Name: Lenworth Henningham

Date: July, 2014

Instructor: Mr. Anglin
Institution: National Tools and Engineering Institute (NTEI)

Table of Contents
Page
Rigging

Bowline ...
Barrel Hitch
Bowline on a Bight .
Reef Knot
Self Centering Bowline
Cats Paw .
Clove Hitch .
Pipe Fittings
Types of Fitting ..
Elbow .
Unions .
Flanges
Valves ..
Types of Valves ..
Coupling ..
Tees, Wyes and Crosses .

Rigging
Definitions

Rigging refers to two things: the process of safely moving loads with slings, hoists,
jacks, and other types of lifting equipment and the equipment used to lift and move

these loads.
The system of ropes or chains employed to support a ship's masts (standing rigging)

and to control or set the yards and sails (running rigging).

The ropes and wires supporting the structure of an airship, biplane, hang-glider, or
parachute.

Bowline
The bowline (/boln/ or /bolan/) is an ancient and simple knot used to form a fixed loop
at the end of a rope. It has the virtues of being both easy to tie and untie; most notably, it is

easy to untie after being subjected to a load. The bowline is sometimes referred as King of the
knots because of its importance. It is one of the four basic maritime knots (the other three
are figure-eight knot, reef knot and clove hitch).
The structure of the bowline is identical to that of the sheet bend, except the bowline forms a
loop in one rope and the sheet bend joins two ropes. Along with the sheet bend and the clove
hitch, the bowline is often considered one of the most essential knots.
Although generally considered a reliable knot, its main deficiencies are a tendency to work
loose when not under load, to slip when pulled sideways and the bight portion of the knot
to capsize in certain circumstances. To address these shortcomings, a number of more secure
variations of the bowline have been developed for use in safety-critical applications.

What exactly defines a knot as being a Bowline?

A precise definition has eluded some great knotting minds, but from personal observations I
can conclude that all Bowlines exhibit the following characteristics:

That all Bowlines are easy to untie even after heavy repeated loading events.
(Example. As would be expected in a falling climber scenario)

That all Bowlines can be tied in a one-stage tying process a concept known as Post
Eye Tiable (PET).

That all Bowlines fundamentally consist of a nipping turn component that grips and
stabilises a bight component.

That all Bowlines have a connective eye, and this eye does not slip under load which
enables the knot to be linked to objects such as carabiners, trees & climbing
harnesses.

The Following images are the Fundamental Bowlines based directly

on the Original Structure.

How to tie a Bowling Knot

1. Form a small loop, making sure that the running line (the loose end and the part that
moves as you tie the knot) passes over the standing line (the part that will bear the load
and the part that stays still as you tie the knot).

In this picture, the standing disappears off the top of the frame, and the running line is just to
the left of the small loop.
The loop you've just made represents "the hole", and the running end is "the rabbit." The
standing line is "the tree." It is important to know that the "hole" will become part of the knot,
and is NOT the loop of the bowline.
2. The rabbit comes up out of the hole...

3. Around behind the tree

4. And back through the hole.

5. Hold the tree in one hand and pull on both parts of the rabbit with the other hand. This
will close the "hole" and finish the knot. The "body" of the rabbit becomes the loop of the
bowline.
The most useful characteristic of the bowline is that (once you've finished tying the knot) the
loop will not get bigger or smaller, no matter how much you tug on it.

Barrel Hitch
This is the simplest yet most effective method of hoisting or lowering an object while
keeping it in a vertical position.
In order to see how this hitch works, tie a fairly large Overhand Knot (picture 1). Where the
rope crosses itself in the middle of the knot (near the blue dot in picture 1), grab the strand of

rope on top and bring it towards you, then lay it back down as in picture 2 (notice where the
blue dot is in picture 2). In picture 2, notice that there is a strand of rope which runs
diagonally from the bottom left to the top right, creating two large loops. Place a plastic cup
(or some other tall object) on top of that diagonal strand of rope, then carefully bring those
two loops up the sides of the cup, and you should be able to lift up the cup using both ends of
the rope (picture 3).

In picture 3 (above),

notice

that the end of the rope is tied off with a Bowline, although a Double Dragon can be used as
well.
Warning: For stability, the rope encircling the barrel must be well above the center of gravity
but far enough below the top to avoid slipping off. Also, care must be taken to ensure that the
rope is properly centered under the barrel. With smooth and steady lifting, the Barrel Hitch
provides reasonable security and safety.

Bowline on the Bight

The Bowline on a bight is a knot which makes a pair of fixed-size loops in the middle of a
rope. Its advantage is that it is reasonably easy to untie after being exposed to a strain. This

knot can replace the figure-eight knot when tying into a climbing harness. However, it is
critical to use a strong backup knot with plenty of tail beyond the knot.

