Professor Brent S.

Rushall, San Diego State University

[This is an update of an article published in NSWIMMING Coaching Science Bulleti
n: Volume 1 Number 8 - February, 1993.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Basic assumptions
Factors To Be Considered
Length of time
Work volume
Type and intensity of work
Physiological effects
Psychological content
Recovery
Factors which moderate taper effects
Self-questions a coach should ask
Implications
References
Introduction
One of the most common discussion topics among swimming coaches is tapering for
important competitions. The concept of tapering is a legacy of an outmoded train
ing model that is gradually being replaced as coaches embrace periodized trainin
g principles. However, that comment aside, there still is a need in many swimmin
g pools for swimmers to recover from extensive periods of general and specific f
atigue so that all the body's resources can be applied to competitive events.
The coaching strategy of working athletes hard and keeping them fatigued for man
y months was shown to be useful in the days when training usually did not fully
stimulate or tax the physical capacities of individuals. As "hard work" seemed t
o pay off, coaches logically assumed that if hard work produced desirable result
s, more and harder work would produce even better results. In swimming, and inde
ed in sports in general, that approach has been taken to extremes and no longer
is supported by research evidence or the practices of very successful coaches an
d athletes. The underlying belief that has been touted among swimming coaches is
: although swimmers are always tired, training hard, and performances are not ch
anging or are even getting worse, good things are still happening to them. That
is a false belief. Better swimmers come from stepped-improvement programs, with
demonstrable training effects being derived from the judicious use of work and r
ecovery throughout the year. The introduction of a taper period prior to competi
tions is essential when the training program experienced has been of the "old" f
ormat.
Even if a coach still believes in the "always keep them tired and then taper" ap
proach, there are actions which can be taken that will go a long way to maximize
the investment in training. Most taper programs consider a few changes in progr
amming. There are more variables which will produce even heightened benefits ove
r "simple" tapers.
The purpose of this Bulletin is to summarize what is known about traditional tap
ering and how that knowledge can be applied to enhance the prospects of serious
swimmers achieving performance goals at important competitions.
Basic Assumptions
There are two basic research findings which should govern the underlying conside
rations for developing a taper program.
1. Many coaches fear a loss of conditioning and performance if training is reduc
ed for a long period (at least two or three weeks) before a major competition. R

esearch has clearly shown physiological gains achieved through extensive trainin
g are retained even when work volumes are reduced by amounts greater than one ha
lf. For some capacities, such as strength, the volume can be reduced to one tent
h and the capacity level will still be retained. Even days off are helpful rathe
r than a hindrance (Costill, 1985; Wilmore & Costill, 1988, p. 198).
2. The major benefit from a taper is the recovery and restoration that it facili
tates. The feature that actually influences the competitive performance is the q
uality and type of training that has preceded the taper. A competitive performan
ce is best considered to be an indication of the training program that the athle
te experienced, not some magical activity that occurred during the taper (Troup,
1990). The nature of long-term training governs the type and level of performan
ce that will be exhibited in serious competitions. If that investment is not cor
rect and ultimately specific, high level performances will not ensue no matter h
ow good the taper.
These two principles set the basic guidelines for tapering; (a) allow rest and r
ecovery to occur fully without confounding the procedure with the irrational fea
r that conditioning will be lost, and (b) perform specific performance tasks tha
t will replicate the demands of the intended competitive effort and competition
conduct.
A modern interpretation of why tapering works is that only neuromuscular and psy
chological factors recover (Rushall & Pyke, 1990, p. 69; Wilmore & Costill, 1988
, p. 198). There is little to no change in physiological status. What happens in
a taper is that neural and cognitive capacities increase in use efficiency. Str
ength and power (neuromuscular functions) increase markedly, and the propelling
efficiency of strokes (largely a cognitive recovery function) also increases. Fo
r these reasons, it is futile to attempt to get extra physiological capacities d
uring a taper. Its programming should allow neural and cognitive performance fac
tors to recover and become more finely tuned.
Factors To Be Considered
Length of Time
Research at the International Center for Aquatic Research (Rushall, 1992; Troup,
1990) has shown the maximum length of a taper to be three weeks, with the possi
bility of it being extended to four weeks. There are a number of factors which m
odify the actual length.
1. There is considerable individuality in the tapering response. It should not b
e assumed that a planned taper will be appropriate for all swimmers. For those w
ho recover very quickly during a "group" taper it may be necessary to re-institu
te several days of quality training to delay the peaked state. While that form o
f training is being followed by some, others might be working lightly as their s
lower recovery occurs. To accommodate individuality, a coach must be prepared to
offer varied programs for at least subgroups of swimmers so that peaked perform
ances will occur according to the individual needs of athletes.
2. The competitive schedule of the swimmer will also determine when a taper shou
ld start and what are programmed as training items. For a swimmer who will compe
te in the most important event on the fourth day of a championships, the taper s
hould start later than one who has to compete on the first day. However, the opp
ortunity to do controlled convenient swimming is rarely afforded at a championsh
ip meet. Thus, even though it seems logical to delay the late performing athlete
's taper, the nature of the work that can be done over the crucial last three or
four days at the competition site may require compromised planning. Usually, th
e commencement of the taper should be delayed even longer if quality work and vo
lume cannot be fully exploited at the competitive arena because of the extended
rest that will occur there.

