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University of Bristol, UK
Universit Roma Tre, Italy
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 4 June 2014
Accepted 15 September 2014
Available online 6 October 2014
Keywords:
Explosive eruptions
Calderas
Magma storage
Syn-eruptive melt extraction
a b s t r a c t
Large caldera-forming eruptions have long been a focus of both petrological and volcanological studies; petrologists have used the eruptive products to probe conditions of magma storage (and thus processes that drive
magma evolution), while volcanologists have used them to study the conditions under which large volumes of
magma are transported to, and emplaced on, the Earth's surface. Traditionally, both groups have worked on
the assumption that eruptible magma is stored within a single long-lived melt body. Over the past decade, however, advances in analytical techniques have provided new views of magma storage regions, many of which provide evidence of multiple melt lenses feeding a single eruption, and/or rapid pre-eruptive assembly of large
volumes of melt. These new petrological views of magmatic systems have not yet been fully integrated into volcanological perspectives of caldera-forming eruptions. Here we explore the implications of complex magma reservoir congurations for eruption dynamics and caldera formation. We rst examine mac systems, where
stacked-sill models have long been invoked but which rarely produce explosive eruptions. An exception is the
2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajkull volcano, Iceland, where seismic and petrologic data show that multiple sills at
different depths fed a multi-phase (explosive and effusive) eruption. Extension of this concept to larger mac
caldera-forming systems suggests a mechanism to explain many of their unusual features, including their
protracted explosivity, spatially variable compositions and pronounced intra-eruptive pauses. We then review
studies of more common intermediate and silicic caldera-forming systems to examine inferred conditions of
magma storage, time scales of melt accumulation, eruption triggers, eruption dynamics and caldera collapse.
By compiling data from large and small, and crystal-rich and crystal-poor, events, we compare eruptions that
are well explained by simple evacuation of a zoned magma chamber (termed the Standard Model by Gualda
and Ghiorso, 2013) to eruptions that are better explained by tapping multiple, rather than single, melt lenses
stored within a largely crystalline mush (which we term complex magma reservoirs). We then discuss the implications of magma storage within complex, rather than simple, reservoirs for identifying magmatic systems with
the potential to produce large eruptions, and for monitoring eruption progress under conditions where successive melt lenses may be tapped. We conclude that emerging views of complex magma reservoir congurations
provide exciting opportunities for re-examining volcanological concepts of caldera-forming systems.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
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Corresponding author at: University of Bristol, School of Earth Sciences, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK.
E-mail address: glkvc@bristol.ac.uk (K.V. Cashman).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.09.007
0377-0273/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . .
Appendix A.
Supplementary data
References . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Fig. 1. The Standard Model of caldera formation. (A) Stably stratied magma chamber
forms over thousands of years by crystal settling and upward migration of volatiles.
(B) Eruption starts with Plinian activity through a single vent, driven primarily by volatile
exsolution. (C) Evacuation of magma causes under-pressurization and destabilization of
the reservoir. (D) Caldera forms by roof collapse.
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42
crystals or crystal plumes within a large batch of liquid that cools from
the margins inward; (2) eruption initiation by injection of a vertical
and pressurized dyke, located either in an axisymmetric position or at
the chamber margin; (3) magma withdrawal starting from the top of
the melt lens and propagating downward, as evidenced by deposits
that are reversely zoned in composition and/or pre-eruptive temperature and pressure; and (4) caldera formation by collapse of an underpressured magma chamber after some fraction of magma has been
withdrawn, with the timing of collapse determined by the strength
and thickness of the overlying country rock relative to width of the
magma chamber.
Over the past few decades, however, detailed volcanological, petrological and geophysical studies of individual (intermediatesilicic) magmatic systems have shown that (1) magma storage regions are
composed primarily of crystalline mush (crystals plus interstitial liquid;
Fig. 2; e.g., Hildreth, 2004; Hildreth and Wilson, 2007; Lipman, 2007;
Bachmann and Bergantz, 2008; Reid, 2008; Bachmann, 2010; Deering
et al., 2011; Walker et al., 2013; Simon et al., 2014), (2) large melt volumes may be assembled rapidly (Charlier et al., 2005; Wilson and
Charlier, 2009; Druitt et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2013; Gebauer et al.,
2014; Simon et al., 2014; Wotzlaw et al., 2014), (3) caldera-forming
30
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Fig. 3. Schematic view of the magmatic system that fed the very large (~1200 km3) rhyolitic Kidnappers eruption, Mangakino volcano, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. The
eruption tapped three separate melt bodies distributed laterally along the rift.
