PREDICTION OF NUGGET DEVELOPMENT

DURING RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING OF

2 MM THICK DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
SHEETS OF GRADE 2205
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of
B.Tech
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

By
C.HARISH (111111028)
CHENNUPATI LEELA SAI BHARADWAJA (111111029)
MALAVATHI GAUTHAM NAIK (111111053)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TIRUCHIRAPALLI-620015

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project titled Prediction of nugget development during
resistance spot welding of 2mm thick duplex stainless steel sheets of grade 2205
is a bonafide record of the work done by
C.HARISH (111111028)
CHENNUPATI LEELA SAI BHARADWAJA (111111029)
MALAVATHI GAUTHAM NAIK (111111053)

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Mechanical Engineering of the NATIONAL

INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI, during the year 2014-2015.

DR.SANKARANARAYNASAMY
Guide

Dr. T.SUTHAKAR
Head of Department

Project Viva-voce held on :

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

ABSTRACT
Resistance spot welding is a complicated process, which involves the interaction of
electrical, thermal, mechanical, and metallurgical phenomena. The main advantage of
the spot welding process is the ease with which the process can be automated and
robotized in high volume and high production rate operations. The process involves
heating of two or more metallic sheets under the action of high amperage current for a
short duration through a pair of copper electrodes that hold the sheets under
compressive force. The compressive force ensures adequate contact between the
metallic sheets. Localized resistive heating at the contacting interface of the sheets
results in melting that on solidification provides with a joint in the form of a spot. In
order to obtain good weld nugget during spot welding, hit and trial welds are usually
done which is very costly. Therefore the numerical simulation research has been
conducted to understand the whole process. Extensive resistance spot welding tests
were conducted on Duplex stainless steel sheets of size 5*5 and later these were cut
using EDM exactly at the centre into two halves to view the nugget size under a
macro scope after the itching process. In this project, a 2D axisymmetric model of
thermo-elastic finite element method (FEM) is developed to analyse the mechanical
behaviour of resistance spot welding (RSW) process using commercial software
ANSYS which takes into account of temperature dependent thermalelectrical
mechanical properties, contact resistances, melting point, and effective heat transfer in
the fluid and electrode geometry. Contact conductance namely electrical contact
conductance is found using LCR device and thermal contact conductance is found
using the formulae. The welding current, electrode pressure and hold time affected the
thermo mechanical interactions of the welding process changed the final nugget
geometry. Predictions of the temperature distribution, associated stresses, and weld
nugget geometry were obtained from this model. The predicted nugget shape and size
agree well with experimental data. Weld thicknesses were then measured and
compared with the analytical results also generated in this work.
Keywords: resistance spot welding, localized resistive welding, 2D axisymmetric,
thermal contact conductance, and electrical contact conductance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and deep regards to our guide
DR.SANKARANARAYNASAMY and co-guide Dr. N. SIVA SHANMUGAM, for their
exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this
thesis. The blessing, help and guidance given by them time to time shall carry us a long way
in the journey of life on which we are about to embark.
Also, we would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave us the
possibility to complete this report. A special thanks to our final year project co-ordinator,
Dr.V. Arul Mozhi Selvan and Dr. K.Pannirselvam, whose help, stimulating suggestions and
encouragement, helped us to coordinate our project especially in writing this report.

Lastly we we thank Almighty,our parents,our brother, sisters and friends for their constant
encouragement without which this assignment would not be possible.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title

Page no.

ABSTRACT .......................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..iii
LIST OF FIGURES....v
LIST OF TABLES.vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Resistance spot welding..1
1.2 Mechanics of resistance spot welding2
1.3 Thermal phenomena and its significance..3
1.4 Duplex stainless steel...4
1.4.1 Chemical Composition, %.............................4
1.4.2 Fabrication.....................................................5
1.4.3 Corrosion Resistance.....................................5
1.4.4 Heat Resistance..............................................5
1.4.5 Heat Treatment..............................................5
1.4.6 Welding...........................................................5
1.4.7 Machining.......................................................6
1.4.8 Characteristics of Duplex 2205.....................6
1.4.9 Applications....................................................6
1.5 Objective of the present work.6

iii

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction..8
2.2 Weldability Range8
2.3 Growth of Nugget.10
2.4 Research Works...10
2.5 Summary12

CHAPTER 3: THEORITICAL FORMULATION

3.1 Introduction..13
3.2 Thermal Analysis.14
3.2.1 Governing equation and boundary condition15
3.2.2 Heat Generation: Joules heating16
3.3 Electrical Analysis18
3.3.1 Governing equation and boundary condition.18
3.4 Estimation of electrical contact resistance......19
3.5 Estimation of Thermal contact conductance......19

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction21
4.2 Experimental setup22
4.3 Experimental procedure23
4.4 Measurements26
4.4.1 Contact resistance measurement26
4.4.2 Electrode dimensions measurement..27
4.5 Experimental results......28
iv

4.6 Methodology of the simulation.....28

4.7 Material Properties....31
4.8 Boundary Condition......31

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Experimental..32
5.2 Simulation...33

CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

6.1 Summary...39
6.2 Conclusion.....39
REFERENCES40

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No.

Title

Page No.

1.1

Typical spot welding process 3

1.2

Microstructure of duplex stainless steel...4

2.1

Weldability range...9

3.1

Schematic view of sheet-electrode system in

cylindrical coordinate system..14

3.2

2-D Schematic view of part of sheet-electrode

geometry...16

3.3

Electrical Resistances in
the sheet electrode system.. ...17

3.4

Variation of resistance at the contact surfaces..18

4.1

Resistance spot welding machine....................22

4.2

Steps in resistance spot welding..23

4.3

Belt grinding of the sample ....23

4.4

Observing the microstructure under

Microscope24

4.5

Cutting the samples using EDM25

4.6

Microscopic view of nugget25

4.7

LCR meter.......................................................26

4.8

Measurement of electrode dimensions .26

4.9

Contact pairs......................29

4.10

Simulation Process.30

4.11

Thermal-Electric Boundary Conditions..31

vi

5.1

Nuggets Observed Under Microscope33

5.2
I.

Fig 5.2(a) 9 kA, 7 weld cycles33

II.

