f e r t h e r e a d e r elsewhere f o r m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n . 1 ' 5 , 1 8 ' 1 9
T h e c o r e d e s i g n e r m u s t use s u c h c o r r e l a t i o n s to e n s u r e t h a t the critical h e a t flux
is n o t e x c e e d e d d u r i n g c o r e o p e r a t i o n . O n e usually d e f i n e s t h e m i n i m u m r a t i o of
t h e critical h e a t f l u x to t h e h e a t f l u x a c h i e v e d in t h e c o r e as t h e DNB ratio ( D N B R )
(see F i g u r e 12-14),
DNBR =
<!"(*)
(12-69)
O n e m u s t design t h e r e a c t o r c o r e so as to p r e v e n t the D N B R f r o m d r o p p i n g b e l o w
498
FIGURE 12-14.
Critical heat flux in a uniformly loaded core.
a c h o s e n v a l u e u n d e r a h i g h h e a t f l u x t r a n s i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r the m o s t a d v e r s e set
of m e c h a n i c a l a n d c o o l a n t c o n d i t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , in P W R s a c o m m o n c o n s t r a i n t
is to m a i n t a i n D N B R > 1.3 in t h e e v e n t of a 115% o v e r p o w e r c o n d i t i o n . 7
F. Axial Temperature Distributions

T h u s f a r w e h a v e c o n f i n e d o u r d i s c u s s i o n of axial t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
t o c h a n n e l s c o n t a i n i n g a single-phase c o o l a n t . Let u s n o w c o n s i d e r h o w s u c h
t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w o u l d b e a l t e r e d w h e n c o o l a n t b o i l i n g is p r e s e n t . F i r s t
c o n s i d e r t h e " h o t " c h a n n e l of a P W R in w h i c h n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g o c c u r s . T h e
c o o l a n t e n t e r s the c h a n n e l w i t h a t e m p e r a t u r e T < T s a t . A f t e r p a s s i n g s o m e d i s t a n c e
u p the c h a n n e l , t h e c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e s T s a t ( a l t h o u g h t h e b u l k
c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e Tn r e m a i n s b e l o w T s a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e c h a n n e l ) , a n d n u c l e a t e
b o i l i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r begins. S u c h h e a t t r a n s f e r is so e f f i c i e n t t h a t t h e c l a d s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e r e m a i n s essentially c o n s t a n t t h e rest of the w a y u p t h e c h a n n e l (see
F i g u r e 12-15a). 3
C o n s i d e r n o w a c o o l a n t c h a n n e l in a B W R . O n c e a g a i n t h e c o o l a n t e n t e r s b e l o w
s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d t h e c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e will e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h r s a t
b e f o r e the b u l k c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r f u r t h e r u p t h e c h a n n e l t h e c o o l a n t
r e a c h e s s a t u r a t i o n , a n d a d d i t i o n a l h e a t a d d e d to t h e c h a n n e l increases its q u a l i t y
(see F i g u r e 12-15b) 3 . B o t h t h e c o o l a n t a n d c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s will r e m a i n
essentially c o n s t a n t a f t e r b o i l i n g begins.
W e s h o u l d a g a i n insert a d i s c l a i m e r c o n c e r n i n g these d i a g r a m s w h i c h h a v e b e e n
s k e t c h e d f o r a simple c o s i n e p o w e r profile. A s w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d , t h e c o o l a n t
d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s will a f f e c t c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d h e n c e t h e s h a p e of t h e p o w e r
p r o f i l e . A s w e will see later, in L W R s the f a c t t h a t the c o o l a n t d e n s i t y is h i g h e r
n e a r inlet t e n d s to shift the axial p o w e r p e a k t o w a r d t h e b o t t o m (inlet) of t h e core.
VI. HYDRODYNAMIC CORE ANALYSIS

T h e t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e of a r e a c t o r c o r e will d e p e n d strongly o n c o o l a n t
f l o w b e h a v i o r . F o r e x a m p l e , h i g h e r c o o l a n t f l o w rates will lead to b e t t e r h e a t
499
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d h i g h e r critical h e a t f l u x limits. H o w e v e r h i g h e r f l o w rates

will also result in larger p r e s s u r e d r o p s across the core, h e n c e larger r e q u i r e d
p u m p i n g p o w e r s a n d h y d r o d y n a m i c stresses o n c o r e c o m p o n e n t s .
A very i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o r e analysis involves the d e t e r m i n a tion of the c o o l a n t f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d p r e s s u r e d r o p across the core. Since the
f l o w in a r e a c t o r c o r e is highly t u r b u l e n t , w e are f o r c e d to e m p l o y o n c e again
v a r i o u s e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s in o r d e r to a n a l y z e the c o o l a n t h y d r o d y n a m i c
behavior.
A. Single-Phase Coolant Pressure Drops

O n e c a n i d e n t i f y several m e c h a n i s m s t h a t will c a u s e a p r e s s u r e d r o p a l o n g the
c o o l a n t c h a n n e l : (a) f r i c t i o n losses f r o m t h e f u e l r o d b u n d l e ( c h a n n e l friction), (b)
f r i c t i o n losses f r o m the s p a c e r grids u s e d to m a i n t a i n fuel a s s e m b l y g e o m e t r y , (c)
f r i c t i o n losses at t h e core inlet a n d exit f l o w p l e n u m ( c o n t r a c t i o n or e x p a n s i o n ) ,
a n d (d) elevation. W e will s t u d y e a c h of these c o m p o n e n t s in t u r n .
500
C o n s i d e r first t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p d u e t o c h a n n e l f r i c t i o n . H e r e w e c a n use t h e
result E q . (12-30) involving t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
Action = 2(^)pJ2/,
(12-70)
w h e r e L is t h e total c h a n n e l l e n g t h a n d Dh is its h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r . I n m o s t cases

o n e c a n c a l c u l a t e / u s i n g t h e Blasius f o r m u l a , E q . (12-33).
A n o t h e r s o u r c e of p r e s s u r e d r o p i m p o r t a n t in m o s t r e a c t o r types is c a u s e d b y t h e
s p a c e r grids t h a t b i n d t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s i n t o a f u e l b u n d l e (see F i g u r e 3-7). T h e r e is
a n a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e loss a s s o c i a t e d with t h e c o o l a n t inlet a n d exit. F r i c t i o n losses
d u e t o s p a c e r grids or inlet or exit g e o m e t r y a r e classified as form losses, since they
c o r r e s p o n d t o a c h a n g e in t h e c o o l a n t m o m e n t u m d u e t o a c h a n g e in t h e c o o l a n t
c h a n n e l g e o m e t r y . O n e u s u a l l y writes
(12
A H o r m = A/>| grids + A/>| i n l e t = 2

+ exit
"71)
w h e r e Kt is a form friction factor d u e t o a c h a n g e in t h e c o o l a n t c h a n n e l crosssectional a r e a of t h e /th type. Kt is quite c o m p l i c a t e d f o r s p a c e r grids a n d m u s t b e

d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f o r e a c h spacer grid design. T h e typical KTOTAL
r a n g e is
0.6-1.2.
T h e f i n a l c o m p o n e n t is t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p d u e t o c o o l a n t e l e v a t i o n as it p a s s e s u p
the core
A p I elevation
f ^ P & g d z .
(12-72)
F o r p u r p o s e s of illustration, w e h a v e t a b u l a t e d typical v a l u e s of e a c h of these

p r e s s u r e d r o p c o m p o n e n t s f o r several r e a c t o r t y p e s in T a b l e 12-5. W e h a v e also
i n c l u d e d in this t a b l e t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e entire p r e s s u r e vessel (which
essentially d e t e r m i n e s t h e p u m p i n g p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s in t h e p r i m a r y loop).
TABLE 12-5: Typical core pressure drops
Reactor
Type
APfriction
APform
^P gravity
PWR
BWR
HTGR
LMFBR
.40 bar
.40
.134
5.4
.61
.61
.03
.81
.16
.16
APacc
.05
.30
APcore
A/* vessel
1.45
1.49
.16
6.51
3.40
3.40
9.5
B. Boiling Channel Pressure Drops

T h e p r e s s u r e d r o p o c c u r r i n g in a b o i l i n g c h a n n e l is s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t
b e c a u s e of t h e p h e n o m e n a i n v o l v e d in t w o p h a s e flow. T h e r e is first a n a d d i t i o n a l
pressure d r o p due to the acceleration which accompanies the coolant-vapor forma-
501
tion a n d expansion1'3
M
4p|acc=P/ *
0~x)
I-a
X 2 Pi
a p
(12-73)
T h e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d r o p m u s t also b e c o m p u t e d s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t l y a s
_
ti/I
H/2
Ap\
elevation
[ap+
(12-74)
(\-a)pl\gdz.
-H/21
Finally for two-phase flow a somewhat different friction a n d f o r m pressure drop

m u s t b e u s e d . It is c u s t o m a r y to m o d i f y t h e f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e d r o p b y inserting a
p a r a m e t e r i ? M N to write
Ap\ 2-tf> friction
-
z f R
(12-75)
MN
w h e r e i ? M N is k n o w n a s t h e Martinelli-Nelson
friction multiplier,20
w h i c h is a
t a b u l a t e d f u n c t i o n of p r e s s u r e a n d f l o w q u a l i t y . I n a B W R , R M N r a n g e s f r o m 1.0
(X = 0) to as h i g h as 4 (x = 20%).
T h e f o r m losses c a n b e w r i t t e n as
(i-x):
A p I 2-</> form -
- ^ g - y
(12-76)
a
\ a
w h e r e Kg is t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m f a c t o r f o r t w o - p h a s e flow.
It s h o u l d b e stressed t h a t t h e r e is a large d e g r e e of u n c e r t a i n t y in these m e t h o d s
u s e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g c o o l a n t h y d r o d y n a m i c b e h a v i o r . T h e p r e d i c t i o n s of s u c h
a n a l y s e s m u s t usually b e c o n f i r m e d b y e x p e r i m e n t a l testing b e f o r e t h e y a r e a p p l i e d
in m a k i n g d e t a i l e d c o r e design decisions.
C. Multichannel Analysis
O u r earlier s i n g l e - c h a n n e l analysis h a s n o t a c c o u n t e d f o r p h e n o m e n a such as
f l o w m i x i n g b e t w e e n c h a n n e l s , w h i c h is c a u s e d b y b o t h t u r b u l e n c e a n d pressure
g r a d i e n t s . S u c h m i x i n g c a n l e a d to e n e r g y t r a n s f e r b e t w e e n c h a n n e l s a s well as
p r e s s u r e losses.
O n e c o u l d c h a r a c t e r i z e c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n c h a n n e l s b y w r i t i n g a generalized
energy balance equation for a channel m
dhm
Wm
~dT
(axial m a s s
flow rate)
hm)
(cross f l o w
rate/length)
H e r e t h e cross c h a n n e l c o u p l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s
empirical correlations based on experiment.
qf
(mixing
coefficient)
'
(12-77)
and c must be evaluated from
502
O n e c a n also h a v e f l o w r e d i s t r i b u t i o n e f f e c t s in the inlet p l e n u m c a u s i n g a

n o n u n i f o r m inlet velocity to e a c h c h a n n e l . S u c h f l o w r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o u l d , in f a c t ,
l e a d to instabilities, a n d m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in m o r e d e t a i l e d c o r e h y d r a u l i c
analysis. 2 1
VII. THERMAL-HYDRAULIC CORE ANALYSIS

A. Hot Channel Factors
O n e of t h e p r i n c i p a l goals of the r e a c t o r designer is to e n s u r e t h a t n o n e of the
t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n t h e core b e h a v i o r a r e e x c e e d e d . T h u s f a r w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d
t w o s u c h l i m i t a t i o n s . F i r s t o n e m u s t design t h e core so t h a t t h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e
t e m p e r a t u r e d o e s n o t exceed t h e f u e l m e l t i n g p o i n t . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n is usually
e x p r e s s e d as a restriction o n t h e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y
?'(r) <
660 W / c m in U 0 2 f u e l e l e m e n t s ] .
(12-78)
Y e t a n o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n arises f r o m r e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e c l a d s u r f a c e h e a t f l u x a l w a y s
r e m a i n s b e l o w its D N B limit:
? D N B [ ~ 3 W W / c m 2 in L W R s ] .
(12-79)
There are usually other thermal limitations placed on core performance. F o r

e x a m p l e , t h e r m a l a n d fission gas stresses o n the clad c a n limit p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c p e r f o r m a n c e is also f r e q u e n t l y limited b y n u c l e a r
stability c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y in B W R s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e a n a p p r e c i a b l e
v a r i a t i o n in m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e core).
C e r t a i n l y o n e a p p r o a c h to t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of t h e core w o u l d b e to first
p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n of the c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t the e f f e c t s of f u e l b u r n u p , fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p , c o n t r o l
d i s t r i b u t i o n s , a n d m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s over c o r e life. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n
c o u l d t h e n b e u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e c o o l a n t f l o w a n d t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
t h r o u g h o u t t h e core. H o w e v e r , s u c h a c a l c u l a t i o n is usually p r o h i b i t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e
for routine design applications.
A m o r e c o m m o n a p p r o a c h is t o investigate h o w closely the " h o t c h a n n e l " in the
c o r e a p p r o a c h e s the o p e r a t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e n if o n e c a n e n s u r e t h a t t h e t h e r m a l
c o n d i t i o n s of this c h a n n e l r e m a i n b e l o w t h e c o r e limitations, t h e r e m a i n i n g
c h a n n e l s in t h e c o r e will p r e s u m a b l y fall w i t h i n design limitations. O n e usually
d e f i n e s the h o t c h a n n e l in t h e c o r e a s t h a t c o o l a n t c h a n n e l in w h i c h the c o r e h e a t
flux a n d e n t h a l p y rise is m a x i m u m . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h this c h a n n e l a r e v a r i o u s " h o t
c h a n n e l " or " h o t s p o t " f a c t o r s relating t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of this c h a n n e l t o the
a v e r a g e b e h a v i o r of t h e core.
M o r e precisely, w e will d e f i n e the hot assembly in a r e a c t o r c o r e as t h a t f u e l
a s s e m b l y h a v i n g the m a x i m u m p o w e r o u t p u t . T h e hot spot in the c o r e is t h e p o i n t
of m a x i m u m h e a t flux o r l i n e a r p o w e r d e n s i t y , while t h e hot channel is d e f i n e d to
b e t h a t c o o l a n t c h a n n e l in w h i c h t h e h o t s p o t o c c u r s , o r a l o n g w h i c h t h e m a x i m u m
coolant enthalpy increase occurs.
W e first will i n t r o d u c e t h e c o n c e p t of nuclear h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s , w h i c h t a k e
i n t o a c c o u n t t h e v a r i a t i o n of the n e u t r o n f l u x a n d f u e l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e core.

First, w e d e f i n e t h e radial nuclear hot channel
503
factor
a v e r a g e h e a t f l u x of t h e h o t c h a n n e l
FoR =
a v e r a g e h e a t flux of the c h a n n e l s in core

(H/2
H/2
v 11W
J H/2*
H /->
i
1 v
1
fr
f
J
x
H / 1
for I channels
(pins).
\J
~ h/2
O n e c a n similarly d e f i n e t h e axial nuclear hot channel

N
F =
(12-80)
factor:
m a x i m u m h e a t f l u x of h o t c h a n n e l
a v e r a g e h e a t f l u x of h o t c h a n n e l
max#"(rHC)
(12-81)
1
/ 2
jf j J
n
-H/2
T h e total nuclear hot channel factor
r(rHC)dz
or nuclear heat flux factor
is t h e n j u s t
m a x i m u m h e a t f l u x in t h e c o r e _ ^ n ^ n
R
z
a v e r a g e h e a t f l u x in t h e c o r e
'
(12 82)
^
By w a y of e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r a h o m o g e n e o u s , b a r e cylindrical c o r e d e s c r i b e d b y
a p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n given b y E q . (12-1). W e c a n t h e n c a l c u l a t e
'H/2
Fg=
=2.32,
(12-83)
and
F S
,.57.
(,2-84)
T h i s implies a n overall n u c l e a r h o t - c h a n n e l f a c t o r of
Fq = (2.32)( 1.57) = 3.638.
(12-85)
T h i s is a c t u a l l y q u i t e c o n s e r v a t i v e . A z o n e - l o a d e d P W R 2 2 will typically h a v e a
n u c l e a r h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r of F^ = 2.6.
T h e n u c l e a r h e a t flux h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r is d e f i n e d a s s u m i n g n o m i n a l f u e l pellet
a n d r o d p a r a m e t e r s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e will b e local v a r i a t i o n s in e n r i c h m e n t , f u e l pellet d e n s i t y a n d d i a m e t e r , s u r f a c e a r e a of f u e l r o d a n d eccentricity of the
504
f u e l - c l a d g a p , a n d so o n d u e to m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o l e r a n c e s . T h e m o r e g e n e r a l heat
flux hot channel factor or total power peaking factor Fq is d e f i n e d as t h e m a x i m u m
h e a t f l u x in t h e h o t c h a n n e l d i v i d e d b y the a v e r a g e h e a t f l u x in the core, a l l o w i n g
f o r these m a n u f a c t u r i n g tolerances. 1 " 3 O n e relates Fq t o F^ b y d e f i n i n g a n
engineering heat flux hot-channel factor
F^
(12-86)
t h a t specifically a c c o u n t s f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o l e r a n c e s . T y p i c a l l y
u n i t y (in a m o d e r n P W R ,
1.03).
O n e c a n n e x t d e f i n e a n enthalpy-rise hot channel
factor
is close to
m a x i m u m c o o l a n t e n t h a l p y rise

a v e r a g e c o o l; a n t e n t h1 a l1p y rise
v(12-87)
7
T h i s f a c t o r is a f u n c t i o n of b o t h v a r i a t i o n s in t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d c o o l a n t
flow. F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e 3 - 1 0 % of t h e c o o l a n t f l o w b y p a s s e s t h e f u e l assemblies,
d u e to leaks p a s t m e c h a n i c a l seals or t h e p r e s e n c e of o t h e r c o r e c o m p o n e n t s . 1 - 3
T h e r e will b e n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s in t h e c o o l a n t f l o w f r o m c h a n n e l to c h a n n e l ,
a l t h o u g h t h e s e a r e r e d u c e d s o m e w h a t b y t h e lower inlet p l e n u m . F l o w m i x i n g
b e t w e e n c o o l a n t c h a n n e l s c a n also o c c u r , as well as f l o w r e d i s t r i b u t i o n in w h i c h
p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s d u e t o c o o l a n t e x p a n s i o n o r v a r i a t i o n s in n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g c a u s e
flow n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s .
By w a y of e x a m p l e , w e c a n c a l c u l a t e the e n t h a l p y h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r t a k i n g i n t o
a c c o u n t o n l y t h e p o w e r v a r i a t i o n in a b a r e , h o m o g e n e o u s cylindrical c o r e :
at / \
A h ( r )
1 fH/2
' w L H / 2
wr
>
2HA
(2M5r\
z r )
d
m
8
qq\)
or
fRAh(r)2irrdr=M2
~Kh=!-T
7 r R 2 JJn0
or
F
A H
= - ^ = 2 3 2 .
(12-89)
T h e third h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r o c c a s i o n a l l y i n t r o d u c e d is t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the
clad surface temperature
_
( ^ c l a d ~ ~ ^coolant)max
c s = 7 17 r y
\
clad
(12_9)
coolant/ave
A c t u a l l y this f a c t o r is usually of little i n t e r e s t in L W R s in w h i c h n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g

k e e p s the c l a d s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e q u i t e close t o the c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e . H o w ever, it c a n b e of m o r e s i g n i f i c a n c e in H T G R s a n d L M F B R s in w h i c h the
t e m p e r a t u r e j u m p f r o m t h e c o o l a n t c h a n n e l s u r f a c e to t h e c o o l a n t is m u c h larger.
T h e c o n c e p t of s u c h h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s g r e a t l y simplifies t h e r m a l c o r e analysis,
since it p r o v i d e s a m e c h a n i s m f o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s in a c r u d e
505
s i n g l e - c h a n n e l analysis of t h e r e a c t o r core. H o w e v e r t h e use of h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s

h a s o n l y a l i m i t e d validity, a n d will fail w h e n a m o r e precise k n o w l e d g e of core
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n s is r e q u i r e d . I n d e e d o n e m i g h t a l m o s t r e g a r d the
p o p u l a r i t y of s u c h a n a p p r o a c h as e v i d e n c e of t h e c r u d e s t a t e of predictive theories
of t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o r e b e h a v i o r t h a t m u s t d e p e n d o n n u m e r o u s e m p i r i c a l
c o r r e l a t i o n s a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s to a c h i e v e a d e q u a t e results. ( I n c o m p a r i s o n to m e t h o d s u s e d in t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o r e analysis, t h e r e a d e r w o u l d
p r o b a b l y a g r e e t h a t t h e m e t h o d s w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e n u c l e a r a n a l y s i s of a
r e a c t o r c o r e l o o k very r i g o r o u s a n d e l e g a n t i n d e e d ! )
B. Determination of Reactor Core Size

It is i n s t r u c t i v e to u s e s o m e of these i d e a s to e x a m i n e h o w t h e t h e r m a l design
i n f l u e n c e s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r e a c t o r c o r e size. L e t u s b r e a k this discussion
i n t o several steps:
1 O n e first d e t e r m i n e s t h e v a r i o u s h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the
core, u s i n g b o t h c o m p u t e r c o d e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e c o r e n e u t r o n i c s a n d therm a l - h y d r a u l i c b e h a v i o r , as well as e x p e r i e n c e f r o m earlier designs.
2 N e x t o n e d e t e r m i n e s t h e m a x i m u m a c c e p t a b l e p o w e r level in t h e h o t
channel, taking into account b o t h steady-state a n d transient operating
c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s is usually e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a limit o n l i n e a r p o w e r
density
(12-91)
H e n c e t h e a v e r a g e linear p o w e r d e n s i t y is given in t e r m s of this limiting
value a n d the nuclear hot channel factor F ^ .
3 T h e f u e l - t o - m o d e r a t o r v o l u m e r a t i o in t h e c o r e a n d t h e f u e l e l e m e n t r a d i u s
r F E a r e largely d e t e r m i n e d b y n u c l e a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F o r a s q u a r e lattice
( F i g u r e 12-7) o n e n o t e s t h a t
H e r e of c o u r s e t h e f u e l - e l e m e n t r a d i u s m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the g a p a n d
clad thickness
r F E r F + tG + (c.
(12-93)
O n e u s u a l l y specifies t h e lattice g e o m e t r y in t e r m s of the p i t c h to d i a m e t e r

r a t i o (p/2rFF).
T y p i c a l l y this r a n g e s b e t w e e n 1.2-1.5 f o r b o t h L W R s a n d
LMFBRs.
4 T h e t h e r m a l p o w e r o u t p u t of the c o r e is given b y
MWt
4AVELNR
C,
(12-94)
w h e r e NK is t h e total n u m b e r of f u e l r o d s in t h e core, L is t h e active f u e l

r o d l e n g t h , a n d Cx is t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e c o r e p o w e r g e n e r a t e d in t h e f u e l
506

( 9 5 - 9 7 % ) . If o n e desires a f u e l - a s s e m b l y design w i t h NA r o d s p e r ass e m b l y (200), t h e n t h e n u m b e r of assemblies r e q u i r e d b y t h e c o r e
t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s is j u s t
MWtCxFlq <N
# assemblies = ;
.
(12-95)
#MAX
I n a similar m a n n e r , if w e n o t e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e c o r e p o w e r d e n s i t y
w e
c a n
=
QAVE/P2'
compute the required core diameter Z ) ^ by
equating
# a v e
MWt=q-vA
L= ^
L.
(12-96)
H e n c e t h e r e q u i r e d core d i a m e t e r is j u s t
4p2MWt
^core
F^
11/2
(12-97)
^MAX
Of c o u r s e t h e r e a r e o t h e r t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o n s t r a i n t s o n c o r e design, s u c h as
the m i n i m u m allowable D N B R a n d m a x i m u m core pressure drop which we have
n o t i n c l u d e d in this simple analysis. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t in this a n a l y s i s the
a l l o w a b l e p o w e r densities a n d h e n c e t h e c o r e size a r e limited b y the h o t c h a n n e l
f a c t o r . It is o b v i o u s l y to o n e ' s a d v a n t a g e to o b t a i n a F q as close to u n i t y as
possible. A s w e will see later, t h e p o w e r p r o f i l e c a n b e f l a t t e n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y u s i n g
zonal fuel loading a n d control element insertion.
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s s u c h as Fq a n d FAH t h a t a c c o u n t f o r
n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s in t h e c o r e p o w e r p r o f i l e a n d f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n s c a n b e a u g m e n t e d
b y e n g i n e e r i n g h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s , F q 3 w h i c h a c c o u n t f o r v a r i a t i o n s in f l o w a n d
p o w e r d u e to e f f e c t s s u c h as c o m p o n e n t f a b r i c a t i o n t o l e r a n c e s , f u e l swelling a n d
c r a c k i n g d u r i n g b u r n u p , as well a s u n c e r t a i n t i e s in t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c n u c l e a r
analysis. I n a sense, these h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s c a n b e r e g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g the
c o n s e r v a t i s m in design.
A very m a j o r i m p r o v e m e n t in c o r e t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y a
m o r e a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e of these f a c t o r s so as to e l i m i n a t e excessive d e s i g n c o n servatism. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e e n t h a l p y rise h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r FAH w a s revised
d o w n w a r d f r o m 3.36 to 1.7 d u r i n g P W R d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g the 1960s b a s e d o n
b o t h o p e r a t i n g a n d design experience. 1 T h i s a l l o w e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p r o v e m e n t
in t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . I n a similar sense, the t h e r m a l design of a d v a n c e d r e a c t o r
cores s u c h as the L M F B R t e n d to use c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e s of
h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s , a n d their d e s i g n e d p e r f o r m a n c e usually falls well w i t h i n
thermal constraints.
W e s h o u l d m e n t i o n a t this p o i n t t h a t t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of t h e core is
a c t u a l l y q u i t e closely c o u p l e d to t h e n u c l e a r analysis. F o r e x a m p l e , the n e u t r o n
flux a n d h e n c e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n over c o r e life is n e c e s s a r y to c a l c u l a t e the
n u c l e a r h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c o r e n u c l e a r design usually p r o v i d e s
507
t h e m o d e r a t o r - t o - f u e l r a t i o a n d f u e l p i n d i a m e t e r r e q u i r e d b y the t h e r m a l analysis.
W e h a v e also n o t e d t h a t t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis m u s t s u p p l y core
densities a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s b a c k to the n u c l e a r analysis. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o o l a n t
v o i d d i s t r i b u t i o n will s t r o n g l y a f f e c t t h e p o w e r profile. F u r t h e r m o r e c h a n g e s in
c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s will c a u s e reactivity f e e d b a c k (e.g., the c h a n g e in f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t l e a d s to reactivity c h a n g e s via t h e D o p p l e r effect). N e e d l e s s to say, s u c h
" n e u t r o n i c - t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c " c o u p l i n g is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c e t of n u c l e a r react o r analysis, a n d w e will r e t u r n to c o n s i d e r it in C h a p t e r 13.
C. Thermal-Hydraulic Design Codes

A variety of c o m p u t e r c o d e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d to a n a l y z e the t h e r m a l h y d r a u l i c b e h a v i o r of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r cores. 2 3 I n o r d e r to illustrate s u c h m o d e l s , we
will c o n s i d e r o n l y a v e r y simple s c h e m e d e s i g n e d to p e r f o r m a single c h a n n e l
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n a l y s i s f o r the h o t o r a v e r a g e c h a n n e l of a light w a t e r
m o d e r a t e d core. I n s u c h a m o d e l , t h e h y d r o d y n a m i c a n d t h e r m o d y n a m i c e q u a t i o n s
d e s c r i b i n g o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l axial f l o w a r e discretized a n d solved explicitly stepwise u p t h e c o o l a n t c h a n n e l f o r a n a r b i t r a r y axial p o w e r p r o f i l e . T h e m o d e l we will
c o n s i d e r a c c o u n t s f o r t h r e e f l o w r e g i m e s : (a) single-phase flow, (b) s u b c o o l e d
b o i l i n g t w o - p h a s e flow, a n d (c) b u l k b o i l i n g t w o - p h a s e f l o w . S u c h a m o d e l is
c a p a b l e of p r e d i c t i n g axial c o o l a n t , clad, a n d f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e profiles, void
f r a c t i o n , p r e s s u r e d r o p , t h e critical h e a t f l u x <7DNB> a n c * the D N B r a t i o f o r the core.
U s i n g the n u c l e a r h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s , o n e c a n also c a l c u l a t e the a v e r a g e t h e r m a l
p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e core.
W e will divide the c o o l a n t c h a n n e l i n t o s e g m e n t s of l e n g t h Az i as s h o w n in
F i g u r e 12-16. W e will t h e n c o n s i d e r t h e r e l e v a n t e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g e a c h of the
f l o w regions.
1. SINGLE-PHASE FLOW (hf<hf(TsJ
or z < z SCB ):
If w e discretize t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n (12-43) f o r a given

segment, we find
channel
(12-98)
H e n c e w e c a n solve f o r t h e e n t h a l p y at t h e p o i n t zi+x
in t e r m s of t h a t at zi as
Az,
(12-99)
2w
R e m e m b e r that the power profile

is s u p p l i e d a s i n p u t to t h e m o d e l ( p e r h a p s f r o m
a n u c l e a r criticality c a l c u l a t i o n ) .
N e x t o n e c a l c u l a t e s t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p u p the s e g m e n t as the s u m of c o n t r i b u t i o n s
Pi+x=Pi
friction
Apf
hydrostatic
(12-100)
form
508

i\
t;
AZ;
O s
I
'SCB
22
1
FIGURE 12-16.
Discretization of coolant channel.
If w e recall o u r earlier h y d r o d y n a m i c analysis, it is a p p a r e n t t h a t

2Az.
(12-101)
(12-102)
O n c e w e h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h e c o o l a n t e n t h a l p y a n d p r e s s u r e at + w e c a n go t o
t h e r m o d y n a m i c t a b l e s ( s t o r e d in c o m p u t e r m e m o r y or t a p e ) t o f i n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d ing c o o l a n t d e n s i t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e
T
i+\s=Ti+\(hi+vPi+i)'
Pi+i~Pi+i(hi+vPi+i)l
(12-103)
W e c a n use t h e s e t o c o m p u t e q u a n t i t i e s s u c h as R e / + 1 , N u / + 1 , P r - + 1 . N e x t , w e w o r k
i n w a r d to d e t e r m i n e t h e f u e l e l e m e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s at zi+v
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e clad
s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e is
T
= T
fc+i
l+i
(12-104)
509
w h e r e h s ( N u i + 1 , R e i + 1 ) is usually d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the D i t t u s - B o e l t e r c o r r e l a t i o n
(12-38) f o r single-phase flow. T h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e t e m p e r a t u r e is t h e n
Hi
= Tt. ,+
'c
(12-105)
F i n a l l y t h e f l u i d velocity is d e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g m a s s flow c o n s e r v a t i o n
w = c o n s t a n t = pi + lTTz.+ lAc
(12-106)
to f i n d
(12-107)
u :i+1=w/Pi+lAc.
2. TWO-PHASE FLOW (h > hf(TsJ
or z > z S C B )
T h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n giving t h e e n t h a l p y a t e a c h p o i n t in the c h a n n e l
r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d . T h e p r e s s u r e d r o p is m o d i f i e d to a c c o u n t f o r t w o - p h a s e flow
effects. I n p a r t i c u l a r , the M a r t i n e l l i - N e l s o n c o r r e l a t i o n is used f o r Apf
Az
w h e r e RMN
(12-108)
is a t a b u l a t e d f u n c t i o n of pt a n d x,. W e also a d d in
Az.- - I
(12-109)
Az,
where
_ ( i - x f
r
(l-)
T h i s will a l l o w us to d e t e r m i n e hi+1
we can generate
hi+,
a n d pi+v
ht^,hgiwXi+
Pi+ i j
X 2 Pi
(12-110)
2pg'
T h e n using t h e r m o d y n a m i c tables,
Ti+, =
TM(pi+,)
(12-111)
Pt + ,Pg, +1 -
T o d e t e r m i n e the c l a d wall t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e J e n s - L o t t e s c o r r e l a t i o n is u s e d
T
sl+l
=T
i+i
+45
ex
P(
1/62)(?,'+")0'25.
(12-112)
a n d t h e n t h e f u e l c e n t e r l i n e t e m p e r a t u r e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d using E q . (12-105)
If t h e slip r a t i o w e r e k n o w n , o n e c o u l d t h e n use the S a x r e l a t i o n s h i p to
d e t e r m i n e t h e v o i d f r a c t i o n . H o w e v e r it is c o m m o n p r a c t i c e i n s t e a d to use a
c o r r e l a t i o n ( a g a i n d u e to M a r t i n e l l i a n d N e l s o n ) to d e t e r m i n e a i + l as a f u n c t i o n of
Xj+1 a n d p i + i - T h e n t h e S a % r e l a t i o n s h i p is u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the slip r a t i o
510
If w e n o t e t h a t
wg = VgpgA g = vgpgaA
= xh%
(12-114)
we can calculate
Xi+M+i
tv+ =
(12-115)
a n d t h e n use t h e slip r a t i o to f i n d
^.^gz-.A+i'
(12-116)
Finally, o n e c a n use these values of t h e f l o w p a r a m e t e r s to c o m p u t e t h e critical

h e a t f l u x #DNB a t e a c ^ p o i n t in t h e c h a n n e l u s i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e empirical
correlation. T h e D N B R c a n similarly b e c a l c u l a t e d since the linear p o w e r density
q' a n d h e n c e the h e a t f l u x q" is k n o w n .
T h u s the s t r a t e g y f o r a n a l y z i n g the c h a n n e l is very simple. O n e m e r e l y takes the
c o o l a n t inlet c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e p o w e r p r o f i l e q\z) a n d m a r c h e s u p the c h a n n e l ,
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e l e v a n t h y d r o d y n a m i c a n d t h e r m o d y n a m i c p a r a m e t e r s f o r the n e x t
channel mesh-point using conservation equations a n d tabulated t h e r m o d y n a m i c
d a t a a n d c o r r e l a t i o n s . T h e a c t u a l m e c h a n i c s of such s i n g l e - c h a n n e l c o d e s is q u i t e
simple ( a l t h o u g h t h e r m o d y n a m i c d a t a p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n a n d s t o r a g e m a y b e m o r e
complicated).
D. Some Additional Comments

O u r illustration of t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis in t h e p r e v i o u s section w a s
specifically c o n c e r n e d with w a t e r - c o o l e d r e a c t o r s . H o w e v e r this m o d e l c o u l d also
b e u s e d to a n a l y z e L M F B R s with only a m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n in t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s
u s e d to g e n e r a t e t h e c o o l a n t p r o p e r t i e s , since t h e f u e l e l e m e n t lattice s t r u c t u r e of a
L M F B R is r e m a r k a b l y similar t o t h a t of a L W R . I n d e e d t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c
analysis of a liquid m e t a l - c o o l e d c o r e is even a bit simpler since t h e c o o l a n t
t e m p e r a t u r e is a l w a y s k e p t well b e l o w t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t t o p e r m i t o n l y singlep h a s e f l o w to o c c u r . Since L M F B R f u e l e l e m e n t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y f a b r i c a t e d with a
s o d i u m b o n d b e t w e e n t h e f u e l a n d t h e clad, a slightly d i f f e r e n t g a p c o n d u c t a n c e
w o u l d b e used.
A very similar t y p e of analysis w o u l d a p p l y to t h e g a s - c o o l e d f a s t r e a c t o r
( G C F R ) t h a t uses h e l i u m to cool a f u e l lattice a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of the
L M F B R . A g a i n , the c o o l a n t is single p h a s e (gas). H o w e v e r t h e r e is a slight
c o m p l i c a t i o n since h i g h - s p e e d gas f l o w c a n b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w
p h e n o m e n a ( f l o w c h o k i n g , s h o c k waves, etc.). A t the level of o u r s i m p l e singlec h a n n e l analysis, these effects c a n f r e q u e n t l y b e a c c o m m o d a t e d b y a m i n o r
a d j u s t m e n t of c o r r e l a t i o n s . H o w e v e r in m o r e e l a b o r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s (e.g., system
d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n ) , such e f f e c t s w o u l d r e q u i r e a d i f f e r e n t t y p e of analysis.
T h e H T G R c a n also b e d e s c r i b e d b y a similar s i n g l e - c h a n n e l analysis (with the
a p p r o p r i a t e a d j u s t m e n t s f o r c o m p r e s s i b l e flow), with o n e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e . I n the
L W R , L M F B R , a n d G C F R , t h e c o o l a n t f l o w s a b o u t t h e cylindrical f u e l e l e m e n t s
in a b u n d l e . H o w e v e r t h e c o o l a n t in a n H T G R f l o w s t h r o u g h c h a n n e l s in a
g r a p h i t e b l o c k c o n t a i n i n g the f u e l (see F i g u r e 10-4). A l t h o u g h the d e s c r i p t i o n of
axial f l o w t h r o u g h a circular c h a n n e l is simple e n o u g h , t h e analysis of t h e r a d i a l
511
heat conduction f r o m the fuel pins through the graphite block to the coolant
c h a n n e l w a l l is a c o m p l i c a t e d t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l h e a t c o n d u c t i o n p r o b l e m . 2 4 H e n c e
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n in H T G R f u e l a s s e m b l i e s u s u a l l y
r e q u i r e s a d i r e c t t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n of t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i o n
e q u a t i o n (a t a s k b e y o n d o u r p r e s e n t p a t i e n c e in this b o o k , a l t h o u g h it is o b v i o u s l y
very similar to a two-dimensional n e u t r o n d i f f u s i o n calculation).
REFERENCES
^ 1. L. S. Tong and J. Weisman, Thermal Analysis of Pressurized Water Reactors, American
Nuclear Society, Hinsdale, 111. (1970); L. S. Tong, Nucl Eng. Design 6, 301 (1967).
2. M. M. El-Wakil, Nuclear Heat Transport, Intext, Scranton (1971).
3. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan Lecture Notes
(unpublished), 1969.
4. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, USAEC TID-26241 (1973).
5. H. Fenech and W. M. Rohsenow, Heat transfer, in The Technology of Nuclear Reactor
Safety, T. J. Thompson and J. G. Beckerley (Eds.), M. I. T. Press, Cambridge (1973),
Vol. II.
6. J. A. Christensen, R. J. Allio, and A. Biancheria, WCAP-6065 (1965).
7. Reference Safety Analysis Report (RESAR-3), Vol. II, Part 4.4, Westinghouse Nuclear
Energy Systems (1973).
8. W. M. Rohsenow and H. Choi, Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1961).
9. F. Kreith, Principles of Heat Transfer, 3rd Ed., Intext, Scranton (1973).
10. R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, and E. N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, Wiley, New York
(1960).
11. L. S. Tong and J. Weisman, Thermal Analysis of Pressurized Water Reactors, American
Nuclear Society, Hinsdale, 111. (1970); L. S. Tong, Nucl. Eng. Design 6, 301 (1967).
12. See references contained in L. S. Tong and J. Weisman, Thermal Analysis of Pressurized
Water Reactors, American Nuclear Society, Hinsdale, 111. (1970); J. Weisman and R. W.
Bowring, Nucl Sci. Eng. 57, 255 (1975).
13. R. A. Dean, Thermal Contact Conductance, M. S. Thesis, University of Pittsburgh
(1963).
14. L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, Pergamon, New York (1959).
15. M. M. El-Wakil, Nuclear Heat Transport, Intext, Scranton (1971), p. 299.
f 16. W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes, Analysis of heat transfer, burnout, pressure drop, and
density data for high pressure water, U S A E C Report ANL-4627 (1961).
17. J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, Wiley, New York
(1937).
18. E. Janssen and S. Levy, Burnout limit curves for boiling water reactors, General Electric
Company Report A P E D 3892 (1962).
/ 1 9 . J. Weisman and R. W. Bowring, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 57, 255 (1975).
20. R. C. Martinelli and D. B. Nelson, Prediction of pressure drops during forced circulation boiling of water, Trans. ASME 70 (1948).
21. Mathematical Models and Computational Techniques for Analysis of Nuclear Systems,
U S A E C Document CONF-730414-P2, Vol. I, Session III (1973).
22. L. S. Tong and J. Weisman, Thermal Analysis of Pressurized Water Reactors, American
Nuclear Society, Hinsdale, 111. (1970); L. S. Tong, Nucl. Eng. Design 6, 301 (1967).
23. D. S. Rowe, COBRA-II: A Digital Computer Program for Thermal-Hydraulic Subchannel Analysis of Rod-Bundle Nuclear Fuel Elements, BNWL-1229 (1970); BNWL1695 (1973); J. Weisman and R. W. Bowring, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 57, 255 (1975).
24. Preliminary Safety Analysis Report, Summit Power Station, Delmarva Power, Vol. 3,
Chapter 4 (1973), Section 4.4.2.2.
512
PROBLEMS
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
12-6
12-7
12-8
12-9
12-10
12-11
12-12
12-13
12-14
Compare the average thermal power densities (q'9q'\q'")

of each of the major
reactor types (e.g., PWR, BWR, HTGR, LMFBR, G C F R , . . . ) along with that of the
boiler of a fossil-fuel-fired plant. Use data from PSAR's for actual plants, if possible.
Derive the equation of heat conduction by considering an energy balance for an
arbitrary volume (in analogy to the derivation of the neutron diffusion equation).
Determine the temperature profile in plate-type fuel elements composed of fuel of
thickness 2r F sandwiched between a clad of thickness tc. Assume a gap thickness tG.
Derive an expression for the average fuel temperature in a cylindrical fuel pellet as a
function of the surface and centerline temperature. Assume a constant heat source
and thermal conductivity.
Determine the temperature distribution in an infinitely long cylinder, assuming an
internal source given by q"\r) q0I0(r/L)y
where the surface of the cylinder is at
temperature Ts. Assume that the thermal conductivity depends on temperature
through the relationship k(T) = k0[\ +a(T Ts)]. Sketch the temperature profile for
the constant a positive, zero, and negative.
The flux depression in a cylindrical fuel pellet can be modeled by assuming that the
radial dependence of q'"{r) is of the form q'"{r)= <?o"(l + ar2). Derive an expression
for the temperature rise in the fuel in terms of the linear power density q'0. In
particular compare this temperature drop with that resulting from a uniform heat
flux for a 12% flux depression (i.e., a r | = 0.12) for the case in which q'o=500 W / c m
and kF = .0245 W / c m K .
Calculate the equivalent heat transfer coefficient, h G , characterizing radial gas gaps
between pellet and clad of 0.010 and 0.005 cm. Assume r F ; w G and constant gas
properties with temperature for both helium and fission product gas.
Consider two cylindrical fuel rods of radii a and 2a respectively which are to operate
under the limitation that the maximum center-to-outer surface temperature
difference is A 7\ Assuming uniform heat generation in the rods, which rod would be
able to supply more heat?
It is frequently of interest to determine the temperature distribution in shielding
material being heated by incident radiation (e.g., photons or neutrons). Such a
calculation can easily be performed in analogy to our study of thermal conduction in
fuel elements, provided one uses a distributed heat source. Consider a slab shield of
thickness L with a radiation flux <f>0 incident upon one face. If the radiation intensity
is assumed to be attenuated as <0exp( 2 a jc), determine the temperature distribution
across the shield. Assume that we maintain the surfaces at x = 0 and x = L at
specified temperatures T0 and TL.
A 8 cm-thick flat-plate iron shield is subjected at one face to 3.0 MeV/photon y
radiation of uniform 1013 flux. The absorption cross section for 3 MeV ys in iron is
0.282 c m - 1 . If the temperatures of both sides of the plate were to remain equal, find:
(a) the temperature distribution in the plate, (b) the difference between maximum
and surface temperatures, and (c) the surface cooling on each side of the plate
necessary to maintain the above conditions.
Using the fuel element data for the B W R / 6 core design given in Appendix H,
estimate the fuel centerline temperature that occurs at the point of maximum heat
flux if it is assumed that the coolant temperature at this point is 290C with a
convective heat transfer coefficient of hs = 5.0 W / c m 2 K.
Repeat the calculation of Problem 12-11 for the LMFBR core data assuming a
sodium temperature of 500 C and h s = 4.0 W / c m 2 K.
Consider water at 1 bar, 20C flowing through a smooth, circular pipe of 2 cm I.D.
and length 3m. If the flow velocity is 3 m/sec, determine the pressure drop along the
pipe and the pumping power necessary to maintain the flow in this pipe.
Compute the equivalent hydraulic diameter Dh for a hexagonal lattice such as that
sketched in Fig. 12-7.