Modied from Cooper et al. (2012).
are most commonly associated with stratovolcanoes, where storage regions tend to be vertically elongated.
The very largest eruptions almost always involve MI magma that is
(relatively) homogeneous in both composition and phenocryst content
(Fig. 4A). Resulting ignimbrites are typically composed of ash and broken crystals, with only scarce pumice clasts (b10%; e.g., Carter et al.,
1986; Bachmann et al., 2002; Gottsmann et al., 2009; Wright et al.,
2011). CPR eruptions, in contrast, initiate with pumice-bearing deposits
of crystal-poor (and often high-SiO2) rhyolite magma that may vary in
both crystallinity and bulk composition throughout the course of an
eruption (e.g., Hildreth, 1981; Deering et al., 2011; Pamukcu et al.,
2013; Fig. 4B). The high-SiO2 rhyolite melt often lacks a counterpart in
correlative plutonic sequences (although there are exceptions,
e.g., Walker et al., 2007), but overlaps the composition of matrix melts
in MI magmas (e.g., Lindsay et al., 2001; Lipman, 2007; Bachmann
et al., 2007; Fig. 4). For this reason, both magma types are inferred to
have a similar origin, with the difference being that MI eruptions evacuate the entire (rejuvenated) magma storage region, while CPR eruptions are dominated by the (segregated) melt phase (e.g., Bachmann
et al., 2007). Accumulation of rhyolitic residual melt prior to CPR eruptions is inferred to occur by crystal settling, compaction and/or lter
pressing of the crystal mush (e.g., Sisson and Bacon, 1999; Bachmann
and Bergantz, 2004; Bea, 2010; Dufek and Bachmann, 2010).
MI and CPR eruptions differ in eruption style and timing of caldera
formation. MI eruptions commonly lack an early Plinian (single vent,
high plume) phase and initiate, instead, with eruption of pyroclastic
density currents from faults along the caldera margin. Where the timing
of caldera collapse can be determined, it is coincident with the start of
the eruption (Sparks et al., 1985; Lindsay et al., 2001; de Silva et al.,
2006; Gregg et al., 2012; Willcock et al., 2013). As a result, associated
distal ash deposits derive mostly (or exclusively) from the coignimbrite plume (e.g., Chesner et al., 1991). CPR eruptions, in contrast,
typically start with a Plinian (high plume) phase, as recorded in widespread and voluminous fall deposits. With time, the vent widens
(often by propagating ring faults) and pyroclastic ows comprise an increasing proportion of the erupted volume. Caldera collapse occurs only
after withdrawal of a critical volume of magma that can be related to the
depth and geometry of the reservoir (e.g., Roche and Druitt, 2001; Geyer
et al., 2006; Geshi et al., 2014).
Smaller caldera-forming eruptions (~100 km3) encompass a wide
range of magma compositions and crystallinities (e.g., Hildreth, 1981)
and are typically associated with stratovolcanoes. When classied by
matrix glass (rather than bulk) compositions, these eruptions can be
assigned to one of three groups: rhyolite (SiO2 N 70%), intermediate
(phonolite/trachyte; 55% b SiO2 b 70%), or mac (ultrapotassic;
SiO2 b 55%; Fig. 4B). These melt compositions are often buffered at
pseudo-invariant points (Fowler et al., 2007; Boari et al., 2009; Gualda
Fig. 4. Bulk rock and matrix glass compositions of CP and CR ignimbrites as a function of
DRE erupted volume. (A) CR data; yellow squares show matrix glass, orange bars show
bulk compositional range. (B) CP data; blue circles show matrix glass composition of earliest erupted magma, blue bars show bulk compositional range. Data sources are listed in
Table S1.
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
et al., 2012). By analogy with the larger systems, it is commonly assumed that evolved crystal-poor (CP) magma is segregated into a single
large body prior to eruption, and that late-erupted crystal-rich (CR)
magma is mobilized by recharge melts (e.g., Bacon and Druitt, 1988;
Pallister et al., 1992; Allen, 2001; Bachmann, 2010). When crystal-rich
magmas are erupted early (for example, Pinatubo 1991, Philippines;
Quilotoa 800 ybp, Ecuador), erupted magmas appear similar to larger
MI eruptions in their (general) homogeneity, bulk composition and
high crystallinity (e.g., Polacci et al., 2001; Rosi et al., 2004). Caldera collapse in these systems is attributed to magma withdrawal and underpressurization, and may happen at some point during the eruptive sequence (e.g., Druitt and Sparks, 1984).