Fig 5.2(b) 9kA, 8 weld cycles.....33

III.

Fig 5.2(c) 8kA, 7 weld cycles.33

IV.

Fig 5.2 (d) 8kA, 8 weld cycles....33

5.3

Simulation for 8kA and 8 weld cycles.35

5.4

Diameter measurement36

5.6

Vonmises Stress.38

5.7

y component stresses.38

vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table No.

Title

Page No.

1.1

Chemical composition......4

4.1

Experimental Conditions....28

5.1

Experimental result.32

5.2

Experimental Results and error.37

viii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The resistance spot welding process has been widely used in the mass production
industries, where long production runs and consistent conditions can be maintained.
The automotive industry is the major user of this welding process, followed by the
appliance industry. It is also used by many industries manufacturing a variety of
products made of thin gauge metals.
1.1 Resistance spot welding
Resistance spot welding process involves heating of two or more metallic sheets
under the action of high amperage current for a short duration through a pair of
copper electrodes that hold the sheets under compressive force. The compressive
force ensures adequate contact for the current to flow through the metallic sheets.
Localized resistive heating at the contacting interface of the sheets results in melting
that on solidification provides a joint in the form of a spot. Throughout the welding
process, the molten metal remains enclosed by the surrounding solid material and
thus, the chance of atmospheric contamination of the molten weld pool is very less. In
contrast to the other fusion welding processes, no filler materials or fluxes are used in
resistance spot welding. The copper alloy electrodes are shaped to provide required
current density and pressure at the point of welding. The duration of welding is
generally a fraction of second and the spots are produced in quick succession thus
making the process very fast. The rapid completion of a spot weld makes the process
very well suited for inclusion in an automated production line.
The resistance spot welding process is the principal method for joining of sheet metal
components in the automotive, building, transportation, office furniture and domestic
appliance industries. The main advantage of the spot welding process is the ease with
which it can be automated and robotized in high volume and high production rate
operations. It can readily be incorporated into assembly lines with other fabrication
and transfer operations. However, resistance welding can be difficult to control,
particularly due to the interaction between various controlling parameters and the
mechanical / electrical characteristics of the spot welding equipment as well as the
sheet materials. Resistance spot welding process is primarily used for joining of
1

uncoated and coated steel sheets, although materials such as stainless steel, aluminum
alloys, nickel alloys, titanium and copper base alloys are also spot welded for
numerous applications. In the recent years, the use of a wide variety of coated steel
and aluminum alloy sheets is increased significantly in the automotive industries with
an aim at enhancing the product life and fuel efficiency. Resistance spot welding of
both coated steels and aluminum alloy sheets involves rapid electrode wear and thus,
poses unique challenge. Continuous efforts are being made to keep pace with the
increasing demand of reliable spot welding process in these challenging areas. One
objective of the present work is to contribute to a better understanding and analysis of
resistance spot welding process to facilitate its effective use in some of those
challenging areas.
1.2 Mechanics of resistance spot welding
Resistance spot welding involves the coordinated application of electrical current and
mechanical force of appropriate magnitudes as depicted schematically in Fig.1.1.
Because of the relatively short current path in the work-pieces (sheet metals) and the
need to localize the heating, low voltage with relatively high amperage current is
necessary to develop the required amount of heating of the impending spot weld. The
sequence of the operation is first to develop sufficient amount of heat to melt a
confined volume of metal (Fig. 1.1). This is then allowed to cool while under
electrode force until adequate strength is developed to hold the parts together. The
current density and the mechanical pressure must be such that a weld nugget of
required diameter / size is formed, but not so high that the molten metal is expelled
from the weld zone. Expulsion of molten metal from the weld zone should be avoided
at all times if defect free welds are to be achieved. To counter the resistive heating and
subsequent thermal damage of the electrodes, cooling water channels are provided
within the electrodes. Thus, the development of a satisfactory spot weld depends on a
number of factors such as the magnitude and the duration of welding current,
magnitude of electrode force, and above all the nature and variation of electrical
contact resistance along the sheet to sheet and the electrode to sheet interfaces.
Furthermore, the variation in the physical and mechanical properties of the sheet
metals with temperature also plays vital role in the growth and the establishment of a
weld nugget. There occurs a complex interplay of all these factors and an unexpected
change in any of these may result in a defective weld. This h7as led the researchers to
2

investigate various types of interrelationship among these factors in order to develop a

proper understanding of the mechanisms of the process. Such approaches are reported
in details in the subsequent chapter.

Figure 1.1 Typical spot welding process

1.3 Thermal phenomena and its significance

The basic phenomenon of resistance spot welding process involves a rapid thermo
electrical heating of the sheet materials up to the melting point and subsequent cooling
to the ambient temperature. Thus the process, in principle, poses a heat transfer
dominated problem. The heat transfer is influenced by several process dependent
factors. The correct knowledge of this heat transfer mechanism and the resulting inprocess thermal cycle can provide a mean of assessing the influence of various factors
affecting the process. The intermediate and the final temperature distribution in and
around the weld nugget, the rate of heating and cooling of the weld nugget and the
adjoining material, the changes taking place on the sheet surface in contact with the
electrode face and its dependence on interface temperature distribution are some of
the features that need to be understood thoroughly for proper analysis of the process.
The monitoring of the dynamic nature of the fusion zone temperature using
experimental means is a difficult task owing to the extremely short duration of the
3

process and the typical location of the impending weld nugget. Thus, there is a
necessity of accurate theoretical analysis based on the heat transfer phenomena.

1.4 Duplex stainless steel

Duplex 2205 is a nitrogen enhanced duplex stainless steel that was developed to combat
common corrosion problems encountered with the 300 series stainless steels. Duplex
describes a family of stainless steels that are neither fully austenitic, like 304 stainless, nor
purely ferritic, like 430 stainless.
Duplex stainless steels are called duplex because they have a two-phase microstructure
consisting of grains of ferritic and austenitic stainless steel. The picture shows the yellow
austenitic phase as islands surrounded by the blue ferritic phase. When duplex stainless
steel is melted it solidifies from the liquid phase to a completely ferritic structure. As the
material cools to room temperature, about half of the ferritic grains transform to austenitic
grains (islands). The result is a microstructure of roughly 50% austenite and 50% ferrite.