12-15
12-16
513
A cylindrical L M F B R core contains N fuel elements of length L. Sodium coolant

flows through the core in the axial direction with a total mass flow rate w that is
uniformly divided among the coolant channels in the core. It is found that this
reactor core has a positive sodium void coefficient of reactivity. To correct this, a
new design is proposed in which the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical core is
doubled (i.e., twice as many fuel elements), while the core length is halved, thereby
increasing neutron leakage and achieving a negative void coefficient. If the total
coolant flow rate does not change in the new core design, estimate the pumping
power required relative to that for the original core. (Assume turbulent flow.)
A reactor coolant loop may be hydrodynamically unstable if operated with a portion
of the loop in the transition region between laminar and turbulent flow. Because the
flow resistance changes when transition occurs from laminar to turbulent flow (and
vice versa), conditions are favorable for flow oscillation. Consider a loop consisting
of constant diameter piping and a constant pressure pump (Ap across pump
independent of flow rate).
(a) Describe how this type of instability can occur in such a simplified loop.
(b) If the transitions take place at a Reynolds number of approximately 2500,
determine the ratio of the maximum to minimum flow rates in the pipe (i.e.,
12-17
12-18
12-19
12-20
12-21
^max/^min)Compare the heat transfer coefficients and the pumping power per 100 m length of 2
cm I.D. smooth-drawn tubing for the following coolants: (a) air at 10 bar, 100
m / s e c , and 200C, (b) He at the same conditions, (c) water at 10 m / s e c , 200C, 1
bar. and (d) sodium at the same conditions.
A reactor is cooled by a gas that flows turbulently through its core. Its temperature
rise is small compared to its absolute temperature, and the pressure drop is small
compared to the absolute pressure. Suppose the coolant pressure is now doubled.
The reactor is to require no more pumping power than before. The temperature rise
of the coolant is to be held constant. N o core modifications are to be made.
Determine: (a) the maximum possible increase in reactor power and (b) assuming
that this power increase is made, the extent of temperature rise across the gas film as
the heat transfer increases.
Determine the axial clad surface and fuel centerline temperature distribution present
in a bare, uniform cylindrical core. In particular determine those positions at which
the maximum fuel centerline and clad surface temperatures occur.
As we have seen, one of the primary limitations on thermal performance is the
avoidance of fuel centerline melting. However it is obviously to our advantage to run
the fuel at all points in the reactor as close to this limit as possible (consistent with
safety requirements).
(a) Determine the axial power profile that would yield a uniform axial fuel temperature in the core.
(b) Determine the axial fuel loading distribution that would yield this power profile
(use one-speed diffusion theory).
(c) Compare the feasibility of obtaining such profiles for a H T G R and a PWR.
Consider a channel of length L in which there is a bottom-peaked power profile of
the form
q\z)
12-22
12-23
qfQ(*/H)(H-z)$\ri[(<!T/H)(H-z)l
Determine: (a) the maximum/average heat flux in the channel, (b) qf(z) in terms of
the average channel heat flux, and (c) the enthalpy rise at any position in the
channel.
Consider an L M F B R core with design parameters as given in Appendix H. If the
linear power density in the core is assumed to be a uniform 300 W / c m up the core
and the flow area per fuel rod is 1 cm 2 , calculate: (a) the flow rate per rod, (b) the
coolant transit time through the core, and (c) the core power density.
Water flows in a circular channel 3 m long by 1 cm I.D. The system pressure is 70
514
bar. The water enters the channel with average velocity 3 m / s e c and temperature
260C. The wall heat flux has a cosine distribution (no extrapolation lengths) with a
peak value of 200 W / c m 2 . Determine: (a) axial coolant temperature distribution, (b)
axial quality distribution, (c) axial void fraction distribution, assuming a constant
slip ratio of 2, (d) acceleration pressure drop in the channel, (e) friction pressure
drop in the channel, and (f) graph T0, x>
and p versus z. Assume thermodynamic
equilibrium exists at each axial position (i.e., neglect subcooled boiling).
12-24 For Problem 12-23 determine the axial position where subcooled boiling starts. What
is the coolant temperature at this position? The wall temperature?
12-25 Consider a PWR operating in such a fashion that nucleate boiling occurs at the point
of maximum power density. How might you expect the following changes to affect
both the maximum fuel centerline temperature and the DNBR, assuming a constant
average linear power density: (a) 10% reduction of coolant flow in the hot channel,
(b) modification of the core analysis to account for nonuniform power generation in
the fuel pellets, (c) radial fuel migration and densification producing a 4% void
volume along the fuel pellet axis (d) the axial core power profile shifting from a
centered to a bottom-peaked distribution (such that both the peak power and
integrated power remain the same), and (e) the axial core power profile shifting to a
top-peaked distribution. (See Tong and Weisman 1 for typical DNB correlations.)
12-26 The outlet quality of an average coolant channel of a BWR is 14.6%. The system
pressure is 70 bar, and the inlet temperature is 220C [/z(220C, 70 bar) =1.23
MJ/kg]. Determine: (a) the exit void fraction for a slip ratio of 2.0, (b) the average
heat generation (W/cm) of the fuel rods if the mass flow rate per fuel rod is 10,000
kg/hr and the core height is 375 cm, and (c) the nonboiling length for the
bottom-peaked power profile of Problem 12-21.
12-27 Using the description provided in Section 12-VII-C, write a computer program
capable of analyzing the hot channel of a LWR (either PWR or BWR).
T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o b l e m s will r e q u i r e t h e use of a simple s i n g l e - c h a n n e l t h e r m a l hydraulics code suitable for a L W R .
12-28
12-29
Use the thermal-hydraulics code to evaluate the performance of any one of the
PWR designs given in Appendix H. In particular: (a) compare a bottom-peaked and
centered power profile from the standpoint of: (i) peak linear power density, (ii) peak
fuel centerline temperature, and (iii) DNB ratio; (b) roughly plot the following for
the hot channel of the bottom peaked profile: (i) coolant temperature, (ii) clad
surface temperature, (iii) heat flux, and (iv) D N B heat flux; and (c) evaluate the
effect of a simultaneous 10% reduction in flow and 10% increase in power level on
D N B ratio and centerline fuel temperature.
Use the thermal-hydraulics code to evaluate the performance of the BWR-6 design
in Appendix H. Use the bottom-peaked power profile and determine: (a) coolant
temperature, fuel temperature, void fraction, and flow quality profiles; and (b) the
recirculation ratio (mass ratio of recirculated coolant to coolant leaving the vessel as
steam) and the reactor vessel inlet temperature (i.e., feedwater temperature).
13
The Calculation
of
Core Power Distributions
T h e c e n t r a l c o m p o n e n t of m o s t c o m p u t a t i o n a l m o d e l s of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s
consists of a g r o u p of c a l c u l a t i o n a l m o d u l e s t h a t analyze the static n e u t r o n i c
b e h a v i o r in t h e r e a c t o r core. A s we h a v e r e p e a t e d l y e m p h a s i z e d , these static
c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e usually b a s e d o n a solution of t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s
f o r the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n eigenvalue k e j f a n d the m u l t i g r o u p fluxes <J>g(r) c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
a given c o r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . O n e c a n t h e n c o n s t r u c t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n b y calculating the local fission r a t e as in Eq. (12-1).
Such static c a l c u l a t i o n s n o t o n l y involve w h a t we h a v e r e f e r r e d to as a fluxp o w e r - r e a c t i v i t y m o d u l e t h a t solves t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s to g e n e r a t e
t h e core flux a n d p o w e r , b u t also a m o d u l e t h a t generates the necessary m a c r o scopic g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a n d a t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s m o d u l e a n a l y z i n g h e a t transfer
a n d fluid f l o w in the r e a c t o r c o r e to d e t e r m i n e core t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d c o o l a n t
densities. H e n c e o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the c a l c u l a t i o n of core p o w e r distributions
c a n n o t b e c o n f i n e d to t h e f l u x - p o w e r m o d u l e alone, b u t m u s t i n s t e a d consider this
c o u p l e d g r o u p of three c a l c u l a t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s (see F i g u r e 13-1).
W e a r e of c o u r s e a l r e a d y very f a m i l i a r with m o s t of the f e a t u r e s of these
c o m p o n e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , C h a p t e r s 8, 9, a n d 10 dealt with t h e g e n e r a t i o n of
m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . I n C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 7 we discussed in s o m e detail various
m e t h o d s f o r solving t h e t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n t m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s . I n
C h a p t e r 12 we c o n s i d e r e d t h e v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s of m o d e l s of t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c
b e h a v i o r of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core. O u r goal in this c h a p t e r will b e s o m e w h a t
d i f f e r e n t ( a n d c o n s i d e r a b l y briefer) since we n o w wish to e x a m i n e several of the
m o r e p r a c t i c a l details of the c a l c u l a t i o n of core p o w e r distributions a n d explore the
v a r i o u s w a y s in w h i c h such c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t e r a c t with o t h e r aspects of the core
design.
515
516
Macroscopic group constant generation
Parameterized
groupconstant
tables
Fast and thermal

spectrum codes
Flux-power-reactivity
eff
0(r),
Effective
control cross
sections
module
P[r)
Thermalhydraulics module
FIGURE 13-1.
TM, Tf, Nm
Modules involved in the calculation of core power distributions.
It is c e r t a i n l y n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of core m u l t i p l i c a t i o n p l a y s a
very i m p o r t a n t role in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis. Of c o u r s e s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e t h e f u e l l o a d i n g o r c o n t r o l s y s t e m a d j u s t m e n t
n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e r e a c t o r criticality. H o w e v e r the c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e m u l t i p l i c a tion e i g e n v a l u e k f o r a s e q u e n c e of d i f f e r e n t c o r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s c a n also
determine quantities such as control element worths, reactivity f e e d b a c k
c o e f f i c i e n t s (e.g., b y c a l c u l a t i n g k e jj f o r t h e c o r e at v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s ) ,
a n d reactivity c h a n g e s a c c o m p a n y i n g v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t f u e l l o a d i n g p a t t e r n s .
T h e static r e a c t o r f l u x a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e also of c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e in r e a c t o r design. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n is
essential f o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of t h e core. F o r e x a m p l e ,
t h e n u c l e a r h o t c h a n n e l f a c t o r s a n d axial p o w e r profile d e t e r m i n e h o w closely the
c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r o a c h e s t h e r m a l design limitations. F u r t h e r m o r e the n e u t r o n
f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n is n e c e s s a r y f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f u e l b u r n u p a n d i s o t o p e
b u i l d u p . H o w e v e r since the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c core b e h a v i o r as well a s its f u e l
d e p l e t i o n will a f f e c t b o t h c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d m i c r o s c o p i c cross sections (i.e.,
t h r o u g h t e m p e r a t u r e effects), t h e c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e s e v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s of a
r e a c t o r m o d e l b e c o m e s very i m p o r t a n t . F o r e x a m p l e , the r e a c t o r d e s i g n e r w o u l d
like to utilize t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y s u c h core analysis to a c h i e v e a flat
p o w e r p r o f i l e ( d e s i r a b l e f r o m b o t h a t h e r m a l as well a s a f u e l b u r n u p v i e w p o i n t )
while p r o v i d i n g s u f f i c i e n t excess reactivity to yield l o n g c o r e lifetimes a n d h e n c e
high fuel exposures, b u t within the safety constraints imposed o n core thermal a n d
n u c l e a r (i.e., c o n t r o l ) p e r f o r m a n c e .
I. STATIC MULTIGROUP DIFFUSION CALCULATIONS

P e r h a p s t h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m in r e a c t o r analysis is t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e
spatial f l u x a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in a r e a c t o r core u n d e r s t e a d y - s t a t e o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n in t h e d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y
a n d spatial d e t a i l of t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n r e q u i r e d in d i f f e r e n t f a c e t s of r e a c t o r
a n a l y s i s a n d design. F o r e x a m p l e , in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o p t i m u m core t h e r m a l
THE CALCULATION OF CORE POWER DISTRIBUTIONS
517
p e r f o r m a n c e o n e will r e q u i r e as a c c u r a t e a n e s t i m a t e of t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n as
p o s s i b l e in o r d e r to e n s u r e t h a t t h e r m a l c o n s t r a i n t s are n o t e x c e e d e d . I n ' c o n t r a s t ,
c o n s i d e r a b l y less detail is r e q u i r e d in t h e c o m p a r i s o n of v a r i o u s fuel l o a d i n g
s c h e m e s i n v o l v e d in f u e l cycle m a n a g e m e n t . T h e s e t w o e x a m p l e s illustrate the
c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n a b s o l u t e e s t i m a t e s of c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r
e n s u r i n g t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e l i m i t a t i o n s a r e n o t e x c e e d e d , a n d relative e s t i m a t e s
r e q u i r e d in o p t i m i z a t i o n or t r a d e o f f studies.
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the global p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n is m o s t c o m m o n l y a c c o m p l i s h e d
b y solving t h e f e w - g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s
-V-Dg(r)V^(r) + 2Re(r)^(r)
2 ^ ( r ) + \
g' = 1
X g
2
g'= 1
03"1)
T h e s e e q u a t i o n s are solved b y u s i n g f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e m e t h o d s to discretize the

spatial v a r i a b l e a n d t h e n , f o l l o w i n g t h e u s u a l i n n e r - o u t e r i t e r a t i o n strategy, solving
f o r t h e criticality eigenvalue keff a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g m u l t i g r o u p flux J>g(r). T o b e
m o r e precise, t h e r e a c t o r c o r e is b r o k e n u p i n t o a spatial grid or m e s h f o r
e x a m p l e , w i t h M m e s h cells. T h e n the m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n is i n t e g r a t e d
o v e r a typical cell, a n d s t a n d a r d s u m a n d d i f f e r e n c e f o r m u l a s are u s e d to r e p r e s e n t
t h e t e r m s in t h e e q u a t i o n . H e n c e the m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s are r e p l a c e d
b y a n MX G set of a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s t h a t is, a n (MxG)
dimension matrixeigenvalue problem
(13-2)
T h e e l e m e n t s of t h e m a t r i c e s M a n d F a r e t h e f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s supplied b y a
m a c r o s c o p i c cross section m o d u l e . T h e m a t r i x eigenvalue p r o b l e m c a n t h e n b e
solved b y s t a n d a r d p o w e r - i t e r a t i o n m e t h o d s (usually a c c e l e r a t e d b y s o u r c e extrapolation).
T h e c o m p l e x i t y of s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s d e p e n d s sensitively o n the n a t u r e of the
design i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d . D u r i n g the early stages of t h e design p r o c e s s it is
c o m m o n t o use very f a s t r u n n i n g o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l survey codes. F o r core lifetime
s t u d i e s in w h i c h the p o w e r a n d flux d i s t r i b u t i o n s m u s t b e c a l c u l a t e d at m a n y
time-steps d u r i n g c o r e life, o n e c o m m o n l y uses o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n c o d e s
(such as in t h e F E V E R 1 d e p l e t i o n c o d e ) or even z e r o - d i m e n s i o n a l descriptions
(such as in t h e L E O P A R D 2 c o d e ) f o r p r e l i m i n a r y survey studies.
M o s t d e t a i l e d design c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n m u s t b e perf o r m e d with two- a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n m o d e l s , s u c h as the P D Q 3 series
of c o d e s d e v e l o p e d a t the N a v a l R e a c t o r L a b o r a t o r i e s . A n a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of
t h e f l u x a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e r e a c t o r c o r e u s i n g the f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e d
m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e m e s h s p a c i n g b e a t least c o m p a r a b l e (or less t h a n ) the m i n i m u m n e u t r o n d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h in t h e c o r e (0.5 c m in a
L W R , 4 - 5 c m in a n H T G R ) , even a f t e r c o r e h o m o g e n i z a t i o n such as t h a t
d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 10 h a s b e e n p e r f o r m e d . F o r e x a m p l e , it is c o m m o n in L W R
a n a l y s i s to assign o n e m e s h p o i n t p e r f u e l p i n 4 in a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l r a d i a l
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e core p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n ( a n d even t h e n s o m e discrepancies arise
in c e r t a i n types of b u r n u p studies).
518 /
F o r t u n a t e l y m a n y t h e r m a l r e a c t o r cores a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a r a t h e r w e a k
c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n the t r a n s v e r s e a n d axial f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n s . H e n c e o n e c a n
f r e q u e n t l y iterate b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l t r a n s v e r s e a n d a
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l axial m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n to g e n e r a t e a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l " m a p " of t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e r e b y a v o i d i n g t h e e x p e n s e of
a full t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l t r e a t m e n t .
A l t h o u g h t h e use of such t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l p l u s o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l s of the
c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n h a v e b e e n q u i t e c o m m o n l y u s e d in r e a c t o r design, t h e r e is
i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y to go to direct t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s w h e n
d e t a i l e d e v a l u a t i o n s of a specific c o r e design a r e r e q u i r e d . F o r the large, loosely
c o u p l e d cores c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m o d e r n p o w e r reactors, such t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
studies r e q u i r e r a t h e r f i n e m e s h s t r u c t u r e s a n d h e n c e c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p u t e r
s t o r a g e a n d c a l c u l a t i o n a l r u n n i n g t i m e expenses a r e i n c u r r e d ( e v e n f o r a core
s u b r e g i o n such as a n o c t a n t ) . T h i s d i f f i c u l t y is a g g r a v a t e d w h e n t h e r e is a s t r o n g
c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d n e u t r o n i c c o r e b e h a v i o r , as t h e r e is,
f o r e x a m p l e , in a B W R or w h e n core f u e l d e p l e t i o n is of c o n c e r n . It h a s b e e n f o u n d
t h a t a c c u r a t e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e g l o b a l p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n
typically r e q u i r e b e t w e e n f o u r ( L W R ) a n d n i n e ( H T G R ) e n e r g y g r o u p s f o r t h e r m a l
r e a c t o r analysis.
I n f a s t r e a c t o r cores, the n e u t r o n m e a n f r e e p a t h is q u i t e large. H e n c e fast
r e a c t o r s are m o r e susceptible to a h o m o g e n e o u s analysis (except f o r a small
f r a c t i o n of n e u t r o n s with energies less t h a n several keV). O n the o t h e r h a n d , it is
m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t to treat t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n c e a c c u r a t e l y in f a s t r e a c t o r
analysis. H e n c e o n e usually relies o n m a n y g r o u p s (20) in a d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n
f o r a f e w - r e g i o n m o d e l of t h e core in f a s t r e a c t o r analysis.
I n T a b l e 13-1 27 w e h a v e s u m m a r i z e d t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a
m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in v a r i o u s r e a c t o r
types.
T h e r e h a s b e e n s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n to d e v e l o p a l t e r n a t i v e s to t h e s t a n d a r d
f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e t r e a t m e n t of the m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y
e x a m i n e d o n e s u c h s c h e m e b a s e d o n a nodal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n 5 of the n e u t r o n f l u x in
t h e r e a c t o r core. A l t h o u g h s u c h t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o a r s e n o d a l m e t h o d s h a v e
c u s t o m a r i l y utilized a o n e - g r o u p d e s c r i p t i o n of the n e u t r o n flux (such as in the
F L A R E code 6 ), m o r e r e c e n t e x t e n s i o n s to m u l t i g r o u p n o d a l s c h e m e s h a v e b e e n
developed.7
A n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h is to use so-called finite element techniques8
to
c a l c u l a t e the n e u t r o n f l u x at e a c h of a n u m b e r of u l t r a c o a r s e m e s h p o i n t s . S u c h
f i n i t e - e l e m e n t m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r s o m e t i m e in p e r f o r m i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s in
m e c h a n i c a l stress analysis, a n d a p p e a r to h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e ( a l t h o u g h n o t fully
realized) p o t e n t i a l f o r m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l n e u t r o n d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s .
O t h e r c o a r s e m e s h t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t h a t utilize a m e s h s t r u c t u r e
of t h e o r d e r of o n e m e s h p o i n t p e r f u e l a s s e m b l y . H o w e v e r in o r d e r to e n s u r e the
stability of s u c h t e c h n i q u e s , it is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y to a l t e r n a t e b e t w e e n c o a r s e a n d
fine m e s h c a l c u l a t i o n s in p e r f o r m i n g t h e s o u r c e iterations r e q u i r e d in a criticality
c a l c u l a t i o n . T h i s latter s c h e m e , k n o w n as coarse mesh rebalancing9,
also a p p e a r s to
have considerable potential for accelerating multigroup diffusion calculations.
T h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e to a direct m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n
t h a t h a s p r o v e n r e m a r k a b l y successful in r e a c t o r analysis, the so-called flux
synthesis10
m e t h o d , in w h i c h a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l f l u x is " s y n t h e s i z e d " f r o m a
c o m b i n a t i o n of o n e - or t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . B e c a u s e of the i m p o r t a n c e of

TABLE 13-1
Reactor
Type*
PWR
BWR
HTGR
LMFBR
GCFR
Reactor
Type1"
PWR
BWR
HTGR
LMFBR
GCFR
+
519
Meshpoint Requirements for MGD Analysis of Various Reactor Types
Core Volume
( m 3\
Core-Averaged
Power Density
(W/cm3)
Necessary Number of
Mesh Points (One per
Diffusion Length)
2-D
3-D
6,859,000
5,635,000
247,969
45,270
37,253
Diameter of Reactor
(n Diffusion Lengths
1.8
2.2
12.0
5.0
6.6
75.0
50.0
7.0
530.0
280.0
40
60
430
5.7
10.7
36,100
31,666
3,947
1,270
1,115
Characteristic
Diffusion Length
(cm)
Number of Groups
(Thermal Groups)
4(1)
4(1)
7(4)
10 (0)
10(0)
190
178
63
36
33
Necessary Number of
Group-Space Meshpoints
(One per Diffusion Length)
1-D
2-D
3-D
760
712
441
360
330
144,400
126,664
27,629
12,700
11,150
27,436,000
22,540,000
1,735,783
452,700
372,530
Based on a 3000 MWt core. [R. Froehlich, in USAEC CONF-730414-P2 (1973), p. VII-46-49]
this m e t h o d in nuclear reactor design, we will consider it in some detail in Section

13-IV.
W e should remark that most multigroup diffusion codes usually have the
capability of computing not only the n e u t r o n fluxes <J>g(r) but also their adjoints
<f>*(r). These quantities are extremely useful in making perturbation theory estimates of reactivity changes due to changes in core composition or configuration.
A l t h o u g h p e r t u r b a t i o n theory is capable of only limited accuracy, it can provide
useful initial guesses for m o r e detailed diffusion calculations. A n d since one can
frequently calculate the adjoint fluxes with only slightly m o r e effort t h a n that
involved in simply calculating the fluxes by themselves, m a n y design codes have
been developed with perturbation theory options.
II. INTERACTION OF THERMAL-HYDRAULICS,

NEUTRONICS, AND FUEL DEPLETION
W e have n o t e d that the power distribution f o u n d in a reactor will deviate
considerably f r o m that predicted for a bare, u n i f o r m cylindrical core. Such variations arise d u e to the presence of blankets or reflectors in most core designs,
n o n u n i f o r m fuel loading (or burnup), a n d n o n u n i f o r m coolant densities.
M a n y nuclear reactors are characterized by a rather strong coupling between
coolant density a n d neutronic behavior. As an example, consider first L W R s in
which the water coolant also serves as a moderator. Since most L W R cores are
" u n d e r m o d e r a t e d , " a local decrease in water density will cause a decrease in
m o d e r a t i o n a n d hence a decrease in local power density. As the coolant passes u p
through the core, it absorbs heat f r o m the fuel elements a n d eventually will initiate
520
e i t h e r s u b c o o l e d ( n u c l e a t e ) o r b u l k boiling. H e n c e t h e r e will b e a n i n c r e a s e in
c o o l a n t v o i d f r a c t i o n t h a t is, a d e c r e a s e in c o o l a n t d e n s i t y a s it p a s s e s u p
t h r o u g h t h e c o r e . S i n c e t h e c o o l a n t d e n s i t y is m a x i m u m a t t h e b o t t o m c o r e inlet,
o n e w o u l d t h e r e f o r e e x p e c t a b o t t o m p e a k e d p o w e r p r o f i l e (as s k e t c h e d in F i g u r e
13-2).
A similar t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c - n e u t r o n i c c o u p l i n g c a n arise i n liquid m e t a l - c o o l e d
f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s . A s w e will f i n d later, t h e liquid m e t a l c o o l a n t ( s o d i u m ) will
c a u s e a p p r e c i a b l e m o d e r a t i o n or s o f t e n i n g of t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m i n a f a s t
r e a c t o r . T h i s will l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e in reactivity, since rj f o r a f a s t r e a c t o r i n c r e a s e s
w i t h a v e r a g e n e u t r o n e n e r g y . H e n c e a local d e c r e a s e in c o o l a n t d e n s i t y c a n l e a d t o
a n i n c r e a s e in local reactivity a n d t h e r e b y a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e local p o w e r d e n s i t y
( n o t e t h a t this e f f e c t is i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n of c o o l a n t v o i d reactivity e f f e c t s i n
L W R s ) . A l t h o u g h w e a k e r t h a n t h e c o u p l i n g t h a t arises i n L W R s , this e f f e c t m u s t
nevertheless be a c c o u n t e d for in core calculations.
T h e c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n c o o l a n t p r o p e r t i e s a n d c o r e n e u t r o n i c b e h a v i o r is v e r y
m u c h weaker in gas-cooled reactors such as the H T G R , because coolant phase
z (cm)
z (cm)
FIGURE 13-2.
Bottom flux-peaking in a BWR.
521
c h a n g e c a n n o t occur, a n d also b e c a u s e t h e c o o l a n t does n o t p r o v i d e a p p r e c i a b l e

m o d e r a t i o n in t h e core d u e to its very low d e n s i t y .
T o illustrate the i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d n e u t r o n i c calc u l a t i o n s , let u s e x a m i n e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s t e a d y - s t a t e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s in
L W R s . O n e u s u a l l y b e g i n s such a c a l c u l a t i o n b y s u p p l y i n g t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s
m o d u l e with a n initial e s t i m a t e of the h o t - c h a n n e l f a c t o r s a n d the axial flux profile
in t h e core. T h i s m o d u l e will t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d
c o o l a n t void f r a c t i o n s . (Actually, t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s m o d u l e m a y only calculate t h e c o n d i t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the h o t c h a n n e l a n d a n a v e r a g e c h a n n e l , b u t this
t h e r m a l i n f o r m a t i o n is f r e q u e n t l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r f u r t h e r c o r e design p u r p o s e s . ) T h e
c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d c o o l a n t d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n are t h e n r e t u r n e d to the m a c r o scopic g r o u p c o n s t a n t g e n e r a t i o n m o d u l e w h e r e they a r e u s e d in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e core. I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e a v e r a g e f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e
is u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e correct D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d r e s o n a n c e integrals, while the
m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e will i n f l u e n c e the t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . T h e c o o l a n t
d e n s i t y is u s e d in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of b o t h m i c r o s c o p i c (i.e., s p e c t r u m - a v e r a g e d ) a n d
macroscopic group constants.
W i t h this m a c r o s c o p i c g r o u p c o n s t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n , o n e c a n n o w use t h e fluxp o w e r - r e a c t i v i t y m o d u l e to c a l c u l a t e t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d n u c l e a r h o t
c h a n n e l f a c t o r s , w h i c h c a n t h e n b e u s e d as a n i n p u t t o the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s
m o d u l e f o r a s e c o n d i m p r o v e d e s t i m a t e of c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d v o i d distributions. M a n y c o d e p a c k a g e s will a u t o m a t i c a l l y p e r f o r m such a n i t e r a t i o n b a c k a n d
f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d f l u x - p o w e r c a l c u l a t i o n s until t h e c a l c u l a t e d
p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n c o n v e r g e s to its t r u e s h a p e . S u c h a n iterative a p p r o a c h is
e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t in B W R s since the v o i d f r a c t i o n in a boiling c h a n n e l varies
q u i t e d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m inlet to exit. I n F i g u r e 13-1, we h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h e b a s i c
c a l c u l a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e d in p e r f o r m i n g c o u p l e d t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c n e u t r o n i c c a l c u l a t i o n s , a n d in F i g u r e 13-3, w e h a v e s k e t c h e d typical c o o l a n t
d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s in a B W R . W e h a v e n o t e d as well the
typical c o n v e r g e n c e of these profiles as o n e iterates b e t w e e n t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d
neutronic calculations.
S u c h c o u p l i n g e f f e c t s c a n b e t r o u b l e s o m e , n o t o n l y in t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis
of t h e r e a c t o r , b u t also in t h e a c t u a l r e a c t o r c o r e design since t h e y c a n l e a d to
p o w e r p e a k i n g a w a y f r o m the o p t i m a l l y f l a t s h a p e desired f o r the t h e r m a l design.
T h i s c a n b e c o u n t e r a c t e d to a d e g r e e b y c o n t r o l r o d insertion. F o r e x a m p l e , if o n e
inserts c o n t r o l r o d s i n t o t h o s e r e g i o n s in w h i c h p o w e r p e a k i n g is e x p e c t e d to occur,
t h e n e g a t i v e reactivity of t h e c o n t r o l r o d a b s o r p t i o n s h o u l d c a n c e l the e n h a n c e d
reactivity d u e to c o o l a n t d e n s i t y c h a n g e s a n d e l i m i n a t e the p e a k i n g . S u c h a s c h e m e
is c o m m o n l y u s e d in B W R s t h a t use b o t t o m - i n s e r t e d c o n t r o l r o d s to i n h i b i t the
t e n d e n c y t o w a r d b o t t o m - p e a k e d axial f l u x profiles.
T h e s e c o u p l i n g e f f e c t s a r e greatly c o m p l i c a t e d b y n o n u n i f o r m f u e l d e p l e t i o n ,
h o w e v e r . T h e fission r a t e a n d h e n c e the r a t e of f u e l b u r n u p is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
n e u t r o n flux. H e n c e the f u e l will d e p l e t e m o r e r a p i d l y in t h o s e assemblies e x p o s e d
t o h i g h e r fluxes, t h e r e b y l e a d i n g t o d e c r e a s e d local reactivity a n d h e n c e , a m o d i f i e d
f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n . A s w e will f i n d in o u r d i s c u s s i o n of core d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s in
C h a p t e r 15, s u c h n o n u n i f o r m b u r n u p e f f e c t s o n t h e flux a n d p o w e r p r o f i l e s c a n
b e c o m e q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n i n t e r a c t i o n s with c o o l a n t d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s a n d
control rod patterns are taken into account.
522
H
FIGURE 13-3.
Convergence of neutronics-thermal-hydraulics iteration.
III. PARAMETERIZATION OF FEW-GROUP CONSTANTS

O n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d c o m p l e x a s p e c t s of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis is
t h e g e n e r a t i o n of suitable t h e r m a l a n d f a s t f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
a b s o r p t i o n , scattering, r e m o v a l , a n d fission cross sections a n d d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s
f o r e a c h core r e g i o n of interest. A v a r i e t y of i n p u t d a t a a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r this
c a l c u l a t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , the f u e l a n d m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s supplied b y the
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s m o d u l e a r e u s e d in t h e g e n e r a t i o n of D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n e d reso n a n c e integrals a n d t h e r m a l spectra. T h e m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y is also supplied f o r
the c o r e region of interest b y the t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c s m o d u l e . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of
t h e f u e l is p r o v i d e d either as direct i n p u t or b y t h e d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e . U s i n g this
i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n g with basic m i c r o s c o p i c cross section libraries, o n e c a n t h e n
g e n e r a t e the f a s t a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r a a n d h e n c e c o m p u t e the m a c r o s c o p i c fewg r o u p c o n s t a n t s , u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e cell-averaging t e c h n i q u e s to a c c o u n t f o r selfshielding. T h e a b s o r p t i o n g r o u p c o n s t a n t s a r e usually m o d i f i e d b y a d d i n g a n
e f f e c t i v e cross section c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a n y c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s in t h e region of interest.
( T h e s e latter effective c o n t r o l cross sections a r e s u p p l i e d b y the c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t
m o d u l e . ) T h e c o m p l e t e set of g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r all core regions of interest a r e
t h e n p a s s e d a l o n g to the f l u x - p o w e r reactivity m o d u l e .
T h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r a m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n m u s t be
g e n e r a t e d h u n d r e d s or p e r h a p s even t h o u s a n d s of times in a c o r e lifetime study.
523
N o t o n l y m u s t t h e y b e g e n e r a t e d f o r e a c h region (e.g., n o d e cell) of t h e r e a c t o r core

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d i f f e r e n t c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t also r e g e n e r a t e d f o r e a c h of these
regions w h e n e v e r t h e c o m p o s i t i o n c h a n g e s (e.g., via fuel b u r n u p o r m o d e r a t o r
d e n s i t y c h a n g e s ) . If d e t a i l e d f a s t a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r a h a d to b e r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r
e a c h c h a n g e in c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e c o m p u t i n g costs f o r g r o u p c o n s t a n t g e n e r a t i o n
would be formidable.
I n p r a c t i c e it is f o u n d t h a t f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f r e q u e n t l y d e p e n d o n relatively
f e w p a r a m e t e r s i n v o l v i n g c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d m a t e r i a l densities. H e n c e it is f a r
m o r e efficient to c o n s t r u c t t a b l e s of t h e v a l u e s of t h e f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s f o r
several v a l u e s of these p a r a m e t e r s , a n d t h e n to use i n t e r p o l a t i o n s c h e m e s to
e v a l u a t e t h e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s w h e n necessary. 1 1 T o p r o v i d e a n illustration of h o w
s u c h p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n m i g h t w o r k , w e will give a very simple e x a m p l e of h o w o n e
might generate group constants for L W R s within the M U F T - S O F O C A T E
approach12.
First recall t h a t t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s w e r e d e f i n e d as a v e r a g e s of m i c r o s c o p i c
cross sections oJx(E) ( c h a r a c t e r i z i n g r e a c t i o n s of t y p e x in m a t e r i a l j ) over the
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m <t>(E). I n t h e S O F O C A T E a p p r o a c h the t h e r m a l
s p e c t r u m is o b t a i n e d b y solving t h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s e q u a t i o n (9-13) c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
a f r e e p r o t o n gas. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e o n l y p a r a m e t e r s t h a t e n t e r this
e q u a t i o n a r e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T a n d t h e r a t i o of a b s o r p t i o n to s c a t t e r i n g T
2 a ( / c r ) / | 2 s . H e n c e we might expect that the microscopic thermal group cons t a n t s g e n e r a t e d b y a S O F O C A T E - t y p e c o d e will d e p e n d o n l y o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s T
a n d T. T h i s d e p e n d e n c e is in f a c t r a t h e r s m o o t h l y varying, a s s h o w n , f o r e x a m p l e ,
in F i g u r e s 13-4 a n d 13-5, w h i c h s h o w t h e d e p e n d e n c e of a^ 25 o n T a n d T. I n f a c t
o n e c a n s h o w , u s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e u t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e m o d e l (see P r o b l e m 9-10),
t h a t 1 / v a b s o r b e r s will yield g r o u p c o n s t a n t s t h a t b e h a v e as o~ a ~ C x / ( \ + C 2 T ) 1 / 2 .
T h e W i g n e r - W i l k i n s e q u a t i o n c a n also b e a p p l i e d f o r n o n - l / o a b s o r p t i o n , such
a s t h a t d u e to r e s o n a n c e s in t h e t h e r m a l r a n g e . H o w e v e r the a b o v e t w o p a r a m e t e r s
will n o t s u f f i c e in this m o r e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t to
h i g h - b u r n u p cores, w h i c h usually c o n t a i n a n a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of 2 3 9 P u , w h i c h is
characterized b y a strong thermal resonance. O n e can always introduce additional
p a r a m e t e r s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of 2 3 9 P u s u c h a s
* = 2t\kT)/^(kT).
(13-3)
T h e d e p e n d e n c e of g r o u p c o n s t a n t s o n this p a r a m e t e r is essentially linear.

T h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n suggests t h a t it s h o u l d b e possible to c o n s t r u c t tables of the
d e p e n d e n c e of t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s o n p a r a m e t e r s s u c h as T, T, a n d xp. A
m a c r o s c o p i c cross section m o d u l e w o u l d t h e n use d a t a f r o m t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c a n d
d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e s to c o m p u t e these p a r a m e t e r s a n d t h e n use the p r e c a l c u l a t e d
g r o u p c o n s t a n t tables, a l o n g w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r p o l a t i o n s c h e m e s , to c a l c u l a t e
the required thermal group constants.
F o r f a s t g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , w e s h o u l d first recall t h a t M U F T - t y p e c a l c u l a t i o n s
solve t h e e x a c t slowing d o w n e q u a t i o n f o r h y d r o g e n c o u p l e d w i t h t h e age or
G o e r t z e l - G r e u l i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r m a s s n u m b e r s A > 1 to g e n e r a t e the fast
s p e c t r u m . I n e l a s t i c s c a t t e r i n g is t r e a t e d b y a direct m i c r o g r o u p a p p r o a c h , while
r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n is typically t r e a t e d w i t h i n t h e N R or N R I M a p p r o x i m a t i o n s
(with a p p r o p r i a t e h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o r r e c t i o n s ) .
P e r h a p s t h e k e y p a r a m e t e r of use in c h a r a c t e r i z i n g f a s t - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s is the
m o d e r a t o r - t o - f u e l d e n s i t y r a t i o in a h o m o g e n i z e d lattice cell. ( O n e o c c a s i o n a l l y
524
FIGURE 13-4.
The dependence of o^5 on the moderator temperature.
r
FIGURE 13-5.
The dependence of o f on T, moderator temperature=303C.
also u s e s t h e r a t i o of m o d e r a t o r v o l u m e t o f u e l v o l u m e in a f u e l cell, w h i c h gives

essentially t h e s a m e results.) S u c h a p a r a m e t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
n e u t r o n m o d e r a t i o n in t h e core. W e h a v e p l o t t e d t h e d e p e n d e n c e of v a r i o u s f a s t
g r o u p c o n s t a n t s o n this r a t i o i n F i g u r e 13-6. S u c h a p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n w o r k s q u i t e
well, p r o v i d e d t h e m o d e r a t o r densities a r e n o t t o o low.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t r u l y s a t i s f a c t o r y p a r a m e t e r exists f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g r e s o n a n c e
integrals (aside f r o m t h e f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e ) . If s u c h p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n s a r e desired, it
FIGURE 13-6
(dashed lines).
525
Group 1 averaged cross sections (solid line); Group 2 averaged cross sections
is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y to rely o n v a r i o u s e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e
integrals, similar to t h o s e d i s c u s s e d in Section 10-III.
T h e a b o v e discussion h a s b e e n i n t e n d e d as a very simple illustration of g r o u p
c o n s t a n t p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n . A v a r i e t y of o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s m i g h t b e u s e d , s u c h as
t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g b u r n u p or c o n t r o l r o d i n s e r t i o n . T h e specific p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n
s c h e m e o n e c h o o s e s (if a n y ) will d e p e n d o n the a c c u r a c y d e s i r e d f r o m the
c a l c u l a t i o n a n d t h e design p r o b l e m of interest.
IV. FLUX SYNTHESIS METHODS

A. Spatial Synthesis
Spatial f l u x synthesis is a t e c h n i q u e w h e r e b y o n e - or t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l diff u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c o m b i n e d to yield a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e r e a r e a v a r i e t y of t e c h n i q u e s , b o t h h e u r i s t i c a n d f o r m a l , f o r
b l e n d i n g s u c h lower d i m e n s i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s t o g e t h e r . F o r p u r p o s e s of illustration,
let u s first c o n s i d e r a simple e x a m p l e . 1 3
S u p p o s e w e w i s h to a n a l y z e a cylindrical r e a c t o r c o r e t h a t h a s b e e n p a r t i t i o n e d
i n t o b o t h r a d i a l a n d axial z o n e s ( d e n o t e d b y indices / a n d m respectively) (see
F i g u r e 13-7) in w h i c h t h e c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n is p r e s u m a b l y d i f f e r e n t . If t h e r e a c t o r
c o r e w e r e of u n i f o r m c o m p o s i t i o n (which it is n o t necessarily a s s u m e d to be), the
f l u x w o u l d b e s e p a r a b l e in t h e axial a n d r a d i a l c o o r d i n a t e s , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r w o u l d
526
FIGURE 13-7.
Axial and radial zoning.
h a v e t h e f o r m (for a given e n e r g y g r o u p )
4>?(r) = *?(r)casBMz.
(13-4)
Of c o u r s e t h e f l u x is m o r e generally not of this s e p a r a b l e f o r m , b u t t h e i d e a of

s p a t i a l s y n t h e s i s is t o r e p r e s e n t it a s s u c h a n d t h e n a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e a n
a p p r o p r i a t e r a d i a l s h a p e f a c t o r <j>(r) in e a c h axial r e g i o n m. H e r e t h e axial
b u c k l i n g Bz is p r e s u m e d k n o w n (or guessed).
If w e s u b s t i t u t e this s e p a r a b l e f l u x s h a p e i n t o t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s ,
we arrive at a one-dimensional equation for the radial flux profile
i
d<pm
" r f r
M * * ] * " <r>
2 V
g'-l
O3-5)
w h i c h is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n e f f e c t i v e t o t a l cross s e c t i o n
2 3 f , ^ 1 + DfB?.
(13-6)
N o t i c e t h a t h e r e DBZ r e p r e s e n t s r e m o v a l of n e u t r o n s d u e t o axial d i f f u s i o n . W e
c a n n o w solve this o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a d i a l f l u x p r o f i l e
<f>, a n d f r o m this c a l c u l a t e t h e r a d i a l b u c k l i n g f o r e a c h r e g i o n (/, m ) a s
2 n-i
f
g
m r dr
2g P%
()
1
(13-?)
527
A n a n a l o g o u s a p p r o a c h c a n b e t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e axial profile. T h a t is, o n e

solves t h e axial o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n a s s u m i n g a n e f f e c t i v e cross
section
=
(13-8)
where
B*(z)
= B}im f o r z i n r e g i o n m.
(13-9)
H a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d this axial profile, o n e c a n t h e n c a l c u l a t e a n axial b u c k l i n g

B * f o r e a c h r e g i o n . T h i s c a n b e u s e d to r e a d j u s t t h e e f f e c t i v e cross s e c t i o n in the
r a d i a l m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s a n d h e n c e allow o n e to d e t e r m i n e a n e w
r a d i a l p r o f i l e . By i t e r a t i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l r a d i a l a n d
axial profiles, o n e c a n e v e n t u a l l y c o n v e r g e o n a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s o l u t i o n in e a c h
r e g i o n of t h e f o r m
=
(13-10)
T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e f l u x in e a c h r e g i o n c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e d as a s e p a r a b l e
f u n c t i o n of r a n d z, this s c h e m e will yield a d e q u a t e results. A l t h o u g h this p r o c e d u r e is a c t u a l l y a very p r i m i t i v e f o r m of a flux-synthesis m e t h o d , it is m o r e
c o m m o n l y k n o w n as a buckling-iteration
m e t h o d . 1 3 It c a n b e g e n e r a l i z e d b y u s i n g a
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l r a d i a l c a l c u l a t i o n a n d a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l axial c a l c u l a t i o n .
H o w e v e r a f a r m o r e u s e f u l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is t o c h o o s e a m o r e e l a b o r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n or " s y n t h e s i s " of t h e flux. S u p p o s e w e r e p r e s e n t t h e f l u x in t h e c o r e as a
s u p e r p o s i t i o n of s e p a r a b l e t e r m s :
< M w ) =
T h e r a d i a l s h a p e f u n c t i o n s <j>
e (x,y)
on
2 <t>Jx,y)^(z).
n= 1
(13-11)
are usually constructed by p e r f o r m i n g two-
d i m e n s i o n a l static f l u x c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r x-y slices a t a small n u m b e r ( N ) of axial

l o c a t i o n s . T o d e t e r m i n e t h e axial " b l e n d i n g " c o e f f i c i e n t s ^ ( z ) o n e c a n use a
v a r i e t y of t e c h n i q u e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a c o m m o n s c h e m e is t o u s e weighted
residual
m e t h o d s , 1 4 in w h i c h o n e r e q u i r e s t h a t a w e i g h t e d integral of t h e d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n
o v e r t h e xy p l a n e v a n i s h e s
J
dx J
dywj(x,y) M<t>- F$ = 0,
K
j=l,...,N,
(13-12)
f o r N d i f f e r e n t w e i g h t i n g f u n c t i o n s Wj(x,y). H e r e M a n d F a r e t h e u s u a l d i f f u s i o n
a n d fission o p e r a t o r s (we h a v e a v o i d e d u s i n g a m u l t i g r o u p n o t a t i o n f o r simplicity).
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t r e l a t i o n s such as E q . (13-12) will l e a d to a set of TV-coupled
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e axial c o e f f i c i e n t s xp n (z). A m o r e satisfying a p p r o a c h is to use a v a r i a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e to derive t h e s e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l
p r o b l e m s , w h i c h c a n b e r e g a r d e d effectively as j u s t t h e a v e r a g e of t h e threed i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n over t h e x-y p l a n e (weighted b y t h e t r a n s v e r s e flux
s h a p e s <t>n(x,y)).
All s u c h s c h e m e s l e a d to very similar o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m s f o r t h e \f/o n (z).
N o t i c e t h a t a s w e h a v e w r i t t e n E q . (13-11), t h e f l u x synthesis applies to t h e entire
528
core. S u c h a s c h e m e is k n o w n as single-channel
c o e f f i c i e n t s on (z) a r e t h e s a m e a c r o s s t h e core.
synthesis,
10 15 16
> >
since t h e axial
Y e t in o u r earlier e x a m p l e w e s a w t h a t it w a s u s e f u l to d i v i d e t h e c o r e i n t o b o t h
r a d i a l a n d axial regions. H e n c e w e a r e led t o generalize t h e e x p a n s i o n E q . (13-11)
s u c h t h a t w e use d i f f e r e n t r a d i a l e x p a n s i o n f u n c t i o n s in d i f f e r e n t r a d i a l regions
("channels").
</>i(w)=
s
n= 1
*L(*K(*>y>
(13'13)
S u c h multichannel
synthesis p r o v i d e s a g r e a t d e a l m o r e flexibility in the c h o i c e of
expansion functions.17
S i n g l e - c h a n n e l s y n t h e s i s m e t h o d s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d to s y n t h e s i z e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l f l u x e s f r o m t h e results of b o t h t w o - a n d o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s .
T h e e x p a n s i o n f u n c t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y c h o s e n , u s i n g p h y s i c a l insight, s u c h t h a t t h e y
b r a c k e t t h e e x p e c t e d f l u x b e h a v i o r . T h e y c a n b e g e n e r a t e d b y p e r f o r m i n g static
criticality c a l c u l a t i o n s in o n e - or t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l f o r m f o r v a r i o u s t r a n s v e r s e slices
of t h e c o r e . S u c h t e c h n i q u e s h a v e p r o v e n q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l in m a n y p r o b l e m s . (It
m i g h t b e n o t e d t h a t m a n y synthesis c o d e s synthesize the r e a c t o r p o w e r d e n s i t y
r a t h e r t h a n t h e f l u x itself, 1 6 f o r it is f o u n d t h a t this gives a m o r e a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e
of the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i c h is of c o u r s e u s u a l l y the
i n f o r m a t i o n o n e seeks.)
E x p e r i e n c e w i t h m u l t i c h a n n e l synthesis is f a r m o r e limited. H o w e v e r in t h o s e
cases in w h i c h t h e flux is highly n o n s e p a r a b l e o r in w h i c h it is d i f f i c u l t t o c h o o s e
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e x p a n s i o n f u n c t i o n s , m u l t i c h a n n e l synthesis m e t h o d s s h o u l d p r o v e
superior.
B. Spectral Synthesis
T h e g e n e r a l synthesis p r o c e s s of b u i l d i n g u p a c o m p l i c a t e d s o l u t i o n o u t of
simpler, b u t n o t e l e m e n t a r y , c o m p o n e n t p a r t s h a s received a g r e a t d e a l of a t t e n t i o n
in o t h e r a s p e c t s of c o r e analysis as well. T h e r e are, f o r e x a m p l e , p r o b l e m s in w h i c h
s i g n i f i c a n t details of t h e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n b e p r e d i c t e d in a d v a n c e , a n d in these
s i t u a t i o n s t h e f u l l c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l u x u s i n g s t a n d a r d m u l t i g r o u p f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e
e q u a t i o n s g e n e r a t e s (at great e x p e n s e ) large a m o u n t s of r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n .
F o r e x a m p l e , a n a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in a f a s t r e a c t o r u s i n g
t h e f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e m u l t i g r o u p e q u a t i o n s w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e use of a g r e a t m a n y
g r o u p s ( 2 0 - 3 0 ) to t r e a t t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n c e at e a c h spatial p o i n t , w h e n in f a c t it
is k n o w n t h a t t h e e n e r g y s p e c t r u m shifts fairly s m o o t h l y in s p a c e f r o m o n e typical
m o d e t o a n o t h e r . T h e a c t u a l " i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t " consists of these m o d a l s p e c t r a
a n d their relative s t r e n g t h s at e a c h p o i n t , so e f f o r t is w a s t e d in t h e f i n d i n g of the
m u l t i g r o u p s o l u t i o n . Synthesis t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e u s e d t o greatly s i m p l i f y s u c h
calculations.
T h u s f a r w e h a v e c o n f i n e d o u r a t t e n t i o n to synthesis in t h e spatial v a r i a b l e s , b u t
t h e e n e r g y v a r i a b l e is also a m e n a b l e t o s u c h a t r e a t m e n t . 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 I n t h e sense t h a t the
m u l t i g r o u p a p p r o x i m a t i o n c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a synthesis m e t h o d , synthesis of
t h e e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f l u x h a s b e e n u s e d f o r a l o n g time. I n the d e r i v a t i o n
of t h e m u l t i g r o u p e q u a t i o n s it is implicitly a s s u m e d t h a t t h e f i n e s t r u c t u r e of t h e
e n e r g y - d e p e n d e n c e is fairly c o n s t a n t over larger spatial regions, a n d t h a t it is o n l y
n e c e s s a r y to c o m p u t e scale f a c t o r s to b e a p p l i e d to p r e c a l c u l a t e d s p e c t r a f o r e a c h
d i s j o i n t e n e r g y g r o u p . T h i s p r o v e s v e r y successful in a p p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e r m a l
529
s p e c t r u m r e a c t o r s , w h e r e i n d e e d t h e d o m i n a n t e n e r g y e f f e c t is the c o u p l i n g of the
n e u t r o n " b i r t h " r e g i o n t h r o u g h t h e r e s o n a n c e r e g i o n to t h e t h e r m a l region, a n d
u s u a l l y only a f e w e n e r g y g r o u p s a r e s u f f i c i e n t . H o w e v e r things are n o t so s i m p l e in
f a s t r e a c t o r analysis, w h e r e m a n y g r o u p s w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d to a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e
the energy-dependence.
P r o p e r m u l t i g r o u p analysis of a f a s t r e a c t o r r e q u i r e s c a l c u l a t i o n s in 2 0 - 3 0 g r o u p s
p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e of t h e e f f e c t s of the r e s o n a n c e s in t h e f a s t region. T h e spatial
v a r i a t i o n s of t h e flux, h o w e v e r , a r e fairly s m o o t h b e c a u s e t h e l o n g m e a n f r e e p a t h s
of f a s t n e u t r o n s m a k e f i n e s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l "invisible." T h i s e f f e c t c o m p e n s a t e s
s o m e w h a t , b u t n o t entirely, f o r t h e greater n u m b e r of e n e r g y variables b e c a u s e the
n u m b e r of s p a t i a l v a r i a b l e s c a n b e r e d u c e d , b u t it d o e s n o t alter t h e f a c t t h a t the
s p e c t r u m is e v e r y w h e r e in t r a n s i t i o n , so t h a t m a n y m a t e r i a l r e g i o n s s h o u l d b e used.
U s i n g 20 g r o u p s m a k e s a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n c o d e expensive to r u n a n d
detailed three-dimensional analyses almost impossible.
Spectral or energy synthesis involving t h e use of
e n e r g y e x p a n s i o n f u n c t i o n s seems to h o l d o u t t h e
e n e r g y f a s t f l u x p r o b l e m w i t h o u t d o i n g all of t h e
synthesis m e t h o d s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d b y e x p a n d i n g
of k n o w n f u n c t i o n s of e n e r g y
o v e r l a p p i n g , r a t h e r t h a n disjoint,
p r o m i s e of solving t h e s p a c e a n d
( d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y ) w o r k . Spectral
t h e flux as a linear c o m b i n a t i o n
<l>(r^)=S^(r)xm().
(13-14)
J u s t as in spatial synthesis m e t h o d s , w e i g h t e d r e s i d u a l or v a r i a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s c a n
b e u s e d to o b t a i n a set of c o u p l e d d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e s p a c e - d e p e n d e n t
c o m b i n i n g f u n c t i o n s ^ m ( r ) . T h e s e e q u a t i o n s a r e essentially e q u i v a l e n t in s t r u c t u r e
to t h e u s u a l m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s , e x c e p t the f u n c t i o n s ^ m ( r ) r e f e r t o the
p o r t i o n of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a given energy s p e c t r u m X m ( ^ ) r a t h e r
t h a n a r e s t r i c t e d r a n g e of energies Eg< E< E
H e n c e spectral synthesis is
s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to as t h e overlapping multigroup
technique.
N u m e r o u s studies h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t spectral synthesis m e t h o d s d o i n d e e d
p r o v i d e a n a c c u r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e to m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s . 1 8 , 1 9 W h e n
c o m b i n e d w i t h suitable n u m e r i c a l a l g o r i t h m s , 2 0 the spectral synthesis m e t h o d c a n
also yield v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e savings in c o m p u t a t i o n time over c o n v e n t i o n a l m u l t i g r o u p t e c h n i q u e s . H e n c e these m e t h o d s a r e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r active investigation
a n d a p p l i c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y to p r o b l e m s in f a s t r e a c t o r analysis.
V. LOCAL POWER-PEAKING EFFECTS

I n a n y h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h e r e will b e local v a r i a t i o n s in the
n e u t r o n flux o r p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in r e a c t o r core
design. W e h a v e a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d h o w t h e spatial v a r i a t i o n of the f l u x in the
vicinity of a f u e l p i n is t r e a t e d b y u s i n g collision p r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s to c o m p u t e
cell-averaged g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . W e will e m p l o y very similar t e c h n i q u e s to a n a l y z e
c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s in C h a p t e r 14.
H o w e v e r t h e r e a r e o t h e r local spatial f l u x v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g d u e to v a r i a t i o n s
in c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d p l a y i n g a n i m p o r t a n t role in r e a c t o r design. Of m a j o r
c o n c e r n is t h e local p o w e r - p e a k i n g t h a t o c c u r s at the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n f u e l a n d
m o d e r a t o r regions. F o r e x a m p l e , in L W R s o n e is c o n c e r n e d with the p o w e r p e a k i n g t h a t o c c u r s in w a t e r c h a n n e l s b e t w e e n f u e l a s s e m b l i e s or t h e c h a n n e l s f r o m
530
w h i c h c o n t r o l r o d s h a v e b e e n w i t h d r a w n . Since w e h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e m o d e r a t o r
a c t s a s a n e f f e c t i v e s o u r c e of t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s ( d u e t o slowing d o w n ) , w e m i g h t
e x p e c t t h a t t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s a d j a c e n t t o s u c h w a t e r c h a n n e l s will see a larger
t h e r m a l flux a n d h e n c e e x p e r i e n c e a h i g h e r p o w e r density. Since t h e local f l u x n e a r
t h e c h a n n e l m a y b e c o n s i d e r a b l e h i g h e r t h a n t h e a v e r a g e f l u x in t h e region, o n e
m u s t t a k e c a r e t h a t c o n s t r a i n t s o n c o r e p o w e r densities ( s u c h as t h e critical h e a t
flux l i m i t a t i o n s ) a r e n o t e x c e e d e d . T o this e n d , o n e w o u l d like t o c o m p u t e t h e local
power-peaking
factor f o r t h e c h a n n e l t h a t gives t h e p e a k - t o - a v e r a g e flux.
Similar e f f e c t s c a n o c c u r at t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n z o n e s of d i f f e r e n t f u e l
l o a d i n g , or b e t w e e n t h e r e a c t o r c o r e a n d r e f l e c t o r r e g i o n s ( s u c h as i n H T G R c o r e s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y axial f u e l - l o a d i n g zones). A l t h o u g h t h e d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of
s u c h local p o w e r - p e a k i n g f a c t o r s generally involves m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l , m u l t i g r o u p
d i f f u s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e c o r e r e g i o n of interest, w e c a n illustrate m o s t of t h e
p h y s i c a l i d e a s i n v o l v e d w i t h a v e r y simple m o d e l e d c a l c u l a t i o n . 2 1 , 2 2
W e will c o n s i d e r a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l s l a b g e o m e t r y c o m p o s e d of t w o a d j a c e n t
r e g i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d i f f e r e n t c o m p o s i t i o n ( F i g u r e 13-8). F o r e x a m p l e , o n e
r e g i o n m i g h t r e p r e s e n t a w a t e r c h a n n e l a n d t h e o t h e r region, a f u e l a s s e m b l y (in
which fuel elements and coolant channels have been appropriately homogenized).
F o r p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e , w e will a s s u m e t h a t r e g i o n 1 is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l o w e r
a b s o r p t i o n t h a n r e g i o n 2 so t h a t w e c a n c o n f i n e o u r a t t e n t i o n t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
p o w e r - p e a k i n g t h a t o c c u r s i n r e g i o n 2 d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e of r e g i o n 1. F o r
c o n v e n i e n c e , w e will u s e a o n e - s p e e d d i f f u s i o n m o d e l :
(13-15)
2
w h e r e Sx a n d S2 r e p r e s e n t spatially u n i f o r m s l o w i n g d o w n s o u r c e s w i t h i n e a c h
r e g i o n . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this m o d e l e d p r o b l e m a s r e p r e s e n t i n g
a u n i t cell of t h e c o r e lattice, w e will u s e z e r o - c u r r e n t b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s aX x = 0
o
FIGURE 13-8.
Two-region slab-geometry model of power peaking.
531
a n d x = b, a s well a s t h e i n t e r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s a t x = a:
1 W
2V
'
Jx(a) =
<j>x(a) =
(13-16)
/2(a).
W e c a n easily solve E q . (13-15) f o r t h e f l u x e s ^ ( J C ) a n d <f>2(-*0 in e a c h region.