Of the caldera-forming ignimbrite family, the smallest, and in many
ways the oddest, group is that of ultrapotassic (SiO2 b 55%) ignimbrites
found primarily in the Quaternary Roman Magmatic Province (QRMP;
Italy). The QRMP comprises four major caldera complexes that have
produced recurrent eruptions of tephritic to tephri-phonolitic ignimbrites with DRE (dense rock equivalent) volumes of 150 km3 (Fig. 5;
Giordano et al., 2006; Boari et al., 2009; Masotta et al., 2010; Freda
et al., 2011; Vinkler et al., 2012; Acocella et al., 2012). The recurrence
times for caldera-forming eruptions at each caldera complex are 40 to
50 ka, and caldera areas range from 30 to 300 km2. These eruptions
are curious because ultrapotassic magmas have low viscosities
(104.5 Pa s, even accounting for up to 30% syn-eruptive crystallization;
Vinkler et al., 2012; Campagnola, 2014) and are therefore susceptible
to gas escape during magma ascent. The eruption sequence of
ultrapotassic ignimbrites is, however, comparable to that of their silicic
31
Fig. 5. The Quaternary Roman Magmatic Province. (A) Main caldera-producing centers. (B) The Colli Albani volcano with the extent of the 355 ka Villa Senni (VSN) caldera-forming eruption unit: black lines = isopachs of the basal scoria fall (shown in yellow); orange = Tufo Lionato pre-collapse ignimbrite; pink = Pozzolanelle climactic ignimbrite. (C) Chemical composition of VSN units: orange eld = Tufo Lionato (from Freda et al., 1997); pink squares = Pozzolanelle ignimbrite (from Conticelli et al., 2010); purple circles = spatter in caldera
collapse breccia (from Conticelli et al., 2010).
32
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
zones (e.g., Marsh, 1996; Annen et al., 2006; Gudmundsson, 2012). Sills
form when repeated magma injections are sufciently spaced in time to
allow complete cooling between injection events (e.g., Annen et al.,
2006; Burchardt, 2008); melt lenses dominate when new inputs are
added to systems that are still partially molten, or within sills that are
sufciently thick to allow internal redistribution of melt (e.g., Marsh,
2002, 2013). Variants of stacked sill models have been invoked to explain the petrologic diversity of mac magma erupted during individual,
often long-lived, eruptive episodes (e.g., Aarnes et al., 2008; Kelley and
Barton, 2008; Erlund et al., 2010; Dahren et al., 2012; Passmore et al.,
2012; Neave et al., 2013; van der Zwan et al., 2013). In these conceptual
models, each thermally zoned mac melt lens evolves by the progression of a solidication front that is multiply saturated, such that melt
composition is buffered along a eutectic/cotectic. At the same time, crystallization generates highly differentiated melt compositions that may
(1) segregate by compaction at intermediate crystallinities, (2) become
trapped within small pores in regions of high crystallinity (N 70%;
e.g., Dufek and Bachmann, 2010), or (3) segregate into lenses, pockets,
and bulbous masses (Marsh, 2002; Masotta et al., 2012).
The volcanological consequences of stacked sill models have not
been thoroughly explored. Direct evidence for syn-eruptive tapping of
previously intruded sills is provided by precursory and syn-eruptive
geophysical data for the remarkable pattern of downwardpropagating seismicity that accompanied the 2010 FimmvrduhlsEyjafjallajkull eruption in Iceland (Tarasewicz et al., 2012; Fig. 6). Evidence for at least two sill intrusions in the 1990s (Sigmundsson et al.,
2010) provides support for this interpretation. An important consequence was an eruption that involved several distinct explosive episodes separated by times of lava effusion; another consequence was
a wide range of erupted compositions and groundmass textures
(e.g., Cioni et al., 2014). This well documented example shows that
melt does not have to be assembled pre-eruptively into a single large
body to contribute to a single eruptive episode, and supports previous
interpretations of individual macintermediate eruptions fed from
complex reservoirs (e.g., Yoshimoto et al., 2004; Roman et al., 2006;
Erlund et al., 2010; de Angelis et al., 2013; Neave et al., 2013). These
data also show that changes in eruptive activity (such as pauses and
transitions between explosions and lava effusion) may reect not only
conditions of magma transport to the surface (e.g., Melnik et al., 2005)
but also conditions of magma storage, including the over-pressure
maintained within the magma reservoir. For example, pressure within
individual melt lenses may be modulated dynamically by the interplay
between gravitational instability of the solidication front (Marsh,
2002; Humphreys and Holness, 2010), local gas build-up caused by
volatile-saturated crystallization (Tait et al., 1989), changes in melt volume caused by the balance between crystallization and interstitial melt
segregation (e.g. Sisson and Bacon, 1999; Bachmann and Bergantz,
2004), compressibility of magma with an exsolved volatile phase
(Johnson, 1987; Voight et al., 2010), and/or intrusion of recharge
melt and/or gas from deeper melt lenses.