Fig 1.2 Microstructure of duplex stainless steel

1.4..1 Chemical Composition, %
Cr

Ni

Mo

22.0-23.0

4.50-6.50

3.00-3.50

.030 Max

0.14-0.20

Mn

Si

Fe

2.00 Max

1.00 Max

.030 Max

.020 Max

Balance

Table 1.1 Chemical composition

4

1.4.2 Fabrication
The fabrication of this grade is also affected by its strength. Bending and forming of this
grade requires equipment with larger capacity. Ductility of grade 2205 is lesser than austenitic
grades; therefore, cold heading is not possible on this grade. In order to carry out cold heading
operations on this grade, intermediate annealing should be carried out.

1.4.3 Corrosion Resistance

Grade 2205 stainless steel exhibits excellent corrosion resistance, much higher than that of
grade 316. It resists localized corrosion types like intergranular, crevice and pitting. The CPT
of this type of stainless steel is around 35C. This grade is resistant to chloride stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) at temperatures of 150C. Grade 2205 stainless steels are apt
replacements to austenitic grades, especially in premature failure environments and marine
environments.

1.4.4 Heat Resistance

The high oxidation resistance property of Grade 2205 is marred by its embrittlement above
300C. This embrittlement can be modified by a full solution annealing treatment. This grade
performs well at temperatures below 300C.

1.4.5 Heat Treatment

The best suited heat treatment for this grade is solution treatment (annealing), between 1020 1100C, followed by rapid cooling. Grade 2205 can be work hardened but cannot be hardened
by thermal methods.

1.4.6 Welding
Most standard welding methods suit this grade, except welding without filler metals, which
results in excess ferrite. Adding nitrogen to the shielding gas ensures that adequate austenite
5

is added to the structure. The heat input must be maintained at a low level, and the use of pre
or post heat must be avoided. The co-efficient of thermal expansion for this grade is low;
hence the distortion and stresses are lesser than that in austenite grades.

1.4.7 Machining
The machinability of this grade is low due to its high strength. The cutting speeds are almost
20% lower than that of grade 304.

1.4.8 Characteristics of Duplex 2205

High resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking

Resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion

Good general corrosion resistance

Good sulfide stress corrosion resistance

High Strength

1.4.9 Applications

Chemical process vessels, piping and heat exchangers

Pulp mill digesters, bleach washers, chip pre-steaming vessels

Food processing equipment

Oil field piping and heat exchangers

Flue gas desulfurization equipment

1.5 Objective of the present work

The sheet-electrode set-up in resistance spot welding is mainly subjected to Joules
heating in different regions resulting from the flow of high current. A current density
is established in the sheet-electrode set-up that is mainly influenced by the
temperature dependent electrical resistivity of bulk material and the variation in
6

contact resistance along the sheet to sheet and the electrode to sheet interfaces. The
nature of the current density distribution in the sheet is also influenced by the extent
of the electrode to sheet contact region at any specific time instant that depends on the
electrode force, electrode to sheet interface temperature and the consequent plastic
flow at the interface especially for spherical tip electrode. Use of numerical
techniques such as finite element method is an effective alternative to solve such
nonlinear and complicated problem.
Thus, the present work is aimed at the development of a reliable process simulation
model and its validation for resistance spot welding based on finite element method
considering the coupled thermal-electric and thermal-mechanical phenomena. Special
emphasis is given to make the process simulation model general so that various
electrodes geometries and sheet materials can be included in the analysis.
Temperature dependent material properties are included in the model. The nature of
variation in electrical contact resistance along the sheet to sheet and electrode to sheet
interfaces are suitably converted to local electrical resistivity as a function of interface
temperature distribution at any time instant. The computed values of weld dimensions
from the developed numerical process simulation model have been validated with the
corresponding experimentally measured results in Duplex stainless steels sheets of
grade 2205. The computed results have provided quantitative information on the
current density and the temperature distribution in the sheet-electrode set-up at any
time instant for a given set of welding process parameters. The influence of the
process parameters on weld nugget diameter, penetration, and heat affected zone, the
resulting thermal cycles and other weld nugget characteristics are studied extensively
for the sheets. A resistance spot weld joint is primarily adjudged for its quality based
on the weld nugget dimensions (both nugget diameter and penetration), weld strength
(tensile shear, torsional failure, fatigue, etc.). In the present thesis, the weld nugget
dimensions are used as the basis to develop and validate the numerical process model
that can predict the weld nugget dimensions for any given input of sheet-electrode
geometry and material properties of duplex stainless steels (2205 grade).

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
A number of researchers have followed experimental approach to study the
correlation between the welding process parameters and weld quality in terms of weld
strength and weld nugget dimensions. Extensive work has already been carried out on
the modelling of spot welding process and study the effect of parameters on nugget
size. Electrically, thermally, and structurally coupled axisymmetric model considering
temperature-dependent properties and Joule heating were also done. Another group
of researchers have focused on the understanding of static and dynamic contact
resistance and their influence on weld nugget development.
The sections of the present chapter gives an over view of these already carried out
work in order to have a better understanding of the nugget formation in the RSW
process. This thesis mainly focuses towards the development of a reliable numerical
simulation model for the resistance spot welding process and its validation with
experimental results linking the process parameters.
2.2 Weldability Range
Weldability range (lobe) is the area where accept- able welds can be produced using a
specific combination of welding current and weld time. Welding range is limited by
the minimum acceptable weld size and splash limit.
In spot welding, weldability range is usually defined using coordinate axes where
weld time is located on one axis and welding current on the other. The electrode force
used, electrode geometry and cleanness, and the consistency and thickness of the
welded material affect the shape and size of the weldability range. Materials with
good welding properties have a large weldability range, which means that welding
parameters can be selected from a great number of different combinations.