A c t u a l l y w e a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d in t h e f l u x itself, b u t r a t h e r in t h e p o w e r - p e a k i n g
factor F
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g r e g i o n 2, w h i c h is d e f i n e d as the p e a k - t o - a v e r a g e p o w e r
ratio
'Pave
fb
w h e r e w e h a v e n o t e d h e r e t h a t t h e p e a k p o w e r will o c c u r a t t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n
t h e t w o regions. If w e solve f o r $2(x) a n d t h e n s u b s t i t u t e i n t o E q . (13-17), w e f i n d
t h e g e n e r a l result
S2
I- A 2 c o s h
a
PP
C
5*2
(5L
AT
/ l \
y(13-18)
'
a2
where
_
ai
cosh
( V)
$2
a
<13"19
DlL,
+coUl
sinh 5
t (V )
A c t u a l l y this result is a b i t t o o c o m p l i c a t e d f o r o u r p u r p o s e s . I n s t e a d w e will

a s s u m e t h a t r e g i o n 1 (e.g., t h e w a t e r c h a n n e l ) is n a r r o w s u c h t h a t a < . L x , while
r e g i o n 2 (the f u e l ) is w i d e s u c h t h a t b - a ^ L 2 . T h e n o n e c a n r e d u c e E q . (13-18) t o
t h e simpler a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m
S2+
f
"
aSi
<
s2+
(b-a)
>
T h i s simple result reveals several i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t s of local p o w e r - p e a k i n g . First,

t h e p e a k i n g will i n c r e a s e as t h e w i d t h of t h e m o d e r a t i n g region a increases, o r as
t h e d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h L 2 in the f u e l d e c r e a s e s (e.g., b y u s i n g h i g h e r e n r i c h m e n t fuels).
W e c a n d e c r e a s e t h e p o w e r - p e a k i n g b y either d e c r e a s i n g the slowing d o w n s o u r c e
in t h e c h a n n e l (e.g., b y u s i n g c o n t r o l r o d followers c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y w e a k
m o d e r a t i n g properties), i n c r e a s i n g t h e slowing d o w n source in the f u e l region, or
d e c r e a s i n g t h e f u e l r e g i o n w i d t h b-a.
T h e r e a r e o t h e r possible s c h e m e s f o r r e d u c i n g s u c h local p o w e r p e a k i n g t h a t a r e
n o t d e s c r i b e d b y this m o d e l . F o r e x a m p l e , it is c o m m o n p r a c t i c e in B W R s t o use
532
f u e l e l e m e n t s of s o m e w h a t l o w e r e n r i c h m e n t n e a r f u e l a s s e m b l y b o u n d a r i e s . O n e
can also use distributed b u r n a b l e poisions to flatten out the power-peaking.
T h e p o w e r - p e a k i n g i n w a t e r c h a n n e l s i n a L W R is m i t i g a t e d b y s o m e e x t e n t b y
t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o u p l i n g effects. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e in B W R s in w h i c h t h e
v e r y large n e g a t i v e v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity d u e to b o i l i n g c a u s e s a n i n h e r e n t
s e l f - f l a t t e n i n g of local p o w e r p e a k s . 2 3 , 2 6 W e h a v e s k e t c h e d t h e p o w e r - p e a k i n g in a
w a t e r c h a n n e l a d j a c e n t t o a B W R f u e l a s s e m b l y f o r several d i f f e r e n t c o o l a n t
densities in F i g u r e 13-9.
Y e t a n o t h e r e f f e c t w h i c h gives rise t o p o w e r - p e a k i n g is f u e l d e n s i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h
c a n o c c u r in m e t a l c l a d f u e l e l e m e n t s . 2 4 It h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t c e r a m i c f u e l pellets
c a n s h r i n k b o t h axially a n d radially w h e n i r r a d i a t e d in a r e a c t o r core. T h i s
s h r i n k a g e gives rise t o g a p s i n t h e fuel-pellet c o l u m n w i t h i n t h e f u e l e l e m e n t .
B e c a u s e of d e c r e a s e d n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n in t h e g a p , t h e r e will b e p o w e r - p e a k i n g in
fuel elements adjacent to the gap.
T h e p r i m a r y p o w e r p e a k i n g e f f e c t in H T G R s arises at b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n z o n e s
of d i f f e r i n g f u e l l o a d i n g 2 5 (see F i g u r e 13-10). A l t h o u g h t h e p o w e r - p e a k i n g f a c t o r is
u s u a l l y close t o u n i t y (typically F
such peaking effects must be accounted
f o r in H T G R c o r e design.
f o OOOOOO
o o o o o o d f
ooooooo O O O O O O O
ooooooo ooooooo
ooooooo ooooooo
QOOOOOQJ/ ooooooo
12.4
cm
Fuel e l e m e n t
channel
Zr
1 2 . 4 cmand
Control
assembly
blade
wrapper
Fuel +
Water
moderator
density:
(A)
0.762 g/cm3
(?)
(S)
0.467 g/cm
0.291
g/cm
Fpp =
1.330
Fpp =
1.343
Fjux (arbitrary units)
6.7 cm
FIGURE 13-9.
Power-peaking in a water channel adjacent to a BWR fuel assembly.
0.21
0.25
0.50
F r a c t i o n of core height,
FIGURE 13-10.
0.75
533
1.00
z/zmax
Power-peaking due to axial zones of different fuel loading in an HTGR. 25
REFERENCES
1. F. W. Todt and L. J. Todt, F E V E R / M 1 - A One-Dimensional Depletion Program for
Reactor Fuel Cycle Analysis, Gulf General Atomic Report GA-9780 (1969).
2. R. F. Barry, LEOPARDa spectrum-dependent non-spatial depletion code for the
IBM-7094, U S A E C Report WCAP-6058 (1964).
3. W. R. Cadwell, PDQ-7a program for the solution of the neutron diffusion equations
in two dimensions, U S A E C Report WAPD-TM-678 (1967).
4. R. L. Hellens, The physics of PWR reactors, N e w Developments in Reactor Physics and
Shielding, CONF-720901, (1972), Vol. I., p. 3.
5. E. G. Adensam, et al., Reactor and Fuel Proc. Tech. 12, (2) (1969).
6. D. L. Delp, D. L. Fischer, J. M. Harriman, and M. J. Stedwell, FLARE, a threedimensional boiling water reactor simulator, General Electric Report GEAP-4598
(1964).
7. R. G. Steinke, A coarse nodal method for solving the neutron diffusion equation,
University of Michigan Ph.D. Dissertation (1972); H. W. Graves, Jr., Evaluation of
power distribution in large reactors using a two-group nodal method, University of
Michigan Ph. D. Dissertation (1973).
8. C. F. Kang and K. F. Hansen, Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., 14, 199 (1971).
9. S. Nakamura, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 43, 116 (1971).
10. S. Kaplan, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 13, 22 (1962).
11. M. R. Bucker and H. C. Honeck, Mathematical Models and Computational Techniques
for Analysis of Nuclear Systems, U S A E C Report CONF-730414-P1 (1973), p. IX-42.
12. S. Karin, P. E. Meyer, and R. G. Steinke, An automated modular light water reactor
calculation code package, Proceedings of Conference on N e w Developments in Reactor
Mathematics and Applications, C O N F 710302 (Vol. 2) (1971) p. 983.
13. A. Radkowsky (Ed.), Naval Reactors Physics Handbook, Vol. I, Selected Basic Techniques, U S A E C Report TID-7030 (1964) p. 656.
14. W. M. Stacey, Jr., Modal Approximations:
Theory and An Application to Reactor Physics,
534
15. J. B. Yasinsky and S. Kaplan, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 28, 426 (1967); S. Kaplan, Nucl. Sci. Eng.
13, 22 (1962).
16. R. D. Traylor, V. Malakhof, and S. Leighton, SCANAL, a single-channel synthesis
depletion code with triangular mesh in the horizontal plane, Gulf General Atomic
Report GA-9423 (1969).
17. E. L. Wachspress and M. Becker, Variational multichannel synthesis with discontinuous
trial functions, U S A E C Report KAPL-3095 (1965).
18. P. G. Lorenzini and A. H. Robinson, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 44, 27 (1971).
19. R. J. Neuhold, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 43, 74 (1971).
20. W. G. Price, Jr. and J. J. Duderstadt, Nucl. Sci. Eng. 55, 98 (1974).
21. H. W. Graves, Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering
Department Lecture Notes (unpublished) (1969).
22. R. W. Deutsch, Nucleonics 16, 95 (1958).
23. R. L. Crowther, Physics measurements of BWR reactors and comparison with theory,
N e w Developments in Reactor Physics and Shielding, U S A E C CONF-720901 (1972), p.
114.
24. Technical session on fuel densification, Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. 8, 120 (1974).
25. G A S S A R 6, General Atomic Standard Safety Analysis Report, GA-A13200 (1975).
26. N . McFarlane, Nucl. Appl. Tech. 9, 634 (1970); E. Fuller, Nucl. Appl. Tech. 9, 622 (1970).
27. R. Froehlich, in Mathematical Models and Computational Techniques for Analysis of
Nuclear Systems, U S A E C Document CONF-730414-P2 (1973), p. V I M .
28. O. J. Marlowe, et al., W A N D A , A One-Dimensional Few Group Diffusion Code,
WAPD-TM-28 (1956), WAPD-TM-241 (1960); H. P. Flatt and D. C. Bailer, AIM-5, A
Multigroup One-Dimensional Diffusion Code, NAA-SR-4694 (1960).
PROBLEMS
13-1
Numerous factors in a nuclear reactor core design depend on the moderator-to-fuel

volume ratio VM/ VF in a fuel cell. Suppose we imagine decreasing this ratio in a
LWR, by decreasing lattice pitch while keeping fuel rod radius fixed. Indicate
qualitatively how and why each of the parameters below might be affected by such a
change in the reactor core if the core is initially undermoderated.
(a) Nuclear factors: 17,/,/?, c, PpmL, P t n L , and k ^ .
(b) Thermal-hydraulic factors: Core power density, coolant flow rate, core pressure
drop, fuel and clad temperature, and D N B R .
(c) Safety factors: Temperature coefficient of reactivity and response to a loss of
coolant accident.
(d) Economic factors: Fuel inventory, core size, and conversion ratio.
13-2
13-3
13-4
Using first-order perturbation theory, estimate the sign of the change in the thermal
group constant of5 due to the presence of 239 Pu. For convenience, model the thermal
resonance of 2 3 9 Pu as a Dirac 5-function such that
and, in particular, examine the cases of EQÊT=

kT.
Demonstrate that for small
the thermal group constants a depend linearly on \p.
Provide a physical explanation for the dependence of the fast-group constants on the
moderator-to-fuel ratio shown in Figure 13-6. (Remember that these results were
generated using a M U F T scheme.)

-5
535
The following problem will require the use of a very simple code package which
includes: (a) a simple group constant generation code (e.g., SOFOCATE-MUFT),
(b) a one-dimensional few-group diffusion code (e.g., W A N D A 2 8 or AIM), and (c)
a single-channel thermal-hydraulics code capable of analyzing a boiling water
channel in a BWR. This problem demonstrates a number of topics in Chapter 13,
including thermalhydraulic coupling and group constant parameterization. Consider
the B W R / 6 core design given in Appendix H. Idealize the reactor core as an infinite
bare slab (Figure 13-11). Using a simple LWR code package, determine both k e g and
the axial power distribution for the reactor. In your solution to the problem,
carefully outline your calculational procedure as well as the reasoning that led to the
procedure. Hints are as follow:
(a) The purpose of this problem is to demonstrate the strong coupling between the
neutronic calculations and thermal-hydraulic calculations in reactor design.
(b) You will have a limited amount of computer funds, so give careful thought as to
how you can best spend the money to get maximum accuracy in your solution.
(c) D o not treat this as a criticality search problem! Both composition and geometry
are fixed.
Procedure:
(i) Run the thermal-hydraulics code to obtain representative water densities,
fuel temperatures, and moderator temperatures. Use a bottom-peaked
profile since k ^ (and power) are expected to be greater in a nonboiling
region of the core.
(ii) Run the fast and thermal spectrum codes for high, low, and average water
density, using average fuel and moderator temperature. Determine
(ph 2 o)- Actually 2 { i s a function of T fuel as well. Since there is not a
direct correlation between T fuel and pH2o> o n e should plot 2 j versus both
Tf ue | and PH2O- However to minimize computing costs, the same fuel
temperature J1fuel can be used for all
Plot
versus p H z 0 so that the
spectrum codes need not be run for other water densities. (Use the graph to
obtain
for other p H2 o-)
(iii) Divide the core into suitable regions and find the average density in each
region from the thermal-hydraulics code. From these densities determine
all
for each region as input to the diffusion code.
(iv) From the multigroup diffusion calculation, obtain keff and the power
profile for input to the thermal-hydraulics calculation.
(v) Since neutronics and thermal-hydraulics are coupled, iterate between the
M G D and T-H codes until convergence of keff and the power profile
occurs.
FIGURE 13-11.
Slab model of axial BWR power calculation.
536
13-6
13-7
13-8

Use a one-dimensional code to perform a buckling iteration between axial and radial
calculations on the BWR of Problem 13-5 similar to that described in Section 13-IV.
For convenience, assume that the moderator density profile is fixed, obviating the
necessity of performing a thermal-hydraulic calculation.
Using the weighted residual method, develop the general form of the equations
describing the axial weighting coefficients in a single-channel synthesis scheme. For
convenience, treat only the case of one-group diffusion theory.
Choose the energy-expansion functions in the spectral synthesis method to be
disjoint step functions
1,
0,
13-9
>13-10
13-11
13-12
Em< E< Em_x

otherwise,
m=1
Then using the weighted residual method, verify that this choice indeed leads to the
usual multigroup diffusion equations. For convenience, choose the weight functions
wm(E) to be the Xm(E) proper. (This is known as the Galerkin weighting scheme.)
Explicitly derive the form given for the power-peaking factor Fpp in Eq. (13-20).
Repeat the derivation of the power-peaking factor for the slab geometry of Figure
13-8 by equating the current leaving the moderator region to the rate of thermal
neutron production in this region.
Derive the power-peaking factor characterizing two adjacent fuel regions of differing
enrichment.
In the BWR described in Problem 13-5, water slots are provided between fuel
assemblies to accomodate the cruciform shaped control rods (see Figure 13-9). When
the control rods are withdrawn from the water channels, power-peaking can occur in
neighboring fuel rods. We will model the geometry by the one-dimensional representation shown in Figure 13-9.
(a) Use a one-dimensional, one thermal group diffusion model to determine: (i)
shape of the flux in the unit cell, and (ii) the power-peaking factor Fpp for the
unit cell.
(b) What is the trend in Fpp if: (i) the water channel thickness is increased, (ii) the
fuel enrichment is increased, and (iii) stainless steel cladding is substituted for
zircaloy cladding.
Justify your answers.
14
Reactivity Control
I. INTRODUCTION
N u c l e a r reactors m u s t be initially l o a d e d with a significantly larger a m o u n t of
f u e l t h a n t h a t required merely to achieve criticality, since the intrinsic multiplication of the core will c h a n g e d u r i n g core o p e r a t i o n d u e to processes such as fuel
b u r n u p a n d fission p r o d u c t p r o d u c t i o n . Sufficient excess reactivity m u s t also be
p r o v i d e d to c o m p e n s a t e f o r negative reactivity f e e d b a c k effects such as those
represented b y the t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p o w e r defects of reactivity. In contrast to the
core geometry a n d volume, which are primarily d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r m a l considerations (i.e., achieving the required core t h e r m a l power o u t p u t utilizing a power
density consistent with t h e r m a l design limitations), the fuel l o a d i n g or e n r i c h m e n t
will be d e t e r m i n e d b y the desire to build into the core sufficient excess reactivity to
allow full p o w e r o p e r a t i o n f o r a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p e r i o d of time.
T o c o m p e n s a t e f o r this excess reactivity, it is necessary to i n t r o d u c e a n a m o u n t
of negative reactivity into the core which o n e c a n a d j u s t or control at will. This
control reactivity c a n b e used b o t h to c o m p e n s a t e for the excess reactivity necessary for long term core o p e r a t i o n a n d also to a d j u s t the p o w e r level of the
reactor in o r d e r to bring the core to power, follow load d e m a n d s , a n d shut the core
d o w n . T h e control reactivity is m o s t o f t e n present in the f o r m of strong n e u t r o n
a b s o r b e r s t h a t c a n b e inserted into or w i t h d r a w n f r o m the core (although movable
core reflector elements or fuel assemblies a n d c o o l a n t flow h a v e also occasionally
b e e n used f o r reactivity control). T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the control reactivity
r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d the a p p o r t i o n m e n t of control reactivity a m o n g various types of
control elements is a very i m p o r t a n t aspect of nuclear reactor core design. In this
i n t r o d u c t o r y section we will classify the control requirements of nuclear reactor
537
538
cores, a s well a s t h e v a r i o u s c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s c o m m o n l y u s e d in p o w e r r e a c t o r s . It
is first u s e f u l t o i n t r o d u c e several d e f i n i t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g reactivity c o n t r o l :
(1) Excess reactivity p c x : T h e c o r e reactivity p r e s e n t w i t h all c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s
w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e c o r e . p e x will b e a f u n c t i o n of b o t h t i m e ( d u e t o f u e l
b u r n u p a n d i s o t o p e p r o d u c t i o n ) a n d t e m p e r a t u r e ( d u e t o reactivity f e e d b a c k ) . L a r g e r v a l u e s of p e x will g e n e r a l l y i m p l y l o n g e r c o r e lifetimes, b u t
a t t h e e x p e n s e of l a r g e r c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d p o o r e r n e u t r o n
e c o n o m y (since w i t h m o r e c o n t r o l reactivity in t h e core, t h e r e will b e
more neutron absorption).
(2) Shutdown margin p s m : T h e n e g a t i v e reactivity of t h e c o r e p r e s e n t w h e n all
control elements have been fully inserted to achieve m i n i m u m core
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . A g a i n t h e s h u t d o w n m a r g i n p s m is a f u n c t i o n of t i m e a n d
temperature. F o r example, the shutdown margin for a "cold," "clean"
c o r e , t h a t is, a c o r e a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d w i t h a f r e s h f u e l
c o m p o s i t i o n in w h i c h n o d e p l e t i o n o r fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p h a s occ u r r e d , will b e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e s h u t d o w n m a r g i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a
core that has been operating at power for some time. Typically shutdown
m a r g i n s a r e c h o s e n s u c h t h a t t h e c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n is b e l o w critical (e.g.,
/c = 0.99) e v e n w i t h t h e m o s t r e a c t i v e c o n t r o l r o d s t u c k in t h e f u l l " o u t "
p o s i t i o n (the so-called stuck-rod
criterion)}
T h e s h u t d o w n m a r g i n n o t o n l y c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n in its
s h u t d o w n state, b u t is also r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t e a t w h i c h t h e r e a c t o r p o w e r
level m a y b e r e d u c e d in a n e m e r g e n c y s h u t d o w n o r " s c r a m . " I n p a r t i c u l a r
w e recall t h a t t h e p r o m p t j u m p a p p r o x i m a t i o n implies t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n a l
p o w e r level d e c r e a s e a c h i e v e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r c o n t r o l i n s e r t i o n is given
approximately by:
Power before control insertion _
Power after control insertion
P~p0 _
fi
fi~P\
p s m + ft
F o r e x a m p l e , a s h u t d o w n m a r g i n of p s m = . 0 3 0 w o u l d i m p l y t h a t t h e
r e a c t o r p o w e r level in a 2 3 5 U - f u e l e d t h e r m a l r e a c t o r (/3 = .00655) w o u l d
d r o p t o 18% of its initial v a l u e i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g a s c r a m .
(3) Total control element worth Ap: T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e excess reactivity a n d t h e m i n i m u m reactivity w h e n all c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s a r e f u l l y
i n s e r t e d . T h a t is,
Ap = p e x + p s m .
(14-2)
T h e p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of reactivity w o r t h is o c c a s i o n a l l y given a slightly

d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t of
i n t e r e s t is i n t e n d e d f o r p o w e r - l e v e l c h a n g e s o r f o r l o n g e r t e r m f u e l b u r n u p
c o m p e n s a t i o n . 2 W e will utilize t h e s i m p l e d e f i n i t i o n i m p l i e d b y E q . (14-2)
above.
(4) Control element worth Ap,: O n e c a n a l s o d e f i n e t h e reactivity w o r t h of a n
i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l e l e m e n t as t h e reactivity c h a n g e i n d u c e d in t h e c o r e b y
t h e full i n s e r t i o n of t h e e l e m e n t . I n T a b l e 14-1, w e h a v e listed typical
v a l u e s of t h e excess reactivity r e q u i r e m e n t s , s h u t d o w n m a r g i n s , a n d
REACTIVITY CONTROL
539
c o n t r o l e l e m e n t w o r t h s f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a c t o r types. W e will r e t u r n later

in this c h a p t e r to discuss h o w this reactivity c o n t r o l is a l l o c a t e d a m o n g
v a r i o u s c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e a m o u n t of excess
reactivity a n d h e n c e c o n t r o l r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s is c o n s i d e r a b l y
l a r g e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r f a s t r e a c t o r s (in w h i c h f u e l b r e e d i n g c o m pensates for fuel depletion).
TABLE 14-1:
Reactivity Requirements in Major Reactor Types
Reactivity (&k/k)
Excess reactivity p ex of
clean core:
at 68 F
at op. temp
at eq. Xe, Sm
Total worth of control, Ap
Control-rod worth
Burnable poison worth
Chemical shim worth
Shutdown margin p 8m
Cold and clean
Hot and eq. Xe, Sm
BWR
0.25
0.29
0.17
0.12
0.04
PWR
HTGR
LMFBR
0.293
0.248
0.181
0.32
0.07
0.08
0.17
0.128
0.050
0.037
0.073
0.210
0.16
0.10
0.074
0.074
0.03
0.14
0.082
0.137
0.024
0.037
O n e c a n distinguish several d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s :
(1) Scram control: T h e r e a c t o r c o n t r o l s y s t e m m u s t b e c a p a b l e of s h u t t i n g the
reactor d o w n under any credible operating conditions. Elements used for
s u c h s c r a m c o n t r o l p u r p o s e s m u s t b e c a p a b l e of i n s e r t i n g n e g a t i v e reactivity v e r y r a p i d l y a n d m u s t o p e r a t e w i t h a n extremely h i g h d e g r e e of
reliability.
(2) Power regulation:
C e r t a i n c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s are d e s i g n e d to c o m p e n s a t e
f o r s m a l l reactivity t r a n s i e n t s c a u s e d b y c h a n g e s in l o a d d e m a n d , c o r e
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d f o r power-level m a n e u v e r i n g .
(3) Shim control: S h i m c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o cover t h e excess
reactivity n e c e s s a r y to c o m p e n s a t e f o r l o n g - t e r m f u e l d e p l e t i o n a n d
fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p , as well as to s h a p e t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in the
c o r e in o r d e r t o o b t a i n b e t t e r t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d m o r e u n i f o r m f u e l
b u r n u p . A l t h o u g h t h e reactivity w o r t h of s u c h e l e m e n t s m u s t of necessity
b e q u i t e large, s h i m c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t s a r e m a d e v e r y g r a d u a l l y over
long time periods.
T h e r e a r e several s c h e m e s u s e d f o r i n t r o d u c i n g c o n t r o l a b s o r p t i o n i n t o a n u c l e a r
r e a c t o r core. O n e c o m m o n m e t h o d is t o insert m o v a b l e r o d s of a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l
i n t o the c o r e . S u c h movable control elements n o t o n l y c a n b e u s e d to a d j u s t the core
p o w e r , b u t b e c a u s e of their r a p i d r e s p o n s e c a n also b e u s e d f o r s c r a m m i n g the
r e a c t o r , a s well a s f o r s h i m a n d p o w e r s h a p i n g . F i x e d a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e
s o m e t i m e s f a b r i c a t e d i n t o t h e core, w i t h t h e i n t e n t t h a t s u c h a b s o r p t i o n will
g r a d u a l l y b u r n o u t a l o n g w i t h t h e f u e l . T h e s e burnable poisons a r e u s e f u l f o r
e x t e n d i n g t h e initial c o r e lifetime of r e a c t o r s . A third very p o p u l a r c o n t r o l
m e c h a n i s m in L W R s involves dissolving a p o i s o n s u c h as b o r i c a c i d in t h e c o o l a n t
itself. S u c h a soluble poison p r o v i d e s a v e r y u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d s h i m c o n t r o l
w h i c h m i n i m i z e s spatial p o w e r p r o f i l e p e r t u r b a t i o n s .
540
A large p o w e r r e a c t o r will c o n t a i n m a n y c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s d i s t r i b u t e d i n a
p a t t e r n a b o u t t h e c o r e in a n e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e e f f i c i e n t reactivity c o n t r o l w i t h i n
f l u x - p e a k i n g l i m i t a t i o n s , a s well as t o f a c i l i t a t e p o w e r s h a p i n g . T h e g r o u p i n g of
s u c h c o n t r o l r o d s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l r o d w i t h d r a w a l s e q u e n c e , a n d
t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of m o v a b l e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s w i t h b u r n a b l e a n d s o l u b l e c o n t r o l
p o i s o n s all fall w i t h i n t h e r e a l m of w h a t is k n o w n as control management.
Since t h e
reactivity w o r t h of c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s will c h a n g e , d u e t o b o t h t h e d e p l e t i o n of
c o n t r o l a b s o r b e r nuclei a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , c o n t r o l
m a n a g e m e n t a n a l y s i s m u s t c o n t i n u a l l y m o n i t o r t h e w o r t h of t h e c o n t r o l system
c o m p o n e n t s t h r o u g h o u t c o r e life in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n b o t h a n a d e q u a t e s h u t d o w n
margin a n d sufficient operating maneuverability.
II. MOVABLE CONTROL RODS

A. General Considerations Involved in Control Rod Design
M o v a b l e c o n t r o l r o d s a r e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y of p u r p o s e s t o c o n t r o l reactivity
f o r p o w e r m a n e u v e r i n g , s h i m c o n t r o l , o r r e a c t o r s c r a m . I n t h e early d a y s of n u c l e a r
r e a c t o r d e v e l o p m e n t , c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s w e r e typically c y l i n d r i c a l in s h a p e . H o w e v e r
in t o d a y ' s tightly p a c k e d f u e l lattices, c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s a r e typically c r u c i f o r m s h a p e d b l a d e s or clusters of n a r r o w c o n t r o l r o d s , a l t h o u g h larger c y l i n d r i c a l r o d s
c o n t i n u e t o b e utilized in g a s - c o o l e d r e a c t o r s . W e h a v e i n c l u d e d i l l u s t r a t i o n s of
typical m o v a b l e c o n t r o l r o d a s s e m b l i e s in F i g u r e s 14-1, 14-2, a n d 14-3.
Handle
o' c?
N e u t r o n a b s o r b e r rods
Sheath
Blade
FIGURE 14-1.
BWR control rod assembly. 15
Grid
assembly
Grid
assembly
Dash-pot
region
FIGURE 14-2.
PWR rod cluster control assembly. 16
Steel cable t o
FIGURE 14-3.
HGTR control rod and control fuel assembly.21
541
542
A n u m b e r of f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d in t h e d e s i g n of s u c h c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s . 3 F o r
e x a m p l e , o n e w o u l d desire to a c h i e v e t h e r e q u i r e d reactivity w o r t h w i t h a m i n i m u m
p e r t u r b a t i o n o n t h e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e core. O b v i o u s l y if the c o n t r o l r o d is t o o
highly a b s o r b i n g ( t o o " b l a c k " ) , t h e r e will b e a very p r o n o u n c e d f l u x d e p r e s s i o n in
its vicinity. H e n c e o n e generally a t t e m p t s to design r o d s s u c h t h a t their t h i c k n e s s is
n o t m u c h o v e r several m e a n a b s o r p t i o n lengths. S u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p l a c e a
p r e m i u m o n high surface-to-volume ratios for control elements (such as those
characterizing cruciform blades).
I n t h e r m a l r e a c t o r c o n t r o l , m o s t of t h e n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n in c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s
( s o m e 60%-S0%)
o c c u r s in t h e t h e r m a l e n e r g y r a n g e . H o w e v e r t h e r e will b e a n
e p i t h e r m a l a b s o r p t i o n e f f e c t d u e to r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n . I n a n i d e a l design, a
m i x t u r e of a b s o r b i n g i s o t o p e s w o u l d b e u s e d to p r o v i d e a b s o r p t i o n o v e r a r a n g e of
n e u t r o n energies (e.g., t h e A g - I n - C d alloy u s e d in P W R c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s ) .
T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s involved in d e s i g n i n g a c o n t r o l
e l e m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e desires a c o m p o s i t i o n a n d design h a v i n g a l o n g lifetime
a g a i n s t a b s o r b e r d e p l e t i o n . T h i s r e q u i r e s a large n u m b e r of a b s o r b i n g a t o m s p e r
u n i t v o l u m e . T h e d e p l e t i o n of a b s o r b e r m a t e r i a l is a p r i m e f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g
c o n t r o l r o d thickness. T h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t m u s t also b e d e s i g n e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a tion given to m e c h a n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i n t e n s e r a d i a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e r o d m u s t f u n c t i o n will c a u s e h i g h r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e .
F u r t h e r m o r e t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t m u s t exhibit g o o d r e s i s t a n c e to c o r r o s i o n , as well
a s b e i n g a b l e to t o l e r a t e t h e h i g h o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s in the c o r e . S u c h
t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e a u g m e n t e d b y the h e a t g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e e l e m e n t d u e to
n e u t r o n c a p t u r e . F i n a l l y t h e f a b r i c a t i o n costs of the e l e m e n t will b e a n i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e design.
B. The Calculation of Control Rod Worth

T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e reactivity w o r t h of i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s a n d
g r o u p s of s u c h c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s a n d t h e e f f e c t s of s u c h e l e m e n t s o n t h e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n in the c o r e of a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r c o n s t i t u t e a v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c e t of
n u c l e a r r e a c t o r design. A v a r i e t y of m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d to c a l c u l a t e
control rod worth.
O n e m i g h t b e t e m p t e d to utilize p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y to e s t i m a t e t h e e f f e c t of a
localized c o n t r o l a b s o r b e r o n c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , the
s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a c o n t r o l e l e m e n t c a u s e s a severe local d i s t o r t i o n
of t h e flux, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h o s e f u e l a s s e m b l i e s a d j a c e n t to t h e r o d . T h e c o n t r o l
e l e m e n t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s t r o n g self-shielding, m u c h as f u e l p i n s a r e . H e n c e
p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y is of limited use in c o n t r o l studies, unless t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y relatively w e a k a b s o r p t i o n . ( A l t h o u g h t h e c o n t r o l a b s o r p t i o n is
u s u a l l y t o o s t r o n g to allow m e a n i n g f u l p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y e s t i m a t e s in t h e r m a l
r e a c t o r s , the d e c r e a s e of a b s o r p t i o n cross sections a n d i n c r e a s e in m e a n f r e e p a t h s
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g n e u t r o n e n e r g y allows s o m e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r use of p e r t u r b a t i o n
m e t h o d s in f a s t r e a c t o r c o n t r o l studies. A n d , as w e s a w earlier in C h a p t e r 5, e v e n
t h o u g h p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y usually d o e s n o t p r o v i d e m e a n i n g f u l e s t i m a t e s of
absolute c o n t r o l r o d w o r t h s , it d o e s in f a c t p r o v e u s e f u l in s t u d y i n g t h e relative
w o r t h of v a r i o u s c o n t r o l e l e m e n t p a t t e r n s a n d positions.)
A m o r e c o m m o n a p p r o a c h involves t h e use of o n e - s p e e d d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y
t r e a t m e n t s t h a t utilize t r a n s p o r t - c o r r e c t e d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s at t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e c o n t r o l r o d . T h e l i t e r a t u r e 4 a b o u n d s w i t h d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y studies of cylindrical
r o d s i n s e r t e d i n t o b a r e , h o m o g e n e o u s cylindrical r e a c t o r c o r e s e i t h e r o n o r off
REACTIVITY CONTROL
543
c o r e axis. H o w e v e r such a n a l y s e s a r e of little r e l e v a n c e to c o n t r o l studies of large

p o w e r r e a c t o r s w i t h relatively tight f u e l lattices in w h i c h large n u m b e r s of e l e m e n t s
a r e d i s t r i b u t e d a b o u t t h e c o r e in a n e f f o r t to a c h i e v e a m o r e u n i f o r m p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n (see F i g u r e 14-4).
Mi
IW1 }f4i
X
X M\
M\ X
itHjuffi
Ml
X i
X
i l u i u l y i u i y l i
X p X -J- IJ. X .-. _ X . X
j i u i u i u i u i n i L
-Tx
3
X iwn^yîjHi X
IH1 X x
1H1
IKi IHI
H
\H\
FIGURE 14-4.
PWR core. 19
Location of control assemblies in a
W e will i n s t e a d a p p r o a c h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of c o n t r o l r o d w o r t h s in a m a n n e r very
similar to t h a t utilized f o r t h e inclusion of f u e l lattice h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s in the
g e n e r a t i o n of t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s . W e will use the f a c t t h a t m o d e r n p o w e r
r e a c t o r s c o n t a i n large n u m b e r s of c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s w h i c h t e n d t o b e r e a s o n a b l y
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t h e c o r e allowing division of t h e core i n t o cells, each
c o n t a i n i n g o n e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t . W e will t h e n p e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d analysis of o n e
s u c h c o n t r o l cell, similar to t h e analysis w e p r e s e n t e d earlier f o r a fuel cell, in a n
e f f o r t to d e t e r m i n e a n e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n cross section f o r the c o n t r o l e l e m e n t
w h i c h , w h e n m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e a v e r a g e f l u x in t h e c o n t r o l cell, yields t h e correct
a b s o r p t i o n r a t e in the e l e m e n t . S u c h effective cross sections c a n t h e n b e i n c l u d e d in
t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y analysis of t h e overall core. O b v i o u s l y such a
s c h e m e is v e r y similar to the g e n e r a t i o n of " s e l f - s h i e l d e d " t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s
d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 10.
A s in C h a p t e r 10, o u r a p p r o a c h will b e t o isolate a local region in the vicinity of
t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t f r o m t h e r e m a i n d e r of the c o r e a n d to a n a l y z e the n e u t r o n flux
in t h e r e g i o n in detail. T y p i c a l c o n t r o l cells f o r several r e a c t o r types a r e s k e t c h e d in
F i g u r e 14-5 b y w a y of illustration. A s in o u r earlier analysis, w e will d e c o u p l e the
c o n t r o l cell f r o m t h e rest of the c o r e b y d e m a n d i n g t h a t t h e n e t n e u t r o n c u r r e n t
a c r o s s t h e cell b o u n d a r y is zero. T h e i n f l u e n c e of a d j a c e n t cells c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d
b y relaxing this b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n to allow n o n z e r o flux g r a d i e n t s across the
boundary.
O u r a p p r o a c h will b e to use d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y w i t h t r a n s p o r t - c o r r e c t e d b o u n d a r y
c o n d i t i o n s o n the c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s u r f a c e in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the f l u x in the
c o n t r o l cell. 5 W e c a n t h e n use this f l u x to d e t e r m i n e a n effective cross section 2ff
characterizing the control element by requiring that
(14-3)
544
O
0OOOOOOOO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OO
OC jmpoooooooqaaQ
aIS
SO
OO
OO
QO
XX
poO
dQ
OO
O
OO
OEH
mS
o %$8o
00 O O
OOO
QO
OC
C fl
8
0o o
cc o0
O oO
o
0
00 o _
0
O ooo
_ O 00 00 o
o
0
O
_
O
D
O
O
O
0 oo
OOO
OOCo
0000000000000000
O Qoooooooooooooo
ooooooooooooooc OOOOOOOOOOOOjQjQjC
o0 o o o 8888
OO
OQ
OOO
C
0 o
O
OO
OCo
0
C 00 0
o o
0 o0
o ^ ^ i r f y ^ g o00 o_ o
o OCc0
O
O
o qf $ ^ b
co o o o
O O Cc
0ooooooooooooood
\
0ooooooooooooooo
^ O O O O O O O
0 0 0 0 0 0
ooooooo ooooooo
ooooooo ooooooo
ooooooo ooooooo
ooooooo O O O O O O
O O O O O O
\ v /
Rodcluster
control
element
Fuel element and

channel assembly
Note:
Special corrected corner rods
have different enrichment
than standard rods
(1) Intermediate enrichment
(2) Low enrichment
Fuel assembly
w i t h rodcluster
control
Fuel rod
BWR
PWR
Reserve shutdown hole

Coolant hole
i f
OO
oooo$
C o n t r o l - r o d channel
oo
_
ooo
QPQP
ooo
ooQodMpt.
Fuel hole
Burnable poison hole
HTGR
FIGURE 14-5.
Control cells for several reactor types.
w h e r e <j> is t h e v o l u m e - a v e r a g e d f l u x in t h e cell, F c e I 1 is t h e c o n t r o l cell v o l u m e , a n d

Sc t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s u r f a c e a r e a , respectively, while Jc is t h e a v e r a g e n e u t r o n
c u r r e n t at t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t . T h i s u s u a l l y r e d u c e s t o a twod i m e n s i o n a l g e o m e t r y ( s u c h a s t h o s e in F i g u r e 14-5), in w h i c h c a s e w e c a n w r i t e
(14-4)
cell
w h e r e Pc is t h e e x p o s e d c o n t r o l e l e m e n t p e r i m e t e r a n d AceU
a r e a of t h e c o n t r o l cell.
is t h e cross-sectional
REACTIVITY CONTROL
545
H e n c e o u r t a s k is o b v i o u s l y to d e t e r m i n e the r a t i o J c /<j> since this will yield 2ff.

T h e highly a b s o r b i n g n a t u r e of t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t i n v a l i d a t e s t h e direct a p p l i c a t i o n of d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y . I n s t e a d , o n e uses a d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y c a l c u l a t i o n o u t s i d e the
e l e m e n t , collision p r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s w i t h i n it, a n d t h e n c o u p l e s these at the
control element b o u n d a r y using "blackness theory"7 or effective transportc o r r e c t e d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ( m u c h as w a s d o n e in the A B H m e t h o d ) .
T h e a d v a n t a g e of this a p p r o a c h is t h a t it yields a cell p a r a m e t e r J c / $ t h a t is
relatively insensitive to t h e m a t e r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g the c o n t r o l e l e m e n t .
H e n c e t h e d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of Jc/<j> n e e d b e p e r f o r m e d o n l y o n c e a n d c a n b e
r e a p p l i e d r e g a r d l e s s of t h e c h a n g e in t h e cell c o m p o s i t i o n ( d u e to f u e l d e p l e t i o n ,
m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y c h a n g e s , or fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p ) .
T o i n d i c a t e m o r e clearly j u s t w h a t is i n v o l v e d in s u c h a c a l c u l a t i o n , let us
c o n s i d e r the explicit e x a m p l e of a c r u c i f o r m - s h a p e d c o n t r o l b l a d e i n s e r t e d i n t o a
h o m o g e n e o u s cell. 6 W e will n o t a t t a c k this t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m directly, b u t
r a t h e r will r e p l a c e it b y a n e q u i v a l e n t o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m t h a t p r e s e r v e s the
s a m e r a t i o of c o n t r o l r o d s u r f a c e to f u e l v o l u m e (see F i g u r e 14-6). S u c h a s c h e m e
s h o u l d give a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e if t h e s p a n I of t h e c o n t r o l b l a d e is s u b s t a n t i a l l y
greater than the diffusion length L characterizing the surrounding medium. The
s u r f a c e - t o - v o l u m e r a t i o of t h e r o d is
8/
2
4m -&tl
cell
(14-5)
+ 4t2
O u r e q u i v a l e n t o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m will b e as s h o w n in F i g u r e 14-6 w i t h a
s u r f a c e - t o - v o l u m e r a t i o of 1 / a \ h e n c e w e will d e m a n d
a = (m2-2tl+t2)/2L
(14-6)
W e will n o w use o n e - s p e e d d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y to d e t e r m i n e t h e flux in t h e f u e l
-D
d2<t>
dx2
(14-7)
0'
Control
FIGURE 14-6.
A one-dimensional model of a cruciform control blade cell.
546
w h e r e w e a s s u m e a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d s o u r c e of n e u t r o n s SQ slowing d o w n in
t h e f u e l - m o d e r a t o r m i x t u r e . T h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e cell a r e :
y(0)=0
(14-8)
J(a)/<t>(a)
= a.
N o t i c e t h a t w e h a v e i n t r o d u c e d a p a r a m e t e r a c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r a t i o of t h e
c u r r e n t t o t h e f l u x a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c o n t r o l r o d . Since t h e c o n t r o l r o d is a
strong absorber, a must be determined f r o m a separate transport calculation
m u c h a s o n e d e t e r m i n e s t h e e x t r a p o l a t i o n length c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a f r e e p l a n e
s u r f a c e , z 0 = . 7 1 0 4 XtT. I n d e e d , b y c o m p a r i n g E q . (14-8) w i t h E q . (4-175), o n e c a n
i d e n t i f y a n e f f e c t i v e e x t r a p o l a t i o n length a s d = D / a .
It is c o n v e n i e n t to r e w r i t e o u r e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e effective c o n t r o l cross s e c t i o n as
eff
2 cf
A cell <l>c $
l^cell /
W e will solve t h e a b o v e d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n in t h e f u e l to d e t e r m i n e t h e r a t i o of t h e
s u r f a c e f l u x <#>c to t h e a v e r a g e f l u x </>. T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y e n l i g h t e n i n g
b e c a u s e it stresses t h a t t h e d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n is o n l y b e i n g u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e f l u x
o u t s i d e of t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t . W e c a n easily solve this p r o b l e m to f i n d
a cosh
1-
<K*) =
(14-10)
a c o s h -7- HL
sinh 4L
T h e n w e c a n c o m p u t e t h e m a x i m u m - t o - a v e r a g e flux r a t i o a s
a coth
a
2^ aa +.
L
L
a
a
(14-11)
If w e n o t e t h a t P c / ^ c e l l = 1 / a f o r o u r o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m , w e c a n f i n d
2 f = ^
a(-JL
\ a
c o t h
^ ) - i
(14-12)
L j
I n p a r t i c u l a r , n o t i c e t h a t the c o n t r o l r o d w o r t h ( w h i c h is p r o p o r t i o n a l to 2ff)
i n c r e a s e s as t h e r a t i o of c o n t r o l r o d s u r f a c e to f u e l v o l u m e i n c r e a s e s (i.e., a
d e c r e a s e s ) or as f u e l a b s o r p t i o n d e c r e a s e s , as w e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d . R o d w o r t h
also increases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f u e l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h , since m o r e of the f u e l v o l u m e is
t h e n sensitive to f l u x p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d b y the r o d .
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e t r a n s p o r t c o r r e c t i o n p a r a m e t e r a involves the use of
t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y or collision p r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s . If t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t w e r e a
p e r f e c t l y b l a c k a b s o r b i n g slab, t h e n a t r a n s p o r t c a l c u l a t i o n 7 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a = 0 . 4 7 .
F o r g r a y e l e m e n t s , t h e result is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e g e o m e t r y of
REACTIVITY CONTROL
547
t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t . F o r a slab e l e m e n t of w i d t h t, such a n analysis yields

1-2*3(2.0
a
(14-13)
2[l + 34(Z.O] '

w h e r e En{z)
is t h e e x p o n e n t i a l i n t e g r a l
En(z)
= fe-zuu~ndu.
(14-14)
F o r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d e l e m e n t g e o m e t r i e s , s u c h as s a n d w i c h o r p i n s t r u c t u r e s ,
m o r e c o m p l e x expressions f o r a m u s t b e u s e d . 8 , 9 I n a similar sense, o n e c a n
c a l c u l a t e <f>c/<f> f o r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d cell g e o m e t r i e s .
A n u m b e r of o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m u s t b e i n c l u d e d in a m o r e a c c u r a t e det e r m i n a t i o n of c o n t r o l r o d w o r t h . F o r e x a m p l e , m o s t c o n t r o l b l a d e s h a v e s t r u c t u r a l
m a t e r i a l s in their tips t h a t p r o t r u d e i n t o h i g h f l u x regions. T h e e f f e c t i v e cross
s e c t i o n of t h e s e r e g i o n s m u s t u s u a l l y b e c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . F u r t h e r m o r e o n e
f i n d s a f l u x d e p r e s s i o n a t t h e c o r n e r of t h e b l a d e , with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g fluxp e a k i n g a t t h e o p p o s i t e c o r n e r of the cell. T h e e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l cross s e c t i o n m u s t
b e c o r r e c t e d f o r this e f f e c t .
C. Control Rod Effects on Core Power Distributions

T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of m o v a b l e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s in a r e a c t o r c o r e is to
c o n t r o l c o r e reactivity. H o w e v e r w e h a v e seen t h a t t h e strongly a b s o r b i n g n a t u r e of
c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s will c a u s e m a j o r p e r t u r b a t i o n s in t h e n e u t r o n f l u x in t h e vicinity
of t h e c o n t r o l e l e m e n t . T h u s f a r w e h a v e c o n f i n e d o u r t r e a t m e n t to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of s u c h p e r t u r b a t i o n s o n a local scale, s u c h as in a c o n t r o l cell. H o w e v e r as the
c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s a r e i n s e r t e d o r w i t h d r a w n , they will of c o u r s e also s t r o n g l y a f f e c t
t h e overall f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d h e n c e t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e r e a c t o r core. It
is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t to p r e d i c t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s o n c o r e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n s in o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e p o w e r d e n s i t y l i m i t a t i o n s d e m a n d e d b y
t h e r m a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u c h as t h o s e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 12 a r e n o t e x c e e d e d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , c o n t r o l r o d p a t t e r n s c a n a c t u a l l y b e u s e d to s h a p e t h e p o w e r
distribution into a more favorable profile for core thermal performance a n d fuel
burnup.
I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t s of c o n t r o l r o d i n s e r t i o n p a t t e r n s o n c o r e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n s , o n e m u s t b e c a r e f u l to i n c l u d e t h e m a n y i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t will a f f e c t
t h e p o w e r p r o f i l e . F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e w e c o n s i d e r t h e v a r i a t i o n in t h e axial
p o w e r p r o f i l e of a c o r e c o n t r o l l e d b y r o d i n s e r t i o n f r o m t h e top. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g
of c o r e life, t h e r o d s m u s t b e i n s e r t e d to c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e large excess reactivity
of t h e f r e s h c o r e l o a d i n g . T h e region of t h e c o r e in w h i c h t h e r o d s h a v e b e e n
i n s e r t e d will e x p e r i e n c e d e c r e a s e d m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d h e n c e relatively l o w e r fluxes.
H e n c e since t h e overall r e a c t o r p o w e r will b e k e p t c o n s t a n t , t h e r e will b e a
f l u x - p e a k i n g n e a r t h e b o t t o m of t h e core. A s t h e f u e l in t h e core is d e p l e t e d , t h e
c o n t r o l r o d s will b e g r a d u a l l y w i t h d r a w n t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r the r e d u c e d reactivity
of t h e f u e l . D u r i n g t h e early stages of c o r e life, t h e f u e l n e a r t h e b o t t o m of t h e c o r e
will h a v e b e e n e x p o s e d to relatively h i g h e r fluxes a n d h e n c e e x p e r i e n c e larger
b u r n u p s . T h u s as t h e c o n t r o l r o d s a r e w i t h d r a w n , t h e f l u x p e a k will shift t o w a r d
t h e t o p of t h e r e a c t o r core. S u c h i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n r o d s a n d f u e l b u r n u p c a n b e
548
m i n i m i z e d b y u s i n g m o r e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d c o n t r o l s u c h as b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s
a n d chemical shim.
r
Beginning of core life (BOL)
End of core life (E0L)