3.2. Caldera formation from complex mac magma reservoirs an
example from Colli Albani
Fig. 6. Time-progressive unloading of a stacked sill sequence beneath Eyjafjallajkull volcano, Iceland, 2010; illustrates response to a downward propagating decompression front
of a partially molten crustal magmatic system.
Redrafted from Tarasewicz et al. (2012).
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
33
Fig. 7. Stratigraphic and textural characteristics of VSN (compiled from Vinkler et al., 2012); color scheme used is the same as in Fig. 5. Juvenile types (by number) refer to Fig. 8. Reference
lines for vesicularity and vesicle number density (VND) are from Rust and Cashman (2011). Arrow on right hand side labeled f represents the volumetric ratio of pre-collapse and postcollapse deposits.
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K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Fig. 8. Photomicrographs of component types in VSN deposit (labeled by number to correspond with labels in Figs. 6 and 8). (1) Crystal-poor scoria with round vesicles.
(2) Microphenocryst-rich scoria with irregular vesicles. (3) Phenocryst-rich scoria with microcrystalline matrix and highly irregular vesicles. (4) Cognate xenolith containing crystals of
leucite, clinopyroxene and biotite. All images are 3.3 mm across.
magma reservoir model, time gaps reect modulation of magma withdrawal by the strength of the crystal framework (Fig. 10), and the
time required for connection of melt lenses to the main conduit
(e.g., Fig. 6).
To summarize, magma storage within a complex melt/mush reservoir helps to explain many unusual characteristics of the Villa Senni
eruption, including the stability afforded by distributing, rather than
concentrating melt, the potential for isolated lenses to develop both
high overpressures and highly evolved compositions, and the opportunity for sequential tapping of melt lenses to sustain explosive activity
Fig. 9. Conceptual model for the VSN magma reservoir, which is composed of CP melt lenses within a CR magma matrix. Melt lenses are variably interconnected prior to eruption; during
eruption, isolated melt pockets may be tapped either as intervening septa are ruptured or when intercepted by propagation of the caldera-bounding fault. During eruption, magma ows
initially from within CP lenses, where viscosity is lower, and progressively involves larger portions of the reservoir eventually including the crystal rich framework. The enlarged box to the
left depicts the possible geometry of an upper and a lower solidication front with embedded melt accumulation. Numbers 1 to 4 are the same as the zoned juvenile types in Fig. 7, and
show the inferred original positions of magma parcels erupted sequentially in the Villa Senni ignimbrite succession, from crystal poor type (1) to progressively crystal richer types (2, 3, 4).
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Fig. 10. Changes in magma strength as a function of melt volume fraction. Dashed lines are
t to experimental data on the Westerly granite (upper) and Delegate aplite (lower).
Adapted from Rosenberg et al. (2007).
throughout an eruptive sequence. Deposits from the VSN eruption further suggest that the timing and style of caldera collapse may be controlled by processes within the reservoir (specically, failure of parts
of the crystal network), in addition to processes external to the reservoir
(such as the geometry, thickness and mechanical properties of the roof
rock and caldera faults). More broadly, we highlight emerging views of
mac magma reservoirs as vertically extensive and comprising both
melt-rich and melt-poor (or melt-absent) regions. This view derives
not only from the geophysical, petrologic and volcanologic studies
reviewed above, but also from new thermal models that examine conditions required to develop complex storage regions (e.g., Annen et al.,
2006; Annen, 2011; Solano et al., 2012). More important from a
volcanological perspective, however, are the implications for conditions
leading to, and evolving during, volcanic eruptions from magma
reservoirs that contain multiple and variably connected melt lenses
(e.g., Gudmundsson, 2012).
4. Storage and eruption from large silicic systems
We now address the question of the extent to which complex (meltlens-dominated), as compared to simple (single melt body), magma
reservoirs can provide insight into processes that contribute to the
much more common eruptions of intermediate to silicic magmas. Our
goal is not to dismiss the Standard Model, but instead to evaluate the extent to which emerging, and sometimes conicting, observations about
very large explosive eruptions can be reconciled by broadening our
views of magmatic systems.