Cold rolled metal sheets usually have a large weld- ability range. Welding current can
vary from 1.02.0 kA in common weld times. The alloying of the steel and thick zinc
coating, in particular, may decrease the weldability range. In this case, the correct use
of appropriate welding parameters is very important in terms of producing good spot
welds.
The area between the minimum acceptable weld diameter and splash limit is called
the weldability range. Welds produced in this range meet the common requirements
set for spot welds.

Fig 2.1 Weldability range

2.3 Growth of Nugget

The formation, size and growth rate of weld depend on the welding parameters used.
The increase in the weld nugget diameter as a function of welding current is presented
in Figure 2.1. The figure shows how the weld nugget diameter increases rapidly at the
beginning of the process, after which the growth slows down. At the end of the curve,
the nugget is too large for the electrodes to hold the weld pool between the welded
sheets, which causes a burst of molten metal expulsion from between the sheets.
A good spot weld has sufficient diameter and nugget penetration. The minimum
acceptable diameter of weld nugget is considered to be 3.5t, where t is work piece
thickness. Welds with smaller diameter do not have sufficient penetration and the size
of the weld is not enough to bear the calculated loads. In addition, too small welds are
created in the welding current range where the nugget size increases rapidly. In this
case, small variations in the work- piece surface quality, welding parameters or the
wear of electrodes greatly affect the variation of the weld size.
A recommended weld diameter is 5t. This value is usually achieved slightly under
the splash limit, where the weld nugget growth is stabilised and small variation in the
welding current or workpiece surface quality do not significantly change the size of
the weld.
2.4 Research Works
Yamomato et al. [1] studied extensively the spot weldability of thick mild steel sheets.
It was postulated that thicker sheets were less sensitive to the variation in sheet to
sheet contact resistance as greater resistive heating occurred due to bulk material
resistivity. The welding defects such as blowholes, shrinkage etc. in the weld nugget
were observed to be lesser when spot welds were made with high electrode force.
Dickinson et al. [2] first introduced the concept of weld lobe curves that, in reality,
was a graphical presentation of acceptable spot weld nuggets as a function of weld
current and weld time for a fixed value of electrode force [2]. Figure 2.1
schematically shows such a weld lobe curve. It is evident from Fig.2.1 that any
combination of weld current and weld time that lies on the lower side of the weld lobe
curves will not produce an acceptable weld nugget diameter. Similarly, any
10

combination of weld current and weld time that lies on the higher side of weld lobe
curve will lead to liquid metal expulsion from the impending weld nugget. H. A.
Nied[3] presented an analytical tool to predict the processing parameters needed to
produce a spot weld with sufficient joint penetration and conducted extensive tests on
Type 321 stainless steel sheets to validate the finite element model. . The electrical,
thermal and mechanical behaviors of the interface between two contact solids were
studied theoretically by Bowden and Williamson in 1958 [4]. Their study showed
that surface asperities condensed current density and restricted contact resistance
within the contact region, which caused temperature to rise at the interface when
electric current flow occurred. The spot welding characteristics of two HSLA steels
Mn-Mo-Vb and V-N were investigated and compared with that of SAE 1008 carbon
steel by Sawhill et al. [5]. It was reported that the minimum welding current required
for these HSLA steel sheets were lower compared to the low-carbon steel of same
thickness, which was attributed to the higher bulk material resistivity of the HSLA
steels. However, the HSLA steel sheets required greater electrode force due to their
tendency of high spring-back forces. Spot welded joints made in the HSLA steel
sheets had shown better mechanical strength compared to that of SAE 1008 steel
sheets of similar thickness. Sawhill et al. [6] also studied the spot weldability
characteristics of two more grades of HSLA steels one rephosphorised and the other
stressrelieved annealed (SRA) steel. Kaiser et al. [7] had conducted extensive spot
welding experiments with low-carbon and HSLA steel sheets under different surface
conditions. Several weld lobe curves were generated at different values of electrode
forces for different surface condition for each kind of steel. It was reported that
artificial increase in the surface contact resistance of HSLA steels could enhance the
permissible range of welding currents. Extensive studies on spot weldability of HSLA
steel sheets were reported by Jones and Williams [8] using both ac and dc spot
welding machines. Keef et al. [9] studied the spot weldability of titanium stabilized,
high columbium content and low columbium content stainless steel sheets. The
selection of the welding process parameters such as welding current, weld times, etc.
was performed depending on the material constituents in which titanium stabilized
sheets produced the best performance next to the columbium content steels. Sperle et
al. [10] studied the influence of weld nugget diameter on the weld strength for dual
phase high strength steel sheets in the thickness ranges 0.7, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 mm with
electrodes of different diameters.
11

2.5 Summary

A wide range of experimental studies are reported on resistance spot welding

of uncoated and coated low-carbon steels, stainless steels. These experimental
studies have been performed primarily with traditional ac spot welding
machines.

The quantitative knowledge on the nature and the variation of contact

resistances along the sheet to sheet and the electrode to sheet interfaces are
significant spot welding of metallic sheets with varying surface coatings and /
or treatments. Although experimental investigations are reported in this
direction, the results reported by various authors contradict considerably
especially with regard to the dependence of contact resistance on contact
pressure.

Numerical models are established as an effective route to realize the coupled

thermal-electrical and thermal-mechanical phenomena in resistance spot
welding process. The influence of the magnitude and the variation in initial
contact resistance depending on different surface conditions are rarely
included in the modelling calculations.

