INTRODUCTION OF MIGRATION

Migration is the movement of people from one locality to another.

There are many different reasons behind the decision to migrate.
This guide concentrates on the theory and practice of migration: the
different theories as to why people migrate, their experiences, and
the processes of migration. It provides an overview and introduction
to the materials that you can find at the British Library.
The resources concentrate on international migration (that is,
migration from one country to another), and try not to stray into the
topic of immigration, although obviously the two are closely
connected. So, resources focus on people leaving one country
(migrants or emigrants) rather than on people settling in another
country (immigrants).
Whereas the movement of technology and capital has become increasingly
more open, the movement of people across countries has not enjoyed such
freedom. Capitalism's expansion across the globe has depended on a
massive influx of millions of men and women into the workforce.

Our main challenge is to put people

first on the migration agenda, both in the country of origin and of
destination, through the recognition and strengthening of the rights of
migrants, with a particular focus on women migrants, who constitute a very
high proportion of the migrant population. Furthermore, integrating the issue
of migration fully into the global and national development, economic,
employment, social and security agendas, as well as ensuring greater policy
coherence between these agendas and between the stakeholders involved:
governments, the business, international organizations, trade unions, NGOs,
civil society and the migrants themselves. Lastly, addressing the root causes
of migration: severe lack of economic opportunities, armed conflicts, and
political disputes and human rights violations.

WHAT IS HUMAN MIGRATION?

Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world
to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semipermanent
residence, usually across a political boundary. An example of
"semipermanent residence" would be the seasonal movements of migrant
farm laborers. People can either choose to move ("voluntary migration") or
be forced to move ("involuntary migration"). Migrations have occurred
throughout human history, beginning with the movements of the first human
groups from their origins in East Africa to their current location in the world.
Migration occurs at a variety of scales: intercontinental (between
continents), intracontinental (between countries on a given continent), and
interregional (within countries). One of the most significant migration
patterns has been rural to urban migrationthe movement of people
from the countryside to cities in search of opportunities.

TYPES OF MIGRATION

Internal Migration: Moving to a new home within a state, country, or

continent.
External Migration: Moving to a new home in a different state,
country, or continent.
Emigration: Leaving one country to move to another (e.g., the
Pilgrims emigrated from
England).
Immigration: Moving into
immigrated to America).

new

country

(e.g.,

the

Pilgrims

Population Transfer: When a government forces a large group of

people out of a region, usually based on ethnicity or religion. This is
also known as an involuntary or forced migration.
Impelled Migration (also called "reluctant" or "imposed"
migration): Individuals are not forced out of their country, but leave
because of unfavorable situations such as warfare, political problems,
or religious persecution.
Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a
person's place of origin to final destinationsuch as moving from a
farm, to a village, to a town, and finally to a city.
Chain Migration: A series of migrations within a family or defined
group of people. A chain migration often begins with one family
member who sends money to bring other family members to the new
location. Chain migration results in migration fieldsthe clustering of
people from a specific region into certain neighborhoods or small
towns.
Return Migration: The voluntary movements of immigrants back to
their place of origin.
This is also known as circular migration.

 Seasonal Migration: The process of moving for a period of time in

response to labor or
climate conditions (e.g., farm workers following crop harvests or
working in cities off
season; "snowbirds" moving to the
southern and southwestern United States during winter).

PEOPLE WHO MIGRATE

Emigrant: A person who is leaving a country to reside in another.
Immigrant: A person who is entering a country from another to take
up new residence.
Refugee: A person who is residing outside the country of his or her
origin due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political
opinion.
Internally Displaced Person (IDP): A person who is forced to leave
his or her home region because of unfavorable conditions (political,
social, environmental, etc.) but does not cross any boundaries.
Migration Stream: A group migration from a particular country,
region, or city to a certain destination.

WHY DO PEOPLE MIGRATE?