3. The length of time that a swimmer has been in hard training is proportional t
o the length of time allocated to a taper. When a season of training is uninterr
upted, the taper will be longest. However, when interruptions occur, for example
, a swimmer is selected for a touring team, goes on vacation, or is injured or i
ll, those interruptions should affect the length of a taper. Generally it can be
assumed that the closer the interruption to a championship meet, the shorter wi
ll be the taper period.
4. After the recommended maximum of three weeks for a taper, performance potenti
al gradually decreases due to the less than adequate volume of event-specific tr
aining. Performance standards can remain very high past the three-week period bu
t the swimmer gradually loses fractional performance capacities.The general leng
th of a taper should be three weeks but certain events can intervene and warrant
shortening its duration.
5. It is possible to extend the effects of a taper by alternating short bursts o
f intense training (actions which re-stimulate the specifically prepared physiol
ogical and biomechanical functions) with recovery (Rushall & Pyke, 1990, p. 57).
This occurs when there are a number of important swimming competitions in close
proximity (e.g., Commonwealth Games followed within a month by World Championsh
ips). That alternation of competitive experiences requires at least maintenance
physical training to occur in the intervening time period. Of paramount importan
ce between competitions is the opportunity for psychological unloading after eac
h meet.
As an example of the above, the following is quoted from Rushall and Pyke:
Only a small amount of training overload is necessary to maintain fitness once a
high level has been attained. . . . Another example of the ability to maintain
peak fitness over a lengthy period without being involved in large amounts of ha
rd training was shown in the performances of the Russian national swimming team
in 1978. After performing creditably against the East German team, the Russians
traveled to the USA and two weeks later recorded a number of Russian national re
cords. They were achieved without any volumes of demanding training between the
two competitions. The same team then traveled to Canada and 10 days later set 17
Russian records. Those improvements in performances were achieved without retur
ning to sustained hard training. It seemed that the stimulating effects of hard
competitive efforts and reduced interim training were sufficient to maintain pre
viously attained levels of fitness. After a high level of fitness has been devel
oped, the same amount of hard training is not necessary to maintain those peak f
itness levels. A reduction in training frequency, but not intensity, to about on
e third is considered suitable for maintaining endurance capacity. It is suggest
ed that even greater reductions could be tolerated for strength and power activi
ties. (pp. 56-57)
Taper effects can be extended by the judicious use of quality training stimuli o
n a maintenance training schedule.
Work Volume
The volume of work should be reduced to at least 60% of that which existed durin
g heavy training (Troup, 1990). However, for programs that have had excessive vo
lumes of training (e.g., 11 sessions per week, 12 km per day) the reduction coul
d be to a level as little as 30% to maintain aerobic adaptation but that value w
ould be too low to retain power (Neufer, Costill, Fielding, Flynn, & Kirwan, 198
7). The principle of individuality has to be considered as a major moderating va
riable for determining the appropriate length of the training volume reduction.
Higher volume training in the immediate days preceding an event may be detriment
al to performance while a slow decay in volume will have a beneficial effect on
maximizing competition preparation (Zarkadas, Carter, & Bannister, 1994.