12

CHAPTER 3
THEORITICAL FORMULATION
3.1 Introduction
In the resistance spot welding process, the faying surfaces are fused and joined in spot
by Joule's heat due to the flow of electric current through a weldment held together
under electrode force . The complexity in this process arises from the interaction of
many factors such as the complex flow paths for heat and electrical current and the
variation in the properties of the materials with temperature and phase change.
The heat transfer mechanism in resistance spot welding involves primarily heat
conduction and to some extent heat convection within the molten welds pool.
However compared to convection, the conductive mode of heat transfer plays a
dominant role. This is due to the fact of rapid melting and solidification of the weld
nugget that remains confined within a solid containment of bulk material. Also since
the size of the nugget is relatively small, the effect of convective heat transfer on it
can be neglected.
The flow of current occurs through the region in which the electrodes and the sheet
surfaces are in contact. The amount of current flowing across the sheets is also critical
in determining the size of the nugget formed at the faying surface as heat generated
depends upon the flow of current. The heat generation due to flow of current and in
turn heat transfer occurring together gives rise to electro-thermal analysis. In this
analysis the properties of the materials vary with temperature. What adds on to the
complexity of analysis is the localized magnitude of contact resistance of appreciable
magnitude present along the sheet to sheet and the electrode to sheet interfaces that
also varies with the contact temperature, electrode force.
All the factors are thus taken into consideration to develop a comprehensive
modelling of resistance spot welding. Thus an Attempt is made in the present work to
include most of these features mentioned above in a realistic manner so as to keep the
simulation model tractable and sufficiently versatile. This chapter further contains
various governing equations involved in the electro-thermal and thermal-mechanical
phenomena.

13

3.2 Thermal Analysis

The resistance spot welding mechanism is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. In the
welding, the required heat is generated by a passage of a high-current pulse across the
welding interface and base metal. Under the mechanical and electric loading
conditions in the weldment, the voltage potential field is formed within the base metal
and along the electrode and weldment interface. This voltage distribution causes a
current flow as follows:

where J is the current density vector, is the voltage potential. When the current
density in the weldment is high enough, the melting initiates at the interface of the
two workpieces. To prevent the electrode from sticking to the weldment, part of the
generated heat in the electrode interface is dissipated through the copper alloy of the
electrode to cooling water. Once melting is started, the contacts move closer together
through a squeezing action by the electrodes, enlarging the area of the contact. Thus,
contact resistance is altered, modifying in turn the distribution of voltage field in the
weldment. As a result, current density will be redistributed in the weldment and a new
temperature distribution in the weld is established.

Fig 3.1 Schematic view of sheet-electrode system in cylindrical coordinate system

14

Although the nature of heat flow is three-dimensional, the same can be modelled in a
two-dimensional axisymmetric form owing to the circular cross-section of the
electrode that applies both electrical current and compressive force (Fig.3.1). The
merit of the axisymmetric formulation is that the symmetry with respect to , the
azimuthal angle, permits to undertake the variation in heat transfer and current flow in
radial (r) and vertical (z) directions only. Hence, the thermal analysis is conceived as
an axisymmetric case of transient heat conduction in the present work .

3.2.1 Governing equation and boundary condition

The governing equation for as axisymmetric transient thermal analysis is given by:

It is convenient to introduce cylindrical coordinates to solve the problem. Assuming

symmetry of the processes with respect to the electrode axis it is possible to reduce
the number of dimensions to two without loss of generality .Where r and z are radial
and axial coordinates and is the density of the material, C is the specific heat
capacity, T is the temperature as a function of coordinates and time, t is the time, k is
the thermal conductivity, and qv is the rate of internal heat generation per unit
volume. All the material properties are considered to be temperature dependent.
The boundary conditions taken are as follows:
1. The symmetric boundary condition along z-axis is stated as:

2. Along the inner surface of the electrode (i.e. along GH and HK), the temperature
remains equal to the ambient temperature.

15

3. The exterior of the sheet-electrode geometry is adiabatic i.e.

Fig 3.2 2-D Schematic view of part of sheet-electrode geometry

3.2.2 Heat Generation: Joules heating

The total resistance across the electrodes could be considered as the sum of five
resistors in the series schematically represented in Fig. R1 and R5 are the interface
resistances between the electrodes and the sheet metal; R2 and R4 represent the
metals' bulk resistance. R3 is defined as the contact resistance at the faying interface
and is affected by the electrical, mechanical and thermal condition of the surface.
Since melting occurs at this last interface, heat production is the greatest at this
location, implying that R3 is much larger than the other resistances. However, this
value drops to zero as the weld nugget is formed.

16

Fig 3.3 Electrical Resistances in the sheet electrode system

Metallic surfaces usually contain a number of asperities widely varying in shape and
sizes. In the course of spot welding process, as the sheet surfaces meet under the
action of electrode force, the initial contact is established among these surface
asperities only. Depending on the magnitude of the electrode force, certain volume of
these asperities is locally collapsed and a real contact between the sheet surfaces is
established. As the electrical current is applied subsequently, the current conduction
happens through this real contact area only.

Fig 3.4 Variation of resistance at the contact surfaces

17

3.3 Electrical Analysis

The electrical analysis in the present work typically refers to the current conduction
analysis due to the flow of electric current through the sheet-electrode system. The
current conduction analysis is carried out in two-dimensional, axi-symmetric form
using cylindrical coordinates assuming no variation of electric potential in the
direction. Since the electrodes are cylindrical in shape and the electrode diameter is
usually much larger compared to the sheet thickness, it is possible to conceive further
that the nature of current flow will be predominantly axial through the sheet-electrode
system by the straight lines within the metallic sheets.

3.3.1 Governing equation and boundary condition

The governing equation for a steady-state current conduction through the sheet
electrode system can be expressed in terms of electrical potential, , as:

where, is the electrical resistivity. The appropriate boundary conditions for the
current conduction analysis can be presented as follows:

Where J denotes the uniform current density (flux) prevailing at the top surface of the
electrode due to the applied current. The equation (i) is expressed considering air
surrounding the sheet-electrode geometry as insulator to electric current. Equation
(iii) implies the symmetry of the domain of analysis along the radial axis.

18

3.4Estimation of electrical contact resistance

Reliable values of electrical contact resistance as a function of contact pressure and
temperature are always scarce in open literature especially in connection with
resistance spot welding. Several efforts are made in the recent past to provide with an
analytical relation that can estimate the value of electrical resistance along the
interface when two metallic surfaces are in contact.
For a given electrode force, the contact resistance between electrode-workpiece and
workpiece-workpiece interfaces has been measured for the entire welding cycles by
the following equation:

Where R(T), R(20 oC), (T), (20) are the contact resistance and average yield stress at T oC
and 20 oC respectively, L is the elemental length and Ac is the contact area.
3.5 Estimation of Thermal contact conductance
The thermal contact conductance of stainless steel sheets is calculated by taking the
impact of temperature, pressure and surface roughness into account. The simplest and
the most applicable equation to calculate this factor is:

Cc

Where hc is the thermal contact resistance, is surface roughness, m is the roughness

slope and P is the pressure in contact area. Furthermore, ks and E are equivalent
thermal conductivity and elastic modulus of the two materials in contact area which
are described by:

19

Where k1, k2, 1, 2, E1 and E2 are thermal conductivity, Poisson ratio and Young
modulus for materials 1 and 2 respectively.