Applications
This knot can be used to provide a toe hold in the middle of a rope; to make an
emergency bosun's chair; and to create an upper rope "block" to make a crude purchase by
threading the rope round an anchor point and then back up through the loop. It is sometimes
used in sport climbing to tie into two anchor bolts independently. This knot is convenient
when a dependable loop is required but neither end of the line is available. It's also commonly
used as a seat while being hoisted as there are two secure loops as opposed to the traditional
one loop bowline. In theory, this knot would make hoisting many people with one line
possible. This knot is very popular in caving as it allows the load to be spread between two
anchor points, reducing the stress placed on them and providing a backup should one fail.
Commonly known as the Y-hang it allows for a free-hang descent and can be easily adjusted
to avoid waterfalls or rub points.
As mentioned earlier, this knot can replace the figure-eight knot when tying into a climbing
harness by tying a regular bowline knot and then re-threading it, such as is done with a figure
eight knot. However, it is critical to use a strong backup knot with plenty of tail beyond the
knot, as the knot may untie during long climbs. The advantage of using this knot instead of
the figure eight knot is that it can be easily untied after a severe fall.

Technique

The bight of rope is initially used to make a bowline in the usual way. However, the bowline
is not completed by going on round the standing end(s) and tucking the bight back down
beside itself. Instead, the bight is opened up to allow the whole knot to pass through it. When
tightened, the bight now embraces the pair of standing ends.

Steps:

Reef Knot
The Reef Know is also known as

the square know. This

knot is used for tying two ropes

together. Also used for

tying the reefing points on a sail or tying a triangular bandage in first aid.

The reef knot is at least between 4,000 and 9,000 years old. The name "reef knot" dates from
at least 1794 and originates from its common use to reef sails, that is to tie part of
the sail down to decrease its effective surface area in strong winds. To release the knot
a sailor could collapse it with a pull of one hand; the sail's weight would make the collapsed
knot come apart. It is specifically this behaviour which makes the knot unsafe for connecting
two ropes together.
The name "square knot" is found in Dana's 1841 maritime compendium A Seaman's Friend,
which also gives "reef knot" as an alternative name.

Uses
The reef knot is used to tie the two ends of a single line together such that they will secure
something, for example a bundle of objects that is unlikely to move much. In addition to
being used by sailors for reefing and furling sails, it is also one of the key knots
of macram textiles. The knot lies flat when made with cloth and has been used for
tying bandages for millennia. As a binding knot it was known to the ancient Greeks as
the Hercules knot (Herakleotikon hamma) and is still used extensively in medicine. In
his Natural History, Pliny relates the belief that wounds heal more quickly when bound with a
"Hercules knot".
It has also been used since ancient times to tie belts and sashes. A modern use in this manner
includes tying the obi (or belt) of a martial arts keikogi.
With both ends tucked (slipped), it becomes a good way to tie shoelaces, whilst the nonslipped version is useful for shoelaces that are excessively short. It is appropriate for tying

plastic garbage or trash bags, as the knot forms a handle when tied in two twisted edges of the
bag.

Cats Paw
The Cat's paw is

a knot used for

connecting a rope to an

object. It is very

similar to the cow hitch except there is an additional twist on each side of the bight, making it
less prone to slipping.
The Cat's Paw, otherwise known as the offshore swivel knot is used to connect a snap swivel
to a double line. Note that it can only be used when the double line has a complete loop. If the
double has been cut to remove a previous Cat's Paw, use an improved clinch knot.

Steps

1. Thread the double through the eye of the swivel. Place the rod in a rod holder. This is
necessary as the last step requires tension to tie this knot properly.

2.

Rotate the swivel

through the loop.

-3 loops for
greater than 50 lb line
-4 loops for lines between 30 lb and 50 lb
-5 loops for line between 12 lb and 30 lb
-6 loops for line less than 12 lbs

3. Apply steady pressure so the loops begin to tighten, ensuring that both legs are equal
and all twists are removed. By placing the rod in a rod holder this process is made
easier. Lubricate with saliva and pull firmly so the loops tighten snugly up against the
swivel.

Clove Hitch
1. A simple all purpose hitch. Easy to tie and untie. A useful and easy to tie knot, the Clove
Hitch is a good binding knot. However, as a hitch it should be used with caution because
it can slip or come undone if the object it is tied to rotates or if constant pressure is not
maintained on the line.
2. The clove hitch is a type of knot. Along with the bowline and the sheet bend, it is often
considered one of the most important knots. A clove hitch is two successive halfhitches around an object. It is most effectively used as a crossing knot. It can be used as

a binding knot, but is not particularly secure in that role. A clove hitch made around the
rope's own standing part is known as either two half-hitches or buntline hitch, depending
on whether the turns of the clove hitch progress away from or towards the hitched object.