4.1. Pre-eruptive magma storage
Several recent studies of crystal-poor rhyolitic ignimbrites suggest
that multiple, rather than single, melt batches were tapped during individual caldera-forming eruptions. Evidence for multiple melt batches is
particularly common in extensional environments such as the Snake
River Plain (US; Ellis et al., 2010; Ellis and Wolff, 2012) and the Taupo
Volcanic Zone (TVZ, New Zealand; Brown et al., 1998; Charlier et al.,
2003; Gravley et al., 2007; Wilson and Charlier, 2009; Bgu et al.,
2014), and demonstrates the importance of crustal forcing on both
magma storage and eruption (e.g., Lindsay et al., 2001; Gottsmann
et al., 2009; Cooper et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2013). Two laterally
displaced (and non-communicating) melt lenses may also have been
tapped during the 600 km3 Bishop Tuff eruption from the Long Valley
caldera (Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013), which lies within a transtensional setting at the eastern edge of the Sierra Nevada and has long
been considered the iconic example of the Standard Model of a single
zoned magma chamber. In all cases, melt lenses are similar in bulk,
but distinct in trace element and isotopic, composition and were stored
35
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K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
of these studies is the suggestion that large volumes of silicic melt may
accumulate over short (centuries or less) time scales (e.g., Charlier
et al., 2007; Gualda et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2013; Fig. 11). Other studies
describe very short time scales (decades to years or even months) of
late-stage crystallization (e.g., Wark et al., 2007; Saunders et al., 2010;
Druitt et al., 2012; Gualda et al., 2012; Matthews et al., 2012) and/or incorporation of xenocrysts (e.g., Gardner et al., 2002) prior to large eruptions. Short timescales of magma accumulation are difcult to reconcile
with long times (104105 years) required for compaction-driven melt
extraction (e.g., McKenzie, 1984; Bachmann and Bergantz, 2004; Dufek
and Bachmann, 2010). An alternative mechanism for segregating silicic
magma invokes formation of melt channels or dikes within more crystalline parts of the magma reservoir; melt extraction in this scenario is
driven by either pore pressure response to an anisotropic stress eld
(e.g., Eichelberger et al., 2006; Allan et al., 2013) or rapid interconnection of isolated melt lenses (e.g., Eichelberger and Izbekov,
2000; Fig. 6). Rapid extraction and shallow accumulation of melt may
also be driven by perturbations of local stress elds surrounding crystal
mush zones. Perturbations could be caused by the arrival of new
magma inputs, gas exsolution (Sisson and Bacon, 1999), or tectonic
stresses (particularly extension related to rifting; Allan et al., 2012).
Fig. 11. Time constraints on melt accumulation prior to the Oruanui eruption, Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Orange curve represents the time required to construct the
primary magma reservoir (high-Si rhyolite), using FeMg interdiffusion in orthopyroxene
(opx). Purple curve represents late-stage re-equilibration of opx incorporated into the
main magma body. Green inset curve represents the distribution of opx diffusion ages
within low-Si rhyolite magma, which is interpreted as growth in isolated melt pockets
that were intersected during the eruption.
Complied from Allan et al. (2013)).
evolved than the resident magma in the uppermost part of the system
(Eichelberger et al., 2006; Hildreth and Wilson, 2007; Wright et al.,
2011). The geometry of the magma reservoir may also control both
the extent of interaction of new hotter melt inputs with cooler mush
(e.g., Humphreys et al., 2009) and the interaction of volatiles with the
mush (Wright et al., 2012).
Late-stage disturbances to magmatic systems may also be recorded
as selective crystal dissolution (e.g., feldspar and/or quartz; Bachmann
et al., 2002), phenocryst rim growth (Wark et al., 2007; Saunders
et al., 2010; Druitt et al., 2012; Matthews et al., 2012; Allan et al.,
2013) or microlite formation (Pamukcu et al., 2012). Both dissolution
and phenocryst rim growth are commonly interpreted to reect intrusion of mac magma into the system; in the latter crystal growth results
from cooling of the mac input. In the absence of evidence for mac inputs, however, selective dissolution and new crystal growth can also be
explained by changes in PH2O in response to decompression or addition
of volatiles (Bachmann et al., 2002; Wark et al., 2007; Blundy and
Cashman, 2008; Matthews et al., 2012; Cashman and Blundy, 2013). Evidence for volatile transfer underlies the concept of gas sparging, whereby sufcient heat to unlock crystal networks is transferred by an inux
of volatiles to the system (Bachmann and Bergantz, 2006). The time
scales required for unlocking by heat transfer alone are long and
are similar to those required for melt extraction by compaction
(e.g., Gottsmann et al., 2009). Fluxing with H2O-rich uids could unlock
crystal networks more rapidly, however, by resorbing anhydrous
phases. Introduction of CO2-rich uids, in contrast, would promote crystal growth, particularly of feldspar (e.g., Cashman and Blundy, 2013),
thereby strengthening crystal networks.