Some form of consistent performance measurement on at least an alternate day sch

edule can be performed without any undue effect on ensuing competitive performan
ces. Times should be expected to gradually improve as a taper progresses. An exa
mple of a measurement set would be a broken 200 IM for a 200 IM swimmer. Split a
nd accumulated times should improve in each repeated "test set."
For a taper, training volume should be reduced to 60% of normal heavy training v
olume.
The nature of the volume reduction should be by session. Eleven training session
s a week should be reduced to six or five (Houmard & Johns, 1994). It is erroneo
us to continue an excessive number of sessions while performing smaller training
session loads. Some reasons why sessions should be reduced are: (a) the session
s off allow for greater recovery and energy restoration, (b) the added rest time
allows stresses from sources other than swimming to be tolerated, and (c) there
is a greater potential for restorative sleep to occur. Morning sessions should
be eliminated. Their removal allows a circadian rhythm that better matches the c
ompetitive program to be established. Since swimmers perform better, that is, th
ey are stronger and more enduring, in the late afternoon (Reilly & Marshall, 199
1), it is advisable to retain late-day sessions rather than mornings.
The number of training sessions should be reduced in a taper rather than reducin
g session loads.
The way the volume decrease should occur is not clear. Houmard and Johns (1994)
after reviewing the literature concluded that an incremental, stepwise was prefe
rable. However, Troup (1990) showed that neither a sudden nor gradual reduction
over a three week period appeared to be more related to ultimate performances. I
t was suggested that tapering really only allowed recovery and that the final pe
rformances were related more to the type of training that preceded it rather tha
n what was done in the taper itself. This is a plausible explanation. It is hard
to imagine how a few isolated events that occurred during a taper would be stro
ng enough to override the conditioned strength of responses developed through ve
ry extended periods of demanding training requiring specific adaptations.
The major purpose of a taper is to allow athletes to recover from various forms
of fatigue.
Type and Intensity of Work
The most important variable for influencing competition performance is the speci
ficity of work that precedes the taper (Rushall & Pyke, 1990). That work should:
(a) be of the same pace as the anticipated performance level so that biomechani
cal patterns can be refined under varying levels of fatigue, (b) be of the same
energy demand ratio (aerobic:anaerobic) to that demanded in each event, and (c)
require the same psychological control functions that will be needed in each rac
e. If a swimmer has several events, then each should be trained for specifically
. A taper should continue specific training stimuli and should eliminate all non
-specific demanding training experiences. Doing other activities in taper is a w
aste of time and may impede recovery benefits (Houmard, Scott, Justice, & Chenie
r, 1994). There is no support for any form of cross training in taper.
Irrelevant training (e.g., slow swimming, kicking, use of swimming paddles, flip
pers, etc.) should only be used to provide variety and low-demand recovery activ
ities. During a taper, the body should become highly sensitized to the specific
qualities required for targeted events and desensitized to irrelevant activities
. That desensitization is important. When a swimmer is tired in a race, the body
has to determine which established forms of activity will be recruited to assis
t in performance maintenance. If there are slow-swimming patterns that are high
in conditioned strength, they will be recruited and performance will suffer. If