Usage
This knot is particularly useful where the length of the running end needs to be adjustable,
since feeding in rope from either direction will loosen the knot to be tightened at a new
position. With certain types of cord, the clove hitch can slip when loaded. In modern
climbing rope, the clove hitch will slip to a point, and then stop slipping. With smaller
diameter cords, after being heavily weighted it may become difficult to untie. It is also
unreliable when used on a square or rectangular post, rather than round.

Pipe Fittings

Pipe fittings are the joining components that make possible or allow the assembly of pipes,
valves and other equipment to be made into functioning piping systems.
The functions of the fittings vary and some of these include:

To change direction of flow in piping systems

To connect and join piping and equipment
To allow for branches, access, take off or auxiliary connections
Block or regulate flow within the piping or equipment

Pipe fittings are specified or identified by normal pipe size or tube size that the piping is
manufactured to fit.

Types of Fittings

Elbows

An elbow is a pipe fitting installed between two lengths of pipe or tubing to allow a change of
direction, usually a 90 or 45 angle, though 22.5 elbows are also made. The ends may be
machined for butt welding, threaded (usually female), or socketed, etc. When the two ends
differ in size, the fitting is called a reducing elbow orreducer elbow.
Elbows are categorized based on various design features as below:

Long Radius (LR) Elbows radius is 1.5 times the pipe diameter

Short Radius (SR) Elbows radius is 1.0 times the pipe diameter

90 Degree Elbow where change in direction required is 90

45 Degree Elbow where change in direction required is 45

A 90 degree elbow is also called a "90 bend" or "90 ell". It is a fitting which is bent in such a
way to produce 90 degree change in the direction of flow in the pipe. It is used to change the
direction in piping and is also sometimes called a "quarter bend". A 90 degree elbow attaches
readily to plastic, copper, cast iron, steel and lead. It can also attach to rubber with stainless
steel clamps. It is available in many materials like silicone, rubber compounds, galvanized
steel, etc. The main application of an elbow (90 degree) is to connect hoses to valves, water
pressure pumps, and deck drains. These elbows can be made from tough nylon material or
NPT thread.
A 45 degree elbow is also called a "45 bend" or "45 ell". It is commonly used in water supply
facilities, food industrial pipeline networks, chemical industrial pipeline networks, electronic
industrial pipeline networks, air conditioning facility pipeline, agriculture and garden
production transporting system, pipeline network for solar energy facility, etc.

Most elbows are available in short radius or long radius variants. The short radius elbows
have a center-to-end distance equal to the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) in inches, while the long
radius is 1.5 times the NPS in inches. Short elbows are widely available, and are typically
used in pressurized systems.
Long elbows are typically used in low-pressure gravity-fed systems and other applications
where low turbulence and minimum deposition of entrained solids are of concern.

Unions
A union is similar to a coupling, except it is designed to allow quick and convenient
disconnection of pipes for maintenance or fixture replacement. While a coupling would
require either solvent welding, soldering or being able to rotate with all the pipes adjacent as
with a threaded coupling, a union provides a simple transition, allowing easy connection or
disconnection at any future time. A standard union pipe is made in three parts consisting of a

nut, a female end, and a male end. When the female and male ends are joined, the nuts then
provide the necessary pressure to seal the joint. Since the mating ends of the union are
interchangeable, changing of a valve or other device can be achieved with a minimum loss of
time. Pipe unions are essentially a type of flange connector, as discussed further below.
In addition to standard, simple unions, other types of union exist:

Dielectric unions are unions with dielectric insulation, used to separate dissimilar
metals (such as copper and galvanized steel) to avoid the damaging effects of galvanic
corrosion. When two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrically conductive
solution (even tap water is conductive), they will form a battery and generate a voltage
byelectrolysis. When the two metals are in direct contact with each other, the electric
current from one metal to the other will cause a movement of ions from one to the other,
dissolving one metal and depositing it on the other. A dielectric union breaks the electric
current path with a plastic liner between two halves of the union, thus limiting galvanic
corrosion.

Rotary unions are unions that allow for rotation of one of the united parts.