F I G U R E 14-7.
Interaction between control rod insertion and flux profile.
A n o t h e r a r e a of c o n c e r n is t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t r o l r o d p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e
b u i l d u p of f i s s i o n p r o d u c t p o i s o n s . T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y large a b s o r p t i o n cross sections, s u c h as 1 3 5 Xe, c a n l e a d t o spatial
p o w e r oscillations in t h e c o r e (as w e will see in m o r e d e t a i l w h e n w e s t u d y t h e t o p i c
of fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n i n g in C h a p t e r 15). I n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s t h e i n c o r r e c t
m a n a g e m e n t of c o n t r o l r o d p a t t e r n s c a n l e a d t o instability of t h e s e s p a t i a l oscillations.
Y e t a t h i r d t y p e of i n t e r a c t i o n is f o u n d in B W R c o r e s i n w h i c h t h e large w a t e r
d e n s i t y t o w a r d t h e b o t t o m of t h e core l e a d s t o a b o t t o m - p e a k e d f l u x p r o f i l e . By
inserting control rods f r o m the core bottom, one can c o m p e n s a t e for the e n h a n c e d
reactivity i n t r o d u c e d b y the higher m o d e r a t o r density a n d h e n c e achieve a
s o m e w h a t m o r e u n i f o r m axial f l u x profile.
Of c o u r s e t h e r e a r e s o m e d i s a d v a n t a g e s in t h e u s e of c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s f o r
p o w e r - p r o f i l e s h a p i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of f a v o r a b l e r a d i a l p o w e r
REACTIVITY CONTROL
549
profiles is s o m e t i m e s a c c o m p l i s h e d o n l y at t h e expense of s a t i s f a c t o r y axial

profiles. F u r t h e r m o r e t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of o p t i m a l f u e l b u r n u p m a y b e partially
o f f s e t b y t h e p o o r n e u t r o n e c o n o m y of a c o r e w i t h h i g h c o n t r o l i n s e r t i o n . T h e s e
f a c t o r s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d in devising a n o p t i m a l c o n t r o l m a n a g e m e n t s c h e m e .
T o m o r e explicitly s t u d y the e f f e c t s of r o d i n s e r t i o n o n c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
let u s c o n s i d e r a simple m o d e l of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of a b a n k of c o n t r o l r o d s w i t h a n
axial f l u x profile. 1 0 W e will m o d e l t h e r e a c t o r a s a cylinder a n d t r e a t t h e " r o d d e d "
a n d " u n r o d d e d " r e g i o n s of t h e c o r e as h o m o g e n e o u s (see F i g u r e 14-8). H e n c e the
i n s e r t i o n o r w i t h d r a w a l of t h e c o n t r o l r o d b a n k is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a shift of the
b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e g i o n s (a so-called " w i n d o w s h a d e " m o d e l ) .
T o s i m p l i f y this analysis, w e will a s s u m e t h a t t h e f l u x is s e p a r a b l e in r a n d z s u c h

that
<t>(r,z)=Z(z)J0(p0r/R).
(14-15)
T h e n t h e axial f l u x p r o f i l e % ( z ) satisfies
d2sr
dz2
w h e r e t h e e f f e c t i v e axial b u c k l i n g B
Bf=*
is given b y
1
/?n\2
a n d the i s u b s c r i p t h a s b e e n i n c l u d e d to distinguish b e t w e e n c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n s
(ôo i) a n d h e n c e f l u x p r o f i l e s (Z ( .) in the u n r o d d e d (region 1) a n d r o d d e d (region 2)
c o r e regions.
W e will seek solutions in e a c h of these regions w h i c h v a n i s h at t h e t o p a n d
550
b o t t o m of t h e core,
2\(z)
= A x sin Bzz,
<z<h
(14-18)
2 2 ( z ) = A2 s i n h [ BZi(H
- z) ],
h<z<H
( w h e r e w e h a v e a s s u m e d t h e c o n t r o l b a n k a b s o r p t i o n is s u f f i c i e n t l y large t h a t B * is
negative) a n d require the usual interface b o u n d a r y conditions:
d%x
%x(h)=%2(h),
Dx
= D-
~dT
(14-19)
U s i n g t h e s e i n t e r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s t o m a t c h t h e s o l u t i o n s a t z = h, w e f i n d t h a t t h e
criticality c o n d i t i o n b e c o m e s
(~t
nB h=
Y ^ -(
T ;
) t a n W - h)>
(14-20)
( a s s u m i n g Z ) , ~ Z ) 2 ) w h i l e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e axial f l u x a m p l i t u d e s is
A,
Ax
sin B,21h
sinh[5Z2(7/-/i)] '
(14-21)
T h e axial f l u x p r o f i l e h a s b e e n s k e t c h e d f o r several d i f f e r e n t r o d - b a n k i n s e r t i o n
d e p t h s h i n F i g u r e 14-8. A s e x p e c t e d , this result i n d i c a t e s t h a t r o d i n s e r t i o n c a n b e
u s e d t o shift a n d s h a p e t h e p e a k of t h e axial f l u x p r o f i l e . H e n c e m a n y c o r e designs
u s e partial-length
c o n t r o l r o d s 1 1 c o n t a i n i n g a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l o n l y o v e r a limited
f r a c t i o n of their l e n g t h i n o r d e r t o m o r e effectively s h a p e t h e axial profiles.
D. Control-Adjustment Calculations
I n o u r d e s c r i p t i o n of a g e n e r a l n u c l e a r a n a l y s i s c o d e p a c k a g e , w e i n d i c a t e d
t h a t a v e r y i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t w a s t h e control adjustment module, w h i c h a d j u s t e d
t h e a m o u n t of c o n t r o l in t h e c o r e t o r e t u r n t h e r e a c t o r t o a critical state f o l l o w i n g a
f u e l d e p l e t i o n step. I n this sense, t h e c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t m o d u l e s i m u l a t e s t h e
o p e r a t i o n of a n a c t u a l r e a c t o r in w h i c h s h i m c o n t r o l is slowly w i t h d r a w n t o
c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e loss of excess reactivity d u e t o f u e l b u r n u p .
I n m a n y r e a c t o r m o d e l s , o n e h a s the o p t i o n of either a d j u s t i n g t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of a dissolved a b s o r b i n g i s o t o p e in the c o o l a n t (i.e., c h e m i c a l s h i m ) o r a d j u s t i n g t h e
p o s i t i o n s of m o v a b l e c o n t r o l r o d s using a p r e s c r i b e d i n s e r t i o n - r e m o v a l s e q u e n c e
scheme. Chemical shim adjustment can be modeled by merely adding a prescribed
a m o u n t of a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n
u n i f o r m l y a c r o s s t h e core. T h e t r e a t m e n t of
m o v a b l e solid c o n t r o l e l e m e n t s is m o r e c o m p l e x , a s w e h a v e seen, a n d r e q u i r e s t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l cross s e c t i o n f o r e a c h c o n t r o l cell i n w h i c h t h e
r o d p o s i t i o n h a s c h a n g e d . S u c h e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l cross s e c t i o n s will d e p e n d n o t o n l y
o n t h e r o d i n s e r t i o n d e p t h , b u t also o n t h e c o o l a n t d e n s i t y a n d f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n of
e a c h cell. S i n c e t h e f r e q u e n t c a l c u l a t i o n of s u c h cross sections c a n b e r a t h e r
expensive, it is c u s t o m a r y t o t a b u l a t e e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l cross s e c t i o n s v e r s u s c o o l a n t
d e n s i t y a n d cell b u r n u p so t h a t a c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t s t e p o n l y r e q u i r e s a t a b l e
r e f e r e n c e a n d i n t e r p o l a t i o n ( m u c h a s is d o n e w i t h m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s ) .
REACTIVITY CONTROL
551
Since t h e a m o u n t of c o n t r o l n e c e s s a r y t o r e t u r n the core to critical is n o t k n o w n

a priori, o n e m u s t usually p r o c e e d iteratively b y guessing a c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t ,
computing
a n d t h e n r e a d j u s t i n g c o n t r o l if k e jj is n o t sufficiently close to unity.
T h e c o n v e r g e n c e r a t e of s u c h a n iterative c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t p r o c e d u r e d e p e n d s o n
o n e ' s ability to e s t i m a t e the r e q u i r e d c o n t r o l c h a n g e . S u c h a p r o c e d u r e c a n b e
greatly a c c e l e r a t e d b y u s i n g p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y to e s t i m a t e t h e reactivity w o r t h of
a given c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t . S u c h p e r t u r b a t i o n estimates w o r k q u i t e well f o r
a d j u s t m e n t s of a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d c o n t r o l a b s o r b e r , s u c h as c h e m i c a l shim.
H o w e v e r t h e l i m i t e d validity of p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y f o r s t r o n g l y localized a b sorbers, s u c h a s m o v a b l e c o n t r o l rods, f r e q u e n t l y requires m o r e e l a b o r a t e treatm e n t s in w h i c h t h e local p e r t u r b a t i o n o n the n e u t r o n flux in the vicinity of the
c o n t r o l e l e m e n t is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . 1 2
III. BURNABLE POISONS

T h e lifetime of a given c o r e f u e l l o a d i n g , t h a t is, t h e p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h the
c o r e h a s s u f f i c i e n t excess reactivity to p e r m i t s t a r t u p a n d full p o w e r o p e r a t i o n , is
generally d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e a m o u n t of f u e l initially l o a d e d i n t o t h e r e a c t o r core.
( A l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t a m a j o r f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g f u e l e l e m e n t
lifetime in t o d a y ' s m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r s is t h e a m o u n t of r a d i a t i o n d a m a g e a f u e l
e l e m e n t c a n w i t h s t a n d b e f o r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a n a p p r e c i a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure.)
Of c o u r s e t h e a m o u n t of f u e l l o a d e d i n t o t h e r e a c t o r will d e p e n d in p a r t o n the
excess reactivity t h a t c a n b e c o n v e n i e n t l y c o m p e n s a t e d f o r b y t h e r e a c t o r c o n t r o l
elements.
I n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e a l l o w a b l e initial c o r e f u e l loading, it is c o m m o n to l o a d
i n t o the c o r e m a t e r i a l s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y h i g h n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n cross sections
(poisons) t h a t c o m p e n s a t e f o r s u c h excess reactivity d u r i n g t h e early stages of core
life. 1 3 - 1 5 S u c h a b s o r b e r s a r e c h o s e n s u c h t h a t t h e y " b u r n o u t " (i.e., a r e t r a n s m u t e d
b y n e u t r o n c a p t u r e i n t o isotopes w i t h low c a p t u r e cross sections) s o m e w h a t f a s t e r
t h a n f u e l b u r n u p , so t h a t later in core life t h e y c o n t r i b u t e negligible negative
reactivity. H e n c e these b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s c a n n e a r l y m a t c h t h e t i m e b e h a v i o r of the
excess f u e l reactivity as it d e c r e a s e s over c o r e life, t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g larger initial
f u e l i n v e n t o r i e s w i t h o u t a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e in c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s .
B u r n a b l e p o i s o n s t h u s possess a n u m b e r of a d v a n t a g e s . T h e y i n c r e a s e core
lifetime w i t h o u t a n y d e c r e a s e in c o n t r o l safety, r e d u c e the a m o u n t of m e c h a n i c a l
c o n t r o l r e q u i r e d , a n d if d i s t r i b u t e d in a p r o p e r f a s h i o n , c a n also i m p r o v e core
p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , b y s u p p r e s s i n g reactivity in h i g h flux regions,
such as near coolant channels.
S u c h b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s a r e u s u a l l y f a b r i c a t e d i n t o the initial c o r e l o a d i n g as
either f i x e d c o n t r o l b l a d e s o r c u r t a i n s or m i x e d i n t o c e r t a i n f u e l pins. F o r e x a m p l e ,
in p r e s e n t B W R designs, 1 5 g a d o l i n i u m - l o a d e d f u e l pins w i t h a n initial reactivity
w o r t h of 0.12 A k / k a r e l o a d e d i n t o t h e c o r e u n t i l a n e q u i l i b r i u m f u e l cycle is
a c h i e v e d . I n P W R s , b o r o s i l i c a t e glass t u b e s a r e p l a c e d in the core in the initial core
l o a d i n g . 1 6 T h e l o c a t i o n s of s u c h b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s are s h o w n in typical fuel
a s s e m b l y c o n t r o l cells in F i g u r e 14-5.
F r o m this discussion, several d e s i r a b l e characteristics of b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s are
a p p a r e n t . O b v i o u s l y t h e y s h o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a b s o r p t i o n cross sections
s o m e w h a t h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e of t h e fuel, since t h e n t h e y will b u r n o u t m o r e rapidly
552
t h a n t h e fuel, leaving m i n i m a l p o i s o n r e s i d u e at t h e e n d of t h e f u e l cycle.

F u r t h e r m o r e t h e i s o t o p e s f o r m e d b y n e u t r o n c a p t u r e in t h e p o i s o n s h o u l d h a v e low
a b s o r p t i o n cross sections. F i n a l l y , t h e b u r n a b l e p o i s o n , as well a s its s u r r o u n d i n g
c l a d or s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l , s h o u l d n o t a f f e c t t h e s t r u c t u r a l integrity of t h e c o r e
( s u c h as b y swelling).
I n this s e c t i o n w e will e x a m i n e t w o a p p r o a c h e s f o r l o a d i n g b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s i n t o
a r e a c t o r c o r e . T h e first m e r e l y a s s u m e s a u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p o i s o n
m a t e r i a l a m o n g t h e f u e l . A s we will see b y a s i m p l e analysis, s u c h a h o m o g e n e o u s
s c h e m e e n c o u n t e r s difficulties in m a t c h i n g c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s . H e n c e a m o r e
d e s i r a b l e s c h e m e is t o l o a d t h e p o i s o n s in a h e t e r o g e n e o u s f a s h i o n to t a k e
a d v a n t a g e of self-shielding e f f e c t s t h a t c a n p r o v i d e a closer m a t c h b e t w e e n p o i s o n
b u r n o u t a n d fuel depletion.
A. Uniform Distribution of Burnable Poisons

F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , c o n s i d e r a n i n f i n i t e m e d i u m of h o m o g e n e o u s l y m i x e d f u e l
a n d p o i s o n . T h e n t h e r a t e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e b u r n u p of f u e l a n d p o i s o n
nuclei are just
dN
~df
(14-22)
dND
dt
-a
P
a
<HW).
W e c a n i n t e g r a t e e a c h of these e q u a t i o n s t o f i n d
^F(0 = ^F(0)exp[-aaF<f(0]
(14-23)
7Vp(0 = ^ p ( 0 ) e x p [ - a a p 0 > ( 0 ]
w h e r e $ ( / ) is t h e t i m e - i n t e g r a t e d n e u t r o n f l u x or neutron
$(/)=
fiuence
Cdt'Mt').
(14-24)
N o w the core multiplication can be estimated as
k = =
p
r = vo;
NF(t)
^ f C K + ^ P C K
=v
-1
r
(14-25)
W e c a n s k e t c h t h e f o r m of k(t) f o r v a r i o u s c h o i c e s of p o i s o n cross s e c t i o n as s h o w n
in F i g u r e 14-9.
Initially t h e c h a n g e in reactivity will b e h i g h d u e to p o i s o n b u r n u p . T h i s results
in a reactivity m i s m a t c h . T h e m i s m a t c h will b e less severe f o r a p o i s o n w i t h a small
a j , b u t t h e n t h e r e will b e a p o i s o n r e s i d u e t h a t will s h o r t e n c o r e life. T h u s there is a
c e r t a i n f u e l l o a d i n g a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r e life b e y o n d w h i c h t h e reactivity rise
REACTIVITY CONTROL
553
k(t)A
= 1.0
FIGURE 14-9.
Core multiplication versus time for various uniform burnable poison loadings.
d u e to t h e relatively r a p i d d e p l e t i o n of t h e p o i s o n will b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t w h i c h
c a n b e h a n d l e d b y the a v a i l a b l e m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r o l . Ideally o n e w o u l d like to
e m p l o y a p o i s o n of lower cross section early in c o r e life (to r e d u c e reactivity
m i s m a t c h ) a n d t h e n switch to a p o i s o n of large cross section late in c o r e life (to
m i n i m i z e p o i s o n residue). O n e c a n effectively achieve this b y l o c a t i n g t h e p o i s o n in
a r e g i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a d i f f e r e n t flux t h a n t h a t seen b y t h e fuel.
B. Heterogeneous Distributions of Burnable Poisons

T h e g e n e r a l i d e a u n d e r l y i n g t h e use of h e t e r o g e n e o u s l y l u m p e d b u r n a b l e
p o i s o n s is t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e s t r o n g self-shielding t h a t will o c c u r in s u c h
p o i s o n s . E a r l y in c o r e life, t h e self-shielding will r e d u c e t h e e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n
cross section of t h e p o i s o n , t h e r e b y m i n i m i z i n g reactivity m i s m a t c h . A s t h e p o i s o n
depletes, h o w e v e r , the effective cross section of t h e p o i s o n relative to the f u e l will
increase, d u e to self-shielding, w h i c h is t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n
reactivity as h i g h as possible n e a r the e n d of c o r e life.
T o b e a b i t m o r e precise, r e c o n s i d e r o u r e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g the t i m e r a t e of
c h a n g e of t h e p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n
dNP
(14-26)
H e r e w e h a v e i n s e r t e d a self-shielding f a c t o r / s (7) d e f i n e d s u c h t h a t
a v e r a g e f l u x in p o i s o n
/s(0
a v e r a g e flux in f u e l
(14-27)
W e h a v e explicitly i n d i c a t e d t h a t fs(t) will d e p e n d o n t i m e b e c a u s e of p o i s o n

d e p l e t i o n , w h i c h will r e d u c e t h e self-shielding as the p o i s o n b u r n s o u t (see F i g u r e
554
14-10). Initially t h e p o i s o n b u r n o u t is relatively slow d u e t o s t r o n g self-shielding.

H o w e v e r as p o i s o n d e p l e t i o n p r o c e e d s , self-shielding b e c o m e s less s i g n i f i c a n t until
e v e n t u a l l y / g ( f ) - l . H e n c e b y u s i n g v a r i o u s self-shielded b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s (e.g.,
b o r o n o r g a d o l i n i u m ) , o n e c a n m i n i m i z e t h e reactivity m i s m a t c h e a r l y in c o r e life
a n d still a v o i d a large r e s i d u e of u n b u r n e d p o i s o n t h a t w o u l d s h o r t e n c o r e lifetime.
B u r n a b l e p o i s o n s will a l s o a f f e c t t h e reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r e a c t o r . Since
most candidates for burnable poisons are l / v absorbers, the microscopic absorpt i o n cross s e c t i o n of t h e p o i s o n will b e larger i n a c o l d core. H e n c e a l u m p e d
p o i s o n e l e m e n t will b e m o r e h i g h l y self-shielded a n d t h e r e f o r e less e f f e c t i v e in a
c o l d c o r e t h a n in a h o t core. T h i s e n h a n c e s t h e n e g a t i v e b e h a v i o r of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity.
mm
t -* oo
^Poison
11
Change in f l u x depression as poison burns o u t
FIGURE 14-10.
Effect of variable self-shielding on poison burnbut.18
IV. CHEMICAL SHIM

I n light w a t e r r e a c t o r s , b o r i c acid is f r e q u e n t l y dissolved in t h e c o o l a n t (to
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of ~ 2 0 0 0 p p m ) t o act as s h i m c o n t r o l . 1 7 , 1 8 S u c h s o l u b l e p o i s o n s o r
c h e m i c a l s h i m h a v e several a d v a n t a g e s . Since t h e p o i s o n d i s t r i b u t i o n is u n i f o r m
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e a m o u n t of reactivity b e i n g c o n t r o l l e d , t h e f u e l l o a d i n g c a n
REACTIVITY CONTROL
555
b e m o r e easily d i s t r i b u t e d t o yield a u n i f o r m p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , s u c h a s b y
z o n e - l o a d i n g p a t t e r n s . C h e m i c a l s h i m r e d u c e s the m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r o l r o d req u i r e m e n t s q u i t e c o n s i d e r a b l y . Since s u c h r o d s a r e expensive a n d o c c u p y a sizable
f r a c t i o n of t h e c o r e v o l u m e , t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r o l w h e r e possible is
desirable.
I n T a b l e 14-1, t h e relative m e c h a n i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s of a
typical P W R a r e i n d i c a t e d . W e h a v e also s k e t c h e d in F i g u r e 14-11 t h e b o r o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d to c o m p e n s a t e f o r excess reactivity over c o r e life in a
typical r e a c t o r design ( c o m p a r i n g c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s b o t h w i t h a n d w i t h o u t a
burnable poison).
Core average burnup (MWD/MTU)

FIGURE 14-11.
rods. 11
Boron concentration versus first cycle burnup with and without burnable poison
A s u i t a b l e soluble p o i s o n m u s t b e a n i s o t o p e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a large n e u t r o n
a b s o r p t i o n s e c t i o n w h i c h is soluble in t h e c o o l a n t . It s h o u l d b e of a n o n c o r r o s i v e
n a t u r e a n d relatively s t a b l e so it will n o t a d h e r e to c o r e c o m p o n e n t s . Boric acid
possesses these r e q u i r e m e n t s w h e n u s e d in L W R s .
C h e m i c a l s h i m d o e s h a v e several d i s a d v a n t a g e s , h o w e v e r . Since t h e r a t e a t w h i c h
o n e c a n i n j e c t or w i t h d r a w a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t s of p o i s o n f r o m t h e c o o l a n t is q u i t e
small, t h e r e a c t i v i t y i n s e r t i o n r a t e s a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y s m a l l (with m a x i m u m
i n s e r t i o n r a t e s of ~ 3 x 1 0 ~ 5 / s e c ) . H e n c e c h e m i c a l s h i m is o n l y of use to c o m p e n sate f o r relatively slow reactivity c h a n g e s s u c h as those d u e to f u e l b u r n u p or
c o n v e r s i o n , fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n i n g , a n d m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e ( t e m perature defect).
C h e m i c a l s h i m c a n h a v e a m a j o r e f f e c t o n t h e m o d e r a t o r v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t of
reactivity. W e will f i n d t h a t in L W R s this void c o e f f i c i e n t is u s u a l l y q u i t e negative,
since a d e c r e a s e in c o o l a n t d e n s i t y leads t o a d e c r e a s e in m o d e r a t i o n a n d h e n c e
reactivity. H o w e v e r if a soluble p o i s o n is p r e s e n t , a d e c r e a s e in c o o l a n t d e n s i t y will
also lead to a d e c r e a s e in p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n a positive reactivity e f f e c t . T h e
desire f o r a n e g a t i v e v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t will f r e q u e n t l y limit t h e a m o u n t of c h e m i c a l
556
s h i m a l l o w e d (typically t o less t h a n Ap0.20 Ak/k).

a m o d e r n P W R c o r e d e s i g n in F i g u r e 14-12.
FIGURE 14-12.
PWR. 1 1
W e h a v e s h o w n this e f f e c t f o r
Moderator temperature (C)

The effect of chemical shim on the moderator temperature coefficient in a
T h e r e a r e o t h e r p o s s i b l e d i s a d v a n t a g e s , s u c h as t h e possibility of s u d d e n reactivity surges d u e t o c h e m i c a l s h i m t h a t h a s b e e n e n t r a i n e d in t h e c o r e a n d s u d d e n l y

b r e a k s loose t o e s c a p e . C h e m i c a l s h i m c a n also i n t e r a c t in a n u n f a v o r a b l e w a y w i t h
fission p r o d u c t t r a n s i e n t s ( x e n o n a n d s a m a r i u m ) t o w a r d t h e e n d of c o r e life, as w e
will i n d i c a t e i n C h a p t e r 15. N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e a d v a n t a g e s of c h e m i c a l s h i m m a k e it a
v e r y a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r o l in t h o s e r e a c t o r d e s i g n s in w h i c h it
c a n b e utilized.
V. INHERENT REACTIVITY EFFECTS

T o c o m p l e t e o u r d i s c u s s i o n of reactivity c o n t r o l , it is a p p r o p r i a t e to c o n s i d e r
s o m e of t h e m o r e c o m m o n m e c h a n i s m s t h a t give rise t o s h o r t - t e r m reactivity
c h a n g e s in a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r core. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s u c h m e c h a n i s m is
t h e v a r i a t i o n of reactivity w i t h c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e . A s w e s a w earlier in C h a p t e r 6,
this v a r i a t i o n is u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity
d e f i n e d as t h e d e r i v a t i v e of t h e c o r e reactivity w i t h respect t o t e m p e r a t u r e
(14-28)
j
H e r e w e h a v e n o t e d t h a t m o r e generally w e m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
v a r i a t i o n in t h e r e a c t o r b y c o m p u t i n g s e p a r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s c h a r a c t e r i z -
REACTIVITY CONTROL
557
ing t h e fuel, c o o l a n t , m o d e r a t o r , a n d so o n . It s h o u l d also b e n o t e d t h a t these

c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e t h e m s e l v e s f u n c t i o n s of t e m p e r a t u r e .
A c t u a l l y t h e m o r e u s e f u l q u a n t i t y is t h e p o w e r c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity a p t h a t
d e s c r i b e s t h e v a r i a t i o n in reactivity d u e to a c h a n g e in r e a c t o r p o w e r . T h i s latter
p a r a m e t e r is directly r e l a t e d t o t h e i n h e r e n t stability of t h e r e a c t o r , a n d m u s t b e
k e p t n e g a t i v e f o r all c o n c e i v a b l e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r a given r e a c t o r design.
H o w e v e r , a P is d e p e n d e n t o n a very large n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t p h e n o m e n a ,
i n c l u d i n g n o t o n l y c o r e n e u t r o n i c b e h a v i o r , b u t t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c p h e n o m e n a as
well. T h u s in p r a c t i c e it is f o u n d to b e f a r m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o a n a l y z e i n s t e a d t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s of reactivity t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e the v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s of
t h e core. Of c o u r s e , in principle, the p o w e r c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity c o u l d t h e n b e
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e a ^ as
p r o v i d e d o n e c a n p e r f o r m a t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c analysis of the c o r e to d e t e r m i n e
t h e c h a n g e in c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e s Tj resulting f r o m a c h a n g e in p o w e r level.
T e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s in a r e a c t o r c o r e will a f f e c t c o r e multiplication, b o t h
b e c a u s e of t h e resulting density c h a n g e s in core c o m p o n e n t s ( d u e to e x p a n s i o n or
p h a s e c h a n g e ) t h a t c h a n g e m a c r o s c o p i c cross sections, a n d b e c a u s e of a c h a n g e in
t h e t h e r m a l m o t i o n of c o r e nuclei w h i c h c h a n g e s m i c r o s c o p i c cross sections (e.g.,
t h e D o p p l e r effect). A l t h o u g h m a n y i n t r o d u c t o r y t r e a t m e n t s a t t e m p t to s t u d y this
p h e n o m e n o n b y calculating the isothermal temperature coefficient characterizing
e a c h c o m p o n e n t of the six-factor f o r m u l a , 2 3 we will e x a m i n e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t s a s s o c i a t e d with e a c h m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of t h e r e a c t o r core. I n p r a c t i c e
it is s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n s i d e r the reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g o n l y the fuel,
m o d e r a t o r (if any), c o o l a n t , a n d s t r u c t u r e .
T h e t w o d o m i n a n t t e m p e r a t u r e effects in m o s t r e a c t o r s a r e the c h a n g e in
r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n ( D o p p l e r e f f e c t ) d u e to f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s , a n d the
c h a n g e in t h e n e u t r o n e n e r g y s p e c t r u m d u e to c h a n g i n g m o d e r a t o r o r c o o l a n t
d e n s i t y ( d u e to t e m p e r a t u r e , pressure, or v o i d f r a c t i o n changes). O n e m u s t also
o c c a s i o n a l l y b e c o n c e r n e d with c o r e s t r u c t u r e e f f e c t s s u c h as d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p a n s i o n
a n d r o d b o w i n g . F o r t u n a t e l y in m o s t cases of p r a c t i c a l interest, these physical
p h e n o m e n a a r e sufficiently s e p a r a b l e to allow a n i n d e p e n d e n t analysis of e a c h
reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t .
F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e we a s s u m e t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the temp e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity a r e d u e to D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n i n g of f u e l r e s o n a n c e s
a n d the c h a n g e in the s p e c t r u m d u e to m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y c h a n g e s . If we n o t e t h a t
_ 3P
1 3* _ 1 dk
= 2
,
9T
k 3T
k dT '
n A
(14-30)
t h e n we c a n w r i t e
I
dk
, I
dk
F_I_M
/I/IOIX
N o w c h a n g e s in f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e TF d o n o t e f f e c t the s h a p e of the t h e r m a l n e u t r o n
e n e r g y s p e c t r u m . I n r e a c t o r c o r e s in which solid m o d e r a t o r s a r e u s e d (e.g.,
558
H T G R s ) , a c h a n g e in m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e will o n l y a f f e c t the t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m
a n d n o t t h e a b s o r p t i o n r a t e in t h e r e s o n a n c e e n e r g y r a n g e , h e n c e e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t c a n b e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y . 2 4 I n l i q u i d - m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r s (e.g., L W R s ) ,
a c h a n g e in m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e will c h a n g e m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y significantly,
t h e r e b y i n f l u e n c i n g slowing d o w n a n d h e n c e r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n . E v e n so, it is
c u s t o m a r y to a n a l y z e
a n d a ^ 1 separately, e v e n w h e n this i n t e r a c t i o n is p r e s e n t .
I n this spirit, w e will n o w e x a m i n e e a c h of t h e m a j o r reactivity f e e d b a c k
i p e c h a n i s m s of c o n c e r n in n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis. W e will t h e n c o n s i d e r t h e m o r e
p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m of j u s t h o w the c o r r e s p o n d i n g reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t f o r e a c h
m e c h a n i s m is c a l c u l a t e d .
A. Fuel Temperature Coefficient of Reactivity

F i r s t w e s h o u l d recall f r o m o u r s t u d y of r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n t h a t a n
i n c r e a s e in f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e will l e a d to D o p p l e r - b r o a d e n i n g of r e s o n a n c e s w i t h a
c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e in self-shielding, h e n c e a n increase in r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n .
W e c a n e s t i m a t e t h e e f f e c t of s u c h D o p p l e r b r o a d e n i n g o n reactivity b y recalling
t h a t t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y c a n b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s of the effective
r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l / as
Nx
p = exp
(14-32)
2
H e n c e w e c a n c a l c u l a t e the D o p p l e r c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity in t e r m s of
r e s o n a n c e i n t e g r a l as
1 dk
a-rF =_
k dTF
1
p
dp
i dl
= lnp
dT}
I dTx
the
(14-33)
W e m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 10 t h a t a very u s e f u l c o r r e l a t i o n 2 5 f o r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of t h e r e s o n a n c e integral w a s
/ ( r ) = /(300K)[i + ( V T - V300K )].
(14-34)
If we use this in E q . (14-33), w e f i n d
a= -In
1
p(300K)
(14-35)
2V7V
H e r e /? is a c o n s t a n t t h a t d e p e n d s o n l y o n f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d g e o m e t r y . F o r
e x a m p l e , f o r 2 3 8 U 0 22',
jS = 61 X 1 0 " 4 + 4 7 X 1 0 ~ 4 '
while f o r
232
(14-36)
ThO/? = 9 7 x 1 0 ~ 4 + 120 X 1 0 " 4
\ Mr
(14-37)
I n m o s t t h e r m a l r e a c t o r types, t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t arises p r i m a r i l y f r o m c a p t u r e
r e s o n a n c e s in fertile m a t e r i a l in t h e f u e l . F o r e x a m p l e , in slightly e n r i c h e d u r a n i u m
REACTIVITY CONTROL
559
cores, 2 3 8 U is t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r i b u t o r early in c o r e life, a l t h o u g h 2 4 0 P u b e c o m e s

i m p o r t a n t later in c o r e life. I n a n H T G R , 2 3 2 T h is of p r i m a r y c o n c e r n . T h e
c o n t r i b u t i o n of o t h e r h e a v y m e t a l isotopes such as 2 3 5 U or 2 3 9 P u s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d
in e s t i m a t e s of D o p p l e r coefficients, b u t their c o n t r i b u t i o n is usually quite small in
low fissile-density cores.
T h i s s i t u a t i o n is m o d i f i e d s o m e w h a t in f a s t reactors, 2 6 since the n e u t r o n energy
s p e c t r u m s p a n s the r e s o n a n c e regions of b o t h fertile a n d fissile materials. H e n c e
i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e will i n c r e a s e b o t h
and
T h e r e m a y b e a net increase
in reactivity. Since t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t is a f a s t f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m , a n d since the
p r o m p t n e u t r o n lifetime of a f a s t c o r e is so short, t h e sign of the D o p p l e r
c o e f f i c i e n t is extremely i m p o r t a n t .
T h e D o p p l e r c o e f f i c i e n t will t e n d to b e m o r e positive in a core with a h a r d
s p e c t r u m ( s u c h as in a m e t a l - f u e l e d core). T o s o f t e n the s p e c t r u m , o n e uses oxide
fuels. H e r e t h e o x y g e n will d e g r a d e the s p e c t r u m to yield a negative D o p p l e r
c o e f f i c i e n t . I n d e e d several f a s t r e a c t o r c o r e designs h a v e a c t u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a d d ing small a m o u n t s of m o d e r a t o r (such as BeO) to t h e core to s o f t e n the s p e c t r u m
a n d e n h a n c e the negative Doppler coefficient (although at considerable economic
penalty).
A l t h o u g h t h e reactivity c h a n g e c a u s e d b y t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t is f r e q u e n t l y small
c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r reactivity c h a n g e s d u r i n g n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , it b e c o m e s very
i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e p o s t u l a t e d p o w e r e x c u r s i o n s of c o n c e r n in r e a c t o r safety analysis.
I n such a n excursion, r a p i d f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s will l e a d to s t r o n g D o p p l e r
f e e d b a c k , w h i c h b e c o m e s the p r i n c i p a l m e c h a n i s m a c t i n g to t e r m i n a t e the p o w e r
excursion.
Since the D o p p l e r c o e f f i c i e n t d e p e n d s sensitively o n f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n , it will
c h a n g e d u e to f u e l b u r n u p a n d h e n c e m u s t b e m o n i t o r e d over core life. F o r
e x a m p l e , in a slightly e n r i c h e d core, the D o p p l e r c o e f f i c i e n t b e c o m e s m o r e n e g a t i v e
as a f u n c t i o n of core life d u e to b u i l d u p of 2 4 0 P u .
B. Coolant or Moderator Reactivity Coefficients

1. SOLID MODERATORS
I n solid m o d e r a t o r r e a c t o r cores, such as the g r a p h i t e - m o d e r a t e d H T G R , the
p r i m a r y reactivity e f f e c t is d u e to a h a r d e n i n g of the t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m
with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , w h i c h c a u s e s a c h a n g e in the t h e r m a l g r o u p c o n s t a n t s .
T h e m a g n i t u d e a n d sign of the a s s o c i a t e d m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t
d e p e n d s o n a n u m b e r of c o m p l i c a t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s , w h i c h leads to a r a t h e r complic a t e d d e p e n d e n c e o n t e m p e r a t u r e (see F i g u r e 14-13).
2. LIQUID-MODERATED REACTORS
T h e m o d e r a t o r c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity is a m e a s u r e of t h e c h a n g e in reactivity d u e to a c h a n g e in m o d e r a t o r p r o p e r t i e s such as t e m p e r a t u r e , density, pressure,
or void f r a c t i o n . W h e n t h e m o d e r a t o r is a liquid also f u n c t i o n i n g as a c o o l a n t , such
as in a L W R , these reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s m a y b e q u i t e sizable. W e will consider
the reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t a s s o c i a t e d with e a c h p r o p e r t y of the m o d e r a t o r .
(a) MODERATOR
TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENTS
A n i n c r e a s e in m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e , k e e p i n g d e n s i t y c o n s t a n t , will lead to
a h a r d e n e d n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m , resulting in i n c r e a s e d r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n in
560
Temperature
FIGURE 14-13.
HTGR. 21
(K)
Temperature-dependence of temperature coefficients of reactivity for a large
low-lying r e s o n a n c e s in i s o t o p e s s u c h as 2 3 8 U , 2 4 0 P u , o r 2 3 2 T h . T h e h a r d e n e d
s p e c t r u m will a l s o c a u s e a n i n c r e a s e in t h e c a p t u r e - t o - f i s s i o n r a t i o in 2 3 5 U a n d
239
P u , h e n c e a d e c r e a s e in -q. B o t h of t h e s e e f f e c t s r e n d e r t h e m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a ture coefficient m o r e negative.
(b) MODERATOR
DENSITY
CHANGES
T h e d o m i n a n t reactivity e f f e c t in w a t e r - m o d e r a t e d r e a c t o r s arises f r o m
c h a n g e s in m o d e r a t o r density, d u e either t o t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n o r v o i d f o r m a t i o n
( s t e a m p r o d u c t i o n ) . T h e p r i n c i p a l e f f e c t is u s u a l l y t h e loss of m o d e r a t i o n t h a t
a c c o m p a n i e s a d e c r e a s e in m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y a n d c a u s e s a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e
in r e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n . 2 7 T o see this m o r e clearly, let us r e t u r n t o o u r e x p r e s s i o n
E q . (14-32) f o r t h e r e s o n a n c e e s c a p e p r o b a b i l i t y
p = exp
Nf
(14-38)
w h e r e w e h a v e specifically i d e n t i f i e d t h e m o d e r a t o r d e n s i t y . H e n c e t h e v o i d or
d e n s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity is j u s t
.M
1 dk
CK
-f
^ ^ M
\ R T
Since dNM/dTM
will b e n e g a t i v e a n d m a y b e q u i t e large, p a r t i c u l a r l y if t h e c o o l a n t
is n e a r s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e void c o e f f i c i e n t of reactivity c a n also b e large
(see F i g u r e 14-14).
REACTIVITY CONTROL
561
-20
- 6 0
-100
V)
73
'o
>
|
-140
aa
-180
>
-220
\
-260
-3001
0
i
i
i
i
50 60 70 80
Voids %
Void coefficient of reactivity for a large BWR. 20
FIGURE 14-14.
i
10
i
20
i
30
i
40
i
90
100
I n m o s t cases, t h e v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a w a t e r - m o d e r a t e d c o r e will b e large a n d

negative. H o w e v e r if a p p r e c i a b l e c h e m i c a l s h i m is used, this reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t
b e c o m e s m o r e positive since t h e n a d e c r e a s e in c o o l a n t d e n s i t y will c a u s e a
d e c r e a s e in p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d h e n c e m a c r o s c o p i c a b s o r p t i o n cross section.
I n o r d e r to a c h i e v e a n e g a t i v e m o d e r a t o r c o e f f i c i e n t , o n e m u s t limit t h e c o n c e n t r a tion of soluble p o i s o n .
(c) MODERATOR
PRESSURE
COEFFICIENT
T h e m o d e r a t o r p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t relates the c h a n g e in m o d e r a t o r density

t h a t results f r o m a c o o l a n t p r e s s u r e c h a n g e , to a c h a n g e in reactivity. Since m o s t
r e a c t o r cores a r e o p e r a t e d at h i g h p r e s s u r e , this is a relatively small effect. F o r
e x a m p l e , a c h a n g e of 4 b a r in a P W R h a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e reactivity e f f e c t
a s d o e s a h a l f - d e g r e e c h a n g e in m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e . 2 8
(d) COOLANT
REACTIVITY
COEFFICIENTS
IN
LMFBRS
I n t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s , t h e c o o l a n t v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t is negative, b u t in a large fast

core, t h e s o d i u m v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t a v m a y in f a c t b e positive. T h a t is, a n i n c r e a s i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e will i n c r e a s e t h e v o i d f r a c t i o n , h e n c e i n c r e a s i n g reactivity a n d t h e r e b y
t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e r e a r e t w o c o m p e t i n g e f f e c t s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e the sign of a v : (a)
s p e c t r u m e f f e c t s , w h e r e t h e c o o l a n t d e g r a d e s t h e s p e c t r u m , l o w e r i n g t h e effective
rj; h e n c e a n y loss of s o d i u m h a r d e n s t h e s p e c t r u m , i m p l y i n g a v > 0 a n d (b) leakage
effects, w h e r e loss of s o d i u m n e a r t h e e d g e of t h e c o r e will i n c r e a s e l e a k a g e , h e n c e
i m p l y i n g a v < 0 . T h e s e e f f e c t s c o m p e t e in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t is
562
positive in t h e c e n t e r
effect becomes more
effect by increasing
g e o m e t r i e s ) b u t this
b r e e d i n g ratios.
of t h e c o r e a n d n e g a t i v e n e a r t h e e d g e . O n e f i n d s t h a t this
p r o n o u n c e d with larger cores. O n e c a n d e s i g n a r o u n d this
l e a k a g e u s i n g a " s p o i l e d " c o r e g e o m e t r y (e.g., p a n c a k e
will i n c u r p e n a l t i e s in large f u e l i n v e n t o r y a n d p o o r c o r e
C. Core Expansion Effects

A n i n c r e a s e in c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e c a n c a u s e a n e x p a n s i o n of c o r e s t r u c t u r a l
c o m p o n e n t s w i t h a n a t t e n d a n t c h a n g e in c o r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d h e n c e reactivity. If
t h e c o r e w e r e t o e x p a n d u n i f o r m l y , t h e d o m i n a n t e f f e c t s w o u l d b e a n i n c r e a s e in
c o r e size a n d c o o l a n t v o l u m e f r a c t i o n . T h e l a t t e r w o u l d u s u a l l y b e t h e largest e f f e c t
a n d w o u l d t e n d t o d e c r e a s e reactivity i n a f a s t c o r e (in w h i c h s u c h e x p a n s i o n
effects are most important).
Perhaps a m o r e significant effect would b e d u e to differential expansion leading
t o f u e l r o d b o w i n g . Since t h e b o w i n g w o u l d u s u a l l y b e in t h e d i r e c t i o n of a t h e r m a l
g r a d i e n t , t h e f u e l r o d s w o u l d b o w in t o w a r d t h e c e n t e r of t h e core, r e d u c i n g
c o o l a n t v o l u m e f r a c t i o n a n d i n c r e a s i n g reactivity. S u c h b o w i n g e f f e c t s led t o
instabilities i n s o m e of t h e early L M F B R c o r e designs. 2 9 T h e y c a n u s u a l l y b e
e l i m i n a t e d b y c a r e f u l d e s i g n of t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e .
A s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t e x p a n s i o n e f f e c t t h a t o c c u r s in m e t a l c l a d f u e l r e a c t o r
c o r e s is d i f f e r e n t i a l f u e l - c l a d e x p a n s i o n , w h i c h c a n l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d f u e l - c l a d
c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e a n d h e n c e i n c r e a s e d g a p t h e r m a l c o n d u c t a n c e . T h e n e t result is a
l o w e r i n g of f u e l t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d h e n c e a n i n c r e a s e in reactivity ( a l t h o u g h this is a
s e c o n d - o r d e r effect).
D. Calculation of Reactivity Coefficients

A l t h o u g h t h e s i m p l e expressions w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d f o r several of t h e t e m perature coefficients characterizing a reactor core are useful for a qualitative
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of reactivity f e e d b a c k effects, a p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n u s u a l l y involves
p e r f o r m i n g a s e q u e n c e of static criticality c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t f u e l or m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d t h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s
directly f r o m a t a b l e of keff as a f u n c t i o n of TF a n d TM or w h a t e v e r o t h e r v a r i a b l e
is of interest. S u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s m a y b e g r e a t l y e x p e d i t e d if t h e r e l e v a n t p h y s i c s
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of interest c a n b e isolated. F o r e x a m p l e , if t h e p r i m a r y
e f f e c t is k n o w n t o b e d e p e n d e n t o n a c h a n g e in t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n e n e r g y
s p e c t r u m ( s u c h as t h e m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a H T G R ) ,
then a n infinite m e d i u m spectrum calculation m a y be used to determine the
reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t .
T h e r e a r e a g r e a t m a n y details i n v o l v e d in t h e a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
reactivity c o e f f i c i e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e m u s t d e t e r m i n e j u s t w h a t t e m p e r a t u r e s t o
u s e in c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f u e l or m o d e r a t o r . T y p i c a l l y o n e uses a f l u x - w e i g h t e d
t e m p e r a t u r e a v e r a g e in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e D o p p l e r c o e f f i c i e n t of a f u e l p i n t o t a k e
i n t o a c c o u n t t h e f l u x d e p r e s s i o n t h a t results f r o m self-shielding. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t
c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s i o n of s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s is given in t h e S a f e t y A n a l y s i s R e p o r t s
c o v e r i n g e a c h r e a c t o r t y p e , 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 1 , 2 2 a n d t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d r e f e r to t h e s e r e p o r t s f o r
further information.
F o r p u r p o s e s of i l l u s t r a t i o n , w e h a v e t a b u l a t e d t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a c t i v i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g several of the m o r e c o m m o n r e a c t o r t y p e s in T a b l e 14-2.
REACTIVITY CONTROL
TABLE 14-2:
563
Temperature Coefficients
Fuel-temperature coefficient
Doppler (pcm/K)
Isothermal temperature coefficient
Coolant void (pcm/%void)
Moderator (pcm/K)
Expansion (pcm/K)
Temperature defect (%A k/k)
Power defect (%Ak/k)
Xe worth (%Ak/k)
Sm worth ( % A k / k )
BWR
PWR
HTGR
LMFBR
_ 4 to - 1
- 4 to - 1
-7
- 0 . 6 to - 2 . 5
-200to -100
- 5 0 to - 8
-0
2.0-3.0
1.5-2.5
0
- 5 0 to - 8
-0
2.0-3.0
1.5-2.5
2.6
0.7
- 1 2 to +20
2.6
0.7
+ 1.0
-0
0.7
4.0
3.3
0.5
-.92
0.5
0.8
0.0
0.0
REFERENCES
1. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, U S A E C Document TID-26241
(1973), Chapter 6.
(1966), pp. 499-503.
3. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering
4. J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
(1966), pp. 509-517; R. V. Meghreblian and D. K. Holmes, Reactor Analysis, McGrawHill, N e w York (1960). Ch. 11.
5. A. Radkowsky (Ed.), Naval Reactors Physics Handbook, Vol. I, Selected Basic Techniques, U S A E C Report TID-7030 (1964).
(1966), pp. 518-519; H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan
Nuclear Engineering Department Lecture Notes (unpublished) (1969); A. F. Henry,
U S A E C TID-7532, Part 1 (1957).
7. C. W. Maynard, in Naval Reactor Physics Handbook, Vol. 1, A. Radkowsky (Ed.),
U S A E C Report TID-7030 (1964), pp. 4 0 9 ^ 4 7 .
8. M. Michelini, Nucl Sci. Eng. 42, 162 (1970).
9. Reactor Physics Constants, U S A E C Document ANL-5800, 2nd Edition (1963).
10. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Control Management,
University of Michigan Nuclear
Engineering Department Lecture Notes (unpublished) (1969).
11. RESAR, PWR Standard Safety Analysis Report, Westinghouse (1973) Chapter 4.
12. D. C. Wade, Trans. Am. Nucl Soc. 11, 314 (1968).
13. A. Radkowsky (Ed.), Naval Reactors Physics Handbook, Vol. I, Selected Basic Techniques, U S A E C Report TID-7030 (1964), p. 800.
14. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering
15. B W R / 6 Standard Safety Analysis Report, General Electric (1973).
16. Reference Safety Analysis Report, Westinghouse Nuclear Energy Systems (1973).
17. P. Cohen and H. W. Graves, Jr., Nucleonics 22, 75 (1964).
18. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Control Management,
University of Michigan Nuclear
Engineering Department Lecture Notes (unpublished) (1969).
19. CESSAR, Standard Safety Analysis Report, System 80, Combustion Engineering (1973).
20. B W R / 6 Standard Safety Analysis Report, General Electric (1973).
21. Preliminary Safety Analysis Report, Summit Power Station, Delmarva Power (1973).
22. Preliminary Safety Analysis Report, Clinch River LMFBR Demonstration Plant, Project
Management Corporation (1975).
564

(1966), pp. 451-466.
Atomic, Gulf-GA-A 12652 (1974).
25. E. Hellstrand, P. Blomberg, and S. Horner, Nucl Sci. Eng. 8, 497 (1960).
26. D. Okrent and H. Hummel, Temperature Coefficients of Fast Reactors, Am. Nucl. Soc.,
Hindsdale, 111. (1968).
(1966) p. 458; H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Design, University of Michigan
Nuclear Engineering Department Lecture Notes (unpublished) (1969).
28. Reference Safety Analysis Report, Westinghouse Nuclear Energy Systems, Vol. 4 (1973).
29. T. J. Thompson and J. G. Beckerley, The Technology of Nuclear Reactor Safety, Vol. I,
PROBLEMS
14-1
Calculate the effective control cross section 2c f f characterizing a circular control cell
geometry in which the control rod is of radius a and the cell is of radius R. The
transport parameter a for this geometry is given in ANL-5800 9 as
x
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
14-6
14-7
14-8
14-9
14-10
1 =0.7104+M524
M?49
...
Demonstrate that for a perfectly black absorbing slab, the transport correction
parameter is a = 0.47.
Determine the effective control cross section 2ff for the slab geometry control cell
described in Section 14-II-B if the control rod is sufficiently weakly absorbing that
diffusion theory is valid. (That is, calculate a using diffusion theory in the control
rod.)
Compare a for a black rod (a = 0.47) and the diffusion theory description (Problem
14-3) with the transport theory result given by Eq. (14-13) for various values of 2 a a .
Suppose the shim rods of a power reactor are ganged together in such a way that
they can be treated as a uniformly distributed absorption cross section inserted into
a cylindrical core to a depth h. Using one-group perturbation theory, determine and
sketch the relative distance of insertion of the rods as a function of time over the
core life.
The measured thermal flux at the surface of the scram rods of a low power research
reactor is approximately 3 x 10 12 n e u t r o n s / c m 2 / s e c . The rods are stainless steel with
2% (by weight) boron. How long will it take to produce 90% burnup of the boron at
the rod surface. (a a for naturally occurring boron at 0.025 eV is 796 barns).
Repeat the calculation of the effect of rod-bank insertion on the axial power
distribution [i.e., resolve Eq. (14-16)] for partial length control rods of active length /,
!<H.
Show that in a critical reactor, a small change in soluble poison concentration
produces a change in reactivity that is approximately equal to the fractional change
in poison concentration multiplied by the fraction of neutrons absorbed in the
poison.
A reactor is to operate at constant power. The reactor is initially loaded with excess
fuel plus a burnable poison. Neglecting fission product poisoning, determine: (a) the
poison concentration as a function of time and (b) the reactivity as a function of
time if it is zero at startup.
A reactor that is highly enriched in 2 3 5 U and contains a burnable poison is required
to operate under the conditions that the excess reactivity never falls below p { and
REACTIVITY CONTROL
14-11
565
never rises above p2. Assume that a homogeneous model can be used to describe the
reactor. Develop expressions for both the initial poisoning ratio and the maximum
fluence for a core life
From the attached two-group constants for a typical low-power research reactor find
the total worth of the shim rod using a two-group diffusion code. Run the code for
four intermediate rod positions and plot the rod worth versus depth of insertion.
Using perturbation theory, calculate the rod worth versus position, and compare
with these results. Also plot the peak/average power ratio as a function of insertion
depth and explain your results. (Model the core as a slab of width 50 cm and treat as
a "windowshade" problem.)
The two-group constants for the core without the shim rod are:
Group
1
2
14-12
14-13
14-14
14-15
D
1.44440
0.24712
*2 f
0.001865
0.0780
2f
0.000763
0.0321
2 S]2
0.028743
2a
0.001905
0.052200
When the shim rod is inserted, S a 2 = 0.053606; all other group constants remain
unchanged.
Suppose that it were possible to choose a burnable poison whose effective microscopic cross section, aj(/) were a controllable function of time (e.g., by careful design
of self-shielding burnout). What time-dependence would be required to yield a
uniform excess reactivity over core life?
Calculate the isothermal temperature coefficient of reactivity for the thermal and fast
nonleakage probabilities <*t(^tnl) a n d a T (/ > F N L ), assuming that the primary temperature effect is core expansion. Assume a thermal expansion coefficient of fi for
the core.
Consider a LWR fueled with slightly enriched uranium.
(a) Indicate how, for small void fractions, to calculate approximately the void
coefficient of reactivity, i.e., the fractional change in multiplication per fractional
change in void.
(b) In PWRs the water will frequently contain boron in solution. Indicate the effect
this is likely to have on the void coefficient and explain.
(c) What is the effect of water temperature (at a given pressure) on the results of (a)
and (b) above.
If a large BWR has a zero moderator density coefficient at operating temperature
(Ph 2 o~0-8 g / c m 3 ) and zero power, what will the sign of the coefficient be: (a) at full
power with 10% void fraction and (b) at refueling temperature ( p H 2 o = 1 g/cm 3 )?
Give reasons for your answers.
15
Analysis of Core Composition Changes
T h e a t o m i c densities of various isotopes in a reactor core are continually

c h a n g i n g d u e to nuclear processes such as fission, n e u t r o n capture, a n d radioactive
decay. F o r example, fission events will r e d u c e the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of fissile isotopes
such as 2 3 3 U, 2 3 5 U, or 2 3 9 Pu. N e u t r o n c a p t u r e will r e d u c e fertile nuclide c o n c e n t r a tions while b u i l d i n g u p the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t r a n s m u t a t i o n p r o d u c t s such as 2 3 9 Pu.
I n a d d i t i o n w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t fission reactions will p r o d u c e a large variety of
fission p r o d u c t nuclides, m o s t of which are radioactive a n d will subsequently d e c a y
into o t h e r isotopic species.
It is extremely i m p o r t a n t to m o n i t o r t h e isotopic c o m p o s i t i o n in the core d u r i n g
reactor operation, since changes in core c o m p o s i t i o n c a n a f f e c t core multiplication
as well as flux a n d p o w e r distributions. Certainly the prediction of fuel depletion
a n d conversion in the core is essential f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f u e l loading
requirements. F u r t h e r m o r e certain of the fission p r o d u c t nuclei (or their p r o g e n y
following radioactive decay) are characterized b y extremely large a b s o r p t i o n cross
sections a n d h e n c e m a y significantly affect the reactivity of the core. F o r example,
135
Xe h a s a n e n o r m o u s t h e r m a l n e u t r o n cross section of a a = 2 . 7 x 10 6 b a r n s . A very
small a m o u n t of such fission p r o d u c t " p o i s o n s " m a y significantly a f f e c t the
multiplication of the reactor, since as they a c c u m u l a t e they will a b s o r b n e u t r o n s
f r o m the c h a i n reaction.
T h e analysis of core c o m p o s i t i o n changes is c o m p l i c a t e d b y the f a c t t h a t the time
a n d spatial v a r i a t i o n in isotopic c o m p o s i t i o n will d e p e n d o n the n e u t r o n flux
d i s t r i b u t i o n - w h i c h itself d e p e n d s o n core composition. F o r t u n a t e l y c h a n g e s in core
c o m p o s i t i o n o c c u r relatively slowly (on time scales of hours, days, or even m o n t h s )
so that the r e a c t o r core c a n always be k e p t in a critical state b y c o n t r o l element
a d j u s t m e n t s . T h i s m e a n s that although a t i m e - d e p e n d e n t analysis of the rate
566
ANALYSIS OF CORE COMPOSITION CHANGES
567
e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g c h a n g e s in isotopic n u m b e r d e n s i t y is necessary, the n e u t r o n i c

b e h a v i o r c a n b e s t u d i e d b y p e r f o r m i n g a s e q u e n c e of i n s t a n t a n e o u s static criticality
c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r e a c h c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n e n c o u n t e r e d . H e n c e a l t h o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s of
c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n c h a n g e s d o e s involve t i m e - d e p e n d e n t p h e n o m e n a , the n e u t r o n i c
p a r t of t h e a n a l y s i s involves o n l y static c a l c u l a t i o n s of c o r e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d
h e n c e d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t of n u c l e a r r e a c t o r kinetics of
C h a p t e r 6.
O u r i n t e n t in this c h a p t e r is to e x a m i n e t h e p r o c e d u r e s u s e f u l f o r a n a l y z i n g such
t i m e - d e p e n d e n t c h a n g e s in c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n . W e will first e x a m i n e s h o r t - t e r m
c o m p o s i t i o n c h a n g e s d u e to fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p t h a t a f f e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n of the
r e a c t o r . I n p a r t i c u l a r w e will a p p l y t h e s e m e t h o d s to a n analysis of t h e very
i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m of x e n o n a n d s a m a r i u m t r a n s i e n t s in t h e r m a l p o w e r r e a c t o r
cores.
W e will t h e n c o n t i n u e to c o n s i d e r t h e l o n g e r t e r m p r o c e s s of f u e l d e p l e t i o n
d e v e l o p m e t h o d s f o r c o r e d e p l e t i o n analysis. T h i s will allow us t o e x a m i n e
v a r i a b l e s d e t e r m i n i n g c o r e lifetime a n d f u e l l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . Finally, w e
illustrate t h e s e m e t h o d s b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e v e r y i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m of i n - c o r e
management.
and
the
will
fuel
I. FISSION PRODUCT POISONING