the body only knows fast-swimming patterns, then its selection options are limit
ed to them and consequently, fast swimming will be maintained. The activities pr
ogrammed in the taper should always reinforce race-specific movement patterns an
d energy use.
There are principles that govern the quality of pace work conducted in a taper (
Troup, 1992).
1. For events 200 m and longer, specific sets should be performed at the intende
d race pace. Although it is convenient to average the pace for an entire event a
nd term that "race pace," such a procedure is misleading. Races usually comprise
a variety of paces with the first non-fatigued portion usually faster than the
rest. It is important that specific training in a taper embrace this range of pa
ces so the body will be fully rested and primed to perform the restricted variet
ies of paces that will be executed in a race. This variety is termed the "range
of taper paces for a specific race."If a swimmer intends to seriously contest se
veral races, the demands of training will be more complex as the set of paces of
all events should be trained. The difficulty with meeting this criterion is tha
t excessive training is possible when ideally the training load of the taper sho
uld be reduced incrementally. To compromise this dilemma, any paces which are co
mmon to several events should be accommodated before a pace which is unique to a
single event. Event preferences will also determine the importance of the selec
ted specific training paces in the taper phase.
2. For events 100 m and shorter the speed of repetitions should be as fast as po
ssible.
3. Interval training work (>90% VO2max), with sufficient recovery between bouts
to maximize exercise intensity, is desirable. This may be necessary to maintain
training-associated adaptations with the reduction in training volume (Houmard &
Johns, 1994).
The work performed in a taper should either be race-specific quality or of a rec
overy nature.
With respect to the need to train specifically earlier than the taper period, Co
still, Thomas, Robergs, Pascoe, Lambert, Barr, and Fink (1991) made the followin
g comment:
. . . our knowledge of the need for specificity in training might lead us to ass
ume that such training may not provide the adaptations needed for optimal swimmi
ng performance. Since the majority of the competitive swimming events last less
than 3 min, it is difficult to understand how training at speeds that are marked
ly slower than competitive pace for 3-4 hr/day will prepare the swimmer for the
supramaximal efforts of competition. (p. 376)
A taper will allow the specific training effects that have occurred, particularl
y in the late specific preparatory and pre-competition training phases, to emerg
e. The continuing of only race-specific training will heighten an athlete's and
the body's awareness of the qualities of race requirements. That heightened sens
itivity will increase the consistency of competition performance quality.
Race-specific training sets have been described in the first three editions of t
he ICAR annual reports and the NSWIMMING Coaching Science Bulletins over the pas
t six months. The exact sets that yield specific skill and energy benefits which
have been determined and are listed below.
1. For 800 m race repetitions to be performed at target race velocity:
6 x 200 m - 1:2 work:rest ratio.

12 x 100 m - 1:.5 work:rest ratio.

24 x 50 m - 1:.5 work:rest ratio.
2. For 200 m race repetitions to be performed at target race velocity:
12 x 100 m - 1:2 work:rest ratio.
3. For 100 m race repetitions to be performed at target race velocity:
10 x 50 m - 1:4 work:rest ratio.
Physiological Effects
Houmard and Johns (1994) summarized physiological effects which have been studie
d along with the taper phenomenon.
Improvements in performance during taper occur without changes in VO2max. This s
uggests that the primary physiological changes are likely to be associated with
adaptations at the muscular level rather than with oxygen delivery. VO2max does
not reflect the positive effects of taper in swimmers.
Taper does not affect submaximal post-exercise measurements (lactate, pH, bicarb
onate, base excess) and heart rate.
Blood measures have not been conclusively documented as being related to the tap
er phenomenon.
Although not measured in swimmers, muscle glycogen and oxidative mechanisms have
both been observed to increase in tapers.
Improvement in power is probably the major factor responsible for the improvemen
t in competitive swimming performance through taper.
Psychological Content
It is too late to attempt to correct any physically conditioned state or biomech
anical flaw during a taper. It is detrimental to institute a short period of int
ense quality training in the belief that a "little more" physical capability wil
l be developed. The only option for training during a taper is specific work tha
t yields positive affirmations of an athlete's readiness.
Psychological factors are the major ingredients of performance that can be chang
ed and improved during a taper.
1. A central theme of coaching communication should be positive recognition of a
dmirable performance factors and achievements. Negative reactions serve no valua
ble purpose. Since positive thinking is a major influential factor on performanc
e standard (Rushall & Potgieter, 1987; Rushall & Shewchuk, 1989) the atmosphere
of swimmer preparations and interpersonal relationships should be dominantly pos
itive. A convenient method for assessing the progress and improvement of a taper
is to perform repeated test sets of swims. Since the major effect of a taper is
the recovery or increase in swimming power (functional strength), sets of repet
itions which exploit that capacity (e.g., 25 or 50 m) can be used to indicate im
provements and cause increased confidence and performance expectations.Positive
thinking, self-concept, self-efficacy, and performance predictions should be dev
eloped to assist in developing a healthy approach to recovery and the impending
competition.
2. The tough coach who badgers swimmers to do better by threats, intimidation, a
nd coercion may be successful on the first occasion that it occurs. The shock co
ntent of ferocity and unusual actions does cause desirable reactions in some swi
mmers. Unfortunately, others are destroyed by this approach. Often the "improved
" performances overshadow the failures. However, when this form of aversive appr
oach is repeated, particularly during competitions, its partial and occasional "
benefit" wears off very quickly and more and more swimmers succumb to the negati
vity. It is a procedure that is dangerous and of very limited value. Intimidatio
n only works with some individuals and is an unwise approach for groups of athle
tes.Intimidating athletes to perform better is a risky strategy that can often h
ave more detrimental than positive effects.