People move for a variety of reasons. They consider the advantages and
disadvantages of staying versus moving, as well as factors such as distance,
travel costs, travel time, modes of transportation, terrain, and cultural
barriers.
Push Factors: Reasons for emigrating (leaving a place) because of a
difficulty (such as a food shortage, war, flood, etc.).
Pull Factors: Reasons for immigrating (moving into a place) because
of something desirable (such as a nicer climate, better food supply,
freedom, etc.). Several types of push and pull factors may influence
people in their movements (sometimes at the same time), including:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Environmental (e.g., climate, natural disasters)

Political (e.g., war)
Economic (e.g., work)
Cultural (e.g., religious freedom, education)

Place Utility: The desirability of a place based on its social, economic,

or environmental situation, often used to compare the value of living in
different locations. An individuals idea of place utility may or may not
reflect the actual conditions of that location.
Intervening Opportunities: Opportunities nearby are usually
considered more attractive than equal or slightly better opportunities
farther away, so migrants tend to settle in a location closer to their
point of origin if other factors are equal.
Distance Decay: As distance from a given location increases,
understanding of that location decreases. People are more likely to

settle in a (closer) place about which they have more knowledge than
in a (farther) place about which they know and understand little.

LAWS OF MIGRATION
Geographer E.G. Ravenstein developed a series of migration 'laws' in the
1880s that form the
basis for modern migration theory. In simple language, these principles state:
Most migrants travel only a short distance.
Migrants traveling long distances usually settle in urban areas.
Most migration occurs in steps.
Most migration is rural to urban.
Each migration flow produces a movement in the opposite direction
("counterflow").
Most migrants are adults.
Most international migrants are young males, while more internal migrants
are female.

IMPACTS OF MIGRATION
Human migration affects population patterns and characteristics, social and
cultural patterns and processes, economies, and physical environments. As
people move, their cultural traits and ideas diffuse along with them,
creating and modifying cultural landscapes.
Diffusion: The process through which certain characteristics (e.g.,
cultural traits, ideas, disease) spread over space and through time.
Relocation Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc. that move with
people from one place to another and do not remain in the point of
origin.
Expansion Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc., that move with
people from one place to another but are not lost at the point of origin,
such as language.
Cultural markers: Structures or artifacts (e.g., buildings, spiritual
places, architectural styles, signs, etc.) that reflect the cultures and
histories of those who constructed or occupy them.

MEASURING MIGRATION
In-migration: people moving into one place from another place within
a nation (internal migration).
Out-migration: people moving out of one place to another place
within a nation (internal migration).
Gross migration: total number of in-migrants and out-migrants
(internal migration).
Net internal migration: the difference between in-migration and outmigration.
Movers from abroad: people coming into a nation from another
country or part of the world.
Net migration: the difference between net internal migration and
movers from abroad.

CAUSES OF MIGRATION
Causes of migrations have modified over hundreds of years. Some cases are
constant, some of them do not carry the same importance as years ago (for
example: in 18th and 19th centuries labour migration did not have the same
character like today).
In general we can divide factors causing migrations into two groups of
factors: Push and pull factors. In general:
Push Factors are economic, political, cultural, and environmentally based.
Pull Factors are economic, political, cultural, and environmentally based.
Barriers/Obstacles which is an example of Nigeria in the 1970s and 1980s.
Push and pull factors are those factors which either forcefully push people
into migration or attract them. A push factor is forceful, and a factor which
relates to the country from which a person migrates. It is generally some
problem which results in people wanting to migrate. Different types of push
factors can be seen further below. A push factor is a flaw or distress that
drives a person away from a certain place. A pull factor is something
concerning the country to which a person migrates. It is generally a benefit
that attracts people to a certain place. Push and pull factors are usually
considered as north and south poles on a magnet.
PUSH FACTORS:-

Not enough jobs

Few opportunities
Primitive conditions
Desertification
Famine/drought
Political fear/persecution
Poor medical care
Loss of wealth
Natural Disasters
Death threats
Slavery
Pollution
Poor housing
Landlords
Bullying
Poor chances of finding courtship

PULL FACTORS:

Job opportunities
Better living conditions
Political and/or religious freedom
Enjoyment
Education
Better medical care
Security
Family links
Industry
Better chances of finding courtship

10

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
Effects of migration: Migration like any other process shapes many fields
of life, having both advantages and disadvantages.
Effects of migrations are: changes in population distribution demographic
consequences: since migration is selective of particular age groups, migrants
are mostly young and in productive age. It can cause a demographic crisis
population ageing, what in turn can be followed by economic problems
(shrinking group of economically active population has to finance extending
group of inactive population).
Economic results of migration, which are of the greatest importance for the
development of the countries.
Decreases in global poverty Crisis and the Diaspora Nation, Lauren Falcao,
International Economics Bulletin, June 18, 2009.
Migration has had a significant effect on world geography.
It has contributed to the evolution and development of separate cultures.
It has contributed to the diffusion of cultures by interchange and
communication.
It has contributed to the complex mix of people and cultures found in
different regions of the world today.