C e r t a i n fission p r o d u c t s possess e x t r e m e l y large t h e r m a l n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n
cross sections. Of p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n a r e 1 3 5 Xe a n d 1 4 9 Sm, w h o s e a b s o r p t i o n cross
sections 1 a r e s h o w n in F i g u r e 2-4. T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e e x t r e m e l y strongly
a b s o r b i n g fission p r o d u c t s is c o m p o u n d e d b y their relatively large fission yields.
T h e b u i l d u p of such fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n s c a n a p p r e c i a b l y a f f e c t c o r e multiplicat i o n a n d h e n c e r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t since these
a b s o r p t i o n cross sections fall off q u i t e r a p i d l y f o r n e u t r o n energies a b o v e 1 eV,
fission product poisoning is p r i m a r i l y of c o n c e r n in t h e r m a l r e a c t o r s ( a n d o n l y of
s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e in f a s t r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n ) .
I n o r d e r t o illustrate t h e i m p o r t a n c e of this p h e n o m e n o n , let u s m a k e a very
simple e s t i m a t e of the reactivity c h a n g e i n d u c e d in a r e a c t o r c o r e b y the a d d i t i o n
of a fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n . T o first o r d e r , t h e e f f e c t s of s u c h p o i s o n s e n t e r t h r o u g h
t h e t h e r m a l utilization / . If w e i m a g i n e i n t r o d u c i n g a p o i s o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a
m a c r o s c o p i c cross section
u n i f o r m l y t h r o u g h o u t a h o m o g e n e o u s r e a c t o r core,
t h e n w e c a n write t h e t h e r m a l utilization c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the " p o i s o n e d " c o r e as
(15-1)
H e n c e w e c a n c o m p u t e t h e reactivity c h a n g e f r o m a critical r e a c t o r in w h i c h
as
Ap = p ( 2 : ) - p ( 2 r = 0 ) = p ' - p .
= 0
(15-2)
N o w if w e recall o u r earlier d e f i n i t i o n of reactivity as given b y t h e six-factor
568
formula
P =
k - 1
k
'
k =
i\pftP
F N m
L *P.T N L
(15-3)
and note that

^TNL~
will also c h a n g e as
1 + L Bg
L2=
'
2.
3 2 .tr"a
S '
(15-4)
changes, then we can c o m p u t e

.
f ~ f , ^ T N L - ^TNL
Ap=f^ +
P'
(15-5)
If w e u s e E q s . (15-1) a n d (15-4), w e f i n d
(15-6)
<M '
and
P'
TNL
Z /2 5D 2
P' T N L
P'
^TNL
1 + L 5g
'tr
2
(15-7)
tr
Hence
Ap =
2a
1 + L25g2
1-
LB
1+ L25i
(15-8)
H e r e w e h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e c o n d t e r m i n b r a c k e t s is u s u a l l y q u i t e small
( < 10~ 3 ) a n d c a n b e i g n o r e d . I n f a c t f o r m a n y large p o w e r r e a c t o r cores, l e a k a g e is
s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l t h a t L 2 B 2 < ^ \ a n d to first o r d e r , t h e reactivity c h a n g e d u e t o s u c h
a p o i s o n is j u s t t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e total m a c r o s c o p i c a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n d u e t o
t h e p o i s o n . ( H e r e w e m u s t k e e p in m i n d t h e c r u d e n a t u r e of this e s t i m a t e w h i c h h a s
totally i g n o r e d a n y spatial v a r i a t i o n in t h e p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n a v a r i a t i o n t h a t
w e will later f i n d is r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t . )
N o w recall t h a t t h e m a c r o s c o p i c c r o s s s e c t i o n f o r t h e p o i s o n is given b y
= N p o l , w h e r e A ^ is t h e n u m b e r d e n s i t y of t h e p o i s o n while a is its t h e r m a l
a b s o r p t i o n cross section. H e n c e in o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e t h e reactivity c h a n g e d u e t o
fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n i n g , w e m u s t c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r d e n s i t y of t h e p o i s o n i n g
isotope
a t a n y t i m e t.
T h e p r o c e d u r e is s i m p l e a t least in c o n c e p t . T o d e t e r m i n e
w e m u s t solve
the rate equations describing the various production a n d decay processes that can
a f f e c t t h e p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n . W e will illustrate this p r o c e d u r e w i t h t w o s i m p l e
( b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p o r t a n t ) e x a m p l e s i n v o l v i n g t h e b u i l d u p of 1 3 5 Xe a n d 1 4 9 Sm.
A. Xenon Fission Product Poisoning

135
Xe is t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t fission p r o d u c t b e c a u s e of its e n o r m o u s t h e r m a l
n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n a n d its relatively large fission yield. A c t u a l l y 1 3 5 Xe
569
c a n be p r o d u c e d n o t only directly as a fission p r o d u c t b u t m a y also result f r o m the

/?-decay of 1 3 5 Te. A p o r t i o n of the p r o d u c t i o n d e c a y scheme of the A = 135 chain is
shown in Figure 15-1. F o r t u n a t e l y this r a t h e r complicated decay scheme can be
considerably simplified b y a s s u m i n g that the d e c a y of 1 3 5 Te to 135 I is i n s t a n t a n e o u s
(i.e., that 135 I is p r o d u c e d directly as a fission p r o d u c t ) . F u r t h e r m o r e we will also
ignore the short-lived isomeric state I 3 5 m X e , a n d assume t h a t all 135 I nuclei will
d e c a y directly to the g r o u n d state 1 3 5 Xe. H e n c e the effective decay scheme we will
study is s h o w n in Figure 15-2.
Thus, we n o w m u s t write isotopic rate e q u a t i o n s similar to those discussed in
C h a p t e r 2 to describe t h e a t o m i c densities of 135 I a n d 1 3 5 Xe. Let us d e n o t e the
a t o m i c n u m b e r densities of these two isotopes as I(r,t) a n d X ( r r e s p e c t i v e l y .
F u r t h e r m o r e let y j a n d yx d e n o t e the effective f r a c t i o n of the fission p r o d u c t s
which are 135 I a n d 1 3 5 Xe, while
a n d A x are the /?-decay c o n s t a n t s for these two
isotopes. U s i n g these p a r a m e t e r s , we c a n then write the coupled rate equations
describing the simplified d e c a y scheme illustrated in Figure 15-2 as
Iodine
y ^ M ) direct
f r o m fission
(15-9)
iodine
decay
Xenon
yx2^(r,0
direct
f r o m fission
+ V(M)
iodine
decay
- XxX(r,t)
- oft(r,t)X(r,t)
xenon
decay
(15-10)
xenon
absorption
H e r e the m a c r o s c o p i c cross sections a n d n e u t r o n flux are to b e interpreted as

o n e - g r o u p averages. N o t i c e that we h a v e included a loss term in the x e n o n b a l a n c e
e q u a t i o n to a c c o u n t for the fact that c a p t u r e will deplete the , 3 5 Xe c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(as well as the n e u t r o n s , of course). Strictly speaking, we should have included a
similar term in the iodine equation, b u t the a b s o r p t i o n cross section of 135 I is
sufficiently low that such a term would only b e significant f o r extremely high flux
levels (<#>>1016 c m - 2 s e c - 1 ) . T h e values of the yields a n d decay constants are
t a b u l a t e d in T a b l e 15-1 2 ' 3 .
aa!0
FIGURE 15-1.
A portion of the decay scheme for A = 135.
570
135j
135
135Cs
Xe
^136Xe
aax0
A simplified decay scheme for 135Xe.
FIGURE 15-2.
TABLE 15-1: Fission Product Yields and Decay Constants

Fission
233
235
239pu
Product Yields
u
u
4.884
1.363
0.66
n(%)
YXTO
YP<%)
6.386
0.228
1.13
6.100
1.087
1.9
Decay
constants
241pu
Xj = 0.1035 hr" 1
\ x = 0.0753 hr" 1
AP = 0.0128 hr" 1
7.694
0.255
B e f o r e w e c a n p r o c e e d f u r t h e r t o solve these e q u a t i o n s , w e n e e d i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e f l u x in t h e r e a c t o r <(r,
Suppose that we were to merely assume that the
f l u x b e h a v i o r w a s a k n o w n f u n c t i o n of s p a c e a n d time. T h e n w e c o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y
integrate the iodine equation to find
I(r,t)
(r, 0) +
Yl
Cdf
J(\
2 f (r, / > ( r , 0
ex
P (V)
exp(-V)
(15-11)
a n d t h e n s u b s t i t u t e this s o l u t i o n i n t o t h e x e n o n e q u a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t e it t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e 1 3 5 Xe c o n c e n t r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of s p a c e a n d t i m e :
X(r ,t) = * (r, 0) + f dt'[\xI

Jo
Xexp
(r, f ) + y x 2 f ( r , r')*(r, 0 > * P
fdt"[Xx+a^{r,t")]
(15-12)
Of course, f o r a n y c o m p l i c a t e d f l u x b e h a v i o r , these s o l u t i o n s will r e q u i r e n u m e r i c a l

i n t e g r a t i o n s , a n d u n t i l w e s p e c i f y t h e f o r m of </>(r, t)9 this f o r m a l s o l u t i o n is of little
u s e in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e g e n e r a l b e h a v i o r of t h e x e n o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e
r e a c t o r . H e n c e w e will e x a m i n e t h e t i m e - b e h a v i o r of t h e x e n o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r
several p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e e x a m p l e s of f l u x b e h a v i o r .
1. S T A R T U P O F A C L E A N C O R E R E A C T O R
S u p p o s e t h a t w e s u d d e n l y b r i n g t h e r e a c t o r t o a s t e a d y - s t a t e f l u x level <f>0 at
t i m e t 0. W e will a s s u m e t h a t p r i o r t o this time, t h e r e a c t o r c o r e h a s b e e n in a
571
s h u t d o w n s t a t e w i t h z e r o fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (i.e., a " c l e a n "

core). W e n e e d o n l y s u b s t i t u t e a t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n t flux <f(r, r) = <>0(r) i n t o o u r
g e n e r a l solutions, E q . (15-11) a n d (15-12), a n d use the initial c o n d i t i o n s / ( r , 0 ) = 0
= X ( r , 0 ) to f i n d the t i m e b e h a v i o r of t h e fission p r o d u c t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s following
startup:
/(A=ii-L(l-exp-XI/),
(15-13)
and
*(0 =
X +
<PQ
I - e x p ( - ( * x + aX<f>o)>)
yA<t>0
[exp(-(Xx+a^0)r)-exp(-V)].
(15-14)
Xx-Aj + a ^ o
T h e q u a l i t a t i v e t i m e b e h a v i o r of these c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g a c l e a n s t a r t u p is
s h o w n in F i g u r e 15-3. I n p a r t i c u l a r , it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t these c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
e v e n t u a l l y level off at e q u i l i b r i u m levels f o r l o n g times f o l l o w i n g s t a r t u p :
rs \
V, T
y ^ O
Aj
(15-15)
2
(yi + Y X ) ^
,
'^00
.X
X x + ^ O
T h a t is, the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of these fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n s in a r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g at

c o n s t a n t f l u x will e v e n t u a l l y s a t u r a t e at t h o s e e q u i l i b r i u m values f o r w h i c h the
p r o d u c t i o n of p o i s o n s f r o m fission is j u s t b a l a n c e d b y t h e d e c a y a n d n e u t r o n
c a p t u r e losses of t h e p o i s o n s . T h e s e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c o u l d also h a v e
b e e n d e t e r m i n e d directly f r o m the r a t e e q u a t i o n s (15-9) a n d (15-10) themselves b y
m e r e l y setting
dX/dt-Q-dl/dt.
T h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n X ^ is of i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e w e c a n s u b s t i t u t e it into
E q . (15-8) to d e t e r m i n e t h e n e g a t i v e reactivity w h i c h the x e n o n will c o n t r i b u t e
under steady-state power conditions.
2?
P*
2a
2a
Ap- =
(Yi+Yx)^
( A x + <j*4>O)
(15-16)
I n a critical r e a c t o r in w h i c h l e a k a g e c a n b e i g n o r e d , k = ( v 2 f / 2 g ) p = 1 implies
that E f / 2 a = ( v p ) ~ 1 ~ l / v and therefore
A p s
(15-17)
572
** t
FIGURE 15-3.
Qualitative behavior of
startup and then shutdown.
I35
I and
135
Xe concentrations following a cold, clean
N o t i c e this reactivity will d e p e n d o n t h e f l u x level <J>0. H o w e v e r f o r l a r g e f l u x levels

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h o s e in p o w e r reactors,
= 0 . 7 5 6 X 10 13 c m - 2 s e c " 1 ,
(15-18)
a n d t h e x e n o n reactivity will a p p r o a c h a m a x i m u m v a l u e of
Ap>
(Yi+Yx)
(15-19)
T h i s a m o u n t s t o A p ^ .026 f o r b o t h 2 3 3 U a n d 2 3 5 U - f u e l e d r e a c t o r s , a r a t h e r sizable
reactivity. This, of c o u r s e , m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in d e t e r m i n i n g excess reactivity
a n d control system requirements.
2. REACTOR SHUTDOWN
S u p p o s e n o w t h a t a f t e r o p e r a t i n g t h e r e a c t o r f o r a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e at a
c o n s t a n t f l u x level <j>0, w e s u d d e n l y shut t h e r e a c t o r d o w n . A n e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e
r a t e e q u a t i o n s (15-9) a n d (15-10) reveal several c o n s e q u e n c e s of setting t h e f l u x <p
s u d d e n l y e q u a l t o zero. F i r s t t h e r e m o v a l of 1 3 5 Xe d u e t o n e u t r o n c a p t u r e ceases,
573
leaving 1 3 5 Xe d e c a y a s t h e sole r e m o v a l m e c h a n i s m . H o w e v e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n of
135
Xe via d e c a y of 1 3 5 I will c o n t i n u e . Since the h a l f - l i f e of 1 3 5 I is s h o r t e r t h a n t h a t of
135
Xe, t h e 1 3 5 Xe c o n c e n t r a t i o n m a y initially b u i l d u p b e f o r e d e c a y i n g o u t . T o s t u d y
this m o r e explicitly, s u p p o s e w e solve t h e r a t e e q u a t i o n s (15-9) a n d (15-10)
characterizing the shutdown reactor:
9/
3 7
(15-20)
s u b j e c t to t h e initial c o n d i t i o n s t h a t at t h e t i m e of s h u t d o w n (f = 0), t h e p o i s o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h a v e a t t a i n e d their e q u i l i b r i u m values
a n d X00. T h e iodine
e q u a t i o n is e a s y to solve
/ ( r , 0 = /ao(r)exp-XI/.
(15-21)
O n e c a n n o w i n s e r t this i n t o t h e x e n o n e q u a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t e to f i n d
X (r, /) =
e x p ( - Xxt) + ^
[ e x p ( - Xxt) - exp( - \ t t ) ].
(15-22)
If we use t h e explicit f o r m s f o r
and
in E q . (15-8), w e c a n f i n d t h e negative
reactivity i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e 1 3 5 Xe b u i l d u p as
A p(0=-
1
vpt
(Ti+Yxô
, . , , Yiô r
. .
.
3 ^ 7 7 - e x p ( - Xxt) +
_x
[ exp( - V ) I
ex
, .
P( - M
]
(15-23)
S o m e t y p i c a l v a l u e s a r e s h o w n p l o t t e d in F i g u r e 15-4. T h e m a x i m u m v a l u e of
n e g a t i v e reactivity d e p e n d s q u i t e sensitively o n t h e f l u x level p r i o r to s h u t d o w n . I n
f a c t unless
(15-24)
n o b u i l d u p of x e n o n f o l l o w i n g s h u t d o w n will o c c u r . H o w e v e r since this ratio is

q u i t e small ( 4 x l O n a n d 3 x l 0 1 2 c m " 2 s e c " 1 in 2 3 5 U - a n d 2 3 3 U - f u e l e d reactors,
respectively), a x e n o n t r a n s i e n t b u i l d u p will o c c u r f o l l o w i n g s h u t d o w n in m o s t
power reactors.
W e c a n c a l c u l a t e the t i m e at w h i c h t h e m a x i m u m n e g a t i v e reactivity o c c u r s as
'max
ln
1+
l n ( ^
= 11.6h
<>
t0W
*lUx
(15-25)
w h e r e w e h a v e also n o t e d t h e v a l u e a s s u m e d b y tmax in the limit of large f l u x levels
574
0.6
10
20
30
40
50
t [hr]
FIGURE 15-4.
Negative reactivity due to
l35
Xe buildup following shutdown at t = 0.
</>0. I n p a r t i c u l a r , o n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t f o r a p e r i o d of a b o u t 30 h o u r s a f t e r r e a c t o r
s h u t d o w n , a r a t h e r sizable r e s e r v e of positive reactivity w o u l d b e n e e d e d t o r e s t a r t
t h e r e a c t o r . This, of course, is a m a j o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n in s c h e d u l i n g s h u t d o w n f o r
s h o r t p e r i o d s of time.
I n large p o w e r r e a c t o r s t h e x e n o n t r a n s i e n t s f o l l o w i n g s h u t d o w n a r e m i t i g a t e d t o
a d e g r e e b y several f a c t o r s . 5 F i r s t t h e n e u t r o n f l u x e s in large p o w e r r e a c t o r s a r e
s o m e w h a t l o w e r t h a n in r e s e a r c h or p r o p u l s i o n r e a c t o r s (typically </> 0 ;Sl0 14 c m " 2
s e c - 1 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e the x e n o n buildup c a n b e minimized b y avoiding a n a b r u p t
s h u t d o w n a n d instead p r o g r a m m i n g the s h u t d o w n in a gradual m a n n e r to b u r n out
s o m e of t h e x e n o n w h i l e s h u t t i n g d o w n . F i n a l l y , t h e e x i s t e n c e of a p o w e r d e f e c t of
r e a c t i v i t y m e a n s t h a t t h e r e a c t o r c a n u s u a l l y b e b r o u g h t t o a low p o w e r level
f o l l o w i n g s h u t d o w n a n d x e n o n b u i l d u p i n o r d e r t o b u r n o u t s o m e of t h e x e n o n
b e f o r e i n c r e a s i n g t h e f l u x t o full p o w e r levels.
3. X E N O N T R A N S I E N T S F O L L O W I N G P O W E R LEVEL C H A N G E S
L e t us c a l c u l a t e t h e x e n o n t r a n s i e n t f o l l o w i n g a c h a n g e in r e a c t o r flux level
f r o m <f>0 t o <j>v If w e a s s u m e t h a t this c h a n g e o c c u r s at / = 0, w e c a n solve t h e
isotopic r a t e e q u a t i o n s (15-9) a n d (15-10) as a n initial v a l u e p r o b l e m with <f>><pl
a n d 7 ( 0 ) = 7 ^ , 1 ( 0 ) = ^ . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e f i n d t h a t f o l l o w i n g t h e power-level
change
(15-26)
575
and
v /
(ri+yx)2f0i
X(t)=
* X
Yi
(^-4*0
exp[-(Ax+<!*</>,)/]
<<f>l
)(
[ e x p ( - A r 0 - e x p ( - (A x + a ^ , ) / ) ]
(15-27)
Yx+Yi/\Ax+af^,-^
A s we h a v e s k e t c h e d in F i g u r e 15-5, a f l u x level increase is f o l l o w e d b y a x e n o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e c r e a s e a n d vice versa. T h e s e x e n o n t r a n s i e n t s f o l l o w i n g flux level
c h a n g e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y times of t h e o r d e r of eight h o u r s . S u c h x e n o n
t r a n s i e n t s i n d u c e reactivity t r a n s i e n t s , w h i c h a l t h o u g h slow e n o u g h to b e c o m p e n s a t e d f o r b y s h i m c o n t r o l , c a n nevertheless b e t r o u b l e s o m e .
F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e w e c o n s i d e r a P W R o p e r a t i n g at s o m e n o m i n a l p o w e r
level t o w a r d the e n d of c o r e life. Since t h e f u e l will b e relatively highly depleted,
<t>(t)
l \
1
L
1
1
1
h
FIGURE 15-5.
Variation in
135
r
i
i
i
i
i
'"o
^
/
Xe concentration following power level changes.
576
t h e a m o u n t of c h e m i c a l s h i m p r e s e n t will b e small. H o w e v e r since t h e r a t e at w h i c h

reactivity c a n b e c h a n g e d is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s o l u b l e p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e
reactivity r e s p o n s e dp/dt will a l s o b e small. N o w s u p p o s e t h e r e a c t o r p o w e r level is
s u d d e n l y r e d u c e d . T h e n , as w e h a v e j u s t seen, t h e x e n o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n will b e g i n
t o b u i l d u p . O n e w o u l d t h e n desire t o d e c r e a s e t h e c h e m i c a l s h i m c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o
c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e n e g a t i v e reactivity i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e x e n o n t r a n s i e n t , a n d t h e r e
m a y b e i n s u f f i c i e n t c h e m i c a l s h i m p r e s e n t t o a l l o w this. O n e e n c o u n t e r s a similar
s i t u a t i o n f o l l o w i n g a p o w e r increase, since n o w c h e m i c a l s h i m m u s t b e r a p i d l y
inserted into the coolant to compensate for x e n o n b u r n u p . Such considerations can
p l a c e s t r o n g l i m i t a t i o n s o n t h e a l l o w a b l e c h e m i c a l s h i m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e c o r e
design.
B. Samarium Fission Product Poisoning

A v e r y similar a n a l y s i s c a n b e given f o r 1 4 9 Sm, w h i c h is a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
large fission yields (see T a b l e 15-1) a n d a b s o r p t i o n cross sections (a = 58,500 b).
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e c a y s c h e m e is
Fission
149
Nd
l49
2.0 hr
Pm
A g a i n , it is c o n s i s t e n t t o neglect t h e 1 4 9 N d a n d a s s u m e fission yields

T h e corresponding rate equations are then
Promethium:
^
149
54 hr
= Y p S ^ r , t) - XPP (r, t),
149
Sm
P m directly.
(15-28)
Samarium:
^
= XPP (r, t) -
r, t)S (r, t).
(15-29)
T h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c a n a g a i n b e o b t a i n e d b y setting dP/dt
= 9 5 / 3 / to find
=0
XP
(15-30)
S oo =
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n e g a t i v e reactivity d u e t o s a t u r a t e d s a m a r i u m p o i s o n i n g is t h e n
A p ^ - =0.00463.
(15-31)
W e c a n a g a i n s t u d y t h e s h u t d o w n b e h a v i o r u s i n g P ^ a n d S ^ a s initial c o n d i t i o n s .
N o t i c e t h a t since 1 4 9 Sm is stable (unlike 1 3 5 Xe), it c a n o n l y b e r e m o v e d b y n e u t r o n
c a p t u r e . H e n c e a f t e r s h u t d o w n it will b u i l d u p t o a s t e a d y level
S ( 0 = S00 + P00(1 - e x p - A p ? )
S x + Px.
t> OO
(15-32)
577
0.05
0.04
0.03
<a
0.02
0.01 -
100
t (hr)
FIGURE 15-6.
Negative reactivity due to
149
Sm buildup following reactor shutdown at t=*0.
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g reactivity is
p = =
1H-(1-exp-Apf)
(15-33)
T y p i c a l p l o t s of A p ( t ) a r e given f o r a 2 3 5 U - f u e l e d r e a c t o r in F i g u r e 15-6. T h e m u c h
l o n g e r t i m e scale c h a r a c t e r i z i n g 1 4 9 Sm b u i l d u p s h o u l d b e n o t e d . I n d e e d it takes
r o u g h l y o n e m o n t h f o r t h e 1 4 9 Sm c o n c e n t r a t i o n to a p p r o a c h s a t u r a t i o n levels in a
core.
T h e s m a l l e r a b s o r p t i o n cross section a n d yield f r a c t i o n a n d l o n g e r p r e c u r s o r
half-life c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s a m a r i u m i m p l y t h a t it will l e a d to f a r less severe reactivity
e f f e c t s t h a n 1 3 5 Xe. N e v e r t h e l e s s , 1 4 9 Sm b u i l d u p m u s t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r in n u c l e a r
analysis.
C. Other Fission Product Poisons

T h e r e a r e a g r e a t m a n y fission p r o d u c t n u c l i d e s o t h e r t h a n 1 3 5 Xe a n d 1 4 9 Sm
t h a t h a v e a p p r e c i a b l e n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n cross sections. H o w e v e r t h e cross sections of t h e s e o t h e r isotopes a r e n o t sufficiently large in m o s t cases f o r their
c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o b e d e p l e t e d b y n e u t r o n c a p t u r e . H e n c e t h e s e fission p r o d u c t s d o
n o t s a t u r a t e b u t r a t h e r t e n d to a c c u m u l a t e in a core indefinitely. F u r t h e r m o r e the
fission yields of these isotopes a r e n o t as large as t h o s e of 1 3 5 Xe o r 1 4 9 Sm. It h a s
b e c o m e c u s t o m a r y 6 t o a c c o u n t f o r these n o n s a t u r a t i n g fission p r o d u c t s in criticality c a l c u l a t i o n s b y l u m p i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r i n t o s e v e r a l e f f e c t i v e g r o u p s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y e f f e c t i v e cross sections a n d yields. ( F o r o n e - s p e e d t h e r m a l calculations, o n e f r e q u e n t l y a s s u m e s t h a t e a c h fission p r o d u c e s a p e r m a n e n t p o i s o n
n u c l e u s w i t h e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n cross section a f 5 0 b.) W e will r e t u r n later in
this c h a p t e r t o discuss h o w s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e n t e r core lifetime a n d b u r n u p
studies.
Since t h e a b s o r p t i o n cross sections of all n u c l i d e s d r o p off r a p i d l y w i t h increasi n g n e u t r o n e n e r g y , n e u t r o n c a p t u r e will n o t a p p r e c i a b l y a f f e c t f i s s i o n - p r o d u c t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in f a s t r e a c t o r s . H e n c e all fission p r o d u c t s c a n b e l u m p e d i n t o
n o n s a t u r a t i n g g r o u p s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y e f f e c t i v e a b s o r p t i o n cross sections in f a s t
r e a c t o r analysis.
578
D. Spatial Effects in Fission Product Poisoning

1. A PERTURBATION THEORY ESTIMATE OF REACTIVITY WORTH
In our earlier estimate of the reactivity change caused by fission p r o d u c t
poisoning, we merely c o m p u t e d the changes in the thermal utilization as the poison
concentration built up. However such a n estimate is actually only valid for a
u n i f o r m c o n c e n t r a t i o n of poison in a n infinite core. M o r e generally, we k n o w that
the poison c o n c e n t r a t i o n will d e p e n d on the spatial variation of the flux in a finite
core, a n d h e n c e our estimate of reactivity w o r t h of the poison is only of limited
validity. W e c a n improve this estimate b y using p e r t u r b a t i o n theory.
Let us c o m p u t e the reactivity d u e to the equilibrium xenon concentration in a
core operating with a steady-state flux <>0(r). T h e n we know
If we treat this as a perturbation in the absorption cross section,

then
we c a n use the first-order p e r t u r b a t i o n result given by Eq. (5-306) to find the
reactivity change d u e to the xenon as
r
JdWoi
Ap = -
r)^(r)
S f (r)<^(r)
r
J
= -
/a-
4,0(r)
"J ^ o ( r ) 2 f ( r )
"
(15-35)
fdWoir)2f(r)
This expression can b e evaluated numerically to c o m p u t e the equilibrium reactivity

worth of the xenon poisoning in a core. N o t e that for large power levels, <j> 0 >X x /
this reduces to just our earlier a p p r o x i m a t e result for a n infinite m e d i u m
Ap
>
<f>0 Ax/o?
F o r low flux levels, ^ o ^ ^ x / i n

reactor)
Ap
-f-oXx/"ax
(Yl+Yx)
V
.
=APoo.
(15-36)
a n u n i f o r m core (e.g., a low-power research
(yi + Yx)
X
/ô
-
"
(r)
.
(15-37)
I d3r<p*(r)
F o r example, in a slab, one finds that in this limit

Ap-*fAPoo,
(15-38)
where Ap^ is the reactivity change characterizing an infinite m e d i u m model. T h a t

is, the reactivity worth is some 33% larger w h e n the spatial variation of the flux is
taken into account. I n a low-power reactor core, this spatial weighting factor is
m o r e typically between 2.5 a n d 3.0 (see P r o b l e m 15-12). 5
2. XENON-INDUCED POWER OSCILLATIONS IN LARGE POWER
REACTORS 7 " 10
T h u s f a r we have ignored the effect of the reactivity introduced by the fission
p r o d u c t poisons o n the neutronic behavior of the core. T h e interaction between
579
x e n o n fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p a n d t h e c h a n g e s in t h e n e u t r o n f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t
a c c o m p a n i e s local c h a n g e s in reactivity c a n l e a d to spatial oscillations m t h e p o w e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a large t h e r m a l r e a c t o r core.
T o e x p l a i n this p h e n o m e n o n , let us first c o n s i d e r a p o i n t - r e a c t o r m o d e l in w h i c h
t h e r e a c t o r h a s b e e n o p e r a t i n g a t a s t e a d y - s t a t e f l u x level f o r a p e r i o d of time. T h e n
o u r earlier s t u d y of x e n o n fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n i n g h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e will b e
a s a t u r a t i o n in t h e 1 3 5 Xe c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e b a l a n c e of 1 3 5 Xe
p r o d u c t i o n (via direct fission a n d 135 I d e c a y ) a n d loss d u e t o d e c a y to 1 3 5 Cs a n d
t r a n s m u t a t i o n (via n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n ) to 1 3 6 Xe. ( R e c a l l F i g u r e 15-2.) N o w s u p p o s e
a small p e r t u r b a t i o n i n c r e a s e in t h e flux o c c u r s . T h e n 1 3 5 Xe will t r a n s m u t e m o r e
r a p i d l y to 1 3 6 Xe ( i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ) , d e p l e t i n g t h e 1 3 5 Xe c o n c e n t r a t i o n , h e n c e dec r e a s i n g t h e a b s o r p t i o n a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e reactivity a n d t h e flux. H o w e v e r t h e
i n c r e a s e d f l u x t r a n s m u t e s even m o r e 1 3 5 Xe, a n d h e n c e the initial f l u x p e r t u r b a t i o n
grows with t i m e ( u n s t a b l e ) . S u c h a n instability c a n only exist f o r p o w e r levels
h i g h e r t h a n a c e r t a i n t h r e s h o l d value. F o r 2 3 5 U - f u e l e d r e a c t o r s , this t h r e s h o l d is
3 x 10 11 n e u t r o n s / c m 2 - s e c . Below this t h r e s h o l d the stabilizing e f f e c t of t h e direct
x e n o n yield f r o m fission is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the destabilizing e f f e c t of the
x e n o n d e c a y i n g f r o m 1 3 5 I.
A c t u a l l y this t y p e of instability is relatively u n i m p o r t a n t in p r a c t i c a l r e a c t o r
o p e r a t i o n s , since it is easily c o n t r o l l e d b y n o r m a l c o n t r o l r o d m o v e m e n t . A m u c h
m o r e serious spatial x e n o n instability c a n arise, h o w e v e r , w h i c h r e q u i r e s a m o r e
c o m p l e x c o n t r o l r o d p r o g r a m . T o u n d e r s t a n d this, c o n s i d e r t h e very simple m o d e l
illustrated in F i g u r e 15-7 consisting of t w o c o u p l e d x e n o n - u n s t a b l e p o i n t r e a c t o r s ,
s e p a r a t e d b y a r e g i o n of n o n m u l t i p l y i n g m a t e r i a l . S u p p o s e f u r t h e r t h a t t h e r e is a
c o n t r o l s y s t e m k e e p i n g t h e total p o w e r of all t h r e e core r e g i o n s c o n s t a n t ( a l t h o u g h
t h e f l u x o r p o w e r in a n i n d i v i d u a l region is n o t c o n s t a n t ) .
A slight i n c r e a s e in t h e p o w e r level o n o n e side of t h e c o r e will give rise to t h e
u n s t a b l e x e n o n p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d f o r a p o i n t r e a c t o r . Since the c o n t r o l system
k e e p s t h e t o t a l p o w e r c o n s t a n t , t h e flux o n t h e o t h e r side d e c r e a s e s . T h i s p r o c e s s
c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n increasingly steeper tilt in t h e f l u x resulting. T w o e f f e c t s will
FIGURE 15-7.
oscillations.
A simple model of xenon-induced power
580
limit this tilt: (a) b u r n u p of m o s t of the x e n o n o n t h e h i g h f l u x side a n d (b) the

steep f l u x tilt w h i c h c r e a t e s a f l u x g r a d i e n t a n d h e n c e a c u r r e n t t h a t c a r r i e s all the
excess n e u t r o n s b e i n g p r o d u c e d t o the o t h e r side. T h e f l u x will r e m a i n tilted f o r
several h o u r s . E v e n t u a l l y t h e h i g h f l u x side will h a v e c r e a t e d a n 135 I c o n c e n t r a t i o n
m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t originally p r e s e n t . Since the d e c a y half-life of 1 3 5 I is 6.7
h o u r s , m o r e x e n o n will b e c r e a t e d a f t e r this d e l a y p e r i o d . Similarly o n the l o w side
less x e n o n will b e c r e a t e d . T h i s reverses t h e f l u x tilt e v e n t u a l l y a n d p r o d u c e s a
side-to-side oscillation w i t h a p e r i o d of 1 5 - 3 0 h o u r s . T h u s t h e x e n o n p r o c e s s t e n d s
to b e self-limiting a n d p r o d u c e s t h e e f f e c t of a m o v i n g " h o t s p o t " to t h e r e a c t o r
operator.
T h e oscillation of the p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in a r e a c t o r c a n c a u s e c h a n g e s in the
power-peaking factor
H o w e v e r this c a n b e easily a c c o u n t e d f o r in d e s i g n to
ensure that thermal performance constraints are not exceeded. Such xenon-induced
p o w e r oscillations a r e m o r e of a n o p e r a t i o n a l t h a n a s a f e t y p r o b l e m .
A l t h o u g h s u c h oscillations c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d b y c o n t r o l r o d m o t i o n , t h e r e is
s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n to design t h e r e a c t o r c o r e in s u c h a w a y t h a t x e n o n oscillations
a r e m i n i m i z e d , since the l o a d - f o l l o w i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s of a p o w e r r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g
o n a utility p o w e r grid i m p l y t h a t s u c h c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t s m a y i n c u r c o n s i d e r a b l e
e c o n o m i c p e n a l t y . I n general, n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m s s u c h as m o d e r a t o r
v o i d f o r m a t i o n or t h e D o p p l e r e f f e c t will t e n d to s u p p r e s s x e n o n - i n d u c e d p o w e r
oscillations. F o r e x a m p l e , the v e r y large n e g a t i v e v o i d c o e f f i c i e n t in a B W R will
usually s u p p r e s s t h e oscillations w i t h i n o n e or t w o cycles.
T h e stability of t h e spatial p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to x e n o n - i n d u c e d
oscillations will d e c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o r e size or d e c r e a s i n g n e u t r o n m i g r a t i o n
length. A s a rule of t h u m b , x e n o n oscillations will b e a p r o b l e m if t h e r e a c t o r core
is o v e r 30 m i g r a t i o n l e n g t h s in size. 1 0 Since this is t h e case w i t h m o s t l a r g e p o w e r
r e a c t o r cores, x e n o n oscillations c a n r e p r e s e n t a serious d e s i g n a n d c o n t r o l c o n s i d e r a t i o n . S t r o n g reactivity f e e d b a c k , s u c h a s t h e m o d e r a t o r void c o e f f i c i e n t in a
B W R , will h e l p to s u p p r e s s s u c h oscillations, h o w e v e r . I n a d d i t i o n , p a r t i a l length
c o n t r o l r o d s c a n b e u s e d to d a m p o u t p o w e r oscillations b y s u i t a b l e r o d p r o g r a m ming.
II. FUEL DEPLETION ANALYSIS

A. Introduction
F u e l d e p l e t i o n analysis is c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r e d i c t i n g t h e l o n g - t e r m c h a n g e s in
r e a c t o r f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n c a u s e d b y e x p o s u r e to n e u t r o n flux d u r i n g r e a c t o r
o p e r a t i o n . S u c h c h a n g e s h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g o n t h e o p e r a t i n g life of a
r e a c t o r , as well as o n its stability a n d c o n t r o l . O n e m u s t first e n s u r e t h a t t h e shift in
the c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s f u e l b u r n u p d o e s n o t r e s u l t in the
e x c e e d i n g of c o r e t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s . S u f f i c i e n t excess reactivity m u s t b e p r o v i d e d
in t h e f r e s h c o r e l o a d i n g to a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d f u e l e x p o s u r e (consistent w i t h s a f e t y
limitations). A n d , of course, a d e t a i l e d analysis of core c o m p o s i t i o n is n e c e s s a r y in
o r d e r to o p t i m i z e f u e l e x p o s u r e to a c h i e v e m i n i m u m p o w e r costs as well as to
d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e of d i s c h a r g e d f u e l . Since the f u e l costs over t h e o p e r a t i n g
lifetime of the r e a c t o r c a n e x c e e d t h o s e of t h e c a p i t a l cost of the p l a n t itself, the
incentive f o r a c c u r a t e analysis of f u e l d e p l e t i o n is q u i t e h i g h .
A variety of n u c l e a r processes m u s t b e m o n i t o r e d d u r i n g a d e p l e t i o n s t u d y .
T h e s e i n c l u d e , of course, t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of fissile n u c l i d e s (fuel b u r n u p ) . H o w ever o n e m u s t also a c c o u n t f o r t h e c o n v e r s i o n of fertile i s o t o p e s i n t o fissile isotopes
581
a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of n u m e r o u s fission p r o d u c t s . Finally, o n e m u s t m o n i t o r the

reactivity b a l a n c e to e n s u r e c o r e criticality (usually b y d e t e r m i n i n g the c h a n g e in
reactivity over a p e r i o d of c o r e o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e n a d j u s t i n g c o n t r o l t o c o m p e n s a t e
f o r this reactivity c h a n g e ) .
A c o m p l e t e b u r n u p c a l c u l a t i o n w o u l d involve t h e solution of the c o u p l e d
r e a c t i o n r a t e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g such p r o c e s s e s f o r t h e h u n d r e d s of d i f f e r e n t
types of i s o t o p e s in a r e a c t o r core. I n p r a c t i c e , o n e usually i n t r o d u c e s a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t h a t greatly simplify these c a l c u l a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e only fission p r o d u c t s
t h a t a r e usually t r e a t e d explicitly a r e t h o s e with large c a p t u r e cross sections a n d
fission yields, n a m e l y , 1 3 5 Xe a n d 1 4 9 Sm. T h e r e m a i n i n g fission p r o d u c t s a r e l u m p e d
i n t o o n e or several groups, e a c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n effective cross section.
F u r t h e r m o r e a n y n u c l i d e with a s h o r t half-life is o m i t t e d f r o m a b u r n u p calculation.
T h e specific isotopes m o n i t o r e d d e p e n d o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r f u e l u s e d in the core.
T h e i s o t o p e s of interest in b o t h u r a n i u m - a n d t h o r i u m - f u e l e d r e a c t o r s a r e i n d i c a t e d
in F i g u r e 15-8. I n a d d i t i o n to fission p r o d u c t s a n d t h e o t h e r isotopes p r o d u c e d
d u r i n g f u e l i r r a d i a t i o n , o n e m u s t m o n i t o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s such
as b o r o n or g a d o l i n i u m .
T h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e is to solve t h e t i m e - d e p e n d e n t r a t e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g
isotopic c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o g e t h e r with t h e static m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s
d e s c r i b i n g t h e spatial f l u x p r o f i l e in a r e a c t o r c o r e t h a t is k e p t critical b y c o n t r o l
a d j u s t m e n t s while its c o r e c o m p o s i t i o n is c h a n g i n g d u e to f u e l b u r n u p a n d i s o t o p e
p r o d u c t i o n . A s w e i n d i c a t e d earlier, this a n a l y s i s c a n b e c o m e quite i n v o l v e d since
o n e also m a y h a v e to a c c o u n t f o r c h a n g e s in c o r e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c b e h a v i o r t h a t
a c c o m p a n y c h a n g e s in t h e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , as well as i m p l e m e n t a p r e s c r i b e d
c o n t r o l m a n a g e m e n t s c h e m e to m a i n t a i n a critical c o r e o p e r a t i n g a t r a t e d p o w e r
over c o r e life. H e n c e b e f o r e w e c o n s i d e r in detail h o w s u c h p r a c t i c a l d e p l e t i o n
s t u d i e s a r e p e r f o r m e d , w e will first c o n s i d e r several e x t r e m e l y simple e x a m p l e s to
illustrate t h e g e n e r a l i d e a s i n v o l v e d in s u c h studies.
Uranium-fueled cores:
Am 241
Pu 239 ( /i, y ) Pu 240 ( n,y)
Np 2 3 9
Np 2 3 7
2 3 5
(*,y)U
2 3 6
KY)
U237
U238(/J,Y)
U239
Thorium-fueled cores :
Th 232 (, Y)
FIGURE 15-8.
Th 233
Isotope chains of interest in fuel depletion analysis.
Pu 241 (, y)Pu 242
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B. Some Simple Examples of Fuel Depletion

1. T H E D E P L E T I O N O F A S I N G L E ISOTOPE
S u p p o s e a r e a c t o r w e r e f u e l e d with o n l y a single isotope, c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n
a t o m i c n u m b e r d e n s i t y iV F (r,t) a n d o n e - g r o u p a b s o r p t i o n cross s e c t i o n a F . T h e n
the fuel b u r n u p would be described by the simple rate equation
3iV F
= -7VF(r,/)aaF^(r,/).
(15-39)
N o w if t h e f l u x w e r e k n o w n in a d v a n c e , w e c o u l d easily solve this e q u a t i o n t o f i n d
iV F (r, /) = -/VF(r, 0 ) e x p
(15-40)
o r in t e r m s of t h e n e u t r o n f l u e n c e , $ ( r , r ) , d e f i n e d b y E q . (14-24),
N F ( r , t) = NF(r, 0 ) e x p [ -
r, t)].
(15-41)
Of course, this is still a f o r m a l s o l u t i o n since t h e flux <f>(r,0 d e p e n d s o n t h e f u e l

d e n s i t y NF(r,t)
t h r o u g h t h e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g r e a c t o r criticality (i.e., t h e m u l tigroup diffusion equations).
W e c a n u s e this result t o illustrate t h e t w o s t a n d a r d a p p r o x i m a t i o n s u s e d in m o r e
e l a b o r a t e d e p l e t i o n studies:
(a) CONSTANT
FLUX
APPROXIMATION:
A s s u m e t h a t over t h e t i m e interval of interest, t h e f l u x c a n b e t r e a t e d as

constant
* ( r , 0 = *o(r).
(15-42)
T h e n w e c a n solve f o r
NF(r,t)
(b) CONSTANT
POWER
= NF(r,0)exp[-o*<l>0(r)t].
(15-43)
APPROXIMATION:
O n e a s s u m e s i n s t e a d t h a t t h e r e a c t o r p o w e r is c o n s t a n t
P (r, t) = waNF(r,
/)<xaF<Hr, t) = P0(r)t
(15-44)
w h e r e n>a is t h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d p e r n e u t r o n a b s o r p t i o n in t h e f u e l (w a = ( a f F / a f ) w f ) .
T h e n one can integrate
9/
to find
p
NF(r, / ) = Nf(T, 0)
o(T)
/.
w.
(15-46)
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T h e i s o t o p i c d e p l e t i o n resulting f r o m t h e a s s u m p t i o n s of c o n s t a n t flux or
c o n s t a n t p o w e r a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , as s h o w n in F i g u r e 15-9. H o w e v e r f o r s h o r t time
intervals, these solutions a r e similar since f o r small t, E q . (15-43) b e c o m e s
~N
(r,0)--^-t.
(15-47)
T h i s is s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e while w e c a n n o t rely o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n of c o n s t a n t
p o w e r o r f l u x o v e r times as l o n g as a c o r e lifetime, w e c a n use these a p p r o x i m a tions over v e r y s h o r t t i m e steps, since b o t h yield t h e s a m e result as a s h o r t - t i m e
T a y l o r e x p a n s i o n of t h e i s o t o p i c d e n s i t y
dNF
Np(r9t)
NF(r,0)+t
+
r=0
JVF(r,0)--^f.
(15-48)
T h a t is, these t w o types of a p p r o x i m a t i o n will b e u s e d to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e flux or

p o w e r over a t i m e step or " d e p l e t i o n s t e p " in a f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e s o l u t i o n of the
time-dependent isotopic rate equations.
FIGURE 15-9.
Depletion of a single fuel isotope in the constant flux or power approximation.
2. F U E L D E P L E T I O N IN A SIMPLE REACTOR MODEL 1 1

Of c o u r s e , w e c a n n o t d e c o u p l e f u e l d e p l e t i o n f r o m reactivity e f f e c t s if the fuel
concentrations change appreciably. In general, one must consider both the
n e u t r o n i c b e h a v i o r a n d c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t of t h e c o r e as f u e l depletes over core
life. It is of i n t e r e s t to illustrate the i d e a s i n v o l v e d in the solution of t h e isotopic
d e p l e t i o n e q u a t i o n s a n d c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t b y c o n s i d e r i n g a simple m o d e l in
584
w h i c h t h e n e u t r o n i c a n a l y s i s is b y p a s s e d b y a s s u m i n g a n i n f i n i t e o n e - s p e e d r e a c t o r
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m u l t i p l i c a t i o n k = r j f . T h a t is, w e a s s u m e a s i m p l e m o d e l of a n
infinite, h o m o g e n e o u s , t h e r m a l r e a c t o r w i t h a single fissile i s o t o p e (e.g., 2 3 5 U ) a n d
n o fertile m a t e r i a l . W e will r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n t r o l r o d s u s e d t o b a l a n c e t h e excess
reactivity of t h e initial c o r e l o a d i n g b y a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d a b s o r p t i o n cross
s e c t i o n 2 C ( / ) - T h e criticality c o n d i t i o n f o r this simple m o d e l is j u s t
yzl(t)
_
2r(o+2r+2r(/)+2c(o
Fuel
Moderator
(15-49)
Fission-product poison
W e c a n solve this f o r t h e r e q u i r e d c o n t r o l
2 C ( / ) = (i, - l ) 2 a F ( / ) - 2 ? - 2 l ( t ) .
(15-50)
N o w a s t h e c o r e life p r o c e e d s , t h e f u e l cross s e c t i o n 2 ^ 7 ) decreases, while t h e

p o i s o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s . H e n c e 2 c ( r ) will d r o p t o z e r o e v e n t u a l l y at s o m e
t i m e th c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e n d of c o r e life. It is possible t o c a l c u l a t e tt, p r o v i d e d
t h e p o w e r h i s t o r y of t h e r e a c t o r is k n o w n .
F o r simplicity, w e will s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e a c t o r is o p e r a t e d at c o n s t a n t p o w e r
over t h e c o r e life. T h i s implies
2aF(0<K0 = 2f(0>K0),
(15-51)
w h e r e 2 ^ ( 0 ) ^ ( 0 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e initial c o r e l o a d i n g . A f t e r a t i m e
AV(0 = ^F(0)-2aF(0K>(0)/
= jVF(0)[l-aaF<K0)/],
(15-52)
2aF(0 = 2aF(0)[l-aaF<K0)r],
(15-53)
or
If w e s u b s t i t u t e this i n t o (15-51), w e c a n solve f o r t h e flux
<t>(t) =
4>(0)
^
(15-54)
( N o t e h o w <(/) m u s t i n c r e a s e as t h e f u e l is d e p l e t e d i n o r d e r t o yield a c o n s t a n t
power production.)
W e c a n n o w use this f l u x h i s t o r y t o c o m p u t e t h e fission p r o d u c t p o i s o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . R e c a l l f r o m o u r earlier w o r k t h a t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m fission p r o d u c t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e given b y :
(Yi+YX)2 { 4>
= ""
' =
Y"
A x / < ^ + <>
|
(Y^YxÔWO)
Y
Ax / a * + <K0
(15-55)
for xenon, and