3. Apart from positive thinking and its concomitant effect of increasing self-ef
ficacy, other factors need to be stressed that contribute to the psychological s
tructuring of a swimmers. They are: (a) the preparation of pre-race and race str
ategies which feature specific, behavioral, and process-oriented content, (b) th
e construction of coping behaviors for handling possible disruptive or problem s
ituations, (c) social skills training activities (e.g., how to handle the media,
rumors, the uniqueness of the geographical and competitive location), (d) the p
erformance of mental skills activities (e.g., commitment, specific focus, perfor
mance enhancement imagery, relaxation), and (e) team-building. Activities and ex
ercises to develop these activities and skills are contained in the manual, Ment
al skills training for sports (Rushall, 1995).Mental skills development and refi
nement are the major activities of tapering that will have the most direct trans
fer to the competitive situation.
4. A large amount of time at training, and in particular at the competition site
, should be spent honing mental control skills, for example, practicing activiti
es such as warm-ups for specific races, focusing, controlling simulated race seg
ments, evaluating segment goals, and rehearsing mental control content.
5. The nature of the group atmosphere should also be changed. In group situation
s, stress is reduced and personal control is heightened. Team-building and group
activities should be emphasized to a greater than normal degree so that benefit
s can be derived as the competition approaches and stress/pressure builds.A larg
e section of taper program content should focus on psychological skills, specifi
c mental control rehearsals, and the development of a group or team orientation.
Since no further biomechanical or conditioning changes should be attempted in a
taper, it should emphasize psychological activities and effects to maintain the
seriousness of application and focus of swimmers.
Recovery
Recovery should be emphasized during a taper: (a) complete recovery should occur
between training sessions, and (b) athletes should be taught recovery activitie
s that can be used between races and sessions at competitions.
1. Between training sessions recovery will be facilitated by the reduced number
of training sessions and, in particular, the extra sleep/rest that will be provi
ded by reducing early morning training demands. Swimmers should never be allowed
to accumulate fatigue across training sessions during a taper. If excessive fat
igue was to occur, regression in skill efficiency, tissue restoration, and selfefficacy might occur.
2. Skilled activities that foster recovery at competitions are essential behavio
rs for performance excellence to occur. They need to be practiced during the tap
er so that they will be effective and used naturally during competitions. Opport
unities to do them at training sessions should be programmed and encouragement s
hould be given to experiment with them to determine what does and does not work.
Some suggested activities that could be employed are listed below.
3. Activities to assist between event recovery. The following are some activitie
s that might be considered:
A 15 minute swim down at A2 pace to remove accumulated lactic acid.
Replenishment of fluids and carbohydrates with fortified drinks.
Brief bouts of resting on the back with legs extended vertically against a wall
alternated with active stretching.
Mental imagery of a positive nature.
Sweeping massage.
Alternating cold and hot showers.