Flanges
Flanges are generally used when there is a connection to valves, in-line instruments and/or
connection to equipment nozzles is required. Flange fittings generally involve pressing two
surfaces to be joined tightly together, by means of threaded bolts, wedges, clamps, or other

means of applying high compressive forces. Often, a gasket, packing, or an O-ring is installed
between the flanges to prevent leakage but it is sometimes possible to use only special grease
or nothing at all if the mating surfaces are precisely formed. Flanges are designed to the
following pressure ratings: 150 lb, 300 lb, 400 lb, 600 lb, 900 lb, 1500 lb and 2500 lb or 10
Bar, 15Bar, 25Bar, 40Bar, 64Bar, 100Bar and 150Bar. Various types of flanges are available
depending upon the type of their constructional features. The following are types of flanges
generally used in piping. These flanges are available with different facing like raised face, flat
face, ring joint face etc.

Orifice

Threaded

Slip-On

Blind

Weld Neck

Socket

Lap Joint

Reducing

Slip On flanges are slipped over the pipe and then welded from both inside and outside to
provide sufficient strength and prevent leakage. This flange is used instead of weld necks by
many users because of its lower cost and also the fact that it requires less accuracy when
cutting pipe to length.

Blind flanges do not have a bore and are used to shut off a piping system or vassal opening.
Its design permits easy access to vassal or piping system for inspection purpose. It can be
supplied with or without hubs at the manufacturer's option.
Weld neck flanges are designed to be joined to a piping system by butt welding. They are
expensive because of its long neck, but is preferred for high stresses to the pipe, reducing
stress applications. The neck, or hub, transmits stress concentration at the base of the flange.
The gradual transition of thickness from the base of the hub to the wall thickness at the butt
weld provides important reinforcement of the flange. Turbulence and erosion are reduced due
to the matching bore size of the pipe and flange.
Socket Flanges are similar to a slip on flanges in outline, but the bore is counter-bored to
accept pipe. The diameter of the remaining bore is same as the inside diameter of the pipe. A
fillet weld around the hub of the flange attaches the flange to the pipe. An optional interval
weld may be applied in high stress applications. Its biggest use is in high pressure system
such as hydraulic and steam lines.
Lap Joint flange is again similar to a slip flange, but it has radius at the intersection of the
bore and the flange face to accommodate a lap stub end. The face on the stub end forms the
gasket face of the flange. Its applications are where sections of piping systems need to be
dismantled quickly and easily for inspection or replacement.
Flanged connections tend to be more bulky than other connections, but can perform well in
demanding applications, such as large water mains and hydroelectric power systems.

Valves

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of

a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially
obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically valves fittings, but are
usually discussed as a separate category.

A valve is simply a device that directs or regulates flow by opening, closing or

partially obstructing passageways. Valves are instrumental in everything from
pumping soap out of a dispenser to starting a jet.
You cant be a pipe expert without being an industrial valve and fitting expert, as well.
Without valves, there would be no control of your pipe flow. Here are some of the
types of valves and their applications.

Gate Valves
Gate valves, the most common type of valve in the industry, are valves that open by lifting a
gate out of the route of the fluid. Gate valves are designed to be fully open or closed; they are
regularly used as a block valve for isolating pipe systems.

When a gate valve is open, there is no obstruction in the flow path resulting in very little
friction loss. Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow of fluid and minimum restriction
is desired.
These can be controlled by a hand-wheel, air powered diaphragm, electric motor, or a piston
actuator.

Globe Valves
Globe valves are used for regulating flow in a pipeline, instead of having the all or nothing
function of a gate valve. Globe valves regulate by the position of a movable disk (or plug) in
relation with the stationary ring seat.
A globe valve may have ports that run straight across, or may be pointed at an angle. This
type of angled supply valve is commonly used for corrosive or thick, viscous fluids that tend
to solidify. Having outlets on an angled supply valve that point downward helps the fluid to
drain off to prevent clogging and corrosion.

Needle Valves

The needle valve is essentially a variation of the globe valve used for very fine control of
flow. Needle valves contain a slender, tapered plug, as opposed to the globe valves larger
and less accurate disk.

Butterfly Valves
The butterfly valve is also designed to regulate flow, but with limited control capability. This
is a simpler industrial valve and fitting that is easily operated by rotating a handle 90 degrees.
The butterfly valve has not generally been thought to give a positive shut-off, however
modern technology has facilitated the assembly of a bubble-tight shut-off.

Check Valves
Check valves, also known as NRVs (non-return valves), permit fluid to flow in one direction
only. Their purpose is to prevent backflow. There are several types of stoppers that prevent
backflow in check valves. Ball check valves and piston check valves operate by requiring a
minimum amount of inbound flow pressure; backflow is not forceful enough to lift the ball or
piston back up to travel the other direction. Flow in a swing check valve pushes through a
hinged flap that only opens in one direction, assuring the fluid cannot travel backwards.