2*(/) = Y r 2 f ( 0
(15-56)
585
for samarium. [Note here that 2 ^ / ) =

+ )]
W e m u s t also w o r r y a b o u t n o n - s a t u r a t i n g or " p e r m a n e n t " p o i s o n s
2 p p = a p p S f ( 0 < | ( 0 ' = a p p 2 f (0)<|>(0)/.
(15-57)
S u b s t i t u t i n g E q n s . (15-53) to (15-57) i n t o o u r expression f o r the c o n t r o l cross

section, E q . (15-50), w e f i n d
- saM-
( o - (n - w o ) [ i - o*m*]
M r T T
A
X/
^ ^
<H0
- y P 2 f ( 0 ) [ 1 - o f t ( 0 ) r ] - opp2f(0)*(0)r.
(15-58)
If w e n o w s u b s t i t u t e E q . (15-54) f o r <p(t), a n d t h e n set E c ( r / ) = 0, w e c a n solve f o r

the c o r e l i f e t i m e tt as
Wex( 1 + a ) - (Yi + Y x ) < H ) a * / A x - Y P
Ax
or
W e x ( 1 + ) - (Yi + Yx + Tp)
[ ( ^ - l ) ( l + a ) a r - ( Y l + y x + Y P ) a f + app]*(0)
, ,
^X
f
for 0 ( f ) ,
a;
.
(15-60)
w h e r e p e x = / ^ ( O ) 1 / ^ ^ ( 0 ) is t h e initial excess reactivity. H e n c e as w e m i g h t

expect, the c o r e lifetime is essentially p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e excess reactivity l o a d i n g
p e x . I n d e e d w e m u s t c h o o s e a n initial excess reactivity sufficiently large to c o m p e n s a t e f o r fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p ,
^ Y i + Y x + YP
ex
Pex>
7T~ir~
r?(l
+ )
888
YI +
Y X + Y P
/ 1 C
(15-61)7
b e f o r e criticality c a n b e a c h i e v e d . A n d of c o u r s e the core lifetime is inversely

p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e o p e r a t i n g p o w e r or f l u x level <^>(0).
C. Calculational Methods of Depletion Analysis1213

W e h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e analysis of f u e l d e p l e t i o n involves a variety of n u c l e a r
processes. T h e s e c a n b e r o u g h l y classified i n t o c a l c u l a t i o n s involving: (a) solution
of the i s o t o p i c d e p l e t i o n e q u a t i o n s , (solving f o r t h e nuclei densities as f u n c t i o n s of
t i m e a n d p o s i t i o n ; this r e q u i r e s a k n o w l e d g e of the n e u t r o n flux) a n d (b) solution
of the static m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r the n e u t r o n flux (this task will
usually also involve i n c l u d i n g t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c coupling, u s i n g as i n p u t the cross
sections c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e d e p l e t i n g isotopes, a n d a d j u s t m e n t of the c o n t r o l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to a c h i e v e c o r e criticality). It is c u s t o m a r y to d e c o u p l e these calculations s u c h t h a t t h e d e p l e t i o n e q u a t i o n s a r e solved over time intervals in w h i c h the
f l u x or p o w e r is a s s u m e d to b e c o n s t a n t . A t t h e e n d of e a c h t i m e interval, the
d e p l e t e d densities a r e u s e d to c a l c u l a t e n e w g r o u p c o n s t a n t s , a n d t h e m u l t i g r o u p
d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s a r e solved to d e t e r m i n e a n e w flux s h a p e f o r the n e x t time
interval.
586

1. ISOTOPIC D E P L E T I O N E Q U A T I O N S
T h e r e a c t i o n r a t e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e n u m b e r densities of n u c l e i i n t h e
c o r e c a n b e d e r i v e d u s i n g s i m p l e b a l a n c e ideas. If NA(r,t)
is t h e n u m b e r d e n s i t y
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a n u c l i d e of t y p e A, t h e n t h e g e n e r a l r a t e e q u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a
p r o d u c t i o n - t y p e d e c a y s c h e m e as s h o w n b e l o w
takes the f o r m
dN
A
K N a
~dt
N +\ N +
A
N,
(15-62)
Here
XaNa
a
NA
XBNB
Nc
loss d u e t o r a d i o a c t i v e d e c a y of A ,
loss d u e t o n e u t r o n c a p t u r e b y A,
g a i n d u e t o d e c a y of B t o A ,
g a i n d u e t o t r a n s m u t a t i o n of C t o
A via n e u t r o n c a p t u r e .
T h e fluxes a n d m i c r o s c o p i c c r o s s sections a p p e a r i n g in t h e s e e q u a t i o n s a r e m u l tigroup averages a n d must be generated b y suitable group-constant generation

codes a n d multigroup diffusion calculations.
T h e s e e q u a t i o n s a r e n o n l i n e a r a n d i n h o m o g e n e o u s b e c a u s e t h e fluxes a n d
m i c r o s c o p i c cross sections n o t o n l y v a r y in s p a c e a n d time, b u t d e p e n d o n t h e
densities of t h e d e p l e t i n g i s o t o p e s as well. S u c h e q u a t i o n s m u s t b e w r i t t e n f o r e a c h
species of interest. I n a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of f u e l d e p l e t i o n in a m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r ,
s o m e 1 5 - 2 4 h e a v y n u c l i d e s a n d 2 5 - 5 0 fission p r o d u c t s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e
analysis. 1 2 W h e n o n e a d d s t o this t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g
i s o t o p i c d e p l e t i o n c o n t a i n b o t h l o n g a n d s h o r t t i m e c o n s t a n t s (half-lives or large
a b s o r p t i o n cross sections) t h a t c o m p l i c a t e their n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n , it is a p p a r e n t
t h a t f u e l d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n b e c o m e q u i t e involved.
2. G E N E R A T I O N O F G R O U P C O N S T A N T S
A very i m p o r t a n t f a c e t of a n y d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n is t h e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e
necessary group constants. These are required not only for the multigroup diffusion
e q u a t i o n s , b u t a l s o f o r t h e isotopic r a t e e q u a t i o n s . O u r earlier d i s c u s s i o n of a
typical m a c r o s c o p i c cross s e c t i o n m o d u l e i l l u s t r a t e d several a s p e c t s of s u c h calculations. W e recall t h a t t h e s e g r o u p c o n s t a n t s c o n s i s t e d of t w o f a c t o r s : (a) t h e n u m b e r
587
densities s u p p l i e d f r o m t h e d e p l e t i o n m o d u l e (or p e r h a p s t h e t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c
m o d u l e or i n p u t ) a n d (b) the m i c r o s c o p i c g r o u p c o n s t a n t s g e n e r a t e d either b y fast
a n d t h e r m a l s p e c t r u m c o d e s o r b y p a r a m e t e r i z a t i o n ( w h e r e o n e of t h e p a r a m e t e r s
m a y b e the b u r n u p ( M W D / M T U ) or f l u e n c e ) :
(15-63)
j
T h e m i c r o s c o p i c cross sections will c h a n g e in t i m e as t h e f u e l depletes, since the

n e u t r o n s p e c t r u m in t h e f u e l cell will c h a n g e , as will t h e e f f e c t of self-shielding.
M a n y cross s e c t i o n s a r e sufficiently slowly v a r y i n g w i t h f u e l d e p l e t i o n t h a t they
n e e d o n l y b e r e c a l c u l a t e d a t intervals of several t i m e steps a n d c a n b e i n t e r p o l a t e d
a t i n t e r m e d i a t e times. M o r e r a p i d l y v a r y i n g cross sections w h i c h exhibit s t r o n g
d e p l e t i o n - d e p e n d e n c e of self-shielding f a c t o r s or s p e c t r u m will r e q u i r e a d j u s t m e n t
at s h o r t e r t i m e intervals.
3. F L U X - P O W E R C A L C U L A T I O N S
O n e m u s t use these f e w - g r o u p c o n s t a n t s in t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e flux a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n in the core. I n t e r a c t i o n with a c o n t r o l
a d j u s t m e n t m o d u l e is usually n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to a d j u s t c o r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b a c k
t o critical a f t e r a d e p l e t i o n t i m e step. S u c h f l u x - p o w e r c a l c u l a t i o n s m a y r a n g e f r o m
zero- to t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l descriptions, a n d h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d e s c r i b e d in detail
in C h a p t e r 13.
4. SOLUTION O F T H E D E P L E T I O N E Q U A T I O N S
T h e d i r e c t s o l u t i o n of t h e c o u p l e d e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g the n u m b e r densities
of c o r e m a t e r i a l s a n d t h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e n e u t r o n
f l u x is i m p r a c t i c a l . I n s t e a d o n e m u s t s e p a r a t e these c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e c o u p l i n g
b e t w e e n t h e d e p l e t i o n a n d n e u t r o n i c s c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n b e h a n d l e d in o n e of several
ways:
(a) SPATIAL
TREATMENT:
T h e m u l t i g r o u p d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s m u s t b e solved m a n y times as d e p l e t i o n
p r o c e e d s . S u c h solutions b e c o m e very e x p e n s i v e if d e t a i l e d spatial t r e a t m e n t s a r e
r e q u i r e d . O n e c a n distinguish b e t w e e n t w o d i f f e r e n t classes of studies:
(i) M a c r o s c o p i c b u r n u p physics:
I n macroscopic
studies o n e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e t e r m i n i n g t h e g l o b a l d e p l e t i o n
b e h a v i o r of t h e r e a c t o r core. I n p a r t i c u l a r , such studies seek t o d e t e r m i n e the
l o n g - t e r m b e h a v i o r of reactivity v a r i a t i o n ( a n d the c o r e lifetime), t h e c o r e p o w e r
a n d b u r n u p d i s t r i b u t i o n s , a n d total c o r e f u e l m a t e r i a l inventories.
(ii) M i c r o s c o p i c b u r n u p physics:
I n microscopic
studies o n e is m o r e c o n c e r n e d with a n a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n of
r e a c t i o n r a t e s a n d f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n as f u n c t i o n s of b u r n u p a t a p o i n t or in a cell
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a given r e g i o n of t h e core. T h a t is, m i c r o s c o p i c studies a r e usually
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e p l e t i o n analysis of a lattice u n i t cell. S u c h m i c r o s c o p i c
c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e u s e d t o p r o v i d e t h e h o m o g e n i z e d or effective cross sections n e e d e d
f o r the m a c r o s c o p i c global d e p l e t i o n studies. 1 4
588
(b) TIME
TREATMENT:
T h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e t i m e - d e p e n d e n c e of t h e d e p l e t i o n a n d the c h a n g e s in the
flux d i s t r i b u t i o n s is usually h a n d l e d b y s e p a r a t i n g t h e d e p l e t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n f r o m
t h e n e u t r o n i c c a l c u l a t i o n . T o illustrate this a p p r o a c h , s u p p o s e t h a t o n e k n o w s the
n u m b e r densities in t h e clean, f r e s h c o r e at t i m e t = 0. T h e n t h e m a c r o s c o p i c g r o u p
c o n s t a n t s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d , a n d t h e m u l t i g r o u p fluxes c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d ( a l t h o u g h
a c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t will b e r e q u i r e d to a c h i e v e c o r e criticality).
N e x t the d e p l e t i o n e q u a t i o n s a r e solved f o r time 0 < t < Ar b y a s s u m i n g t h a t over
this t i m e step either:
C o n s t a n t f l u x f o r 0 < t < Af:
Constant power density for 0 <

2
t<At:
( O n e usually applies the c o n s t a n t f l u x a p p r o x i m a t i o n over t h e d e p l e t i o n step, since

t h e a s s u m p t i o n of c o n s t a n t p o w e r d e n s i t y is d i f f i c u l t to a p p l y f o r m o r e t h a n o n e
fissile isotope.) U n d e r these a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e isotopic d e p l e t i o n e q u a t i o n s (written
h e r e in m a t r i x n o t a t i o n f o r c o n v e n i e n c e )
^ = A N { t ) + m
(15-65)
c a n b e solved (in the c o n s t a n t f l u x a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r p u r p o s e s of i l l u s t r a t i o n ) as

JV(/ + A 0 = ( e x p ^ A 0 Z ( 0 + 4
- 1
(exp4Af-l)F(0.
(15-66)
Of c o u r s e o n e m u s t c h o o s e the d e p l e t i o n - t i m e step size A t s u c h t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n of

the f l u x over this t i m e step is negligible. T h e s o l u t i o n of t h e d e p l e t i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r
a given t i m e step c a n also b e o b t a i n e d b y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s y s t e m a s a linear
c o m b i n a t i o n of linear d e c a y c h a i n s a n d t h e n u s i n g t h e a n a l y t i c s o l u t i o n s f o r a
given l i n e a r c h a i n . 1 5
H a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h e n u m b e r densities N{ at t h e later t i m e t At, o n e c a n n o w
g e n e r a t e n e w m u l t i g r o u p c o n s t a n t s (either b y u s i n g p a r a m e t e r i z e d cross s e c t i o n s or
r e p e a t i n g s p e c t r u m calculations), a n d t h e n use these to c a l c u l a t e a n e w m u l t i g r o u p
f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n . O n c e a g a i n , c o n t r o l a d j u s t m e n t will b e r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e core
criticality, a s will f l u x n o r m a l i z a t i o n t o m a i n t a i n the r e q u i r e d core t h e r m a l p o w e r
output.
T h i s s c h e m e c a n t h e n b e c o n t i n u e d f o r a n o t h e r t i m e step, At<t<2At
(which
m a y h a v e a v a r i a b l e size), a n d so o n u n t i l t h e excess reactivity of t h e c o r e d r o p s
sufficiently l o w t h a t c o r e life is t e r m i n a t e d .
A variety of d e p l e t i o n c o d e s h a v e b e e n u s e d in the analysis of c o r e b u r n u p .
T h e s e r a n g e f r o m z e r o - d i m e n s i o n a l c o d e s s u c h a s L E O P A R D 1 6 u s e d f o r survey
c a l c u l a t i o n s (such as t h o s e to d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e f u e l e n r i c h m e n t r e q u i r e d
to yield a d e s i r e d b u r n u p ) to t w o - a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o d e s s u c h a s P D Q H A R M O N Y 1 7 o r C I T A T I O N , 1 8 w h i c h a r e u s e d in f i n a l design c a l c u l a t i o n s to give
d e t a i l e d n u c l e i densities a n d p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s u s e f u l f o r the s t u d y of c o n t r o l
management.
589
III. NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT

W e h a v e stressed t h a t the p r i m a r y source of the e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e s
e n j o y e d b y n u c l e a r p o w e r over c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r sources lies in the substantially
lower f u e l costs of n u c l e a r p o w e r stations. A n extremely i m p o r t a n t f a c e t of n u c l e a r
e n g i n e e r i n g involves d e t e r m i n i n g the p a r a m e t e r s of b o t h t h e initial r e a c t o r c o r e as
well as s u b s e q u e n t r e l o a d cores to m i n i m i z e f u e l costs. T h i s t o p i c is k n o w n as
in-core fuel management,
a n d it is p e r h a p s t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d d e p l e t i o n
s t u d i e s of f u e l b u r n u p . It is i m p o r t a n t to a t least i n d i c a t e t h e v a r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
t h a t arise in this p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of r e a c t o r c o r e design. H o w e v e r such a discussion is m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e l y i m b e d d e d within a brief overview of t h e n u c l e a r f u e l
cycle in o r d e r to m o r e p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t a n d the significance of e a c h of t h e design
v a r i a b l e s t h a t m u s t b e o p t i m i z e d b y t h e n u c l e a r engineer. 1 9 - 2 1
A.
An Overview of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
T h e v a r i o u s steps in o b t a i n i n g , processing, using, a n d disposing of n u c l e a r

f u e l a r e s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g u r e 15-10 f o r a u r a n i u m f u e l cycle 2 1 ( t h o r i u m
f u e l cycles a r e very similar since t h e y also m u s t use a fissile-fuel f e e d involving 2 3 5 U
or 233U):
(1)
Mining:
B o t h u n d e r g r o u n d a n d o p e n - p i t t e c h n i q u e s a r e used to m i n e
u r a n i u m o r e in a m a n n e r similar to t h a t u s e d in o t h e r l o w - g r a d e ore
m i n i n g . T h e o r e o b t a i n e d f r o m m i n e s in the U n i t e d States averages o n l y
a b o u t 0.25% u r a n i u m o x i d e ( U 3 O g ) .
(2)
Concentration:
Milling is n e c e s s a r y to extract u r a n i u m oxide f r o m t h e
r a w ore. T h e o r e is pulverized a n d l e a c h e d with sulfuric a c i d to dissolve
t h e U 3 0 8 . O n e t h e n uses solvent e x t r a c t i o n or ion e x c h a n g e to recover
the dissolved U 3 O g . C a l c i n a t i o n (roasting) is t h e n p e r f o r m e d to p r o d u c e
yellow cake, a c r u d e o x i d e c o n t a i n i n g s o m e 7 0 - 9 0 % U 3 O g . Yellow c a k e is
t h e f o r m of u r a n i u m m o s t c o m m o n l y t r a d e d in c o m m o d i t y m a r k e t s .
F u r t h e r c a l c i n a t i o n a n d solvent e x t r a c t i o n is u s e d to r e f i n e t h e yellow
c a k e to essentially p u r e U 0 3 .
Conversion:
H y d r o g e n a t i o n is first u s e d to c o n v e r t U 0 3 to U 0 2 . T h e n
r e a c t i n g U 0 2 with h y d r o g e n f l u o r i d e p r o d u c e s U F 4 , w h i c h c a n t h e n b e
c o n v e r t e d i n t o a gas, u r a n i u m h e x a f l u o r i d e , U F 6 , b y a d d i n g f l u o r i n e salt.
S u c h a g a s e o u s f o r m is m o s t suitable f o r isotope s e p a r a t i o n a n d enrichm e n t . U r a n i u m h e x a f l u o r i d e is c h o s e n b e c a u s e it is a gas at a lower
temperature than any other uranium compound.
(3)
(4)
Enrichment:
Essentially all p o w e r r e a c t o r s (with t h e e x c e p t i o n of certain
h e a v y - w a t e r r e a c t o r s or the early gas-cooled, g r a p h i t e - m o d e r a t e d reactors) utilize e n r i c h e d u r a n i u m , t h a t is, u r a n i u m with higher t h a n the
n a t u r a l 0.7% c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 2 3 5 U ( a t least in their initial c o r e loading).
T h e e n r i c h m e n t of u r a n i u m is a very difficult a n d expensive process
since it involves s e p a r a t i n g t w o isotopes, 2 3 5 U a n d 2 3 8 U , with very little
m a s s d i f f e r e n c e a n d essentially n o c h e m i c a l d i f f e r e n c e . A variety of
s e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n u s e d or p r o p o s e d :
(a)
(b)
E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s e p a r a t i o n : H u g e m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r s were u s e d
f o r i s o t o p e s e p a r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e M a n h a t t a n p r o j e c t , b u t this
scheme was rapidly replaced by gaseous diffusion techniques.
G a s e o u s d i f f u s i o n : Since t h e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a gas to
613 /
Mine
<
Mill
U3P8
Conversion
Plutonium
Blend
Fabrication
Waste
Energy
FIGURE 15-10.
Fuel cycle flow diagram.21
p a s s t h r o u g h a p o r o u s m e m b r a n e is inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
s q u a r e - r o o t of its m a s s , o n e c a n p a s s t h e U F 6 g a s t h r o u g h
t h o u s a n d s of p o r o u s b a r r i e r s t o s e p a r a t e t h e U F 6 ( 2 3 5 U ) f r o m t h e
U F 6 (238U).
(c)
(d)
U l t r a c e n t r i f u g e s : T h i s simply involves u s e of v e r y h i g h - s p e e d
c e n t r i f u g e s 2 6 or nozzle devices t o s e p a r a t e t h e t w o i s o t o p i c f o r m s
of U F 6 .
L a s e r e x c i t a t i o n 2 7 : Of m o r e r e c e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n a r e s c h e m e s
t h a t u s e h i g h - p o w e r e d lasers t o selectively excite 2 3 5 U i n u r a n i u m
v a p o r o r U F 6 b y t u n i n g t h e laser w a v e l e n g t h t o select t h e isotopic
m a s s shift in t h e electronic or v i b r a t i o n a l e n e r g y levels of t h e
m i x t u r e s , t h e r e b y selectively exciting (i.e., " t a g g i n g " ) o n e isotopic
591
species in p r e f e r e n c e to a n o t h e r . A n u m b e r of t e c h n i q u e s t h e n
c a n b e u s e d to segregate t h e excited species i n c l u d i n g p h o t o i o n i z a t i o n f o l l o w e d b y electrical s e p a r a t i o n or c h e m i c a l s e p a r a t i o n .
T h e gaseous diffusion method has been the primary technique used for
u r a n i u m e n r i c h m e n t f o r t h e p a s t 30 years. R e c e n t l y , h o w e v e r , d e v e l o p m e n t s in u l t r a c e n t r i f u g e design h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t these latter m e t h o d s
m a y , in f a c t , b e s u p e r i o r to g a s e o u s d i f f u s i o n t e c h n i q u e s . M o s t recently,
a d v a n c e s in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h - p o w e r e d t u n a b l e lasers h a s given
rise to a large scale r e s e a r c h e f f o r t in laser s e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s .
(5)
Fabrication:
F o l l o w i n g e n r i c h m e n t , t h e U F 6 is c h e m i c a l l y c o n v e r t e d i n t o
t h e f o r m to b e u s e d in t h e f u e l e l e m e n t . T h i s is usually a c e r a m i c s u c h as
U 0 2 o r U C . T h e r e s u l t i n g c e r a m i c p o w d e r is t h e n c o m p a c t e d ( a n d
s i n t e r e d ) i n t o small pellets, w h i c h a r e t h e n l o a d e d i n t o m e t a l l i c t u b e s
( t h e c l a d ) or i n t o t h e f u e l - m o d e r a t o r m a t r i x (as in the H T G R ) .
(6)
Fuel burnup in the reactor core: T h e f u e l assemblies a r e l o a d e d i n t o the

r e a c t o r c o r e f o r p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e a s s e m b l i e s a r e typically
i r r a d i a t e d in t h e c o r e f o r a p e r i o d of several years. T h e f u e l b u r n u p or
l i f e t i m e c a n b e l i m i t e d b y either reactivity c o n s i d e r a t i o n s (i.e., the
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o r e d r o p s t o o l o w f o r f u r t h e r p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n ) or
b y l i m i t a t i o n s o n m a t e r i a l stability u n d e r h i g h r a d i a t i o n f l u e n c e s . T h e
l a t t e r l i m i t a t i o n usually d e t e r m i n e s t h e lifetime of f u e l in t o d a y ' s highb u r n u p d e s i g n e d cores.
(7)
Spent fuel storage and decay: A f t e r b e i n g i r r a d i a t e d in t h e core, t h e f u e l is

i n t e n s e l y r a d i o a c t i v e d u e to fission p r o d u c t b u i l d u p . T h e u s e d or s p e n t
f u e l is r e m o v e d f r o m the c o r e a n d s t o r e d in w a t e r p o o l s f o r several
m o n t h s to a l l o w t h e short-lived fission p r o d u c t s to d e c a y o u t .
Reprocessing:
T h e s p e n t f u e l is t h e n s h i p p e d to r e p r o c e s s i n g facilities to
r e c l a i m u n u s e d u r a n i u m ( w h i c h c a n t h e n b e recycled b a c k a s U F 6 f o r
conversion or reenrichment) a n d plutonium.
Waste disposal: T h e r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e p r o d u c t s r e m a i n i n g a f t e r r e p r o cessing a r e t h e n c o n v e r t e d i n t o either liquid or solid f o r m s f o r storage
a n d a r e s h i p p e d t o v a r i o u s d e p o s i t o r i e s f o r b u r i a l ( a n d surveillance).
(8)
(9)
T h e a b o v e o u t l i n e is a d e s c r i p t i o n of o n l y the u r a n i u m - p l u t o n i u m f u e l cycle u s e d
in m o s t m o d e r n p o w e r r e a c t o r s . H o w e v e r o t h e r possible f u e l cycles h a v e b e e n
c o n s i d e r e d f o r f u t u r e reactors, s u c h a s the t h o r i u m - 2 3 3 U cycle p r o p o s e d f o r H T G R
o p e r a t i o n . T h e s e latter f u e l cycles a r e q u i t e similar t o the u r a n i u m f u e l cycle w e
h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e , since t h e y usually e m p l o y 2 3 5 U as fissile f e e d in a d d i t i o n to
recycled 233U.
T h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e v a r i o u s activities i n v o l v e d in o b t a i n i n g , i r r a d i a t i n g , a n d
d i s p o s i n g of f u e l m a t e r i a l s is r e f e r r e d t o as nuclear fuel management
a n d is a
p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n of n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r i n g . S u c h activities m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d s u b j e c t
t o a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t c o n s t r a i n t s . Of c o u r s e , o n e desires t o m i n i m i z e electrical
g e n e r a t i o n costs, b u t m u s t also e n s u r e t h a t t h e safety of t h e r e a c t o r is n o t
compromisedfor example, the fuel temperature must always be kept below
m e l t i n g a n d t h e c o n t r o l m a r g i n m u s t b e m a i n t a i n e d within s a f e limits.
T h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e processes i n v o l v e d in t h e n u c l e a r f u e l cycle c a n b e
classified i n t o t h r e e t y p e s of activity: (a) h e a d - e n d fuel m a n a g e m e n t (mining,
c o n v e r s i o n , e n r i c h m e n t , a n d f u e l f a b r i c a t i o n ) , (b) i n - c o r e f u e l m a n a g e m e n t
( e v a l u a t i o n of reactivity a n d c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s , p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n analysis, a n d
c o r e c a p a b i l i t y e v a l u a t i o n ) , a n d (c) tail-end f u e l m a n a g e m e n t (fuel storage, ship-
592
p i n g , r e p r o c e s s i n g , a n d w a s t e d i s p o s a l ) . W e will c o n s i d e r o n l y i n - c o r e f u e l
m a n a g e m e n t , since it m o s t directly involves n u c l e a r r e a c t o r analysis. H o w e v e r it is
first u s e f u l to c o n s i d e r in g r e a t e r detail t h e v a r i o u s f u e l cycles of interest in p o w e r
reactor operation.
B.
Power Reactor Fuel Cycles

1.
LWR FUEL CYCLES
F u e l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a typical L W R of t h e 1000 M W e class a r e s h o w n in

F i g u r e 15-11 a l o n g w i t h a L W R f u e l cycle d i a g r a m in F i g u r e 15-12. 21 W e recall
that such reactors are fueled with enriched u r a n i u m (from 2 - 3 w / o - w e i g h t percent). T h e s p e n t f u e l is d i s c h a r g e d f r o m t h e c o r e w i t h a 2 3 5 U c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
r o u g h l y .8%. T h e c o n v e r s i o n of 2 3 8 U results in a p l u t o n i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a b o u t
the s a m e m a g n i t u d e . T h i s p l u t o n i u m is r e c o v e r e d b y f u e l r e p r o c e s s i n g .
T h e r e c o v e r e d p l u t o n i u m c a n t h e n b e r e c y c l e d b a c k i n t o t h e L W R f u e l cycle, as
s h o w n in F i g u r e 15-13. T h i s r e d u c e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r u r a n i u m f e e d b y
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 33%. T h e r e a r e several t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in p l u t o n i u m
recycling, 2 2 i n c l u d i n g t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s of f a b r i c a t i n g p l u t o n i u m (a v e r y toxic a n d
r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l ) a n d m a t c h i n g t h e n u c l e a r p e r f o r m a n c e of a m i x e d o x i d e f u e l
( P u 0 2 a n d U 0 2 ) w i t h e n r i c h e d u r a n i u m f u e l in a core. S u c h p r o b l e m s d o n o t s e e m
f o r m i d a b l e , h o w e v e r , a n d t h e large i n v e n t o r y of p l u t o n i u m t h a t is b e g i n n i n g to
a c c u m u l a t e f r o m t h e existing g e n e r a t i o n of l a r g e p o w e r r e a c t o r s ( c o u p l e d w i t h the
lagging c o m m e r c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r , w h i c h w o u l d p r o v i d e
a n a l t e r n a t i v e m a r k e t f o r this p l u t o n i u m ) p r o v i d e s t r o n g incentives f o r i m p l e m e n t ing p l u t o n i u m recycle in t h e r m a l p o w e r r e a c t o r s .
2.
HTGR FUEL CYCLES
T h e f u e l cycle of the H T G R is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of light w a t e r

r e a c t o r s since it is b a s e d o n a 2 3 2 T h - 2 3 3 U c o n v e r s i o n cycle. 2 3 A s F i g u r e 15-14
indicates, t h e initial l o a d i n g of t h e H T G R c o r e c o n t a i n s highly e n r i c h e d u r a n i u m
( 9 3 % 2 3 5 U ) in t h e f o r m of u r a n i u m c a r b i d e a l o n g w i t h t h o r i u m o x i d e o r c a r b i d e
as t h e fertile m a t e r i a l . T h e t h o r i u m is t h e n c o n v e r t e d to 2 3 3 U , w h i c h is r e c o v e r e d
a n d recycled b a c k (eventually) to b e m i x e d i n t o r e l o a d fuel. T h e m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d
u s i n g s u c h a f u e l cycle is p r i m a r i l y d u e to n u c l e a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e n u m b e r of
n e u t r o n s p e r t h e r m a l n e u t r o n a b s o r b e d in 2 3 3 U , TJ23, is s o m e 10% larger t h a n t h a t
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g 2 3 5 U . H e n c e it is possible to a c h i e v e m u c h h i g h e r c o n v e r s i o n r a t i o s
u s i n g 2 3 3 U ( i n d e e d , s u c h " a d v a n c e d c o n v e r t e r " r e a c t o r s a r e c a p a b l e of o p e r a t i n g
w i t h a c o n v e r s i o n r a t i o as h i g h as 0.8 c o m p a r e d w i t h 0.6 f o r a n L W R ) . T h e h i g h e r
c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e H T G R f a v o r s t h e use of 2 3 3 U over 2 3 9 P u a s a r e l o a d fuel,
since TJ49 t e n d s to d e c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e .
A s w e h a v e seen, t h e f u e l d e s i g n of t h e H T G R is m u c h d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of
either t h e L W R or t h e L M F B R , in o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o p e r a t i o n .
T h e f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n is of small pellets of U C or T h 0 2 c o a t e d w i t h g r a p h i t e a n d
l o a d e d i n t o g r a p h i t e blocks. S u c h a f u e l d e s i g n l e a d s to m u c h h i g h e r f a b r i c a t i o n
costs, h o w e v e r , a n d h e n c e t h e f u e l e l e m e n t s of a n H T G R m u s t b e r u n t o m u c h
h i g h e r b u r n u p s ( s o m e 80,000 M W D / M T U as c o m p a r e d to 30,000 M W D / M T U
f o r a L W R o r 100,000 M W D / M T U f o r the L M F B R ) .
T h e h i g h e r c o n v e r s i o n r a t i o of t h e H T G R l e a d s to a m o r e e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n of
Power reactor
Fabrication
Depleted uranium
tails storage (not
required for reactor
but must be stored
safely, has value for
future breeder reactor blanket)
Enriching U F 6
Highlevel
solid waste
Spent fuel
36
Federal
repository
Reprocessing
Commercial burial
Lowlevel
wastes
50
FIGURE 15-11.
Uranium requirements for a 1000 MWe PWR. [The Nuclear Industry, USAEC Report WASH-1174-73 (1973)].
Recovered
Plutonium, 7 9 2 g/d
FIGURE 15-12.
LWR fuel cycle (no Pu recycle). 21
FIGURE 15-13.
LWR fuel cycle (Pu recycle). 21
Recovered uranium, recycled
FIGURE 15-14.
594
HTGR fuel cycle. 21
595
u r a n i u m . I n f a c t , a n H T G R r e q u i r e s o n l y a b o u t half t h e fuel f e e d U 3 O g of a n L W R
of similar rating. 2 1
3.
L M F B R F U E L CYCLES
T h e f u e l cycle of t h e f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r d i f f e r s f r o m t h a t of the L W R a n d
H T G R in t h a t t h e larger c o n v e r s i o n r a t i o allows a n e t gain in t h e a m o u n t of fissile
m a t e r i a l p r o d u c e d d u r i n g core o p e r a t i o n . It is e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e L M F B R c a n
utilize s o m e 6 0 - 7 0 % of t h e e n e r g y a v a i l a b l e in n a t u r a l u r a n i u m ( t a k i n g a c c o u n t of
t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n of 2 3 8 U t o 2 3 9 Pu). T h e m o r e e f f i c i e n t utilization of a v a i l a b l e fuel
r e s o u r c e s is t h e p r i m a r y j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e L M F B R , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e side
b e n e f i t s s u c h a s h i g h e r c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e s ( a n d h e n c e lower w a s t e h e a t release)
than for the L W R .
A typical f u e l cycle f o r t h e L M F B R is s h o w n in F i g u r e 15-15, in w h i c h it is
r e c o g n i z e d t h a t m o s t of the t r a n s m u t a t i o n of 2 3 8 U i n t o 2 3 9 P u will o c c u r in the
b l a n k e t , while the f u e l b u r n u p a n d p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n will o c c u r in t h e core. T h e
L M F B R c a n u s e as fertile m a t e r i a l either n a t u r a l u r a n i u m or d e p l e t e d u r a n i u m
f r o m t h e tails s t r e a m of t h e i s o t o p e - s e p a r a t i o n p l a n t s .
Net
product
FIGURE 15-15.
LMFBR fuel cycle. 21
4. I N T E R A C T I O N A M O N G F U E L CYCLES
It s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e will b e a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a m o n g
these v a r i o u s f u e l cycles in a m a t u r e n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y . F o r e x a m p l e , the
s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t s of p l u t o n i u m p r o d u c e d b y L W R s c a n b e either directly
r e c y c l e d o r u s e d t o f u e l the first g e n e r a t i o n of f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s . Similarly the
excess p l u t o n i u m p r o d u c e d b y the L M F B R c a n b e u s e d to f u e l e i t h e r f u t u r e
L M F B R s or f e d b a c k i n t o the L W R f u e l s t r e a m .
596
T h e r e will also b e s t r o n g i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e f u e l cycle of a d v a n c e d c o n v e r t e r

r e a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e H T G R , w h i c h c a n b e u s e d t o greatly s t r e t c h o u t the u s e f u l n e s s
of a v a i l a b l e fuel, w i t h o u t , h o w e v e r , h a v i n g to c a r r y t h e h i g h fissile f u e l i n v e n t o r y of
t r u e f a s t b r e e d e r s (since t h e relatively d i l u t e f u e l of t h e H T G R s c a n b e r u n at
a r o u n d twice t h e fissile r a t i n g t y p i c a l of f a s t b r e e d e r reactors). 2 4
T h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s will d e t e r m i n e t o a v e r y large d e g r e e t h e cost of t h e n u c l e a r
f u e l cycle, since t h e y n o t o n l y i n f l u e n c e t h e cost of t h e f r e s h f u e l l o a d i n g , b u t also
d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e of t h e s p e n t f u e l (i.e., t h e v a l u e of the p l u t o n i u m p r o d u c e d in
t h e core). S u c h i n t e r a c t i o n s are q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d n o d o u b t will l e a d to e v e n
g r e a t e r u n c e r t a i n t y in the f u t u r e f u e l costs of n u c l e a r p o w e r r e a c t o r s . It is a p p a r e n t
f r o m this discussion, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e real i n c e n t i v e f o r d e v e l o p i n g n e w types of
r e a c t o r s s u c h as the L M F B R is b a s e d a l m o s t entirely o n e x p e c t e d i m p r o v e m e n t s in
the e c o n o m i c s of their f u e l cycles, r a t h e r t h a n c h a n g e s in their c a p i t a l costs or
o p e r a t i n g costs.
TABLE 15-2
Enrichment Requirement of Various Reactor Types

(Thousands of kg SWU (or M T SWU) and short tons of U 3 O g for 1000 MWe Power
Plants at 0.25% Tails Concentration)
First core requirement

U-235 Enrichment, %
MT SWU
ST U 3 O g
Annual reload requirements
at 80% plant capacity factor
U-235 Enrichment, %
Early yearsno recycle
MT SWU
ST U 3 O g
Later yearsfull recycle
MT SWU
ST u3o8
+SWU equivalent of fissile Pu required:
BWR
PWR
HTGR
LMFBR
2.0
229
580
2.6
233
500
93
347
420
240+
(70)
2.7
3.2
93
101
170
109
180
133
160
120*
(35)
62
110
73
110
82
100
0
(1-2)
1 kg Pu fissile a 100 kg SWU
C. In-Core Fuel Management

1. INTRODUCTION
(a) GENERAL
FUEL MANAGEMENT
CONSIDERATIONS20
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t responsibility of the n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r c o n c e r n e d
w i t h t h e n u c l e a r f u e l cycle is t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e f u e l in t h e c o r e i n c l u d i n g the
selection of r e f u e l i n g schedules, f u e l l o a d i n g p a t t e r n s , a n d t h e p r e d i c t i o n ( a n d
m e a s u r e m e n t ) of f u e l b u r n u p a n d i s o t o p e b u i l d u p , in a n e f f o r t to s a t i s f y b o t h
n u c l e a r a n d e c o n o m i c c o n s t r a i n t s . I n this section w e will c o n s i d e r o n l y a f e w of the
m a n y f a c e t s of i n - c o r e f u e l m a n a g e m e n t .
It is d u r i n g f u e l i r r a d i a t i o n t h a t m a n y of t h e d e b i t a s p e c t s of f u e l e c o n o m i c s
o c c u r (e.g., in the d e p l e t i o n of fissile m a t e r i a l s u c h as 2 3 5 U ) . H o w e v e r t h e in-core
p o r t i o n of the f u e l cycle is also w h e r e all of t h e credit a s p e c t s s u c h as p l u t o n i u m
production occur.
597
T h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r w o u l d like to a c h i e v e m i n i m u m f u e l costs c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
n u c l e a r a n d t h e r m a l c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e core p e r f o r m a n c e . T o this e n d , h e m u s t
d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m u m d i s t r i b u t i o n of f u e l e n r i c h m e n t f o r b o t h the initial a n d
r e l o a d cores. T h e r e f u e l i n g p e r i o d a n d r e l o a d strategy m u s t b e specified, a l o n g w i t h
t h e c o n t r o l m a n a g e m e n t of b o t h m o v a b l e r o d s a n d shim (soluble a n d b u r n a b l e
poisons). H e n c e t h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e flexibility ( a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e
responsibility) in m a n a g i n g t h e i n c o r e utilization of t h e fuel.
(b)
CONSTRAINTS
T h e t a s k of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o p t i m u m a r r a n g e m e n t of f u e l a s s e m b l i e s a n d
l o a d i n g is e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x , i n v o l v i n g the c o r e g e o m e t r y a n d c o m p o s i t i o n ,
n e u t r o n i c - t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c c o u p l i n g , reactivity control, a n d o p e r a t i o n a l requirem e n t s . I n a t y p i c a l core design, t h e c o r e size, f u e l a s s e m b l y design, c o n t r o l devices,
a n d c o o l a n t c o n d i t i o n s will b e f i x e d b e f o r e the d e t a i l e d i n - c o r e f u e l m a n a g e m e n t
s c h e m e is d e t e r m i n e d . T h e v a r i a b l e s at t h e n u c l e a r e n g i n e e r ' s d i s p o s a l are t h e n the
e n r i c h m e n t of f r e s h f u e l assemblies, t h e f r e q u e n c y of fuel r e l o a d i n g , t h e r e l o a d i n g
p a t t e r n , a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d c o n t r o l m a n a g e m e n t p r o g r a m . A n u m b e r of c o n s t r a i n t s
o n in-core f u e l m a n a g e m e n t m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d .
W e n o t e d earlier t h a t the t w o p r i n c i p a l t h e r m a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e
i n v o l v e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t the f u e l c e n t e r l i n e t e m p e r a t u r e s r e m a i n b e l o w
m e l t i n g p o i n t , a n d t h a t t h e s u r f a c e h e a t f l u x n o t exceed its D N B limit. S u c h
r e q u i r e m e n t s p l a c e limits o n t h e local p o w e r d e n s i t y (in t h e case of the f u e l
c e n t e r l i n e t e m p e r a t u r e s ) a n d also o n t h e integral of t h e p o w e r d e n s i t y o r c o o l a n t
e n t h a l p y u p e a c h c o o l a n t c h a n n e l (in the case of the critical h e a t f l u x limit). Such
l i m i t a t i o n s m u s t b e k e p t in m i n d w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g a fuel a r r a n g e m e n t , since the
c o r e m u s t b e c a p a b l e of o p e r a t i n g at its r a t e d p o w e r level t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e a c t o r
cycle w i t h o u t e x c e e d i n g these t h e r m a l limitations. Since the c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n
will c h a n g e over c o r e life as f u e l d e p l e t i o n o c c u r s , o n e m u s t b e a b l e to p r e d i c t the
local p o w e r d e n s i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e cycle. T h i s is a n extremely expensive a n d
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a s p e c t of f u e l m a n a g e m e n t .
T h e r e a c t o r c o n t r o l s y s t e m m u s t a l w a y s b e c a p a b l e of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e excess
reactivity l o a d e d i n t o t h e c o r e to c o m p e n s a t e f o r f u e l d e p l e t i o n . A l t h o u g h this
excess reactivity is usually larger in t h e initial c o r e l o a d i n g (since all of t h e f u e l is
fresh), o n e c a n use b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s a n d / or c h e m i c a l shim to a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l
it. I n later r e l o a d cores, t h e r e a r e f e w e r a l t e r n a t i v e s available, since, f o r example,
b u r n a b l e p o i s o n s c a n n o t b e easily i n s e r t e d i n t o i r r a d i a t e d f u e l assemblies. Such
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i m p o s e serious u p p e r limits o n t h e a l l o w a b l e f u e l b u r n u p of a core.
T h e r e a c t o r s h o u l d a l w a y s b e c a p a b l e of r e s p o n d i n g to l o a d - d e m a n d c h a n g e s .
Since t h e c o n t r o l r o d w o r t h is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e f l u x profile, a n d since this flux
p r o f i l e will c h a n g e over c o r e life, o n e m u s t e n s u r e t h a t a d e q u a t e reactivity r e s p o n s e
is a v a i l a b l e f o r s u c h p o w e r m a n e u v e r i n g .
F u e l b u r n u p is also limited to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e b y t h e a m o u n t of r a d i a t i o n
d a m a g e t h e f u e l c a n w i t h s t a n d w i t h o u t e x p e r i e n c i n g a p p r e c i a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y of
failure. F o r e x a m p l e , f u e l i r r a d i a t i o n c a n i n d u c e swelling of t h e fuel, w h i c h places a
s t r a i n o n the c l a d d i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e b u i l d u p of g a s e o u s fission p r o d u c t s w i t h i n
t h e e l e m e n t c a n c a u s e a stress o n the clad, w h i c h leads to a plastic d e f o r m a t i o n of
t h e f u e l r o d at h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e creep). T h e e n o r m o u s t h e r m a l
g r a d i e n t s a c r o s s t h e f u e l p i n a n d c l a d d i n g , c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n s in
t e m p e r a t u r e w h i c h o c c u r d u r i n g r e a c t o r s t a r t u p a n d s h u t d o w n ( t h e r m a l cycling)
c a n also l e a d to c l a d f r a c t u r e in t h e i n t e n s e r a d i a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t of the core. S u c h
598
f u e l f a i l u r e l i m i t a t i o n s o n f u e l b u r n u p a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t w h e n very high
b u r n u p s a r e r e q u i r e d , such as in the L M F B R .
T h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t l y e x t e r n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s p l a c e d o n t h e s c h e d u l i n g of core
r e f u e l i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e wishes to a v o i d a r e a c t o r s h u t d o w n f o r r e f u e l i n g d u r i n g
p e r i o d s of p e a k p o w e r d e m a n d (e.g., in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s u m m e r o r w i n t e r
m o n t h s ) . I n general, m o r e f r e q u e n t r e f u e l i n g l e a d s to l o w e r f u e l i n v e n t o r y req u i r e m e n t s (less excess reactivity is r e q u i r e d f o r s h o r t e r c o r e lifetimes), b u t a t t h e
e x p e n s e of m o r e r e a c t o r d o w n t i m e a n d e n h a n c e d t h e r m a l cycling.
2.
R E F U E L I N G SCHEDULES
R a r e l y d o e s o n e r e p l a c e t h e entire c o r e of a r e a c t o r in a r e f u e l i n g o p e r a t i o n ;
o n l y a f r a c t i o n of the c o r e is r e p l a c e d with f r e s h f u e l a t a n y o n e time. T h e time
p e r i o d b e t w e e n s u c h r e f u e l i n g s will b e r e f e r r e d to as a reactor cycle, a n d in a n y
p a r t i a l r e f u e l i n g s c h e m e , t h e c o m p l e t e f u e l cycle consists of a n u m b e r of such
r e a c t o r cycles.
I n general, t h e f u e l i n v e n t o r y r e q u i r e d f o r a given e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n d e c r e a s e s as
t h e f r e q u e n c y of p a r t i a l r e f u e l i n g increases. H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a t r a d e o f f h e r e , since
m o r e f r e q u e n t c o r e r e f u e l i n g c a n l e a d to i n c r e a s e d s h u t d o w n t i m e a n d h e n c e
i n c r e a s e d costs d u e to p o w e r o u t a g e . F o r s o m e t i m e n o w , m o s t r e a c t o r s h a v e b e e n
r e f u e l e d o n a y e a r l y basis ( a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e - t u b e
d e s i g n of t h e C A N D U o r S G H W R t y p e r e a c t o r s allows c o n t i n u o u s o r very r a p i d
r e f u e l i n g ) . H o w e v e r r e c e n t l y a l t e r n a t i v e r e f u e l i n g cycles h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of r a p i d r e f u e l i n g s y s t e m s f o r P W R s m a k e
possible r e f u e l i n g times of t h r e e to f o u r d a y s ( c o m p a r e d to p r e s e n t d o w n times of
several weeks). 2 8 S u c h r a p i d r e f u e l i n g allows s e m i a n n u a l r e f u e l i n g a t s i x - m o n t h
intervals, w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e savings in f u e l i n v e n t o r y ( e s t i m a t e d a t s o m e 10% of the
a n n u a l f u e l cycle costs). T h e t e n d e n c y f o r B W R s h a s b e e n t o m o v e in t h e d i r e c t i o n
t o w a r d l o n g e r r e a c t o r cycles, w i t h r e f u e l i n g n o w p r o p o s e d o n a n 1 8 - m o n t h basis.
T h i s r e f u e l i n g f r e q u e n c y a p p e a r s e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e to t h e B W R b e c a u s e of
t h e ease w i t h w h i c h its f u e l lifetime c a n b e s t r e t c h e d b y a d j u s t i n g c o o l a n t v o i d
fractions.29
A n n u a l r e f u e l i n g s c h e d u l e s of L W R s t e n d to r e p l a c e 1 / 4 t o 1 / 3 of the c o r e
d u r i n g e a c h r e f u e l i n g o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , s h i f t i n g to a s e m i a n n u a l s c h e d u l e will
allow t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of only 1 / 6 of t h e c o r e at a time. T h e h i g h e r c o n v e r s i o n
r a t i o of t h e H T G R allows a r e f u e l i n g s c h e m e in w h i c h o n l y 1 / 6 of t h e c o r e is
r e p l a c e d e a c h y e a r . T h i s l o n g e r f u e l r e s i d e n c e t i m e is f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e c o a t e d
p a r t i c l e f u e l d e s i g n f o r t h e H T G R w h i c h is c a p a b l e of m u c h h i g h e r b u r n u p s .
3. R E F U E L I N G P A T T E R N S
W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of h o w t h e f r e s h f u e l is
d i s t r i b u t e d in t h e r e a c t o r c o r e d u r i n g refueling, a n d j u s t w h i c h s p e n t f u e l e l e m e n t s
a r e w i t h d r a w n ( a s s u m i n g t h a t p a r t i a l r e f u e l i n g s c h e m e s will b e used). S u p p o s e w e
a t t e m p t e d t o l o a d t h e c o r e w i t h a u n i f o r m e n r i c h m e n t . T h e n , t h e f l u x p e a k i n g at
t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o r e w o u l d l e a d to h i g h e r b u r n u p of t h e s e f u e l e l e m e n t s w i t h a
c o n s i d e r a b l e f l a t t e n i n g of the c o r e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d t h e e n d of c o r e life
(see F i g u r e 15-16). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s u c h a u n i f o r m a r r a n g e m e n t l e a d s t o a larger
p o w e r - p e a k i n g f a c t o r F early in c o r e life. It also results in a very l o w b u r n u p of
f u e l e l e m e n t s i n s e r t e d t o w a r d t h e edge of t h e core.
FIGURE 15-16.
599
Shift in power distribution due to nonuniform burnup for batch refueling.
H e n c e a n o n u n i f o r m c o r e l o a d i n g is clearly d e s i r a b l e i n b o t h t h e initial core

a n d s u b s e q u e n t r e p l a c e m e n t cores. T h e r e a r e t w o c o m m o n r e f u e l i n g s c h e m e s . 1 3 ' 2 0
( a ) ZONAL
LOADING
(IN-OUT
CYCLING):
I n this s c h e m e , o n e l o a d s u n i r r a d i a t e d f u e l in a z o n e o n t h e p e r i p h e r y of the
c o r e . T h e i r r a d i a t e d f u e l is s h u f f l e d in t o w a r d t h e i n n e r zone, while t h e f u e l in the
c e n t r a l z o n e is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e core. T h e m o t i v a t i o n in this s c h e m e is to m a k e
u s e of t h e i n h e r e n t r e d u c t i o n in reactivity w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s f u e l d e p l e t i o n as a
p o w e r - f l a t t e n i n g m e c h a n i s m . By w a y of e x a m p l e , a three-cycle z o n a l p a t t e r n is
s h o w n in F i g u r e 15-17. S u c h a p a t t e r n c a n e v e n b e i m p l e m e n t e d o n the initial c o r e
loading by using fuel assemblies with varying enrichments.
Z o n a l l o a d i n g d o e s h a v e d i s a d v a n t a g e s , h o w e v e r . I n large cores s u b j e c t e d to h i g h
b u r n u p s , a p p r e c i a b l e d i s t o r t i o n s in t h e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n arise w h i c h c o u l d lead
to large p o w e r - p e a k i n g f a c t o r s .
(b)
SCATTER
(ROUNDELAY)
LOADING:
A n a l t e r n a t i v e s c h e m e l o a d s f u e l in a s c a t t e r or r a n d o m p a t t e r n to achieve a
m o r e u n i f o r m f u e l d i s t r i b u t i o n . O n e still will f i n d s o m e p o w e r - f l a t t e n i n g since the
a v e r a g e b u r n u p in t h e c e n t r a l z o n e s of t h e c o r e is m o r e p r o n o u n c e d t h a n n e a r the
600

1
f u i
ivv V;
As
w n w
m
m
W n
k
k
i.V?
i
/YJ%
&
fd
i
h
'd
W. fa
m m
m
Zonal
FIGURE 15-17.
loading
"M
i/f
C o m b i n a t i o n scatterzonal
loading
Alternative core loading schemes.
core periphery. The power distribution characterizing a scatter-loaded core has a

s o m e w h a t f l a t t e n e d f o r m of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a u n i f o r m l y l o a d e d
core. T h e r e is a fine-scale ripple in t h e local p o w e r density, h o w e v e r .
S c a t t e r - l o a d i n g h a s t h e a d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e t h a t n o r e s h u f f l i n g of i r r a d i a t e d
f u e l is r e q u i r e d .
I n p r a c t i c e , m o s t r e f u e l i n g s c h e m e s involve s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n of z o n a l a n d
s c a t t e r l o a d i n g t e c h n i q u e s . F o r e x a m p l e , m a n y P W R s a r e l o a d e d in s u c h a f a s h i o n
t h a t f r e s h f u e l is l o a d e d i n t o t h e o u t e r z o n e , while t h e f u e l i r r a d i a t e d in t h e o u t e r
z o n e is s c a t t e r l o a d e d i n t o the c e n t e r z o n e s .
T h e d e t a i l e d analysis a n d o p t i m i z a t i o n of i n - c o r e f u e l a r r a n g e m e n t is a very
c o m p l i c a t e d process. O n e m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t c o r e g e o m e t r y , c o n t r o l m a n a g e m e n t s c h e m e s , t h e c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n c o r e n e u t r o n i c s a n d t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c perf o r m a n c e , a n d t h e c o n s t r a i n t s p l a c e d o n c o r e p e r f o r m a n c e b y o p e r a t i o n a l req u i r e m e n t s . A l t h o u g h this a s p e c t of f u e l m a n a g e m e n t is still f r e q u e n t l y p e r f o r m e d
b y trial a n d error, u s i n g liberal d a s h e s of p h y s i c a l i n t u i t i o n , t h e r e is n o w m o r e of a
t e n d e n c y to a t t e m p t to i m p l e m e n t m o r e direct o p t i m i z a t i o n m e t h o d s 1 2 (e.g., linear
programming) for in-core fuel m a n a g e m e n t .
H o w e v e r , a very b i g h e a d a c h e w i t h a n y e l a b o r a t e f u e l m a n a g e m e n t s c h e m e is the
flexibility f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d of a r e f u e l i n g p r o g r a m . F o r e x a m p l e , a n u n e x p e c t e d
a l t e r n a t i o n of a r e f u e l i n g p a t t e r n m a y b e r e q u i r e d to r e m o v e a f u e l a s s e m b l y
l e a k i n g fission p r o d u c t s w h i c h is d i s c o v e r e d d u r i n g a n o r m a l c o r e r e l o a d i n g
o p e r a t i o n . H e n c e a c a p a b i l i t y is r e q u i r e d to allow t h e r a p i d e v a l u a t i o n of a n e w
l o a d i n g p a t t e r n to e n s u r e t h a t v a r i o u s t h e r m a l - h y d r a u l i c , m e c h a n i c a l , a n d n u c l e a r
limitations are not exceeded during the subsequent core operation.
REFERENCES
1. H. M. Summer, The neutron cross section of 135 Xe, AEEW-R116 (1962).
2. R. Fleming, Xenon transients and their measurement, University of Michigan Nuclear
Engineering Department Report (unpublished)(1973).
601
3. M. E. Meek and B. F. Rider, Compilation of fission product yields, NEDO-2154 (1972).