20

CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
The present chapter outlines the experimental studies carried out on the resistance spot
welding of duplex stainless steel grade 2205 sheets, along with the methodology of
the finite element analysis on the same. As a part of this study, spot weld samples are
prepared at various combinations of welding currents and electrode force using five ac
and one medium frequency dc spot welding machines. The quality of the weld
samples are measured in terms of the final weld nugget dimensions (nugget diameter).
Based on the experimental results, the permissible ranges of process parameters for
each spot welding machine are evaluated. Simultaneously, the experimental results
have been used to validate the finite element based numerical simulation model of
resistance spot welding process developed in this work.
Conceptually, the rms value of welding current, Irms, can be specified as

where t is the total weld time and I(t) the instantaneous value of current at any time
within t.
When the value of welding current corresponding to Irms is used as an input to the
numerical computation of weld nugget dimensions, the calculated results of weld
dimensions tends to become general rather than specific to a particular spot welding
machine. Usually, the value of Irms is available at the machine controller interface
corresponding to a specific setting of the current controller. It is apparent from
equation that Irms cannot represent the temporal variation of the real-time current
waveform I(t), that is possibly significant in resistance spot welding due to the
transient nature of Joules heating involved in this process. In constant current ac spot
welding machines, a specific current setting (or percent heat input) is achieved by
utilizing only a portion of each ac cycle throughout the weld time. A pair of such
thyristors is normally used to allow only a portion of the positive and the negative half
(in symmetric manner) of each full ac cycle corresponding to a specific current
21

setting. Although, the phenomenon of resistive heating in sheet-electrode system is

directly proportional to the squared instantaneous current [~I2(t)], the same is highly
transient in nature and always in competition with the conductive heat dissipation
through the bulk material. Thus, the current waveform with larger peak values in each
half cycle will lead to greater rate of resistive heating in comparison to the waveforms
with lesser peak values. In addition, the instantaneous current waveforms with larger
peak values may also lead to uncontrollable melting and if the electrode force is
insufficient, expulsion of liquid from the fusion zone can result.
4.2 Experimental setup
The most common resistance welding machines use AC that has not been transformed
from the supply frequency. DC machines have become slightly more common than
before. Their welding current can be slightly lower than in AC machines. Some
welding machines tansform the supply frequency of the welding current to be higher,
which has several advantages e.g. smaller transformers. High frequency welding
current is better focussed on the connection point, which allows using significantly
lower welding currents. The resistance spot welding equipment is shown in the figure
4.1.

Fig 4.1 Resistance spot welding machine

22

The frame solutions for resistance welding machines can vary greatly. In larger
welding units and automated production, welding force is created by means of
pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders. Resistance welding machines load the power
supply network heavily during welding. The properties of resistance welding machine
affect the selected welding parameters. Most resistance welding machines are
powered by AC, in which case the welding current used depends on the size of the
workpiece and gap surface of the welding machine. Different kinds of transformers
and their location also have an impact on the selected welding current. Resistance
welding machines are equipped with a cooling system, which is most commonly
based on the circulation of cooling water. Components that are cooled down are
electrodes, electrode holders, transformers and contactors. The cooling of
transformers and contactors is usually separate from the other cooling circuit.
4.3 Experimental procedure
Resistance spot welding is the most commonly used resistance welding method. Spot
welding is used to join sheets together by means of lap joints. Spot welding produces
single spot-like welds, which are also called nuggets. Welding current is directed to
the workpieces through electrodes, which also generate pressing force. Electrodes are
usually located on both sides of the work piece and either one or both move and
transmit force to the work piece. The welding current of 420 kA is used for making a
single weld. The welding current depends on the material to be welded and work
piece thickness. A number of spot welds can be welded simultaneously, which is
called serial spot welding.
The stages of resistance spot welding resistance welding are as follows: electrodes
press the welded workpieces together => electrode force decreases the transfer
resistance of workpieces between the electrodes, which allows directing welding
current through the workpieces through the desired route. Welding current is
connected after the termination of the squeeze time. Welding current produces heat at
the faying surfaces and thus creates a weld pool between the workpieces. Welding
current is switched off as the weld time ends. Electrode force still presses the
workpieces together and electrodes cool the weld down. The weld pool must solidify
and the weld must achieve sufficient strength properties during the post-weld hold
time. After the end of the hold time, electrodes are retracted from the workpiece and
the total weld time required for the production of one spot weld ends, Figure 4.2.
23

Fig 4.2 Steps in resistance spot welding

In order to determine the diameters (D1,D2) of the nugget formed at the faying
surface, the samples were cut transverse to the faying surface using Electrical
discharge machining (EDM). Then the cross sectioned samples were polished using
different grades of emery sheets(Sheet 0-4) which was followed by alumina and
diamond fine polishing. After cleaning and drying the samples they were etched using
Kellens reagent(CuCl2 5g, Hcl 100ml, Ethanol 100ml). The samples were then tested
under a microscope to evaluate the nugget diameters. The images of the nugget
observed under microscope are shown in fig 4.3.

Fig 4.3 Belt grinding of the sample

24

Fig 4.4 Observing the microstructure under microscope

Fig 4.5 Cutting the samples using EDM

Fig 4.6 Microscopic view of nugget

25

4.4 Measurements
Various measurements have to be made so that they may be given as input in the
resistance spot welding simulation.
4.4.1 Contact resistance measurement
Previously, single sheet welding experiments were performed on the samples. The
voltage drop was measured in the welding electrodes using a computer assisted
measurement system which recorded values every 0.1 ms. The resistance was
calculated using the voltage drop measurement at the time of the peak in the welding
current. Cross sections were taken at the end of the welding experiments and
evaluated with respect to heat affected zone as a function of welding current.
Electrode imprints on the surface of single sheet experiments were examined with a
stereoscope for each welding experiment, and the diameter of the imprints were
recorded.
Our method employed measuring volume resistances of the sheets using LCR meters
available in Instrumentation and Control Engineering department and then calculating
the overall resistance between the sheets.