Early (precursory) phases of eruptive activity provide insight into
conditions required to initiate and sustain an eruption. Interestingly,
many eruptions are preceded by leaks from the magma reservoir. Examples include the eruption of the 200 km3, largely degassed, Pagosa
Peak dacite just before the very Fish Canyon Tuff eruption (FCT;
e.g., Bachmann et al., 2000), the explosive-to-effusive Cleetwood eruption that preceded the c. 50 km3 caldera-forming (zoned) eruption of
Crater Lake, USA by weeks to months (Bacon, 1983; Kamata et al.,
1993), and the small (~ 0.3 km3) explosive eruption that preceded,
probably by months, the 530 km3 (crystal-poor) Oruanui eruption in
New Zealand (Allan et al., 2012). In all three cases, precursory eruptions
clearly tapped the primary magmatic system, and yet did not immediately trigger the climactic eruption. In both the FCT and Oruanui examples, precursory activity has been linked to tectonism in the form of
block faulting (FCT) or rifting (Oruanui), with the latter inducing lateral
melt migration from an isolated melt lens. The dynamics of the
Cleetwood eruption have not been explained, although Crater Lake
also lies within an extensional region (Bacon et al., 1999) and may
have been subject to tectonic stressing.
What, then, causes transitions from precursory activity to climactic
eruptions? Interestingly, the crystal-rich FCT preserves evidence of
pre-eruptive crystal breakage interpreted to record rapid decompression
of the magma storage region (and explosive expansion of phenocrysthosted melt inclusions) during either the Pagosa Peak eruption or
early ignimbrite eruptions from the southern part of the FCT caldera
(Lipman et al., 1997). Pre-eruptive crystal breakage may have been necessary to fully mobilize magma from the crystal-rich reservoir. Preeruptive crystal breakage may also occur in response to migration of recharge melt through overlying crystal mush (e.g., Pallister et al., 1992),
as illustrated by the association of broken crystals with a geochemically
distinct and partially degassed magma in the crystal-rich Cerro Galan ignimbrite (Wright et al., 2011). Heating accompanying melt migration
can also cause crystal rupture by volatile expansion within melt inclusions (Gualda et al., 2004; Bindeman, 2005). Finally, it has been suggested that crystal breakage could be a response to seismic shaking
(Gottsmann et al., 2009). In all cases, physical breakage of the crystal
framework would help to mobilize magma preparatory to the climactic
event.
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
37
Fig. 12. Melt inclusion constraints and magma storage and withdrawal of the Bishop Tuff magma, Long Valley. (A) Map of the aerial distribution of Bishop Tuff deposits; right red = Plinian
vent, dark red = ignimbrites erupted from the southeastern margin of the caldera, dark and light blue represent ignimbrites erupted from the northwest and north rim of the caldera,
respectively (modied from Wilson and Hildreth, 1997). (B) Magma storage pressures inferred from melt inclusion data as a function of eruption time. (C) Variations in incompatible
element ratio U/Ce in melt inclusions as a function of eruption time. Colors are coded to the map in (A).
Melt inclusion data from Wallace et al. (1999); Roberge et al. (2013); time constraints from Wilson and Hildreth (1997).
38
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
deeper magma level may have been tapped late in the eruption
(Fig. 12B). Phase equilibrium constraints, in contrast, allow both early
and late Bishop magma to span the entire (100250 MPa) pressure
range (Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013). Here continuous magma extraction
from a large pressure range can be explained by lateral magma supply
to vertically extensive feeder dikes located on the caldera margin
(e.g., Gardner et al., 1991). Horizontally directed melt ow is also suggested by lateral propagation of ring faults during caldera collapse
(Wilson and Hildreth, 1997). Corresponding trace element analyses
show that late (post-collapse) eruptive activity tapped magma that
was both more and less evolved than prior to collapse (Fig. 12C),
which suggests late stage involvement of both less evolved melt lenses
(as also suggested from zircon data; Chamberlain et al., 2014) and more
evolved matrix melt, the latter perhaps extracted during caldera
collapse.
4.5. Caldera collapse
Comprehensive reviews of caldera collapse are provided in Lipman
(1997); Cole et al. (2005); Acocella (2007); Marti et al. (2008). These reviews focus largely on structural controls on caldera collapse styles, a
topic that is beyond the scope of this review. Instead we explore the relation between melt storage and caldera formation, as indicated by variations in the timing of caldera formation within an eruptive sequence.