Economic Effects of Migration:The economic effects of migration vary widely. Sending countries may
experience both gains and losses in the short term but may stand to gain
over the longer term. For receiving countries temporary worker programs
help to address skills shortages but may decrease domestic wages and add
to public welfare burden. The economic effects of migration for both sending

11

and receiving countries may also vary depending on who is moving,

specifically with respect to migrant workers skill levels. A Swedish Professor
notes, the problem is not immigration; it is integration, especially in the
labour market. If there are no jobs, the consequences are segregation,
housing problems and divided cities (Traynor, 2010).
For sending countries, the short-term economic benefit of emigration is
found in remittances. Remittances are funds that emigrants earn abroad and
send back to their home countries, mainly in order to support families left
behind. According to the World Bank, remittances totaled $529 billion
worldwide in 2012, with $401 billion of that money flowing into developing
nations (2013). Significantly, these figures only account for funds sent
through formal channels, so the amount of remittances is likely much larger
than these numbers suggest. The World Bank notes that remittances sent
through informal channels could add at least 50 percent to the globally
recorded flows (UNCTAD, 2011).

A recent UNCTAD report notes:

Remittances are more stable and predictable as compared to other financial
flows and, more importantly, they are counter-cyclical providing buffer
against economic shocks. In conflict or postconflict situations, remittances
can be crucial to survival, sustenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. In
providing primarily for household livelihoods, remittances are spent on
general consumption items in local communities that contribute to local
economies by supporting small businesses. A fair share of these
expenditures is directed to the construction of homes, health care and
education, alongside savings in financial institutions, thereby generating
employment in these critical services sectors. Moreover, in contributing to
foreign exchange earnings, remittances can spur economic growth by
improving sending countries creditworthiness and expanding their access to
international capital markets (UNCTAD, 2011).
In Tajikistan, remittances from its cheap, unskilled labor force working abroad
in countries like Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan have helped the country
rebound from the failures of a planned economy and government instability;
remittances have accounted for around 50 percent of Tajikistans GDP in
recent years (IMF Working Paper, 2006). Although the impact of remittances
on developing countries is difficult to measure, one World Bank study has
concluded that a one per cent increase in the share of remittances in a
countrys GDP leads to a 0.4 per cent decline in poverty (UNFPA State of the
World, 2008).
At the same time, developing countries can suffer from brain drainthe
loss of trained and educated individuals to emigration. For example, there
12

are currently more African scientists and engineers working in the U.S. than
there are in all of Africa, according to the International
Organization for Migration (IOM). In Zambia, emigration has reduced the
number of practicing doctors from 1,600 a few years ago, to a mere 400
today. The IOM estimates Africas brain drain has cost nearly $9 billion in lost
human capital and growth potential since 1997. According to the United
Nations Population Fund, 2006 State of the World Population report, Africa
only retains 1.3 percent of the worlds health care practitioners. Thus,
despite having over a quarter of the worlds tuberculosis cases and 64
percent of the total numbers of people infected with HIV, Africa only has, on
average, a mere one nurse per 1,000 people (Shiner, 2008).
In recent years, Kenya has been working hard to combat this trend. The
Kenyan government, in partnership with international aid organizations,
created the Emergency Hiring Plan to increase nursing staff in public health
facilities. International donors helped cover the cost of workforce
recruitment, employment contracts, salary subsidies and staff deployment.
The plan used publicprivate partnerships to fund and increase health-care
worker deployment. The WHO found that EHP nurses were absorbed into civil
society and accounted for a 12 percent increase in nursing staff. This model
increased Kenyas health service capacity in rural and underserved areas
over the short -term (WHO, 2010). Recent strikes by Kenyan doctors and
nurses show that the country still has a long way to go to improving pay and
other incentives that encourage health practitioners to stay and work in the
country (Dogbey, 2012). Because of severe shortages, Kenyan doctors, who
work for little to no pay and have limited experience, are often performing
the same amount of surgical procedures that doctors in developed nations
perform in one year, in just two months (Luesby 2013).
Meanwhile, for developed countries, which are often on the receiving end of
migration streams, the positive economic gains from immigration are largely
the result of the infusion of inexpensive and eager laborers into the economy.
In the U.S. and Canada, for example, migrant workers often fill low-wage jobs
for which there is not enough local supply of labor, such as in the agricultural
and service sectors. Just as cheap imports of industrial goods benefit the
American economy, so too does the import of low-cost labor. Economists who
support the notion of these positive gains claim that immigration has little
impact on wages or job availability for domestic workers and that there is no
correlation between immigration and U.S. income distribution and
unemployment rates (Davies, 2011).
However, the effects of immigration have also been the cause for much
debate especially in the U.S. and not all people believe that high levels of
immigration are economically beneficial. For example, the Center for
Immigration Studies (CIS), a controversial non-profit founded by famed antiimmigration activist John Tanton, discounts the positive gains of immigration.
13