Figure 4.7 LCR meter

The LCR meter uses 4 wires to measure the resistance between any two points. The
measurement technique is as shown in the figures 3.7 and 3.8.
26

4.4.2 Electrode dimensions measurement

Since the electrode is filed off at regular intervals, it is necessary to measure its
dimensions. The various dimensions of the electrode were measured using digital
vernier calipers.

Figure 4.8 Measurement of electrode dimensions

4.5 Experimental results

Experimental trials of the resistance spot welding were conducted on 2 mm duplex
stainless steel sheets. The effect of welding time and on nugget size is determined
fixing one parameter and varying the other. Thereafter the samples were tested for
various conditions, which are shown in the table 4.1

27

S.No

Diameter

of

the Welding

Current Weld Time

Electrode (mm)

(kA)

( Weld Cycle )

Table 4.1 Experimental Conditions

4.6 Methodology of the simulation

This section explains the FEA simulation of the RSW process. It requires modelling
of complex interactions between electrical, thermal, metallurgical and mechanical
phenomena. A 2D axisymmetric FEM model has been developed to analyse the
transient thermal behaviors of process using ANSYS software and coupled structuralthermoelectric analysis is performed by using advanced coupled field element
PLANE223 to simulate the thermal characteristics of RSW process. The objectives of
this analysis is to understand physics of the process and to develop a predictive tool
reducing the number of experiments for the optimization of welding parameters.

28

Contact 1 Between top

electrode and top surface
of first workpiece
Contact

Faying surfaces

Contact

Between

bottom

electrode

and

bottom surface of second

workpiece

Fig 4.9 Contact pairs

Various dimensions of the electrode according to the specification are given as
follows:

t1=2 mm

-thickness of workpiece,m

r1=12.7 mm

-radius of workpiece section modeled

r2=3.13 mm

-radius of electrode cavity

r3=6 mm

-radius of electrode

r4=3 mm

-radius of electrode flat at workpiece interface

h1=9.65 mm

-height to electrode cavity from workpiece

h2=12 mm

-overall height of electrode section modeled

=20o

-taper angle of electrode

FEA models considers temperature dependent material properties, contact status,

phase changing and coupled field effects into the simulation of RSW. To solve the
coupled problem, iterative solution procedure is an often adopted method. Initially the
stress field and contact status are obtained from the thermal-mechanical analysis and
29

then the temperature field is obtained from the fully coupled thermal-electrical
analysis based on the contact area at the electrode-workpiece interface and faying
surface. The calculated temperature field is then passed back to the thermal-structural
analysis to update the stress field and contact status. The objective here is to develop a
multi-coupled method to analyse the thermal and mechanical behaviors of RSW
process.

FEA model is axisymmetric about y axis since only half portion of the complete
model is analysed. The x axis is the contact surface of the two sheets called as faying
surface. The model is meshed using three elements => PLANE223, CONTA172 AND
TARGE169. The element PLANE223 with structural thermoelectric capabilities has
eight nodes with up to four degrees of freedom per node. It has UX, UY, TEMP and
VOLT degrees of freedom. The other elements are contact elements consisting of
contact pair of CONTA172 and TARGE169. Contact occurs when the element
surface penetrates one of the target segment elements (TARGE169) on a specified
target surface. Any translational or rotational displacement, forces, moments,
temperature, voltage and magnetic potential can be imposed on the target segment
element.

Fig 4.10 Simulation Process

30

4.7 Material Properties

Temperature varying properties are considered for copper electrode and duplex
stainless steel sheets. The properties assigned are thermal conductivity, resistivity,
Youngs modulus, specific heat and contact resistivity, density. In modeling RSW
process with the complicated thermoelectric behavior, several physical phenomena
must be considered. It is of great importance to define the parameters correctly to
obtain correct results. The current is imposed as an electric load on the top surface of
upper electrode. A force of 500000N is applied on the upper electrode which is
equivalent to the pneumatic pressure applied on the sheets. The most important
property in the simulation of RSW process is the contact resistivity of faying surface.

4.8 Boundary Condition

Thermo-Electric Analysis:
Figure 4.11 shows the boundary conditions imposed for the analysis. The upper face
of top electrode and lower face of bottom electrode are constrained in x and y
directions. A voltage difference is applied across the top face of upper electrode and
bottom face of lower electrode. The convection coefficient of air (21 W/m2 C) is
applied on faces of electrode and sheet which are open to environment. The
convection coefficient of water (300 W/m2 C) is applied on the inner faces of
electrodes which are in contact with the circulating cooling water with initial
temperature of 10C.

Fig 4.11 Thermal-Electric Boundary Conditions

31

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter explains the computed results of the simulation in Ansys to analyze
resistance spot welding. The FEM model is employed to simulate the RSW process in
order to quantitatively understand the effects of the process parameters on temperature
distribution and the nugget size at different cycles.

5.1 Experimental

Different welding conditions are applied to the samples and their corresponding
nugget diameters are obtained as tabulated.

S.No

Electrode

Welding

Weld

Time Nugget

Diameter

Current (kA)

(Cycles)

(mm)

Nugget

Diameter

Diameter

D1 (mm)

D2 (mm)

4.413

1.983

4.884

2.934

5.144

3.098

5.596

1.970

6.230

2.282

6.108

2.696

5.830

2.856

6.258

3.133

6.110

3.337

Table 5.1 Experimental results

32

Fig 5.1 Nuggets Observed Under Microscope

5.2 Simulation

First the thermal-electric analysis was carried out by applying the appropriate
boundary conditions to the model and the simulation was carried out for different
welding conditions. Figures 5.5(a) to (d) show the computed temperature fields (in
terms of isotherms) in the sheet-electrode geometry corresponding to different
welding currents and different number of weld cycles. The effective rise in
temperature inside the copper electrode is observed to extend only up to a small
depth.. In Figs 5.2(a) to (d), each colour band represents a range of temperature in deg
C. In particular, the red coloured zone that is above a maximum temperature of 1450
deg C (liquidus temperature of duplex stainless steel) depicts the weld nugget.