Caldera formation after evacuation of substantial magma volumes has
been interpreted as a consequence of under-pressurization of the
magma storage region (Druitt and Sparks, 1984; Scandone, 1990;
Mart, 1991; Branney, 1995; Lipman, 1997; Cole et al., 2005). Caldera
collapse coincident with the onset of eruptive activity, in contrast,
suggests that pressurization and pre-eruptive doming caused by shallow magma accumulation may trigger collapse of large calderas
(e.g., Gudmundsson, 2008; Gregg et al., 2012; de Silva and Gregg,
2014). Also important is the tectonic stress eld, which can control
the location of caldera-bounding faults (e.g., Holohan et al., 2008a).
Models of caldera collapse (e.g., Roche and Druitt, 2001; Geyer et al.,
2006; Stix and Kobayashi, 2007; Geshi et al., 2014) typically measure
the timing of collapse by f, the fraction of the total (DRE) magma volume
that is erupted prior to the onset of collapse. The value of f can be related
to the roof rock strength and magma chamber aspect ratio (or roof aspect ratio R = thickness/width; Roche and Druitt, 2001; Fig. 13). Collapse is assumed to occur when the roof can no longer support the
(under-pressured) magma chamber. Theoretical analysis suggests that
collapse begins earlier (smaller f) for magma chambers that are shallow
and wide compared to those that are deep and narrow; these models
also predict that collapse will be piston-like when R b ~ 1.4, and
Fig. 13. Volume ratio f of pre-collapse to total eruption volume as a function of R, the ratio
of roof thickness to roof area. High f means that caldera collapse was late in the eruptive
sequence, under these conditions it is likely that only part, rather than all, of the magma
reservoir was evacuated. Specic eruptions are labeled.
Modied from Roche and Druitt (2001).
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Fig. 14. Relations between erupted volume (DRE), fraction of magma erupted prior to collapse (f) and inferred collapse height (calculated as erupted volume/caldera area). (A) f vs.
volume; (B) volume vs. inferred collapse height. Symbols are the same in both, with blue
circles CP magma and yellow squares CR magma. Lines in (A) show pre-eruptive DRE volumes (labeled, in km3). Dashed line in (B) shows the contour for a caldera area of 100 km2,
which Gregg et al. (2012) suggest as the bounding limit between chamber-trigged and
roof-triggered (yellow shading) eruptions. Labeled eruptions are as follows: AR = Aira,
AS = Aso, CEB = Ceboruco, CG = Cerro Galan, CL = Crater Lake, CMP = Campanian
(Campi Flegrei), KT = Katmai, KOS = Kos, KRA = Krakatau, LG = La Garita (Fish Canyon
Tuff), LV = Long Valley (Bishop Tuff), NYT = Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Campi Flegrei),
PN = Pinatubo, SAN = Santorini (Minoan), TMB = Tambora, TP = Taupo (181 AD),
VICO = Vico, VS = Vesuvius (79 AD), VSN = Villa Senni (Colli Albani). All data from
Table S1.
very large f values (e.g., Campanian [CMP] and Aso [AS]) that denote late
stage collapse (which is not consistent with a roof trigger). These discrepancies indicate that caldera area is not the sole control on eruption
triggering, which will also be affected by magma storage depth, reservoir conguration, magma input and tectonic triggering (e.g. Lindsay
et al., 2001; Allan et al., 2012). Support for the latter includes the relative
placement of small to moderate (b100 km3) stratovolcano eruptions
(e.g., Tambora [TM], Krakatau [KR] Crater Lake [CL] and Santorini [SN];
A b 100 km2) compared with eruptions of similar sizes in extensional
settings (e.g., Taupo [TP]; A N 100 km2).
Ideally, the entire vertical extent of magma extraction (the drainage
height) should be recorded by the volatile contents of phenocrysthosted melt inclusions (Wallace et al., 1999) and/or the stability of phenocryst assemblages (e.g., Hammer et al., 2002; Gualda and Ghiorso,
2013). There are very few caldera-forming eruptions, however, for
which the drainage height is well constrained. An exception is the Bishop Tuff, where both melt inclusion and phase equilibria data suggest
magma withdrawal over 130 MPa (~ 5000 m; Fig. 12B). This value
39
40
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram showing magma evacuation from a complex reservoir. (A) Prior to caldera collapse, magma is extracted from melt-dominated lenses throughout the reservoir
(the drainage depth), and magma migration is lateral, as well as vertical. (B) Collapse initiates when sufcient melt has been withdrawn that the strength of the crystal framework is
reduced and the framework itself partially disrupted. Here the collapse height is less than the drainage depth (as seen in many CP eruptions), and the erupted magma often contains
antecrysts from the framework; transition from a single vent to a ring vent phase is often accompanied by a hiatus in eruptive activity. (C) When the crystal mush is completely evacuated
along with any constituent melt lenses, the collapse height equals the drainage height (the case for many MI eruptions).