(1966).
5. H. W. Graves, Jr., Nuclear Reactor Control Management, University of Michigan
Nuclear Engineering Department Lecture Notes (unpublished) (1969).
6. P. F. Zweifel, Reactor Physics, McGraw-Hill, N e w York (1973).
7. W. M. Stacey, Reactor Tech. 13, 252 (1970).
8. G. I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N . J.
(1970), pp. 555-562.
9. J. Canosa and H. Brooks, Nucl Sci. Eng. 26, 237 (1966).
10. D. Randall and D. St: John, Nucleonics 16, 82 (1958); Nucl. Sci. Eng. 14, 204 (1962).
(1966) pp. 481-484.
12. R. L. Crowther, Methods of fuel management analysisan overview, in Mathematical
Methods and Models in Reactor Calculations, CONF-730414-P1 (1973) p. II I.
13. A. Sesonske, Nuclear Power Plant Design Analysis, U S A E C TID-26241 (1973).
14. D. L. Delp, et al., FLARE, GEAP-4598 (1964); R. Goldstein, et al., Trans. Am. Nucl
Soc. 10, 300 (1967).
15. T. R. England, CINDER, a one-point depletion and fission product program, W A P D TM-334 (1962).
16. R. F. Barry, LEOPARD, a spectrum dependent non-spatial depletion code for the
IBM-7094, WCAP-3741 (1963).
17. R. J. Breen, O. J. Marlowe, and C. J. Pfeifer, H A R M O N Y : system for nuclear reactor
depletion computation, WAPD-TM-478 (1965).
18. T. B. Fowler and D. R. Vondy, nuclear reactor core analysis code: CITATION,
ORNL-TM-2496, Rev. 2 (1971).
19. D. M. Elliot and L. E. Weaver (Ed.), Education and Research in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle,
Oklahoma U. P., Norman (1970).
20. H. W. Graves, Nuclear Fuel Management, University of Michigan Nuclear Engineering
21. E. A. Mason, Overall view of the nuclear fuel cycle, in Education and Research in the
Nuclear Fuel Cycle, D. M. Elliot and L. E. Weaver (Ed.), Oklahoma U. P., Norman
(1970).
22. J. Haley, in Education and Research in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle, D. M. Elliot and L. E.
Weaver (Ed.), Oklahoma U. P., Norman (1970); V. O. Uotinen, et al., Nucl Tech. 18,
129 (1973); R. Astley, et al., Nucl News 14, 29 (1971).
23. P. R. Kasten, in Education and Research in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle, D. M. Elliot and L. E.
Weaver (Ed.), Oklahoma U. P., Norman (1970); U S A E C Report WASH-1097 (1969).
24. P. Fortescue, A reactor strategy: FBR's and HTGR's, Nucl News 15, 36 (1972).
25. G. Gyorey, private communication (1974).
26. D. Olander, Technical basis of the gas centrifuge, Advances in Nuclear Science and
Technology, Vol. 6, (1972).
27. B. Snavely, Separation of uranium isotopes by laser photochemistry, U S A E C Report
UCRL-75725 (1974).
28. N . H. Andrews, C. A. Olmstead, H. G. Houser, Nucl News 16, 71 (1973).
29. E. D. Fuller, A. L. Phillips, and F. E. Wicks, Nucl News 16, 71 (1973).
PROBLEMS
15-1
A thermal power reactor is shut down after an extended period of high-power

operation. What happens to: (a) the power output of the reactor (you may ignore
602
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
the short-term transients if you wish), (b) the average reactor temperature, and (c)
the ability of the reactor to be restarted.
Solve the isotopic rate equations to determine the buildup in xenon concentration
following startup of a clean core to a steady-state flux level </>0.
Determine the ratio of atomic number densities of equilibrium 135 Xe and 2 3 5 U as a
function of the steady-state thermal flux level of a reactor.
Consider a subcritical assembly in which a neutron flux of <f>0= 106 c m - 2 sec" 1 is
maintained by a source. How long must this source be left on before the xenon and
samarium concentrations reach 90% of their saturation value, respectively?
Demonstrate that there will be no buildup of xenon following shutdown unless the
flux prior to shutdown
<t>o>
Yi a *
15-6
15-7
15-8
15-9
15-10
15-11
15-12
15-13
15-14
15-15
= 3.7 X 1011 c m " 2 sec" 1 .
Explain this result physically.

Determine the time following shutdown at which the maximum xenon concentration
occurs.
Consider a large power reactor operating at a thermal flux level of <f>0= 10 14 c m - 2
s e c - 1 with a power defect of Ap PD = 0.04 and an excess reactivity (in the cold, clean
state) of pex 0.15. Determine the length of time following a scram one has available
to restart the reactor before xenon buildup will be sufficiently large to outweigh the
excess reactivity available. How long will this deadtime period last during which the
reactor cannot be restarted?
Determine the behavior of the samarium concentration in a reactor following a flux
level change <J>0<f>
Compare the effects of 135 Xe and 149 Sm buildup in thermal reactors fueled with 2 3 3 U,
235
U, and 239 Pu, respectively.
Plot the trajectory of iodine and xenon buildup in the phase-plane with coordinates
I(t) and X(t) following a clean core reactor startup and then a shutdown some time
later.
A nuclear reactor is subcritical and operating at very low power level. Assume that
no automatic control devices are operative. Reactivity is inserted (as by control rod
withdrawal) continuously and infinitely slowly so that any short-lived transients
induced come to rest. Making any further assumptions you require, discuss what
happens as the reactivity increases over a wide range.
Using first-order perturbation theory, estimate the reactivity worth of equilibrium
buildup in a bare cylindrical core in which a low flux level < > 0 < \ x / i s maintained.
Consider a slightly enriched uranium-fueled reactor operating at a constant flux level
<j>0. Determine the concentrations of 2 3 5 U, 239 Pu, and 241 Pu as functions of time.
(State carefully your assumptions concerning the particular nuclide chains you
choose to consider.)
Determine the maximum possible burnup ( M W D / M T U ) achievable in a reactor
with a given enrichment and conversion ratio (assume that C R < 1). Then compare
this theoretical limit with the actual design burnup goals for each of the major
reactor types (PWR, BWR, HTGR, C A N D U , SGHWR) and comment on this
comparison.
A high-temperature gas-cooled reactor is initially fueled with a mixture of 2 3 5 U and
232
Th. As the reactor is operated, the converted isotope 2 3 3 U accumulates as the 2 3 5 U
is consumed. Develop the isotopic concentration equations for 2 3 5 U, 233 Pa, and 2 3 3 U.
Solve these equations, assuming that the flux and the thorium concentration remain
constant.
603
15-16
It has been proposed to fuel a batch-loaded reactor with transuranic nuclide X,

which undergoes both fission and capture. Nonfission capture in X results essentially
instantaneously in nuclide Y, which is also fissionable. Nuclide Y is also subject to
radioactive decay and further capture reactions.
(a) If the reactor is just critical with an X concentration of X0, what is the
condition that a non-zero reactivity lifetime be attainable with this loading and
no initial excess reactivity?
(b) Assuming that X and Y are in secular equilibrium near the end of the reactivity
lifetime of the fuel charge, what burnup fraction can be attained?
Neither nuclide undergoes resonance absorption. Neglect neutron absorption in
nuclides W and Z. Assume constant flux operation. The nuclear parameters of X, 7,
and the fission products are to be assumed known.
15-17
Solve the differential equations for buildup of 240 Pu and 2 4 , Pu in terms of $

= Jo^(t')dt'.
Assume constant cross sections and zero initial concentration of all
plutonium isotopes.
Give a qualitative discussion of the proposed fuel cycle for the LMFBR. In
particular, discuss: (a) the interaction of the LMFBR fuel cycle with the LWR fuel
cycle, (b) the relative advantages and disadvantages of different proposed fast
reactor fuels (e.g., oxides versus carbides versus metal alloys), and (c) the economic
advantages (if any) of the LMFBR.
The molten salt-breeder reactor (MSBR) is a fluid-fueled reactor designed to operate
as a thermal breeder on pure 232 Th feed. The most significant reactions that occur in
the core are:
15-18
15-19
232
(,y)
Th > 233 Pa >
233
(,/)
U > Fission products.
Steady-state operation at zero reactivity is maintained by continuous fission product

removal at a rate proportional to the concentration.
Rate of removal of fission
_
products from core (atoms/sec)
^
FP
where NFP is the concentration of fission products in the core in atoms/cm 3 and C is
a constant. The heavy elements are not removed. The volume of the core is V and
the average flux is <f>0. The reactor is sufficiently well moderated to justify neglecting
all fast effects. When fueled with pure 2 3 5 U (but no thorium) the critical concentration is NJ5. Determine: (a) the minimum value of constant C and (b) the power
604
generated by the reactor for C > C mjn . Assume all nuclear parameters are known
and neglect xenon and samarium poisoning.
15-20 A bare cylindrical reactor, containing an initial loading of 100 kg of 2 3 5 U (no 2 3 8 U)
operates in batch irradiation. Because of radiation damage to the fuel elements, the
maximum local depletion of 2 3 5 U due to neutron absorption is limited to 60%.
Estimate the maximum thermal energy that can be produced from each fuel loading.
What assumptions are involved? Use a y / a f 0.18.
15-21 A nuclear rocket may be required to operate for a period as short as a few minutes,
but during this period it is desirable to obtain power at a constant and maximum
rate. To accomplish this with an initially clean reactor core, it would be necessary to
program the fission rate so that the total instantaneous power from prompt and
delayed (fission product) energy sources is a constant. The time-dependence of the
delayed sources can be determined from the Way-Wigner empirical correlation,
which states that the rate of liberation of decay heat at a time t after a single fission
varies as t~xl. This correlation applies for all times greater than 10 sec after the
fission. A fraction / of the total recoverable energy from a single fission follows this
decay law, and all other energy sources are assumed to be prompt. Assuming that
the reactor power can be brought quickly (instantaneously) to the desired power P at
the time of startup, how should the fission rate F{t) be programmed with respect to
time so that P remains constant?
15-22 An important isotope for power production in space is 238 Pu.
(a)
(b)
Suggest a practical scheme whereby 238 Pu can be produced with the aid of a
reactor.
Write down, but do not solve, the differential equations governing the concentration of 238 Pu and each of its precursors. Neglect resonance absorption
effects.
Appendix A
Some Useful Nuclear Data
I. MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Avogadro's number, NA
6.022045 X 1023 m o l " 1
Boltzmann constant, k
1.380662 x 10~ 23 J K - 1
0.861735 X 10~ 4 eV K ~ 1
Electron rest mass, m e
9.109534X 10~31 kg
0.5110034 M e V
Elementary charge, e
1.6021892 X 10"
19
Gas constant, R
8.31441 J m o l "
Neutron rest mass, m n
1.6749544xlO"27 kg
K"1
939.5731 M e V
Planck's constant, h
6.626176X10-" J HZ-
Proton rest mass, m n
1.6726485 X 1 0 " 2 7 k g
938.2796 M e V
2.99792458 X l O 8 m s e c " 1
Speed of light, c
II. SOME USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS

1 eV
1.6021892 X 10" 1 9 J
1 MeV
106 eV
1 amu
1 W
1d
1 mean y
1.6605655 X l O " 2 7 kg
931.5016 MeV
1 joule/sec
86400 sec
365.25 d
8766 h
3.156 XlO 7 sec
1 curie
3.7000 X 1010 disintegrations/sec
1 K
8.617065 X l O " 5 e V
605
III.
Atomic
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2200m/sec CROSS SECTIONS FOR NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENTS

[From Reactor Physics Constants, ANL-5800 (1963)].
Element
or
Compound
Atomic
or
Mol.
Wt.
Density,
g/cm3
Nuclei
per
Unit
Vol.
X 10" 2 4
H
H20
1.008
18.016
8.9+
1
5.3+
0.0335+
D2O
20.030
1.10
0.0331+
He
Li
17.8+
0.534
Be
BeO
B
4.003
6.940
9.013
25.02
10.82
2.6+
0.0463
0.1236
0.0728*
0.1364
0.8334
0.9047
0.9259
C
N
O
1.60
0.0013
0.0014
0.0803
14.008
16.000
0.9444
0.9524
19.00
20.183
0.0017
0.0009
5.3+
2.6+
0.9649
0.9667
0.971
1.74
2.699
2.42
1.82
2.07
0.0032
0.0018
0.87
1.55
0.0254
0.0431
0.0602
0.0522
0.0354
0.0389
2.5
4.5
F
Ne
12.011
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
CI
A
K
Ca
22.991
24.32
26.98
28.09
30.975
32.066
35.457
39.944
39.100
40.08
21
22
Sc
Ti
44.96
47.90
1.85
3.025
2.45
Microscopic
Cross Section,
b
I-1*0
0.3386
1.000
0.948
0.33
0.66
38
103
0.570
0.001
13.6
0.425
0.268
0.209
0.173
0.171
0.007
71
0.010
0.010
755
0.8
1.4
7.0
6.8
4
0.158
0.136
0.120
0.004
Macroscopic
Cross Section,
cm"1
2a
2S
2t
1.7+
0.022
0.002
3.45
0.002
3.45
13.6
3.3+
0.449
0.449
0.807
72.4
7.01
6.8
759
0.02+
3.29
124*
73+
103
2.1+
0.065
0.865
0.501
0.346
2.1+
3.35
0.865
0.501
104
4.8
10
4.2
4.80
11.9
4.2
32+
9.9+
0.000
0.385
50+
21+
0.385
60+
21+
0.001
0.0968 < 2 . 8
3.9
2.4
3.90
5.2
0.01+
7.3+
20+
6.2+
20+
0.9710
0.9722
0.9754
0.9762
0.9785
0.9792
0.0845
0.0811
0.0723
0.0698
0.0632
0.0612
5.3+
2.6+
0.0134
0.0233
0.9810
0.9833
0.9829
0.9833
0.0561
0.0492
0.0504
0.0492
4
3.6
1.4
1.7
5
1.1
16
1.5
1.5
3.0
4.53
3.67
1.64
1.86
5.20
1.62
49.8
2.16
3.57
3.44
0.013
0.003
0.015
0.008
0.007
0.020
0.002
1.7+
0.028
0.010
0.102
0.155
0.084
0.089
0.177
0.043
80+
3.9
0.020
0.070
0.115
0.158
0.099
0.097
0.184
0.063
0.003
5.6+
0.048
0.080
0.0335
0.0566
0.9852
0.9861
0.0438
0.0411
24
4
48
9.8
0.804
0.328
0.804
0.226
1.61
0.555
5.3+
5.3+
0.676
0.884
0.939
0.9394
0.9583
1.88
20+
0.102
0.525
0.069
0.241
0.16
0.20
0.52
33.8
0.66
2.07
0.44
24
5.8
38
103
13.5+
23
24
25
V
Cr
Mn
50.95
52.01
54.94
5.96
7.1
7.2
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
55.85
58.94
58.71
63.54
65.38
69.72
72.60
74.91
78.96
79.916
7.86
8.9
8.90
8.94
7.14
5.91
5.36
5.73
4.8
3.12
36
37
38
39
40
Kr
Rb
Sr
Yt
Zr
83.80
85.48
87.63
88.92
91.22
0.0037
1.53
2.54
5.51
6.4
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
1
Xe
Cs
92.91
95.95
98.0
101.1
102.91
106.4
107.88
112.41
114.82
118.70
121.76
127.61
126.91
131.30
132.91
12.2
12.5
12.16
10.5
8.65
7.28
6.5
6.69
6.24
. 4.93
0.0059
1.873
56
Ba
137.36
3.5
8.4
10.2
0.0704
0.0822
0.0789
0.9869
0.9872
0.9878
0.0387
5
0.0385 3.1
0.0359 13.2
5
3
2.3
10.0
6.1
15.5
0.352
0.255
1.04
0.352
0.247
0.181
0.704
0.501
1.22
0.0848
0.0910
0.0913
0.0848
0.0658
0.0511
0.0445
0.0461
0.0366
0.0235
0.9881
0.9887
0.9887
0.9896
0.9897
0.9925
0.9909
0.9911
0.9916
0.9917
0.0353 2.62
0.0335 38
0.0335 4.6
0,0309 3.85
0.0304 1.10
0.0283 2.80
0.0271 2.45
0.0264 4.3
0.0251 12.3
0.0247 6.7
11
7
17.5
7.2
3.6
4
3
6
11
6
13.6
45
22.1
11.05
4.70
6.80
5.45
10.3
23.3
12.7
0.222
3.46
0.420
0.0326
0.072
0.143
0.109
0.198
0.450
0.157
0.933
0.637
1.60
0.611
0.237
0.204
0.134
0.277
0.403
0.141
1.15
4.10
2.02
0.937
0.309
0.347
0.243
0.475
0.853
0.298
2.6+
0.0108
0.0175
0.0373
0.0423
0.9921
0.9922
0.9925
0.9925
0.9927
0.0236
0.0233
0.0226
0.0223
0.0218
31
0.73
1.21
1.313
0.185
7.2
12
10
4.3
8
38.2
12.7
11.2
4.3
8.2
81 +
0.008
0.021
0.049
0.008
19+
0.130
0.175
0.112
0.338
99+
0.138
0.195
0.160
0.347
0.0545
0.0640
0.0214
0.0207
0.0203
0.0197
0.0193
0.0187
0.0184
0.0178
0.0173
0.0167
0.0163
0.0155
0.0157
0.0152
0.0150
1.16
2.70
22
2.56
149
8
63
2450
191
0.625
5.7
4.7
7.0
35
28
5
7
0.063
0.173
0.273
0.448
0.336
0.621
0.0727
0.0732
0.0689
0.0586
0.0464
0.0382
0.0330
0.0331
0.0295
0.0234
2.7+
0.0085
0.9928
0.9931
0.9932
0.9934
0.9935
0.9937
0.9938
0.9940
0.9942
0.9944
0.9945
0.9948
0.9948
0.9949
0.9950
0.0154
0.9951
0.0145
1.2
6.16
9.70
6
5
3.6
6
7
2.2
4
4.3
5
3.6
4.3
20
8.56
154
11.6
69
2457
193
4.6
10.0
9.7
10.6
39.3
48
0.186
10.9
0.551
3.69
114
7.30
0.021
0.189
0.139
0.164
95+
0.238
0.436
0.366
0.248
0.352
0.325
0.084
0.132
0.142
0.148
0.084
12+
0.170
0.622
11.3
0.799
4.04
114
7.37
0.152
0.331
0.286
0.248
0.001
0.408
9.2
0.018
0.123
0.142
III. (Continued)
Element
57
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Sm203
Eu
EU 2 0 3
Gd .
Tb
138.92
140.13
140.92
144.27
145.0
150.35
348.70
152.0
352.00
167.26
158.93
6.19
67
68
69
70
Dy
Dy203
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
"MO
0.0268
0.0292
0.0290
0.0290
<>t
7.7
7.43
5.22
7.42
7.95
8.33
0.0309
0.0128*
0.0207
0.0127*
0.0305
0.0316
0.9952
0.9952
0.9953
0.9954
0.9954
0.9956
0.974
0.9956
0.978
0.9958
0.9958
162.51
372.92
164.94
167.27
168.94
173.04
8.56
7.81
8.76
9.16
9.35
7.01
0.0317
0.0126*
0.0320
0.0330
0.0333
0.0244
0.9959
0.993
0.9960
0.9960
0.9961
0.9961
0.0122 950
0.019
2200
0.0121
65
0.0119 173
0.0118 127
37
0.0115
Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
OS
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
174.99
178.5
180.95
183.86
186.22
190.2
192.2
195.09
197.0
200.61
9.74
13.3
16.6
19.3
20.53
22.48
22.42
21.37
19.32
13.55
0.0335
0.0449
0.0553
0.0632
0.0664
0.0712
0.0703
0.0660
0.0591
0.0407
0.9962
0.9963
0.9963
0.9964
0.9964
0.9965
0.9965
0.9966
0.9966
0.9967
0.0114
0.0112
0.0110
0.0108
0.0107
0.0105
0.0104
0.0102
0.0101
0.0099
Ti
Pb
Bi
204.39
207.21
209.0
11.85
11.35
9.747
0.0349
0.0330
0.0281
0.9967
0.9968
0.9968
0.0098
0.0096
0.0095
6.78
6.78
6.95
0.0143
0.0142
0.0141
0.0138
0.0137
0.0133
0.076
0.0131
0.063
0.0127
0.0125
8.9
0.73
11.3
46
60
5600
16,500
4300
8740
46,000
46
112
105
21
19.2
86
15.3
440
8.8
98.8
380
3.4
0.170
0.034
15
9
4
16
24
9.7
15.3
62
100
214
15
7
12
0.239
0.021
0.328
1.33
0.642
0.283
0.444
1.79
1050
2414
188
134
49
30.1
27.7
2.08
5.71
4.23
0.903
18.8
107.3
400
14
11
9
17.4
11.2
9
0.119
0.006
0.001
0.403
0.263
0.116
0.464
0.155
0.289
0.166
0.383
10
9.3
20
8
5
5
14
11
173
211
89.0
111
1403
1.45
3.75
4.71
1.16
1.21
5.71
1.09
30.9
0.581
5.79
15.5
5
5605
16,500
22.6
8
4308
30.2 8770
113
26
24.2
100
26.3
173
211
89.2
111
3.17
2.7
33.3
30.4
0.495
0.233
0.293
6.20
4.46
1.20
0.0359
0.277
0.316
0.930
0.783
0.660
0.550
0.814
0.489
0.363
0.253
5.07
1.44
1.53
6.64
1.87
1.24
6.34
16.3
0.607
0.369
0.256
84
85
Po
At
210.0
211.0
9.24
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
U
222.0
223.0
226.05
227.0
232.05
231.0
238.07
270.07
237.0
239.0
242.0
0.0097
uo2
93
94
95
Np
Pu
Am
0.0265
2.6+
0.0133
11.3
15.4
18.9
10
19.74
+ Value has been multiplied by 105.

* Molecules/cm 3 .
0.0293
0.0402
0.04783
0.0223+
0.0498
0.9968
0.9968
0.9970
0.9980
0.9971
0.9971
0.9971
0.9971
0.9972
0.9887
0.9972
0.9972
0.9973
0.0095
0.0094
0.0090
0.0089
0.0088
0.0088
0.0086
0.0086
0.0084
0.036
0.0084
0.0083
0.0082
0.7
20
510
7.56
200
7.68
7.6
170
1026
8.000
12.6
8.3
16.7
9.6
20.2
16.0
24.3
1036
0.266
0.222
8.04
0.367
0.169
51.1
0.369
0.397
0.372
0.478
0.592
0.765
0.542
51.6
IV. 2200 m/sec CROSS SECTIONS OF SPECIAL INTEREST:

10
B:
B:
135
Xe:
233
U:
o a = 3837b
o a =0.005
a a = 2 . 7 x 106
ay = 49
a { = 524
235
U:
238
a y = 101
Of = 577
239
Pu:
240p .
oy = 274
of = 741
a y = 286
of = 0.03
241
Pu:
a y = 425
of = 950
242
Pu:
a y = 30
of < 0.2
U ;
oy = 2.73
Appendix B
Some Useful Mathematical
Formulas
(1) Solution of First-Order Linear Differential
dx
f(x)=e M
+a(x)f(x)-g(x)
JXdx'eA^g(x')+cl
(2) Differentiation of a Definite
Equations:
(B-l)
A(x)=
j*dx'
(B-2)
Integral:
db , /(')
J
b(x)
(3) Representation of Laplacian V 2 in Various Coordinate

(a) Cartesian:
dx2
a(x').
dy2
dz2
(*,*')
dx
(B-3)
Systems:
(B-4)
611
612
SOME USEFUL MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS

(b)
Cylindrical:
&
dr
r2
d02
dz2
(B-5)
(c)
Spherical:
2 = J_ A 2 9 ,
1
r
dr + r2sing
r2 8r
(4) Gauss3 Divergence
a /
1
,2
2 si] 2
r s i n 0 3 <f>2
d0)
(B-6)
Theorem:
f d3rV-A=
dSes-A
(B-7)
where e s is the unit vector normal to the surface element dS.

(5) Green's Theorem:
J d3rV<t>-Vxp= J
dS<l>es-Vip-fd3r<t>Vfy
J d3r(<t>V2xp-xl'V2<f>) = J dSes'(<f>Vip-ipV<}>)
(6) Taylor Series
(B-9)
Expansion:
(x - x0y
f(x)=f(x0)+(x-x0)f(x0)+
f"(x
2!
(7) Fourier Series
(B-8)
0)
(B-10)
Expansion:
/(*)
V*
= 2u
a sm
n ~]~
nmx + , 1 ,0 ,
r b COS nirx
nir
2
^
n ~]
n= 1
(B-ll)
where
an = j j ' d x ' f ( x ' ) s i n ^ ,
b = j j ' d x ' f (x') cos
(B-12)
Appendix C
Step Functions, Delta Functions,
and Other Exotic Beasts
I.
INTRODUCTION
Consider the discontinuous function 0 ( x ) defined by the properties
ew
e(*)={
x<0
x>0.
(c-1)
@(x) is the unit "step function" introduced by Heaviside in his development of operational
calculus (now known as integral transform analysis). One can perform numerous operations
on 6 ( x ) . In particular it can be integrated to yield the ramp function
r,(x)=
f
j OO
x<0
dx'&(x')={
V Xy x>0.
(C-2)
Let's try something a bit more unusual by taking the derivative of 9(x). Clearly this is
ridiculous, because this derivative, call it 8 (x), is undefined at x 0 because 6 ( x ) is
discontinuous at this point:
e(jc + ) - e ( j c ) 1
5 (JC) = ' ( * ) = lim
>0
r o,
\ oo,
xô
x = 0.
(C-3)
Nevertheless Dirac, Heaviside, and others have made very good use of this strange
"function." To be more specific, the Dirac S-function, 8 (x), has the properties
8(x-x
v 0)= 07
(
1 00,
x = x0
J_(X>
dx8(x-xo)=l.
0/
(C-4)
613
6X4
STEP FUNCTIONS, DELTA FUNCTIONS, AND OTHER EXOTIC BEASTS
In a sense, it resembles a generalization of the Kronecker 5-function
"
\l,
m = n.
The most useful property of the Dirac S-function occurs when it is integrated along with a
well-behaved function, say f(x):
f dxf(x)8(x~x0)=f(x0).
(C-5)
This property not only is very interesting, but extremely useful in mathematical physics.
Unfortunately the proof of this propertyand, indeed, all of the theory of such generalized
functionsrequires a rather potent dose of mathematics. [Such generalized functions are
really not functions at all, but rather a class of linear functionals 1 called "distributions"
defined on some set of suitable test functions (which are "infinitely differentiable with
compact support").]
Fortunately one does not need all of this high-powered mathematics in order to use
5-functions. Only a knowledge of their properties is necessary.
II. PROPERTIES OF THE DIRAC S-FUNCTION

A. Alternative Representations
1
sinX(x x 0 )
S ( x - x 0 ) = - lim t
r,
Aoo \X Xq)
Hx-xo)
lim
(C-6)
(C-7)
B. Properties
8(x)=6(-x),
(C-8)
8(ax)=8(x\
5 [ g W ] = S
n
0,
(C-9)
I s M - W M ^ o ]
x8 ( x ) 0,
f(x)8
f 8(x-y)8(y-a)dy
(c-io)
I *(*)!
(C-ll)
(x - a) = / ( a ) 5 (x - a\
(C-12)
= 8(x-a),
(C-13)
00
5(x)=_L|
dkeik\
(C-14)
Actually these properties only make sense when inserted in an integral. For example,
property (C-8) really should be interpreted as
J dxf(x)8(x)
= f dxf(x)8(-x)=f(0).
(C-15)
STEP FUNCTIONS, DELTA FUNCTIONS, AND OTHER EXOTIC BEASTS
615
C. Derivatives
One can differentiate a S-function as many times as one wishes. The mth derivative is
defined by
d
(C-16)
One can show

W ( j c ) - ( - 1 )"fil](-jc) f
j 8[m](x-y)8[nKy-a)dy
xm+l8[m](x)
(C-17)
= 8[m+nKx~a),
(C-18)
= 0.
(C-19)
Perhaps of more direct use is the application of these properties to the first derivative
r 8'(x)f(x)dx
J <X>
= -/'(0),
8'(X)=-8'(~X\
j 8'(x-y)8(y-a)dy
= 8'(x-a),
x8'(x)=-8(x).
(C-20)
(C-21)
(C-22)
(C-23)
One can generalize the concept of a 5-function to several dimensions. For example, we
would define the three-dimensional 5-function by
JrfVS(r'-r)/(r')=/(r).
(C-24)
Note that we could write this in Cartesian coordinates as

8 ( r - r') = 5 (x - x')8 (y-y')8
(z - z'\
(C-25)
Such multidimensional 5-functions are of very considerable use in vector calculus.

More detailed discussions of the Dirac 5-function and its relatives are found in the
following references:
(1) J. W. Dettman, Mathematical Methods in Physics and Engineering, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York (1969).
(2) M. J. Lighthill, Fourier Analysis and Generalized Functions, Cambridge U. P.
(1959).
(3) A. Messiah, Quantum Mechanics, Vol. I, Wiley, New York (1965), pp. 468-470.
Appendix D
Some Properties of Special
Functions
(1) Legendre Functions'.

(a) Defining equation:
(1 x2)f"
(b)
l x f ' + l (/ + 1 ) / = 0 ,
/=integer.
(D-l)
Representation:
(D-2)
(c) Properties:
P0{x)=\,
Pi(x) = x,
P2(x)=I( 3x2-l),
p3=
{x)Pr{x)dx=
(D-3)
(D-4)
(d) Recurrence relations'.

Pl'+1(x)~xP;(x)
(l+\)P,(x)
(D-5)
(/+ \)Pl+ ,(*) - (21+ 1 )xP, (*) + IP,_ ,(*) = 0.
(D-6)
(2) Associated Legendre Polynomials:

(1 x2) f" 2xf' + / ( / + D -
/ - o.
(D-7)
SOME PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

(b)
617
Representation:
Pr(x)
(c) Spherical
m Ji
=(l-X2)2j^P!(x).
(D-8)
harmonics:
1/2
(2/+l)(/-w)!
Ylm(&) =
^ ( c o s f l ) ^ mi<J>
4?r(/ + m)!
(D-9)
(d) Properties:
(D-10)
MlT
/>,
s o = t t t t t t
(D-id
(3) Bessel Functions:

x2fff +
+ U 2 - /z2)/= 0
(D-12)
(b) Solution:
/(*), Bessel function of first kind

YM(x), Bessel function of second kind
Representation:
(c)
( 1)*
W = 2
A: =
cos(wr) - J_n
+2k
r(*+i)r(*+*+i)(f)
'
"
W =
(x)
sin7r
(D-13)
(d) Hankel
functions:
H<ilKx)-JH(x)
iYH(x)
(D-13)
H(x) =
Jn(x)-iYn(x)
(D-14)
" (* 2 + * 2 ) / = 0
(D-15)
(4) Modified Bessel Functions:

x2/"" +
(b) Solution:
(c)
4 0 ) , modified Bessel function of first kind

A^(JC), modified Bessel function of second kind
Representation:
(D-16)
SOME PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS/618
FIGURE D - l .
The Bessel functions of zero order.
(5) Useful Expansions of Bessel Functions for small x :

(D-17)
J i M =
y0w=
i ~ j 6
(D-l 8)
m
y = 0.577216
IT
(D-l 9)
(D-20)
7T
(D-21)
(D-22)
(D-23)
5x3
^ W = (y + l n f ) / 1 ( x ) + i - ^
(a) Asymptotic
64
(D-24)
expansions for large x:

/<>U) =
/,W=
Vi
V
e
VITTX
(
(
1+
*x
* *
)
)
(D-25)
(D-26)
(D-27)
(D-28)
SOME PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

(b) Recurrence
619
relations:
xJ!n = nJn -xJn+l
= - nJn + xJn_x
(D-29)
2 nJn = xJn _! + xJ +1
(D-30)
= nln + xln+1 = - nl + xln_x

xK'n = nKn-xKn+x=-
(D-31)
nKn - xKn _ ,
(c)
(D-32)
/(S=/i,
(D-33)
Integrals:
J
J xnIn_ldx
= xRIn,
(D-34)
(D-35)
(6) Gamma Function:

(a) Definition:
r(z)= fdte'Uz~x
./n
'0
(D-36)
r(o)=oo,
(D-37)
(b) Properties:
r(z+i)-zr(z)
r ( i / 2 ) = Vw ,
r(i)=i,...,r() = (n-i)!.
(7) .Error Function:

(a) Definition:
erf(x)= fê"'2
W 'o
(D-38)
(b) Complementary error function:

erfc(x)=l-erf(jt)= f d t e '
V77 ^
t 2
(D-39)
(8) Exponential Integrals:

(a) Definition:
00
/* 00
,(*)- J
~ -xf
~r" j
dt
/ GO . - /
d t L
(D-40)
(b) Properties:
W = V
(D-41)
'(*) = - - i W
(D-42)
^ W - ^ z y l e " ' - ^ - ^ * ) ] .
,(*)=-y-lnx-2,
(-DV
J,
>1
(D-43)
(D"44)
SOME PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS/620
REFERENCES
1. M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun (Eds.), Handbook of Mathematica Functions, Dover, New
York (1965).
2. H. Margenau and G. M. Murphy, The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry, 2nd Ed.,
Vol. I, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J, (1956).
3. I. S. Gradshteyn and I. M. Ryzhik, Table of Integrals, Series, and Products, 4th Ed.,
Academic Press, New York (1965).
4. P. M. Morse and H. Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Vol. I and II, McGrawHill, New York (1953).
Appendix E
Some Assorted Facts
on Linear Operators
I. INNER PRODUCTS
We define the inner product or scalar product ( / , g ) of two f u n c t i o n s / ( x ) and
(f,g)=[bdxw(x)f*(x)g(x),
as
(E-l)
Ja
[here
is frequently taken as 1] w h e r e / * ( x ) denotes the complex conjugate of f(x).
inner product has the properties
This
(a) (/,*)-( gj)*,

(b) (/,(*) + bf2(x), g) = a*(fhg)
(c)(/,/)>0if/(*)^0.
b*(f2,g),
[Note: Sometimes one defines a real inner product

(/,g)=
fbdxw(x)f(x)g(x).
Such a form satisfies properties (a) and (b), but property (c) is satisfied only for real
functions. Hence if one is concerned with complex valued functions, then it is necessary to
use the more general form (E-l).]
We define the norm of a function / (JC) as
ll/INK/,/)]1'2.
(E-2)
The norm is a real, positive number [by property (c) above] and characterizes the
"magnitude" of the function f(x).
Two functions, f ( x ) and
are said to be orthogonal if their inner product vanishes,
( / , * ) = 0.
(E-3)
621
622
SOME ASSORTED FACTS ON LINEAR OPERATORS
II. LINEAR OPERATORS

An operator refers to a mathematical operation by which we convert a function/(JC)
into another function g(x)that is,
Af(x)
= g(x).
(E-4)
(In the more colorful language of functional analysis, an operator is "a mapping of a linear
vector space into a linear vector space.")
EXAMPLES:
Differential operator:
Integral operator: A=
Af=
( b dx' k(x,x'),
Af ( b dx'
'a
Unit operator:
=
Null operator: A 0,
Af=f(x).
0/=0.
Displacement operator: A = exp(

2
A = () ,
k(x,x')f(x').
Ja
Af=f(x
a).
Af=[f(x)] .
If A(af+bg)=aAf+bAg,
then we refer to A as a linear operator. Note that the first five
operators above are linear, while the sixth operator is a nonlinear operator.
Such operators can frequently be manipulated formally via ordinary algebra, much as one
manipulates numbers or functions. However one must be very careful. In particular note
that operators are generally not commutative
ABf(x)^BAf{x).
(E-5)
There is one other animal quite similar to an operator, that occasionally arises in
mathematics. One refers to this mathematical operation, which converts a function into a
scalar, as a functional
/(*) } = a = number
(E-6)
(or, if you prefer, "a mapping of a vector space into a scalar field").
EXAMPLE:
A definite integral
{/(*)}
= (bdxf{x)
Ja
= number.
(E-7)
In this sense, if we f i x f ( x ) , then we can regard the inner product of f ( x ) with g(x) as a
functional of g(x), that is,
^ { g } = ( / , g ) = number.
(E-8)
III. LINEAR VECTOR SPACES

We have now defined the concept of an operator. Of course, such a definition is
incomplete until we specify the types of functions we are going to let it act upon. For
example, it makes no sense to let a differential operator d/dx act on a discontinuous
function, since d f / d x is not defined at the point of discontinuity.
623/SOME ASSORTED FACTS ON LINEAR OPERATORS

Hence in practice one studies
function on which he will let A
properties of a linear vector space,
addition and of multiplication by
an operator A by first specifying the class or type of

operate. Such classes of functions usually possess the
that is, a set of functions closed under the operations of
a scalar and containing a zero element.
EXAMPLES
C[a,b]:
Cn[a,b\.
L2[a,b]:
The set of all continuous f u n c t i o n s / ( x ) defined on the interval

x^[a9b],
The set of all functions defined on xB[a,b] with n continuous derivatives.
The set of all f u n c t i o n s / ( x ) defined on x[a,b] such that
(bdx\f(x)\2<*>.
'a
Lp[a,b]:
(This is an example of a "Hilbert space".)

The set of all f u n c t i o n s / ( x ) defined on xE^[a,b] such that
f^x|/(x)|*<oo.
Ja
(This is an example of a "Banach space".) Note that for studying a differential

operator of order n, we usually choose a corresponding space Cn~l. For an
integral operator, the L p spaces are usually chosen.
The particular linear vector space or class of functions for which an operator A is defined
is referred to as its domain ^D . Usually, ^D will be a subspace of a larger vector space V (that
is, the functions belonging to the class ^D will also belong to a more general class V). For
instance, A = d/ dx is defined on the domain of all continuous functions ^D = C. This class,
however, is actually contained in the more general class of piecewise continuous functions P
(i.e.,
CP).
IV. PROPERTIES OF OPERATORS

Consider now a linear operator A defined on a domain of functions fy . Then we refer
to A as a bounded operator in this domain if
- ^ < 0 0
forall/(x)eD.
(E-9)
If A is bounded on ^D, then we can define its norm (an operator norm) as the largest of these
values
\\A || = max yrrr
/e^D 11/11
(E-10)
Let us go one step further and associate an inner product ( / , g ) with any two functions/,g
contained in the domain ^D . Then we can define a positive definite operator as one for which
(f,Af)>0
for
Using the inner product (/,g), we can now introduce the very important concept of the
operator A* adjoint to A, We define the adjoint A^ of an operator A as that operator A+ for
which
(A^f,g) = ( f A g )
forall/.geS).
(E-12)
624
SOME ASSORTED FACTS ON LINEAR OPERATORS
Actually it may occur in practice that A+ and A are defined over different domainssay
and ^D. Then this definition of the adjoint operator must be defined by
(A^g)
= (f,Ag)
for all g G
(E-13)
Should
Af = A,
(E-l 4)
then we refer to the operator A as self-adjoint. Self-adjoint operators are very popular in
mathematics because they are easy to study, particularly with regard to their associated
eigenvalue problem
=
(E-l 5)
For instance, for self-adjoint operators the eigenvalues A are all real. Furthermore one can
make statements regarding the eigenfunctions i//x(x), such as that they form a complete set.
One reason for the preoccupation of mathematicians with self-adjoint operators concerns
their role in quantum mechanics (all quantum mechanical observables correspond to
self-adjoint operators).
V. DIFFERENTIAL O P E R A T O R S
Let's make a few more observations about the particular case of differential operators
L, defined on some domain ^D. For such operators, we can always construct the adjoint L
using integration by parts:
EXAMPLE:
L^d/dx,
(f,Lg)=
ty
=C[a,b]
Cdxf*(x)^c=f*(b)g(b)-f*{a)g{a)-
C d x ^ g i x )
Jq
Ja
=f*(b)g{b)-f*(a)g{a)+{-^L,gy
Hence provided J(fg)=f*(b)g(b)-f*(a)g(a)
(E-16)
= 0, we could identify the adjoint of L as

Lt
(E-l 7)
How do we force J ( f , g ) to vanish? (Here J ( f g ) is sometimes referred to as the conjunct of

the operator L.) For a given problem, we will be given certain boundary conditions on g(;c)
say g(a) = cu g(b) c2. Hence by an appropriate choice of boundary conditions to be
satisfied by f ( x ) [in this case f(a) = c$,f(b) = c f ] we can compel J ( f g ) to vanish. In general
the boundary conditions we are required to place on f ( x ) will not be the same as those we
place on g(x)that is, in the more abstract language developed earlier, the domain of
definition of the adjoint operator L 1 ",/ G 6 D' f ", will generally not be the same as the domain on
which L is defined.
A couple of definitions are useful here. If
L = L\
(E-l 8)
then we refer to the operator L as being formally self-adjoint. If the domains of definition are
also identical
L=
and
ty
= <3)t
(E-l 9)
625/SOME ASSORTED FACTS ON LINEAR OPERATORS

then we refer to the operator L plus the corresponding boundary conditions as being
self-adjoint.
There are numerous fascinating problems and concepts that arise in the study of
differential operators (which, of course, play the central role in most of physics). However it
is most appropriate to refer the interested reader to one of the standard sources for more
information:
(1) B. Friedmann, Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics, Wiley, New
York, (1956).
(2) R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methods of Mathematical Physics, Vol. I, WileyInterscience, New York (1956).
(3) J. W. Dettman, Mathematical Methods in Physics and Engineering, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York (1969).
Appendix F
An Introduction to Matrices
and Matrix Algebra
I. SOME DEFINITIONS
One defines a matrix of order ( m X n) to be a rectangular array of m rows and n
columns
12
13
a2l
In
A =
(F-l)
a,
'ml
The matrix elements ay will be identified by subscripts denoting their row i and column j. If
the matrix has the same number of rows as columns, it is said to be a square matrix; for
example,
11
a21
a31
aa
l2
U
a22
1133 \
<*32
<*23
(F-2)
33
A diagonal matrix has nonzero elements only along its main diagonal:
^ 0
A =
(F-3)
A tridiagonal matrix would have nonzero elements only along its central three diagonals:
0
A =
626
^si
0
0
(F-4)
AN INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND MATRIX ALGFBRA
627
The unit matrix is the diagonal matrix with elements atJ= 1 , / = y :

1
0
0
/ =
0
1
0
0
0
1
(F-5)
For two matrices to be equal, each of their matrix elements must be equal:
a
\2
a21
A =
13
a22
bu
bn
^21
bx3
22
B.
(F-6)
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its rows and columns:

(F-7)
or
a
2l
\3
3\
#12
"21
AT=
The determinant
matrix:
12
3 1
(F-8)
13
of a matrix is formed by taking the determinant of the elements of the

a
ll
12
13
21
det A = \ A
(F-9)
a31
Of course, the determinant of a matrix is a scalarthat is, just a number.