Fig 5.2(a) 9 kA,7 weldcycle

33

Fig 5.2(b) 9kA, 8weldcycle

Fig 5.2(c) 8kA, 7 weldcycle

Fig 5.2 (d) 8kA, 8 weldcycles

At the start of the welding process, the temperature at the center of faying surface
increases very fast. The highest temperature remains at the center of the faying
surface throughout the whole welding process. Melting first occur at the faying
surface and then expand to the material near it. Due to the resistance offered to the
flow of current at the faying surfaces, Joule heat is generated at this surfaces which is
greater than the heat generated at other points on the weld surfaces. The nugget is
formed at 1450 C as it is the melting point of duplex stainless steel. By changing the
welding conditions, the temperature profile could be varied which in turn changes the
nugget size i.e. the welding quality. The following is the simulation for 8kA current
and 8weld cycles :

34

Fig 5.3 Simulation for 8kA and 8 weldcycle

The scale represents the maximum and minmum tempertures obtained at the work
piece with red and blue coloured zones correspoding to them respectively. Here in the
fig 5.3 the minimum and maximum temperatures are 10 deg C and 1892.17 deg C.
However melting occurs at 1450 deg C which corresponds to orange zone. This
determines the diameter of the nugget formed when measured along the coordinate
axis (in Symmetry) in x direction for D1 and Y direction for D2.

35

Fig 5.4 Diameter measurement

To measure the diameter D1 and D2, graphs of Temperature vs Distance is plotted in

x-axis and y-axis respectively. D1 is calculated as twice of R1 calculated from the
graph assuming the melting point of duplex stainless steel as 1450 degC ( as in Fig
5.5). Similarly, D2 is calculated as the difference of 2 points along the y-axis where
this temperature of 1450 deg C is attained.

36

S.No

Electrode Curren Weld

Dia(mm)

t (kA)

Time

Experimental

Computed

%Error

D1

D1

D2

D1

2.48

0.54

11.29

D2

D2

(Cycles)
1

2.977

3.931

2.936 4.2

3.006

6.40

2.32

4.677

3.108 5.16

3.282

9.36

5.30

5.206

3.048 5.75

2.66

9.46

14.58

5.7

3.167 5.81

2.767

1.89

14.45

4.966

2.578 5.25

2.818

5.40

8.51

4.601

2.873 5.52

3.09

16.6

7.02

5.401

2.81 5.7

3.236

5.24

13.16

5.534

2.725 6.01

3.122

7.92

12.71

2.76 2.96

Table 5.2 Experimental Results and error

The stress and strain fields in the weldment during the RSW process are very complex
due to the combination of temperature and electrode force. At the squeeze stage, the
electrodes and work pieces are deformed under the application of the load.
Fig 5.6 shows the Von Mises stress distribution after the squeezing stage. The
maximum stress occurs at the edge of the contact surface between the electrode and
the work piece The welding residual stress is produced in welded joint as a result of
plastic deformation caused by non-uniform thermal expansion and contraction due to
non-uniform temperature distribution in the welding process. The deformation at the
end of hold step is extremely large than that of the squeeze step. This means much
deformation is produced in the RSW process due to the thermal expansion.

37

Fig 5.6 Vonmises Stress

Fig 5.7 y component stresses

Fig.5.6 and 5.7 show the distribution of normal stress y and Von-Mises Stress
during the squeeze step corresponding to a welding current of 9.0 kA and electrode
pressure of 6 Bar and 9 weld cycles . It can be seen in the figure that there was mainly
compressive stress in the contact area, and the maximum Von-Mises stress was about
10.4 MPa at the edge of the electrodeworkpiece interface.

38

CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

6.1 Summary

Based on finite element method, a numerical model to analyze coupled

thermal- electrical phenomena coupled with structural analysis in resistance
spot welding process has been developed using Ansys.

Important welding parameter such as weld current, welding time, electrode

force, contact resistance and dimensions of the sheet are taken as input in
order to give the output in the form of temperature distribution and stresses at
the weld.

Different welding conditions were taken, keeping one parameter fixed the
other parameter was varied and the nugget dimensions were found.

The results of weld nugget diameters are verified with experimental results for
spot welding of duplex stainless steel sheet and the error is identified.

6.2 Conclusions

A two-dimensional axisymmetric numerical simulation model to analyze the

resistance spot welding process is developed based on finite element method
considering the coupled electrical-thermal and thermal-mechanical phenomena
involved in the process.

The numerical simulation model considers the process parameters which

affect the weld e.g. welding current, electrode force and weld time as input
and computes the current density distribution and the temperature field in the
given sheet-electrode geometry at any instant throughout the weld time.

The weld nugget dimensions are obtained from the computed results of
temperature distribution.

Based on the modelling calculations, it is conceived that the computed values

of weld dimensions are sensitive to a certain extent to the initial value of the
initial contact resistance. It is further realized that the relation of contact
resistance with temperature along with an initial prescribed value is an
effective way to introduce the influence of contact resistance in numerical
modeling of spot welding process.

39

REFERENCES
1. T. Yamamto and T. Okuda, A study of spot welding of heavy gauge mild steel,
Welding in the World, 9 (7/8), 1971, pp. 234-255.
2. D. W. Dickinson, J. E. Franklin and A. Stanya, Characterization of spot welding
behaviour by dynamic electrical parameter monitoring, Welding Journal, 59 (6),
1980, spp. 170 176.
3. Nied, H. A. 1984. The finite modelling of the resistance spot welding process.
Welding Journal 63(4) 1 23-s to 1 32-s.
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5. J. M. Sawhill, H. Watanabe, and J. W. Mitchell, Spot weldability of Mn-Mo-Cb,
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7. J. G. Kaiser, G. J. Dunn and T. W. Eager, The effect of electrical resistance on
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40