K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 2845
Another challenge relates to monitoring complex magmatic systems. An increasingly important and effective volcano monitoring technique is measurement of surface deformation, particularly using
satellite-based Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR;
e.g., Sparks et al., 2012; Pyle et al., 2013). Surface deformation over
large, shallow and sill-like magma bodies (that is, those susceptible to
roof triggers) should be substantial; this makes them particularly good
targets for monitoring by InSAR. One complication, however, is that
large magmatic reservoirs often have well-developed active hydrothermal systems that may show extensive deformation related to shallow
changes in pore-pressure and water levels (e.g., Chiodini et al., 2003;
Husen et al., 2004; Chang et al., 2007). Pore-pressure-generated deformation signals may either mask or mimic magmatic activity. Surface deformation can also provide evidence of deep intrusive activity, such as
that currently ongoing at Uturuncu volcano, Bolivia (e.g., Sparks et al.,
2008), and thus provides a potential tool for tracking long-term migration of magma inputs at different crustal levels.
Magmatic activity that precedes internally triggered eruptions (that
is, triggers involving intrusion of gas or hot melt from below, or overpressurization caused by crystallization and associated gas exsolution)
may be more difcult to recognize. One potential precursor is early
magma leakage from large reservoirs (e.g., Bacon, 1983; Dufeld,
1990; Dufeld et al., 1990; Hildreth, 2004; Fabbro et al., 2013). An interesting observation is that precursory leaks from large magmatic systems
are often sourced from shallow levels and may produce either unusual
low energy fountains (e.g., Dufeld, 1990; Bachmann et al., 2000) or
lava ows (e.g., Bacon, 1983), despite tapping volatile-rich components
of the magmatic system (e.g., Dufeld and Dalrymple, 1990; Bacon et al.,
1992; Mandeville et al., 2009). A good illustration of this phenomenon,
and a cautionary tale for event-tree-based hazard analysis, is provided
by the eruptive sequence at Crater Lake, OR (Bacon, 1983). Here a composite eruption (Llao Rock; 1.7 km3 DRE pumice fall and 0.5 km3 DRE
lava ow) tapped the main magma reservoir about 200 years before
caldera formation. Another composite eruption (Cleetwood; 1.5 km3
DRE pumice fall and 0.6 km3 DRE lava ow) preceded the main (calderaforming) phase of the eruption by only weeks to months (Kamata
et al., 1993). In both cases, the magma apparently came from the
climactic reservoir (Bacon et al., 1992; Mandeville et al., 2009) and yet
each eruption transitioned from explosive to effusive. Why, then, was
the Cleetwood eruption followed so promptly by a very large
(~ 50 km3 DRE) explosive eruption from the same magmatic system?
One possible explanation is that the precursory eruptions tapped relatively shallow and partially to fully isolated melt lenses within a larger
reservoir. Magma withdrawal from the Cleetwood melt lens could
then have triggered the climactic event by either downward or lateral
propagation of a decompression wave capable of connecting the isolated lens to the larger reservoir. This scenario illustrates the importance of
developing methods to monitor processes internal to magma reservoirs
(e.g., induced seismicity; Catalli et al., 2013) during, as well as prior to
eruptions, and to distinguish between precursors and the main event
(e.g., Allan et al., 2012).
Summary
It has long been known that caldera-forming eruptions may evacuate large volumes of either crystal-rich or crystal-poor magma
(e.g., Hildreth, 1981). The past ten years have seen a growing number
of studies that relate the chemical and physical conditions in magma
storage regions to the conditions under which different parts of the system may be erupted (e.g., Jellinek and dePaolo, 2003; Bachmann and
Bergantz, 2004; Gottsmann et al., 2009; Bachmann, 2010; Allan et al.,
2012; Cooper et al., 2012; Druitt et al., 2012; Ellis and Wolff, 2012;
Gregg et al., 2012; Hildreth and Fierstein, 2012; Huber et al., 2012;
Karlstrom et al., 2012; Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013). Key observations
arising from these studies include: (1) many large eruptions tap multiple melt sources, (2) large melt bodies are probably transient features,
41
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the AXA Research Fund through a
Research Professorship to KC and by Regione Lazio (818000-2009-RM-R.N.C.T_001) for GG. We are grateful for the very thoughtful reviews
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