Using U.S. census data from 2010 and 2011, one CIS study concluded that,
immigration has dramatically increased the size of the nations low-income
population Moreover, many immigrants make significant progress the
longer they live in the country. But even with this progress, immigrants who
have been in the U.S. for 20 years are much more likely to live in poverty,
lack health insurance, and access the welfare system than are native-born
Americans (2012).

Cultural Effects of Migration:The European Immigration Debate

Countries like the U.S, Argentina, and Brazil have always included large
immigrant populations. Citizenship in those countries is based not on ethnic
grounds but on a different sort of national identity in which commitment to
certain values and ideas is paramount. But for many European countries, the
nation is often defined in a cultural wayby a common language, heritage,
and ethnicity. This raises important questions for countries that do not have
long traditions of immigration. How long does an immigrant have to live in
Germany to become a German? Can a person be French without speaking
French? Should immigrants be forced to take citizenship classes that teach
them how to be Dutch?
Indeed, cultural issues are a significant factor in the response of Europeans
to global migration. In recent years, the European public has questioned the
effect of immigration on culture and national identity. Fear and distrust of
immigrants has fueled the creation and success of anti-immigrant political
parties in several European countries. Many of these parties have linked
social ills, such as unemployment and crime, to immigration.
The incorporation of many European countries into the European Union (E.U.)
starting in the 1980s (and continuing today) has streamlined internal
migration policy in member states, so that citizens of these states may move
relatively freely across national borders within the E.U. Some of these
national boundaries lack any border security whatsoever. However, even
within the E.U, states have maintained relatively inconsistent policies
concerning third-country nationals, or citizens of non-E.U. nations (Givens
and Luedtke, 2004). The amount of immigrants from outside the E.U. varies
widely by nation, as do the laws that secure those migrants rights. In many
cases, legal status is tied to employment in E.U. member states. This means
that high unemployment rates resulting from the economic crisis have had
the effect of stripping migrants of their authorized immigration status (Jonjic
and Mavrodi, 2012).

14

In many European countries, including

Britain, Switzerland, Denmark, Italy, and
Sweden, opposition to immigration has
become a central issue in many
elections. France has also followed this
trend. In 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy, son of a
Hungarian immigrant, was elected new
President by his French voters. In the
words of Sarkozy: Immigration will be
among (our) priorities. [] In all the
worlds great democracies, immigration
presents the possibility of bringing in
new skills, new talents, new blood (The
Economist, 2008).
Despite these words of acceptance, Sarkozy has been the main driving force
behind the EUs more restrictive stance towards immigration in the past two
years. In October of 2008, Sarkozys political pact on immigration and
asylum was adopted by the European Union, which seeks to not only make
migratory entry into Europe more limited and selective, emphasizing the
acceptance of more high-skilled workers, but also to repeal mass amnesties
and unconditional asylum for illegal immigrants, through mechanisms as
strict as enforcing departures, in an attempt to discourage incentives for
illegal immigration (The Economist, 2008).
In May 2012, Sarkozy lost the presidency to Franois Grard Georges Nicolas
Hollande. Hollandes new Interior Minister Manuel Valls wants to get rid of
many of Sarkozys controversial immigration policies. Valls wants to recentralize decision-making on naturalization (as was the situation before
2010) so that there is one policy that applies to all immigrants. The learning
of French culture and history will no longer be required (Hamza, 2012).
However, as recently as June 2013, former French Prime Minister Francois
Fillon has spoken out against what he considers to be an overabundance of
immigrants in France, and resulting economic hardship and lack of national
cohesion in the country (Bamat 2013). This discourse demonstrates that
even as the politics around immigration have slowly shifted to become more
welcoming, anti-immigrant sentiments are still strongly felt by certain
sectors of the French population.
Italy also lurched towards an anti-immigration stance with the 2001 electoral
victory of Silvio Berlusconi, whose ruling coalition has gone as far as to stand
solidly behind one of the toughest anti-immigrant crackdowns in Europe,
mobilizing troops to control crime attributed to foreigners, according
to Newsweek (Nordland, 2008). The governments coalition partners and
cabinet ministers include members of the Northern League, a virulent antiimmigration party. Despite the tough stance against immigration, inflows into