One defines the cofactor of a square matrix for an element atj by deleting the ith row and
yth column, calculating the determinant of the remaining array, and multiplying by ( \ ) ' + J :
a
12
tfll
l\
a
3\
a41
a42
(cof A ) 23 = cof
a 13
a 14
a
Xl
<*32 a 3 3
a 43
24
a
34
a
44
a3l
i+j
= ( - 1 ) ' a4l
al2
a, 4
"32
#42
a34
44
(F-10)
We can construct the adjoint or Hermitean conjugate of a matrix by complex-conjugating

each of its elements and then transposing as
A' = (A*)r
or
( ^ W ^ ) -
(F-ll)
For example,
At=(
"
\a2l
n\f=(<tn
a22)
^
<2*2^/0*1
[a*2
a*2j
a*2j-
If the determinant of a matrix vanishes, det(^) = 0, then the matrix A is said to be singular.
If det(A)^=0, the matrix is said to nonsingular.
628
AN INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES AND MATRIX ALGEBRA
II. MATRIX ALGEBRA

Two matrices of the same order may be added by adding their corresponding elements
(the same holds for subtraction):
11
A + B =
12
21
bn
au + bn
'12
aX2 + b 12
a2l + b2x
'21
(F-12)
In order for matrix multiplication to be possible, the number of columns of the first matrix
must equal the number of rows of the second matrix. One then calculates the matrix
elements of C = A - B as
c
ij= 2
(F-13)
ikhj
k=\
or more explicitly
bn
a
A- B =
2\
a
3l
22
<*32
bn
23
a
33
a b
u i\
22
23
'32
+ <*\2b2\ +
021^12+022^22 +
'33
(F-14)
Notice that matrix multiplication is not commutativethat is, A B=^B A i*1 general.
A very important matrix concept is the inverse of a square matrix, A ~ l , which is defined
by the relation
d~Kd
= d'd~l=I-
<F"15)
The inverse can be calculated as

= "
I = =
( c o f
) T
(F-i6)
For example, consider
Then
A 1 = 3,
while
Hence
Notice that if a matrix is singular, that is, det(^4) = 0, then it has no inverse.
Appendix G
An Introduction to Laplace Transforms
I. MOTIVATION
Differential equations play a central role in the description of most scientific
phenomena. Moreover, in many cases these phenomena can be approximately described by
a particularly simple type of differential equationnamely, those with constant coefficients.
In this Appendix we will try to develop one of the most powerful tools for solving such
equations: the application of integral transforms, and more specifically, the use of Laplace
transforms to solve differential equations.
The analogy between the use of transform methods to solve differential equations and the
use of logarithms to simplify arithmetic operations is quite striking. Suppose we wish to
multiply two complicated numbers a and b together. Then an easy way to do this is to use
logarithms
log a,
"Transform"
log
ci +
Iog
"Invert"
(log a + log 6) = a ^ b
That is, by first taking logs we have simplified the original problem, reducing it to a simple
sum.
This is essentially the idea behind integral transform techniques. Suppose we symbolically
represent the transform operation on a function as
f U U f ( s ) .
Then the idea is to transform the differential equation of interest
dt
Transform
sf(s)
Invert
f(0
629
630
AN INTRODUCTION TO LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
In this manner, the integral transform can be used to convert this differential equation into a
simpler problem (frequently an algebraic equation) that can then be solved rather easily for
the transformed solution. We then must somehow "invert" the transform to obtain the
actual solution of interest.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the very simple ordinary differential equation (familiar from
prompt neutron reactor kinetics)
(G-l)
- ( 0 ) . n0.
- ( ) - 0 ,
Now define the Laplace transform of n{t) as
/* 00
n{s)=
dte~stn(t)~{n}.
(G-2)
To transform the ordinary differential equation (G-l), multiply by e~st and integrate over t
or using integration by parts

5n (s) - n (0) - (p/A)w (s) = 0,
but this is now just an algebraic equation which can be easily solved for
n(s)
no
(G-3)
s ( p / A)
We must now "invert" n(s) to find

(G-4)
By noting that
00
{*"<}=
at
- 5te~
su-at.
dte~
at
s+ a
we find
_X^J=0exp[(p/A)/].
(G-5)
EXAMPLE:
Integral transforms can also be applied to the solution of partial differential
equations. Consider, for example, the initial value problem for a nonmultiplying slab in
one-speed diffusion theory
1 9</>
92<t>
Initial condition:
<^>(X,0) = <ô(JC)
Boundary condition:
<(0, /) =
/) = 0.
(G-6)
631/AN INTRODUCTION TO LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Define the Laplace transform of <f>(x, t) with respect to t by
(jcS) = f^dte'^Cxj).
'O
(G-7)
Now multiplying (G-6) by e~st and integrating over all times t, we find the transformed
partial differential equation becomes
d2<t>
1
v
dxL
Since the boundary conditions also depend on time, we must transform them to find:
Hence if we regard s only as a parameter, the application of Laplace transforms has reduced
our original partial differential equation (G-6) to an inhomogeneous ordinary differential
equation in x
Boundary condition:
( 0 , s ) = <f>(l,s) = 0
(G-8)
We can now solve this in any of the standard ways (e.g., eigenfunction expansions or
Green's functions) to find <Kx,s), and then invert to find
<#>(*,/)= S - H f c ) } .
(G-9)
Hence as should be apparent from these simple examples, Laplace transforms can be used
to greatly simplify the solution of differential equations by: (a) transforming the original
differential equation, (b) solving the transformed equation (which is now presumably a
simpler equation such as an algebraic equation or ordinary differential equation) for the
transformed solution, and (c) finally inverting the transformed solution to obtain the desired
solution of the original equation. It is usually a straightforward task to complete the first two
steps. The final step, that of inversion, can frequently be accomplished in a "cookbook"
fashion by merely looking up the inverse in a table of Laplace transforms that some other
fellow has had to work out. The general theory of how to perform such inversions from
scratch is important, however, since the inverses of many of the functions one encounters in
practice are not tabulated. However since it is heavily steeped in the theory of functions of a
complex variable, we will avoid a detailed discussion of Laplace transform inversion via
contour integration here and simply refer the reader to one of several standard texts. 1-3
II. "COOKBOOK" LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

We will now set up the recipes for solving differential equations with Laplace
transforms. First we must determine just what types of equations we can consider:
(a) This can be any linear differential equation (ordinary or partial) in which the variable to
be transformed runs from 0 to oo. (Such as an initial value problem in time or a
half-space problem in space.)
(b) We will further restrict ourselves to the study of differential equations with constant
coefficients (i.e., the coefficients in the equation do not depend on the variable to which
632
AN INTRODUCTION TO LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
we are applying the transform). This restriction can sometimes be relaxed; however we
will not consider the more general problem of differential equations with variable
coefficients here.
We will define the Laplace transform of a f u n c t i o n / ( / ) by
f ( s )= rdte~
s t
'o
f{t).
(G-10)
There are of course some restrictions on the type of function / ( / ) and the ranges of values of
s for which this integral will be properly defined, but let's not worry about details at this
stage of the game.
The general scheme for transforming the differential equation we are interested in solving
is the same as beforenamely, multiply by e~st and integrate over all t, using liberal
integration by parts. One then solves the resulting transformed equation and attempts to
invert the solution.
To facilitate in the preparation of a table of Laplace transforms (a cookbook), one merely
takes the transforms of as many different functions as possible. Several useful transforms of
general functions are: 4 , 5
j ^ J = sf (s) - / ( 0 ) .
Derivatives:
(G-l 1)
Recall that we obtained this by integration by parts. Further integration by parts yields
d j
0)-s-Y(0)
Integration:
Proof:
{*/(*)} = ~ ^
(G-14)
= f*f(0^(e-n=-fo<"dte-*<[tf(t)].
{ e a ' / ( 0 } = / (s-
Complex translation:
JO
(G-l 5)
a)
f ^dte~^-a)lf{t)=f
Proof:
Real translation:
(G-13)
A)
Differentiation by j :
Proof:
U)
(G-12)
r d t e - x f d t ' f i t ' ) - - f'dt'/OX + 1 f^dte-fU)

'O
S Jq
S JQ
ef r V / 0 ' ) ] [ Jq
j J^V/OO J = j /
/ - m
(s-a).
JO
= e~asf(s)
t{f(t-a)B(t-a)}
where (/) is the step function,

w
lo
/<0
(G-16)
633/AN INTRODUCTION TO LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Several examples of more specific transform pairs are:
f(t)
/()-{/(/)}
c -at
1
s+ a
1
sn+ 1
t*
n\
sinco/
cos<o*
m
SO)
CO
2
s +w
s
J_
s
1
Several other very useful relations 4 ' 5 are

Convolution theorem:
j f ' d r f ( t - r ) g ( r ) J = / (s)g(s)
(G-17)
(This result is useful for relating the inverse of the product of two transformed functions.)
Initial value theorem:
Mm f (t) = lim sf (s)
(G-18)
Final value theorem:
lim / ( / ) lim sf (5)

t* 00
s*0
(G-19)
There are a number of reasonably complete tables of such transform pairs. 4,5 After
obtaining the transformed solution, one can then turn to such tables in an effort to locate
the desired inverse. However in many cases it will be necessary to proceed with a direct
inversion calculation.
REFERENCES
1. P. M. Morse and H. Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 1, McGraw Hill, New
York (1953), Chapter 4.
2. W. Kaplan, Operational Methods for Linear Systems, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
(1962).
3. H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaegar, Operational Methods in Applied Mathematics, Dover, New
York (1948).
4. P. A. McCollum and B. F. Brown, Laplace Transform Tables and Theorems, Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, New York (1965).
5. F. E. Nixon, Handbook of Laplace Transforms, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
(1960).
Appendix H
Typical Nuclear Power Reactor Data
General Data
PWR
(W)
Thermal output ( M W t )
3411
Electrical output (MWe)
1150
Efficiency (%)
33.7
Fuel type
uo2
Coolant
H2O
Structural material
Zircaloy
Moderator
H2O
Core Data
Active height (cm)
366
Equivalent active
diameter (cm)
337
Height/diameter
1.09
Active core volume (1)
32,800
Average core power
density (kW/1)
104
Fuel weight (kg)
90,200
Specific power (kW/kgU) 37.8
Burnup ( M W D / M T U )
33,000
C.R.
0.5
Fuel Assemblies
Type
Number of
Assemblies
PWR
(B&W)
PWR
(CE)
BWR/6
3600
1200
33.3
3800
1300
34.2
3579
1200
33.5
uo 2
uo 2
uo 2
H2O
Zircaloy
H2O
H2O
Zircaloy
H2O
H2O
Zircaloy-2
H2O
HTGR
LMFBR
GCFR
CANDU
PHW
3000
2530
2410
1612
1170
1000
1000
500
39.0
39.0
39.5
31.0
UC, T h 0 2 Pu0 2 , U 0 2 Pu0 2 , U 0 2
uo2
He
He
Na
D2O
graphite
316SS
316SS
Zircaloy-4
graphite
D2O
363
381
376
634
91
148
410
352
1.03
37,600
363
1.05
40,000
366
1.03
63,910
844
0.75
354,000
222
0.41
6300
270
0.55
8510
680
0.60
130,000
95.7
94,900
37.9
33,000
0.5
95
103,000
36.9
33,000
0.5
56.0
138,000
25.9
27,500
0.5
8.4
39,000
77
98,000
0.7
380
19,000
126
100,000
1.3
297
28,000
90
100,000
1.5
12.4
80,000
20.4
10,000
0.45
square
bundles
square
bundles
square
bundles
canned
-square
bundles
hexagonal
graphite
prisms
hexagonal
canned
bundles
hexagonal
canned
bundles
pressure
tube
bundles
193
205
241
732
3944
394
347
473
Fuel-element array
17X17
17x17
16X16
Assembly dimension (cm)21.4x21.4 21.7X21.7 20.3x20.3

Assembly pitch (cm)
Number of fuel
elements/assembly
Total number of
fuel locations
Fuel Element Data
Type
21.5
264
21.8
264
20.7
236
50,952
54,120
56,876
Clad rod
Clad rod
Clad rod
Fuel-element pitch (cm)

1.25
Fuel element 0 . D. (cm)
.94
Pitch/diameter
1.32
Clad thickness (cm)
.0572
Fuel-pellet diameter (cm)
.819
Pellet-clad gap (cm)
.0082
Fuel enrichment
2.1 /2.6/3.1
8x8
132 pins
hex
hex
14X14
35X79
12x12
17x17
pressure
tubes
8x50
12.4
17.5
27.9
30.5
36.1
63
132
217
225
28
46,116
35,496
85,464
77,031
13,244
Clad rod Graphite UC, Wire-wrap

T h 0 2 rod
clad rod
1.62
.725
1.25
1.56
.579
1.30
1.25
.0864
.038
1.056
1.56
.66
.008
.012
2.2-2.7
93.5
10-15
Vented
clad rod
1.14
.805
1.41
.0295
.739
.012
10-15
50
5
14
50
86
10
89
23.9
78.7
295
217
200
492
390
528
20.4
105
93
50
58.3
237
168
115
1.27
.96
1.32
.0597
.823
.010
2.91
1.28
.97
1.33
.0635
.825
.0089
1.9/2.4/2.9
155
62
155
68
155
72
72
47
178
178
175
206
426
483
410
440
68.5
64
65
183
1.3
300
332
168
1.4
300
333
173
1.3
296
328
Clad rod
1.65
1.52
1.08
.038
1.44
nat U
Thermal Hydraulic Data

System pressure (bar)
Coolant flow (106 k g / h r )
Average linear power
density ( W / c m )
Maximum linear power
density ( W / c m )
Average heat flux
(W/cm 2 )
Maximum heat flux
(W/cm 2 )
Minimum DNBR
Inlet temperature (C)
Outlet temperature (C)
Maximum fuel
temperature (C)
1788
2021
1882
50.3
111.5
1.9
269
286
1829
229
337
755
380
552
332
642
249
293
1410
2000
2200
1500
Appendix I
Units Utilized in Text
B A S E SI U N I T S
meter
kilogram
second
kelvin
mole
ampere
length
mass
time
thermodynamic temperature
amount of substance
electric current
DERIVED SI U N I T S
Derived SI
Unit
SI Unit
Length
centimeter
Volume
cubic centimeter
liters
Velocity
centimeter/second
Mass
gram
tonne
Density
gram/cubic centimeter
Force
newton
Heat and energy
joule
Power
watt
636
cm
10" 2 m
cm 3
1
10~ 6 m
3
10~3 m
cm/s
g
t(MT)
m
kg
s
k
mol
A
British Unit
0.3937 in.
10"2 m * s _ 1
10" 3 kg
103 kg
0.06102 in. 3
0.03532 ft 3
0.03281 f t / s
2.205 X 1 0 " 3 lb
2205 lb
103 k g / m 3
62.42 l b / f t 3
1 kg-m-s~ 2
0.2248 lbf
1 N-m
9.478X 10~ 4 B
1 Js"1
3.412 B T U / h r
g/cm3
Pressure
bar
Energy density
joule /cubic centimeter
Power density
watt/cm (linear)
watt / cm 2 (energy flux)
watt/cm 3
Temperature
degree Celsius
Thermal units
thermal conductivity
heat transfer coefficient
specific heat capacity
Electric charge
coulomb
Derived SI
Unit
SI Unit
bar
105 N - m -
British Unit
14.50 lbs/in 2 (psi)
J/cm3
10" 6 J - m - 3
26.83 B T U / f t 3
W/cm
W / cm 2
W/cm3
102 W m
104 W - m ^ 2
106 W - m ~ 3
0.0305 k W / f t
0.930 k W / f t 2
28.35 k W / f t 3
' K + 273.15
F = 1 . 8 C + 32
W/m-K
W/m2-K
J/kg-K
6.933 B T U / h ft-F
0.1761 BTU/h*ft 2 -F
2.388X 10~ 4 B T U / l b m - F
A-s
NON-SI UNITS*
Electron volt (energy)
Atomic mass unit (mass)
Bar (pressure)
Barn(cross section)
eV
u
bar
b
1.60219 X 10~ 19J

1.66053 X l O " 2 7 kg
105 N / m 2
j q - 2 4
c m 2- = 10" 2 8 m 2
^Recognized by the International Organization for Standardization
637
Index
ABH Method, 414, 420-424

ABN cross section set, 363
Absorption cross section, 18
effective control, 543-547
macroscopic, 21
microscopic, 18
Absorption heating, 379
Absorption probability, 416-417
Accident, design basis, 459
loss of coolant, 459
Activity, radioactive, 14
Adiabatic approximation, 240
temperature feedback model, 262
Adjoint equation, 222
flux, 222, 224
matrix, 627
operator, 220, 623
multigroup, 308
one-speed diffusion, 221
Advanced converter reactor, 86
Advanced gas cooled reactor (AGR), 6
Age, approximation, 351-353
definition, 364
to indium resonance, 367
physical significance, 367
t o thermal, 367
Age-diffusion theory, 352, 363-368
criticality condition, 374, 397
derivation, 351
equation, 352, 363
fast nonleakage probability, 366
Age theory, see Age-diffusion theory
Albedo, 165-166
Algorithm, 1 7 8 , 1 8 3
Alpha, 59-60; see also Capture-to-fission ratio
Alpha decay, 13
Amplitude factor, 236
Angular current density, 107-108
density, 107
flux, 107
ANISN, 452, 465
Annular flow, 493
Asymptotic period measurement, 270
Asymptotoic reactor kinetics, see Reactor
kinetics
Atomic mass number, 12
Atomic number, 12
Atomic number density, 14, 606-609
Autocorrelation, 273-276
Availability, plant, 96
Avogadro's number, 605
B, Method, 356-358
Barn, 17
Bessel equation, 617
function, 617-619, 208
Beta decay, 13
and delayed neutrons, 62-63
Bethe-Placzek Doppler treatment, 50-52
Binding Energy, 54-55
Blackness coefficient, 228, 417
Blanket, 95, 595
Blasius formula, 485
Block diagram, 253
BNL-325 (barn book), 32, 70
Boiling, 489-498
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), 6, 9 1 , 4 9 8 , 521
Boltzmann equation, 104; see also Neutron
transport equation
Bondarenko self-shielding factor, 363
639
640
INDEX
Boron, use in control, 551, 554

Bound atom cross section, 376
Boundary conditions, age equation, 365
derivation, 114, 140-144
diffusion equation, 140-144, 153-156
extrapolated, 143,154
transport equation, 114
Breeding, 69, 86-87
ratio, 86
Breit-Wigner formula, 26-28
for capture, 26
for s-wave scattering, 29
Buckling, axial, 211
definition of, 202
geometric, 202
interpretation, 202
material, 203
radial, 211
table, 209
Buckling iteration method, 527
Burnable poison, 551-554
Burnout, 490, 496-498
Burnup, 450, 580-588; see also Depletion
Capacity factor, plant, 96
Capture, see Radiative capture
Capture cross section, 16,18
Capture-to-fission ratio, 59-60
Carbide fuels, 94, 4 7 0 4 7 1
Cell-averaged group constants, 409-413
Center-of-mass (CM) system, 40
Chain carrier, 11, 75
Chain reaction, 11, 75-86
Chebyshev polynomial extrapolation, 218
Chemical shim, 554-556
CINDER, 601
CITATION, 588, 601
Clad, 95
swelling, 457
temperature drop, 481
Coarse group calculation, 291
Coarse mesh rebalancing, 518
Code for heavy isotopes, 67
Codes, 450-454,460-465; see also Computer
codes
Collision frequency, 21, 105
intervals, 328
kinematics, 39-45
number to thermal, 324
probability, 419
rate density, 105
Complete set, 173, 176
Compound nucleus, 24-26
cross section for formation, 24
formation mechanisms, 24
Computer code, 450-454, 460-465
modules, 461-462
packages, 461
see also specific
codes
Concentration, 589
Condensor, 88
Consistent P, method, 352
Constant delayed neutron production rate
approx., 250
Containment structure, 92
Continuity equation, 125; see also Neutron
continuity equation
Continuous slowing down theory, 350-355
Control adjustment module, 464, 550
Control cell, 155, 542, 544
Control elements, 85, 95, 539-542
Control management, 540
Control rods, 540-542
clusters, 541
cruciform, 540, 545
followers, 531
grey, 542
management, 540
partial length, 550
shutdown margin, 538
stuck rod criterion, 538
worth, 2 2 4 , 5 3 8 , 5 4 2
worth calculation, 542-547
Conversion, 86, 589
Conversion ratio, 86
Converter reactors, 86
advanced, 86
Convolution theorem, 633
Coolant, 91, 95,486-487
channel, 9 5 , 4 8 7
loops, 91
primary, 91
secondary (intermediate), 92
temperature rise, 471, 487-489, 498
voiding, 493-495
Core, 95
expansion effects, 562
homogenization, 406-409
power density, 96, 515-519
power distributions, 473, 515-519
see also Nuclear reactor core
Critical heat flux, 471, 496
loading experiment, 268
mass, 85
size, 84
Criticality, 75-76, 202
condition, 76, 202
eigenvalue, 216
factor k, 75, 215; see also Multiplication
factor
search, 214-219, 301-307
Cross flow mixing, 501, 504
Cross section, absorption, 18
data file, 32-34
differential, 34-39
double-differential, 38
INDEX
elastic scattering, 18, 28
escape, 431
evaluated, 34
fission, 28, 55-59
heirarchy, 19
inelastic scattering, 18, 28
kernel, 168
library handling codes, 34,450-451
macroscopic, 20,19-23
microscopic, 17, 16-19
of mixtures, 22
multigroup, 288
nonelastic, 18, 349
radiative capture, 26-27
removal, 292
thermal, 383
total, 18, 30-32
transfer, 287, 289
transport, 136
2200 m/sec, 383,606-609
Cross spectral density, 274
CSISRS, 33
Curie, 14
Current, see Neutron current density
D 2 0 moderated reactors, 6, 92
Dancoff-Ginsberg factor, 434-435
Darcey-Weisbach friction factor, 484
Decay chain, 14
Decay constant, radioactive, 13
Delayed critical, 246
Delayed neutrons, 61-65
energy spectrum, 65
groups, 63
kernel, 248
miscellaneous data, tables, 64
precursors, 62, 237
role in reactor kinetics, 79, 85, 237
Delta function, see Dirac Delta function
Density of elements, table, 606-609
Departure from nuclear boiling (DNB), 490,
496498
Depletion analysis, 449, 580-588
module, 464
single fuel isotope, 5 82-5 83
Design, see specific type of
Detailed balance, 378
Difference Equations, 118, 178-193, 517
one-dimensional, 178-185
two and three dimensional, 185-193
Differential scattering cross section, defined,
36
elastic, 36
Differential worth, 224
Diffusion, 137
Diffusion approximation, 1 3 7 , 1 3 9 , 1 5 2
coefficient, 1 3 6 , 1 3 9 , 1 5 2
cooling, 381
641
equation, 1 3 7 , 4 0 , 1 5 3 ; see also Neutron

diffusion equation
kernel, defined, 168
eigenfunction expansion, 175
plane, 168
point, 168
length, 1 5 7 , 1 6 1
interpretation, 161
transport corrections, 159
theory, 133, 149-226
energy dependent, 138-140
multigroup, 285-311
one-speed, 133, 149-226
validity of, 1 3 8 , 1 5 2
Dirac delta function, 613-615
Direct group coupling, 293
Direction of neutron motion, 35
Disadvantage factor, 4 0 2 , 4 1 3 - 4 2 5 , 427
Discrete ordinates, 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 ; see also SN
method
Displacement kernel, 169
Dittus-Boelter correlation, 486
DNB, 4 9 0 , 4 9 6 - 4 9 8
DNB Ratio, 497
Dollar, 246
Doppler broadening, 49, 337
coefficients, table, 563
effect, 45, 48, 337
and resonance escape, 337
and temperature coefficients, 345, 558-559,
563
width, 49
Doubling time, 100
Downscattering, 292, 318
Economic analysis, 458
module, 464
Effective control cross sections, 543-547
multiplication factor k e f f , 84, 216
neutron lifetime, 237
neutron temperature model, 381-384
resonance integral, 338, 430
Eigenfunctions, 172
expansions in, 171-176
Eigenvalues, 172
criticality, 216
time, 200
Elastic scattering, 18
angular distributions, 43
Breit-Wigner formula, 29
change in neutron energy, 43-44
chemical binding effects, 32, 376
in CM system, 40-43
compound nucleus, 26, 28
with Doppler broadening, 52
kinematics, 39-45
low energy, 32, 376
p-wave, 72
642
INDEX
resonant, 28-29, 52
s-wave, 43
Electrical generator, 88
Emergency core cooling, 459
E n functions, 547, 619
ENDF/A, 33
ENDF/B, 34
Endothermic reactions, 16
Energy groups, 122, 286, 529
Energy levels, 14
Energy released in fission, 66-67
Energy spectrum, see Neutron energy spectrum
Energy synthesis, 528-529
Engineered safeguards, 459
Enrichment, 68, 96, 589-591
Enthalpy, 494
Equation of continuity, 124-127
Equivalence relations, 431
Equivalent hydraulic diameter, 485
Error functions, 619
Escape cross section, 431
Escape probability, defined, 417
first-flight, 418-420
reciprocity relation, 4 1 7 , 4 3 0
Wigner rational approximation, 432
Eta ( t j ) , 68
and breeding, 69, 86
variation with energy, 69
Evaluated Nuclear Data File (ENDF), 33
ENDF/A, 33
ENDF/B, 34
Excess reactivity, 538-539
Excited nuclear states, 14
decay of, 15
mean life, 15
width, 15
Exothermic reactions, 16
Expansion in known functions, 118-120
Exponential integral function, 547, 619
Extrapolation distance, defined, 144, 154
for control rods, 546, 564
at free surface, 1 4 4 , 1 5 4
for fuel rods, 422, 423
from transport theory, 144
Fanning friction factor, 485
Fast advantage factor, 437
Fast breeder reactor, 6, 87, 92, 595; see also
Fast reactor
Fast fission factor, 8 2 , 4 3 7
Fast group constants, 315-369
Fast nonleakage probability, 83, 366
Fast reactor, 87, 92, 595
feed material, 595
fuel cycle, 595
gas cooled, 6, 92
sodium cooled, 6, 92
Fast spectrum calculations, 315-369
Fast utilization factor, 437

Feedback effects, 241, 257, 556-563
mathematical description, 257-268
Fermi age, see Age
Fermi age theory, see Age-diffusion theory
Fertile isotope, 68
FEVER, 517, 533
f-factor, 363
Fick's law, derivation, 133-139, 352
physical interpretation, 137
validity, 137
Fine spectrum calculation, 291, 315, 362
Finite difference methods, 118, 176-196
Finite element methods, 518
Fissile nuclei, defined, 55
Fission, 54
barrier, 54-55
chain reaction, 11, 75
cross section, 28, 55-60
energy release in, 65
fragments, 60, 66
fuels, 67
gamma rays, 66
heat generation, 6 0 , 4 7 3
mechanics of, 54
neutrons, 4, 61
products, 4, 60, 66
decay of, 60, 66
gas release, 455
hazards of, 459
poisons, 567-580
yields, 570
Q-value, 16
recoverable energy, 65
source term, 197, 216, 238
spectrum, 62, 65
spontaneous, 55
threshold energy, 54
Fissionable, 55, 67
FLANGE, 393
FLARE, 518, 533
Flat power, 506, 598
Flat source approximation, 429
Fluence, 552
Flux, see Neutron flux
Flux-power-reactivity module, 463, 515-519
Flux synthesis, 525-529
buckling iteration, 527
multichannel, 528
single channel, 527
spectral (energy), 528-529
Flux time, 552; see also Fluence
Flux weighted cell averages, 409-413
Forced convection, 483-489
pressure drop, 484, 499
single phase heat transfer, 485
two-phase heat transfer, 490
Form losses, 500
INDEX
friction factor, 500
Four-factor formula, 83
Fourier series, 174, 612
Fourier's law, 1 5 2 , 4 7 6
Free atom cross section, 385
Free gas scattering kernel, 388
Free path, see Mean free path
Free surface, 114,142, 153; see also Vacuum
boundary
Friction factor, 484
Fuchs-Hansen model, 280
Fuel, 94
assembly, 94
bundle, 94
burnup and depletion, 96, 580-589
cell, 1 5 5 , 4 0 6
clad gap, 479-481
cladding, 9 5 , 4 8 1
cycle, 458, 592-596
densification, 532
elements, 94
enrichment, 96, 589-591
fabrication, 591
failure, 470
loading, 96
management, 589-600
residence time, 96
substitution techniques, 269
temperature coefficient, 557-559
Functional, 622
Fundamental mode, 201, 235
Fusion, 54
Gain, 255
GAM, 362
Gamma decay, 13
Gamma function, 619
(7,n) reaction, 63
Gap conductance, 480
Gas cooled reactors, 6, 92, 592; see also HTGR
Gaseous diffusion, 589
Gaseous fission products, 455, 479
GASKET, 393
GATHER, 452
Gauss* theorem, 151, 612
Gaussian approximation, 393
Gaussian elimination, 183-185
Gauss-Seidel (successive relaxation) method,
191
Generation time, see Mean generation time
Generalized heavy gas model, 390
Goertzel-Greuling approximation, 353-354
Graphite, 23, 30, 108, 160, 166
Green's functions, defined, 169
finite medium, 175
infinite medium, 168
Green's theorem, 612
Group collapsing, 291, 299
643
Group constants, see Multigroup constants

Group diffusion method, see Multigroup diffusion
Group fluxes, 122
Group transfer cross section, 287, 289
Hagen-Poiseuille flow, 484
Half-life, radioactive, 21
Harmonics of flux, 173, 201
Heat conduction, 475-483
equation of, 476
Heat generation, 473-475
Heavy gas model, 388-389
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, 15
Hellstrand correlation, 435
Helmholtz equation, 157, 206
Heterogeneous reactors, 398-440
equivalent cell, 4 0 6 , 4 0 8 , 415
lattice, 398
lattice pitch, 442, 485
multiplication factor, 399, 405
resonance escape probability, 404, 427
thermal utilization, 4 0 1 , 4 1 3
High temperature gas cooled reactor (HTGR),
6,92,592
Homogeneous reactors, 205
criticality relation, 206
power distribution, 207, 209
Homogenization techniques, 406-413
Hot assembly, 502
Hot channel, 502
Hot channel factors, 502-505
clad surface, 503
engineering, 504
enthalpy rise, 504
heat flux, 503
nuclear, 502
axial, 5 03
radial, 503
Hot spot, 502
HTGR, see High temperature gas cooled
reactor
Hydraulic diameter, 485
Hydrodynamic core analysis, 498-502
Hydrogen, collision density in, 320
neutron moderation by, 319-326
neutron thermalization by, 384-388
resonance absorption, 334-338
Importance function, 226, 310; see also Adjoint
Flux
Incoherent approximation, 392
Inconsistent Px theory, 351
In-core fuel management, 596-600
constraints, 597
refueling patterns, 598-600
refueling schedules, 598
Inelastic scattering, 18, 28, 331
644
INDEX
angular distribution, 347

compound nucleus, 24
energy loss in, 28, 331
threshold energy, 331
Infinite medium multiplication factor, 81, 83
spectrum equation, 317
Infinitely dilute resonance integral, 334, 345
Ingroup scattering, 292
Inhour, 244
Inhour equation, 244
Inner iteration, 193, 218
Inner product, 220, 621
In-out fuel loading, 599
Inscattering term, 112
Integral transport theory, 4 2 5 4 27
Intensity, of neutron beam, 17
Interaction area, 18
Interface conditions, 141-142,154
Intermediate coolant loops, 92
Intragroup fluxes, 290
Inverse method, 246-249
Isomeric state, 12
Isomers, 12
Isothermal temperature coefficient, 260
Isotopes, 12
Isotopic depletion equations, 586
Isotropic source, 128,132
scattering, 128
Iterated fission sources, 217
Iterative matrix inversion, 188-192
acceleration methods, 192
Gauss-Seidel (successive relaxation), 191
Jacobi-Richardson (point Jacobi), 190
Successive overrelaxation (SOR), 192
J(?,j3) function, 336
Jens-Lottes correlation, 492
Jump condition, 142,154
k, 75, 79; see also Multiplication factor
koo, 81, 83
k e f f, 84, 216
Kernel, diffusion, 168
eigenfunction expansion, 175, 176
scattering, 168
Kinetics, see Reactor kinetics
Kionecker delta function, 614
L factors, 439
L (t,f,0) function, 433
Lab system, 40
Laplace transform, 629-633
convolution theorem, 633
tables, 633
Laser isotope separation, 590
LASL 16-group..group cross section set,
360, 363
Lattice, 398
Lattice effects, 398-440

function, 422
pitch, 442
see also Heterogeneous reactors
Leakage, 81
fast, 83
thermal, 83
in transport equation, 112
Legendre polynomials, 616-617
LEOPARD, 517, 533
Lethargy, 322
average increase (), 324
table, 324
Level width, see Line width
Lifetime, of delayed neutrons, 237
in fast and thermal reactors, 236
of prompt neutrons, 77, 204, 235
of reactor transfer function, 272
Light water reactor (LWR), see PWR or BWR
Line width, Doppler, 49
natural, 51
neutron, 27
partial, 26
practical, 342
radiative, 27
and resonances, 26
total, 26
Linear operators, 169
Linear power density, 9 6 , 4 7 3 , 4 7 8
Linear stability analysis, 266
Linear vector spaces, 622-623
Linearized reactor kinetics, 252-255, 264
Linearly anisotropic flux, 134, 135, 138
scattering, 134
Liquid metal cooled fast breeder reactor
(LMFBR), 6, 92, 595
Load factor, 96
Loss of coolant accident, 459
LU decomposition, 185
Lumped parameter approach, 236, 262
Lyon-Martinelli correlation, 486
Macroscopic cross section, 20
control, 543-547
module, 462
Maneuvering control, 85, 539
Martinelli-Nelson friction multiplier, 501
Material buckling, 203
Materials problems in core design, 456-458
Matrix, 626-628
adjoint, 627
inversion, 628
multiplication, 628
transpose, 627
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, 47, 378
Maxwellian distribution, 47, 378
Maxwellian flux, 378
MC2 (Multigroup Constant Codes), 362
INDEX
Mean chord length, 433,442
Mean free path, 21
transport, 138
Mean generation time, 238
Mean life, radioactive, 13
Mechanical core analysis, 455-456
Megawatts, electrical (MWe), 95
thermal (MWt), 95
Mesh point, 178
Microscopic cross section, 17
2200 m/s values, tables, 606-609
Migration area, 300, 368
Milne problem, 141, 228
Minumum critical mass, 85
Moderating power, 325
ratio, 325
Moderator, 81, 95
table of properties, 324
temperature coefficient, 559
types, 95
Moderator-to-fuel ratio, 524, 534
Modified one^fcroup method, 300-301
Monte-Carlo method, 333,414
Moody diagram, 484
MUFT, 358-362
Multichannel synthesis, 528
Multigroup constants, 288, 290
generation codes, 451-452
parameterization, 522-525
Multigroup diffusion method, 285-311
derivation, 286-295
diffusion equations, 287, 290
fluxes, 286, 289
group collapsing, 291, 299
intragroup fluxes, 290
modified one-group method, 300-301
one-group method, 295
perturbation theory, 308
SN equations, 1 2 0 , 1 2 2
transport methods, 122
two-group method, 295-299 "
Multiplication factor, 75
definition, 75
effective, 84, 216
four-factor formula, 83
infinite medium, 81
life-cycle viewpoint, 76
neutron balance viewpoint, 77
and reactor criticality, 76
six-factor formula, 83
two group form, 297
Narrow resonance approximation (NR), 343
Narrow resonance, infinite mass approximation,
344
Natural harmonics, 173
Natural uranium-graphite reactor, 400
Nelkin kernel, 393
645
Net plant efficiency, 9 6 , 1 0 0

Neutrinos, in fission, 65, 66
Neutron age, 364
angular current density, 107
angular flux, 107
attenuation, 20
capture, 16, 18, 26
continuity equation, 124-127
cross sections, 16-34
current density, 109
decay, 79
delayed, 61-62
density, 105
diffusion, 103,133,149-226
diffusion equation, 133, 153
boundary conditions, 140,153
derivation, 133,151
energy-dependent, 138
by eigenfunctions, 171
with free surface, 162
multigroup, 290
for maltiregion system, 163
numerical solution, 176
one-speed, 133,149
for planar source, 157
for point source, 160
solutions of, distributed sources, 167
direction vector, 35
energy spectrum, 290
flux, 106
isotropic, 109
and reactor power, 206, 207
thermal, 383
2200 m/sec, 383
generation time, 238
importance, 225
interactions of, 12-26
leakage, 79
lethargy, 322
lifetime, 77, 237
low-energy, 376
mass, 605
moderation, 317-332; see also Slowing Down
nuclear reactions, 15-23
prompt, 61
lifetime, 79
partial current densities, 110,143
pulsed, 272
scattering, see Elastic, Inelastic scattering
slow, see Thermal neutrons
slowing down, 317-332
slowing down equation, 318
spectroscopy, 376
thermal, 45
thermalization, 375
transport equation, 113, 114
wavelength, 27, 31
646
INDEX
waves, 281
width, 27
Neutron Spectrum, 290
effective temperature, 381
fast, 316, 315-369
thermal, 316,375-394
Neutron transport equation, 103-144
analytical solution, 129
approximation of, 124
derivation, 111
numerical solution, 117-123
one-speed, 128
in purely-absorbing media, 129-133
Neutronics, 11
Newton's law of cooling, 262,481
Nodal methods, 194-196
cells, 194
coupling coefficients, 195
in kinetics, 277
transfer probabilities, 195
Noise, reactor, 273-276
Nonelastic cross section, 273, 349
Nonleakage probability, 79, 83
fast, 83
thermal, 83
Nonlinear point reactor kinetics, 267-268
Non-l/v absorption, 383
Non-l/v factors (g-factors), 383
Nonreentrant surface, 1 1 4 , 1 5 3
Norm, function, 621
matrix, 190
operator, 623
Normal modes, 173; see also Eigenfunctions
Nu (i>), 61
artificial, 215
energy dependence, 6 2
Nuclear constants, see Cross sections
Nuclear Data Sets, 32-34
Nuclear fuel management, 589-600
Nuclear methods development, 97
Nuclear motion, 45-54
Nuclear power peaking factors, see Hot
channel factors
Nuclear reactions, 15; see also Cross sections
collision, 15
kinematics, 39
nomenclature, 15
Nuclear Reactor, 4
blanket, 95
breeder, 87, 92, 595
BWR, 6, 91,636-637
CANDU, CANDU-PHW, CANDU-BLW, 92,
636-637
control, 76
converter, 86
core, 85, 95
criticality of, 76
design, 96
design data, 634-635
fast, 6, 87, 92
GCFR, 6, 96, 636-637
heterogeneous, 398-440
homogeneous, 205
HTGR, 6 , 9 6 , 592, 636-637
lifetime, 551, 585
LMFBR, 6, 92, 595, 636-637
LWR, 6, 91, 5 9 2
MAGNOX, 6 , 9 2
noise, 273
physics, 11
prompt critical, 246
prompt subcritical, 246
PWR, 6,91, 636-637
reflected, 211
SGHWR, 6, 92
slab, 198 temperature coefficient, 259, 556
theory, 11
thermal, 5, 81
transfer function, 253, 264
see also specific reactor
types
Nuclear Recoil, 44
Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), 5 , 9 1
Nucleate boiling, 490
Nucleon, 12
Nucleus, binding energy, 54
compound, 24
excited states, 14, 24
radius, 29
Nuclide, 12
Numerical methods, 117-123, 176-196
quadrature, 118
Nusselt number, 486
One dimensional diffusion codes, 176-185
One group method, 295; see also One speed
approximation
One speed approximation, derivation, 128,
150, 295
modified, 300
One speed diffusion equation, 137,149-226
derivation, 150, 133-138
Operator, 169, 622
adjoint, 220, 623
Laplacian, 156, 611-612
multigroup diffusion, 303
perturbation, 219
self-adjoint, 221, 624
Optical thickness or depth, 132
Orthogonality, 173, 621
Orthonormal, 176
Outer iteration, 218
extrapolation, 218
multigroup, 305
one-speed, 218
INDEX
Overlapping group technique, 5 2 9
Overtaxation, 192
Oxide fuels, 94
P, approximation, 121,136
P, equations, 121, 135-136
lethargy dependent, 347
slowing down equations, 349
PN method, 121
equations, 121
Parabolic partial differential equation, 156
Parks' kernel, 393
Partial current, 110, 143,153; see Neutron
partial current density
Particular solution, 170
Pcm (per cent mille), 244
PDQ, 513, 533
PDQ-HARMONY, 588,601
Period, 78, 244
Periodic power variation, 248
Permanent fission-product poisons, 577
Perturbation theory, applications of, 219
first-order, 223
multigroup, 308
one-group, 219-226
two-group, 309
Phase shift, 255
Photofission, 54
Photoneutron reactions, 63
Physical constants, table, 605
Pitch, 442, 485
Placzek function, 329
Plane symmetry, 115
Plant availability factor, 96
Plant capacity factor, 96
Plant electrical output (MWe), 95
Plant load factor, 96
Plant thermal output (MWt), 95
Plutonium, 55, 67
Point Reactor kinetics model, 235-241
equations, 236, 238, 239
integrdifferential form, 248
limitations, 239
Point source, age theory, 367
diffusion theory, 160
in purely absorbing media, 130-132
Poisons, 551, 567
burnable, 551-554
see also Fission product poisons
Potential scattering, 23, 29
Power, see Nuclear reactor power
Power coefficient of reactivity, 261,557
Power defect, 258, 261
Power distribution, 515-533
calculation of, 515-532
shaping, 521, 547
Power method, 216, 218
Power peaking factor, 230, 475, 502
647
local, 502, 529-532

Power regulation, 539
Practical width, 342
Prandtl number, 486
Precursor, delayed neutron, 62, 237
balance equation, 238
concentration, 237
Pressure vessel, 91, 95
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), 6, 91
Primary model, 390
Probability distribution function, in neutron
transport, 21
in radioactivity, 13
scattering, 39
Prompt critical, 246
Prompt generation time, see Mean generation
time
Prompt jump approximation, 250-251
Prompt neutrons, 61
average energy, 61
lifetime, 77, 204
most probable energy, 61
source term, 116
spectrum, 61
Prompt subcritical reactor, 246
Prompt temperature coefficient, 260, 559
Proton gas model, 384-388; see also WignerWilkins model
Pulsed neutron measurements, 272-273
Pumping power, 487
p-wave scattering, 72
Q-value, 16
Quadrature weights, 118
Quality assurance, 7, 460
Quality, flow, 495
static, 493
Quasistatic method, 277
Radiation damage, 4 5 6
Radiative capture, 16, 18, 26
Breit-Wigner formula, 26
with Doppler broadening, 48
see also Resonance escape probability
Radiation from a reactor, 66
Radioactivity, 12-15
activity, 14
chain decay, 14
decay constant, 13
half-life, 13
mean-life, 13
Rational approximation, 432
Reaction rate density, 105
Reactivity, 222,239, 537-563
analysis, 449,537-563 .
and control rod worth, 538
excess reactivity, 538, 585
feedback, 257-268, 556-563
648
INDEX
and fission product poisoning, 567

and fuel burnup, 580
inherent, 556
inventory, 538; see also Excess reactivity
and perturbation, 222
power coefficient of, 261, 557
ramp change in, 249, 251
spectral density, 274
step change in, 242
temperature coefficient of, 259-262,556-563
Reactor, see Nuclear reactor
Reactor cycle, 598
Reactor design, 96,447-465
design data, 634-635
Reactor dynamics, 233, 257-268
Reactor kinetics, 78, 233-277
feedback effects, 257-268,556-563
Fuchs-Hansen model, 280
large negative reactivities, 246
period, 78, 244
point reactor model, 235-241
prompt critical, 246
prompt jump approximation, 250-251
ramp reactivity insertion, 249, 251
scram, 250
and small reactivities, 245
stable period, 243
transfer function, 253, 264
Reactor period, 78, 244
and control rod worth, 270
and reactivity, curve, 247
stable, 243
Reactor Power, 206,473,515-533
Reciprocal multiplication method, 268
Reciprocity theorem, 417,430
Recoil, nuclear, 44
Reduced mass, 41
Reduced wavelength, 27
Reentrant surface, 114
Reflected reactor, 211
Reflection coefficient, 165
Reflector, 95,165
Reflector savings, 213
Refueling, 598
Removal cross section, 292
Resonance, 24-26
data for 2 3 8 U, table, 335
Doppler broadening, 49
and level width, 26
practical width, 342
Resonance absorption, 26,49, 332-347,427437
infinite dilution approximation, 334
in heterogeneous reactors, 427-437
in homogeneous reactors, 332-347
in hydrogeneous media, 334-338
narrow resonance approximation, 343
narrow resonance-infinite mass approxi-
mation, 344
numerical computations, 342
temperature coefficient of, 345, 556
temperature dependence of, 337
widely spaced resonances, 344
Resonance integral, 338
effective, 340
empirical formulas for, 435
equivalence theorems, 431
for heterogeneous reactots, 427-437
for homogeneous reactors, 338
physical significance, 341
table, 346
temperature coefficient of, 345, 558
used to calculate group constants, 341
Reynold's number, 484
Ricatti equation, 386
Rod bowing, 562
Rod drop method, 270
Rod oscillator experiment, 271
Rod shadowing, 434
Rod worth, 538, 542-547
Roundelay fuel loading, 599
S-a-x relationship, 495
Safety, 459
St. John-Brown kernel, 393
Samarium, 576-577
at constant power, 576
decay constant, 570
equilibrium, 576
fission yield, 570
after shutdown, 577
Scalar flux, 109
Scalar product, 621; see also Inner product
Scattering, 16, 18
angle of, 3 7 , 4 3
angle cosine, 38
coherent, 376
cross section, 28
elastic resonance, 28
interference, 29
kernel, 168
law, 392
potential, 29
p-wave, 72
resonance, 29
s-wave, 43
upscattering, 53
see also Elastic; Inelastic scattering
Scatter4oading, 599
Scram, 539
control, 85, 53 9
Secondary model, 391-392
Selengut-Goeitzel method, 352
Self-adjoint operator, 221, 624
Self-shielded group constants, 363, 409
Self-shielding, 229, 338
INDEX
energy, 338
factor, 229, 363,412, 553
spatial, 404
Separation of variables, 199
Shape factor, 236
Shim control, 85, 539
Shutdown (of reactor), 245, 250, 538
and fission product buildup, 572
Shutdown margin, 538
Simple degenerate kernel (SDK), 396
Six-factor formula, 83
Slip ratio, 495
S N method, 120-121
equations, 120
Slowing down, 317-332; see Moderation
Slowing-down density, 321
with absorption, 325
anisotropic component, 348
and flux, 321
\
in hydrogen, 319
SOFOCATE, 387
Solid angle, 218
p Source extrapolation, 218
! Source iteration method, 216-219, 301-307
| Source jerk method, 271
) Spatial modes, 176
| Specific enthalpy, 494
! Specific power, 96
!
Spectral synthesis, 528-529
Spectrum calculations, see Neutron energy
spectrum
Spherical coordinates, 35,612
Spherical harmonics, 120
Spontaneous fission, 10, 55
Stability, 254
in the small, 267
Steam generators, 5 , 9 1
Step function, 613
Strawbridge-Barry correlation, 436
Streaming term, 127
Structure, 95
Stuck Rod Criterion, 538
Subcritical assembly, 76
Successive overrelaxation, 192
Supercritical reactor, 76
S-wave scattering, 43
Swelling in fuel, 4 5 5 , 4 8 0
in stainless steel clad, 456
Synthesis methods, 277, 525-529; see also
Flux synthesis
Synthetic scattering kernels, 389, 396
Taylor series expansion, 351, 612
Temperature, of clad, 481
of coolant, 487
of fuel, 477
of moderator, 559
of neutrons, 381
649
Temperature coefficient of reactivity, 259,

556-563
coolant, 559
fuel, 558
isothermal, 260
moderator, 559
prompt, 260
and reactor stability, 260
Temperature defect, 261
TEMPEST, 452
Thermal analysis, see Thermal-hydraulic
analysis
Thermal conduction, 475-483
conductivity, 476
in fuel elements, 558
Thermal core analysis, 467-511
Thermal disadvantage factor, 402
Thermal group constants, 275, 316
Thermal-hydraulics analysis, 467-511
design codes, 507
limitations, 470
module, 463
neutronics interactions, 519-521
objectives, 469
Thermal limitations, 469-473
clad, 470
coolant, 471
fuel, 470
Thermal neutrons, average energy, 379
cross sections of, 383, 375-394
diffusion of, 379
flux,383
interaction rates, 382
migration area, 368
most probable energy, 379
nonleakage probability, 368
spectra, 316, 375-394
speed of, 379
Thermal power (MWt), 95,473, 505
Thermal reactors, 5, 81
Thermal spectrum calculations, 316, 375-394
nonequilibrium, 379
thermal equilibrium, 378
Thermal transport path, 468
Thermal utilization, 80, 82
by ABH method, 420
in heterogeneous reactor, 403
Thermalization, see Neutron thermalization
Thermally averaged interaction rates, 45, 382
Thermodynamic efficiency, 96,100
THERMOS, 425
Three-point difference equations, 180-185
Tilt in power, 579
Time behavior of reactor, see Reactor kinetics
Time eigenvalues, 200, 235
Total cross section, 18, 30
Total flux, 109
Transfer function, 253, 264
650
INDEX
closed loop, 264

with feedback, 264
zero-power, 253
Transport cross section, 136, 349
Transport equation, 111-117; see also
Neutron transport equation
Transport kernel, 426
Transport laws, 152
Transport mean free path, 138
and diffusion coefficient, 136
and extrapolation distance, 144
Transport theory, 103-144
derivation of transport equation, 111-117
Fick'slaw, 1 3 7 , 1 3 9 , 1 5 2
one-speed transport equation, 128
Trial functions, 232
Tridiagonal matrix, 183, 626
Turbine, 88
Two-body collision kinematics, 39-45
Two-group method, 295-299
criticality condition, 297
group constants, 296
and perturbation theory, 309
operator, 309
2200 meter/sec cross sections, 383, 606-610
Ultracentrifuges, 590
Unit cell, 155,229,406
Unit impulse response, 254
Unstable, 254, 266
Upscattering, 53
Uranium, 55-70, 589
enrichment, 68, 96, 589-591
hexaflouride, 589
oxide, 94,591
Variation of constants, 170

Variational methods, 120, 232
Void coefficient of reactivity, 560-561
Void fraction, 493
w-search, 439
Wavelength, neutron, 31
reduced, 27
Way-Wigner correlation, 604
Weighted residual methods, 120, 527
Width, see Line width
Wigner rational approximation, 432
Windowshade model, 549
Wigner-Wilkins equation, 386
Xenon, 568-580
at constant power, 571
cross section, 17, 25, 566
decay constant, 570
equilibrium, 571
fission yield, 570
oscillations, 578
transients, 574
after shutdown, 573
Xitt), 324
for mixtures, 331
table, 324
Yellow cake, 589
YOM cross section set, 363
Zero-dimension calculation, 517, 588
Zero-power point reactor model, 241-257
Zero-power transfer function, 253
Zonal loading (in-out cycling), 599

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Nuclear

J O H N WILEY & SONS, Inc.

Copyright 1976 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication

Duderstadt, James J 1942Nuclear reactor analysis.

Printed in the United States of America

Nuclear Reactor Analysis

Civil Engineering and

To Anne and Jacqueline

The maturation of the nuclear power industry, accompanied by a redirection in

CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear Fission Reactors

The Nuclear Physics of Fission Chain Reactions

Fission Chain Reactions and Nuclear Reactors

The Multiplication Factor and Nuclear Criticality

CHAPTER 5 The One-Speed Diffusion Theory Model

The One-Speed Diffusion Equation

Nuclear Reactor Kinetics

The Point Reactor Kinetics Model

Multigroup Diffusion Theory

A Heuristic Derivation of the Multigroup Diffusion Equations

Multigroup Perturbation Theory

Neutron Slowing Down in an Infinite Medium

Thermal Spectrum Calculations and Thermal

General Features of Thermal Neutron Spectra

Fast Spectrum Calculations and Fast Croup

Cell Calculations for Heterogeneous Core Lattices

Lattice Effects in Nuclear Reactor Analysis

General Aspects of Nuclear Reactor Core Design

Nuclear Core Analysis

CHAPTER 12 Thermal-hydraulic Analysis of Nuclear Reactor Cores

Radial Heat Conduction in Reactor Fuel Elements

CHAPTER 13 The Calculation of Core Power Distributions

Static Multigroup Diffusion Calculations

Analysis of Core Composition Changes

Fission Product Poisoning

Miscellaneous Physical Constants

Some Useful Mathematical Formulas

Step Functions, Delta Functions, and Other Exotic Beasts

Properties of the Dirac S-Function

Some Properties of Special Functions

Some Assorted Facts on Linear Operators

An Introduction to Matrices and Matrix Algebra

An Introduction to Laplace Transforms

Typical Nuclear Power Reactor Data

Units Utilized in Text

Nuclear Reactor Analysis

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR ANALYSIS

I. NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS

INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR ANALYSIS

much higher energy neutrons released in a nuclear fission reaction ( f a s t reactors).

II. ROLE OF THE NUCLEAR ENGINEER

INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION

III. SCOPE OF THE TEXT

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION

THE NUCLEAR PHYSICS OF FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS

sometimes simply as neutronics. It is essentially the subject of this text.

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR ANALYSIS

presentation is not intended to be complete. Indeed we would anticipate that most

THE NUCLEAR PHYSICS OF FISSION CHAIN REACTIONS /

The rate at which nuclei are decaying is given by

Since radioactive decay is a statistical phenomenon, we cannot predict with any