Relief Valves

The relief valve, also known as the safety valve, is an industrial valve and fitting installed to
set a limit on the amount of pressure in a system. This type of angled supply valve is strictly
for preventing over-pressure that could cause
damage to the system.

Coupling

A coupling c
onnects two
pipes to each
other. If the
size of the
pipe is not
the same, the
fitting may

be called a reducing coupling or reducer, or an adapter. By convention, the term

"expander" is not generally used for a coupler that increases pipe size; instead the
term "reducer" is used.

Couplings are used to join two pieces of pipe together in a straight line. Couplings are
supplied in both straight and reducing styles. Straight couplings are used to join pipe
of the same size. Reducing couplings are used to join pipes of different sizes.
Reducing couplings are manufactured n either the concentric or eccentric
configuration. The concentric coupling is used in lines where it is important to keep a
constant centre line. Eccentric couplings are used when either the top or bottom of a
line must remain level.

Tees,
Wyes
and Crosses
These fittings provide for branches, take off and auxiliary connections within a piping
system.

Tee
A tee is the most common pipe fitting. It is available with all female thread sockets, all
solvent weld sockets, or with opposed solvent weld sockets and a side outlet with female
threads. It is used to either combine or split a fluid flow. It is a type of pipe fitting which is T-

shaped having two outlets, at 90 to the connection to the main line. It is a short piece of pipe
with a lateral outlet. A tee is used for connecting pipes of different diameters or for changing
the direction of pipe runs. They are made of various materials and available in various sizes
and finishes. They are extensively used in pipeline networks to transport two-phase fluid
mixtures. They are categorized as:

Equal

Unequal

When the size of the branch is same as header pipes, equal tee is used and when the branch
size is less than that of header size, reduced tee will be used. Most common are tees with the
same inlet and outlet sizes. Some of the industrial tees are Straight Tee, Reducing Tee,
Double Branch Tee, Double Branch Reducing Tee, Conical Tee, Double Branch Conical Tee,
Bullhead Tee, Conical Reducing Tee, Double Branch Conical Reducing Tee, Tangential Tee,
and Double Branch Tangential Tee.
The above tees are categorized on the basis of their shapes and structure. They can also be
classified on the basis of the application they are required to perform.
The three outlet sizes should be named in order (e.g. left, middle, right; measuring 15-22-15
The three sizes of a tee are end x end x center. So if you want a tee that is 1" on both ends and
3/4" in the center it would be 1" x 1" x 3/4".

Wyes
A fitting with three openings, a wye is used to create branch lines. It is a tope of waste fitting
tee which has the side inlet pipe entering at a 45 angle, or an angle other than 90 degrees. A

standard wye is a "Y" shaped fitting which allows one pipe to be joined to another at a 45
degree angle.
Wyes are similar to tees except that the branch line is angled to reduce friction and turbulence
that could hamper the flow. The connection is typically at a 45-degree angle rather than a 90degree angle. If a branch turns out further at the end to be perpendicular to the through line,
the fitting becomes a "tee wye" (TY).
PVDF Corrosive Waste Piping Systems utilize wye fittings that feature a smooth inside
diameter without any irregularities, for uninterrupted flow path. These fittings should be able
to withstand acids, bases, and solvents. Flame-retardant systems withstand intermittent
corrosive fluids up to high temperatures. Polypropylene and PVDF Double Wyes and Double
Reducing Wyes come in various sizes and are largely used for this purpose.
A wye branch allows splitting a branch line equally in two directions. The opening sizes can
vary for different situations, for instance in situation where a large main line needs to be split
into two smaller branches.
Low-priced wyes are often spot-welded together, whereas industrial wyes have a continuous
weld at each seam. In long-distance pipeline applications, a true Wye fitting is also
engineered for closed system instrumentation pigging configurations or wherever a smooth
pipe branch is used.

Crosses

Cross fittings are also called 4-way fittings. If a branch line passes completely through a tee,
the fitting becomes a cross. A cross has one inlet and three outlets, or vice versa. They often
have solvent welded socket ends or female threaded ends.
Cross fittings can generate a huge amount of stress on pipe as temperature changes, because
they are at the centre of four connection points. A tee is steadier than a cross, as a tee behaves
like a three-legged stool, while a cross behaves like a four-legged stool. (Geometrically, "any
3 non-collinear points define a plane" thus 3 legs are inherently stable.) Crosses are common
in fire sprinkler systems but not in plumbing, due to their extra cost as compared to using two
tees.