15

Italy rose between 200 to 400 percent from 2000 2010 (Bozzo, 2012). Italy
now ranks in the top 25 around the world for net migration (Bozzo, 2012).
In Greece, a 2009 attack on a courthouse housing 600 immigrants by farright protesters was allowed to occur unimpeded by police. This is a
reflection of the Greek governments policy of discouraging immigration and
asylum-seeking through both discontinuing temporary work permits and
social security benefits to those seeking work opportunities, as well as
granting less than one percent of applicants immediate refugee status (thus
relieving the Greek government of its responsibility to protect these asylumseekers) (The Economist, 2009).
Despite the Euro Crisis, Greece continues to face illegal immigration
problems that impact the rest of Europe as well. In 2011, 140,980 people
entered Europe illegally, a 35 percent increase from 2010. Of those who
came illegally, 40 percent came through Greece. The countrys economic
problems and budget restrictions hamper its efforts to stem the tide of illegal
immigrants. Greeces border with Turkey is particularly problematic and
many migrants come there fleeing Afghanistan or Pakistan (Stevis, 2012).
An ultranationalist/far-right party in Greece called Golden Dawn won seats in
parliament for the first time during 2012. The party has since pushed a
heavily anti-immigration platform, blaming migration for societal ills and
even going so far as to draft a racism against Greeks bill in response to
Grecian parliaments anti-racism law proposals (Maltezou, 2013). Members
of Golden Dawn are implicated in racially motivated attacks against
immigrants though no charges have been filed against the members.
Greeces immigrant centers are known for their deplorable conditions.
Unfortunately, Greece cannot return illegal immigrants to Turkey because the
EU and Turkey have no readmission agreement (Stevis, 2012).
Pim Fortuyn, a popular Dutch politician who was assassinated in 2002, had
been amongst the most outspoken against immigration. Fortuyn was
particularly concerned that immigrantsmainly from the Muslim worldwere
eroding Dutch national identity and threatening the traditional liberal Dutch
tolerance for homosexuality and commitment to equality for women. Indeed,
Fortuyn was not a conservative politician in the standard sense of the
word; openly homosexual, he was actually a radical libertarian, who believed
in no government regulation over individual citizens private lives (Carrera,
2013).
In response to these types of concerns, the Dutch government has embarked
on a program called inburgering (literally citizen-making), in which
potential immigrants cannot become citizens until they have passed courses
in Dutch culture and societal norms. Tough policies toward immigrants are
still in place in the Netherlands. Immigrants must be able to speak Dutch to
16

receive welfare and must be in the country for seven years before they can
apply for nationality (Carrera, 2013).
With increasing numbers of asylum seekers, Britain is imposing stricter
immigration and naturalization policies. With the austerity measures in place,
many Britons would like to see immigration reduced, though socially
beneficial immigrants would be welcome (BBC, 2012).

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF INCREASED

MIGRATION LOCALLY?
An Oxford Economics research study published by the Department of
Employment and Learning (DEL) concluded that migrant workers had helped
maintain an adequate labour supply to fuel the 20042008 economic boom.
The availability of migrant labour seems to have made the difference
between some businesses surviving, or in the case of food processing, not

17

needing to relocate production abroad. (The authors quote a survey of 600

businesses where 31% said that migrants were important in the survival of
their organisation and this rose to 50% in health and social care and
agriculture.)
In addition the study indicated that migrants have

facilitated growth in the economy;

brought benefits to the tourism industry through the development of
new air routes;
had a positive influence on the productivity or efficiency of local
workers;
contributed new ideas and a fresh approach to firms;
and greater cultural links with developing nations that will prove useful
in growing international trade.
The Economic, Labour Market and Skills Impacts of Migrant Workers in
Northern Ireland.
In addition to these economic benefits, incomers have helped the health and
care services to continue functioning; contributed to cultural diversity; and
increased the vitality, especially of some rural schools.

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

MIGRATION

18

There are many arguments about the advantages and disadvantages of

migration and how it has affected us locally.

Impacts on host countries:Positive:

Job vacancies and skills gaps can be filled.

Economic growth can be sustained.

Services to an ageing population can be maintained when there

are insufficient young people locally.

The pension gap can be filled by the contributions of new young

workers and they also pay taxes.

Immigrants bring energy and innovation.

Host countries are enriched by cultural diversity.

Failing schools
transformed.

(and those with

falling

numbers) can be

Negative:

Depression of wages may occur but this seems to be temporary.

Having workers willing to work for relatively low pay may allow
employers to ignore productivity, training and innovation.

Migrants may be exploited.

Increases in population can put pressure on public service.

Unemployment may rise if there are unrestricted numbers of

incomers.

There may be integration difficulties and friction with local

people.

19

Large movements of people lead to more security monitoring.

Ease of movement may facilitate organised crime and people

trafficking.

Impacts on countries of origin:Positive:

Developing countries benefit from remittances (payments sent

home by migrants) that now often outstrip foreign aid.

Unemployment is reduced and young migrants enhance their life

prospects.

Returning
contacts.

migrants

bring

savings,

skills

and

international

Negative:

Economic disadvantage through the loss of young workers

Loss of highly trained people, especially health workers
Social problems for children left behind or growing up without a
wider family circle

20

SUGGESTIONS
Migration represents both an opportunity and a challenge. While wellmanaged migration may foster progress and welfare in origin- as well as
destination countries, its mismanagement may put social cohesion, security
and sovereignty at risk.
Sound policy-making on migration and related matters must be based on
knowledge, but the construction of knowledge must in turn address policy
priorities. Because migration is rapidly evolving, knowledge thereof needs to
be constantly updated. Given that migration links each individual country to
the rest of the world, its study requires innovative cooperation between
scholars around the world.
The MPC conducts field as well as archival research, both of which are
scientifically robust and policy-relevant at European level and also globally,
targeting policy-makers as well as politicians. This research provides tools for
addressing migration challenges, by:

producing policy-oriented research on aspects of migration,

asylum and mobility in Europe and in countries located along
migration routes to Europe, that are regarded as priorities;

bridging research with action by providing policy-makers and

other stakeholders with results required by evidence-based
policy-making, as well as necessary methodologies that address
migration governance needs;

pooling scholars, experts, policy makers, and influential thinkers

to identify problems, research their causes and consequences,
and devise policy solutions.

21

CONCLUSION
It is clear that immigration can be beneficial for migrants, but only if their
rights are protected properly. It can also be economically beneficial for both
countries of origin and host countries; however, with present economic and
trading structures it is the rich and powerful countries that benefit most.
Migration brings social and cultural pressures that need to be taken into
account in planning for future services.
Migration also has the potential for bringing peoples together culturally but
friction occurs if efforts are not made to dispel the myths held by local
people. It is also essential to provide good information about the local way of
life to newcomers and ensure opportunities for people to mix and integrate.
Where the economic preconditions exist, migration is inevitable. When
people try to prevent immigration it just goes underground.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
22

 Bhagat, R.B., 2005. Conceptual Issues in Measurement of Internal

Migration in India.
IUSSP XXVth International Conference, Contributed Papers, France, July 18-23.
Census of India 2001. Soft copy, India D-series, Migration Tables.

Registrar General and Census commisioner, India.

International Organisation for Migration
http://www.migrationinformation.org/

www.wikepedia.com

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