Relaxation exercises.
Total body activity of a mild nature.
Keeping warm and avoiding total cooling.
Reduced warm-ups for subsequent races.
Ingestion of carbohydrate-rich foods.
Change of environment (e.g., walk outside in the open air, go away from the crow
ded competition area to where races and other competitors cannot be seen or hear
d).
Race strategy review and rehearsal.
Review of intended performance intermediate goals.
Alternating lying down on a comfortable surface with walking or walking and stre
tching on a 10 to 15 min basis.
4. Activities to assist between sessions/competition days recovery. The followin
g are some of the activities which might be considered.
A 15 min swim to warm-down after the last event.
Alternating hot and cold showers prior to leaving the swimming arena.
Eating carbohydrate loaded meals.
Maintaining a high fluid intake.
Soothing massage.
Easy rhythmic exercise (e.g., walking or jogging) as a means of tension release;
use of positive imagery to precede resting or going to sleep.
Taking of vitamins (primarily B-group, A, and C).
Preparing to perform a session of relaxation exercises if sleep or rest is distu
rbed.
Sleeping/resting with the foot of the bed slightly higher than the head of the b
ed.
Upon waking, alternating warm and cold showers for revitalization.
Isolating oneself to rehearse the plan of activities and race strategies for the
next session/day.
Preparing activities to be performed while traveling to the competition site.
Performing a full body stretching routine if physical activity is needed.
Activities that assist recovery between races and competitive sessions/days shou
ld be planned and practiced during the taper period.
Factors Which Moderate Taper Effects
There are a number of factors that also moderate the effects of a taper and warr
ant adjustments in planning.
1. Young swimmers require a shorter taper period than do older swimmers. Growing
children and adolescents tire and recover more quickly than do mature adults. A
djustments in taper lengths should be made according to the developmental age of
each swimmer.
2. With the reduced load (energy demand) associated with tapering, swimmers have
to reduce their food intake. If normal eating habits and volumes are maintained
, weight gains are possible which, although minor, could have a slight detriment
al effect on the swimmer.
3. The first stage of a taper often produces a "bloated" feeling because of extr
a water retention in the muscles. For every gram of glycogen, 3 gm of water is s
tored. This often produces a feeling of being heavy or sluggish. (Houmard & John
s, 1994).
4. Shaving has been shown to have mechanical and consequent physiological benefi
ts.
5. An increase in the number of high-carbohydrate meals should occur, particular
ly as the competition occurs. This "loading" should commence before travel (it w
ill assist travel and travel fatigue recovery), and be maintained throughout the
entire pre-competition and competition period. High-carbohydrate diets assist a
thletes to tolerate stress.

6. Athletes will usually increase their own internally-generated pressures to im

prove performance. The more important the competition, the greater will be the l
evel of self-imposed pressure. Since all athletes have a limited capacity for ha
ndling pressure, it usually is wise to attempt to reduce external stresses (i.e.
, those which emanate from parents, officials, the media, the coach) so that tot
al pressure is manageable. It seems to be beneficial to heighten self-generated
pressure, which is usually positive and facilitatory, and to lessen externally-g
enerated pressures to achieve high levels of performance (Rushall & Sherman, 198
7).
7. An important psychological theme of a taper and competition preparation shoul
d be to remove uncertainty. That can be achieved if the coach increases his/her
own level of planning and communication. The better a swimmer is made aware of w
hat will happen and how things will be organized, the less stressful will be the
impending travel and competitions. If the coach changes to a noticeable elevati
on in preparedness and communication, a positive model will be provided for athl
etes of heightened preparations and better forms of conduct as the competition a
pproaches.If athletes are expected to prepare better and pay attention to import
ant details of their everyday life during a taper, the coach should model simila
r alterations and increases in attention to detail by planning better and commun
icating more frequently with swimmers.
8. The main performance attribute that changes during a taper is power. Wilmore
and Costill (1988, p. 200) reported increases in the range of 17-25 percent. Con
sistent measurement of that capacity, by performing short distance time trials,
can be used to indicate positive effects of a taper to swimmers.
9. The pattern of daily activity that is established in the body, the circadian
rhythm, through normal training usually does not match the timing of activities
at a serious swimming meet. Circadian rhythms significantly affect the ability o
f an individual to perform at a particular time. Adjusting training times to bet
ter match the timing of activity that will occur at the competition as well as t
ime-changes that occur through travel, is something that should be attempted. Wh
en times for heats and finals are known and time adjustments made, training at t
hose times is desirable before going to the competition. Performances are not ma
ximal when an athlete has to fight circadian adjustment stress during an importa
nt race. Rushall and Pyke (1990, pp. 140-146) discussed travel fatigue and jet-l
ag effects and adjustments.Circadian rhythms need to be synchronized with the de
mands of the competitive schedule for maximum performances to be achieved.
10. Training at altitude prior to an important competition has been proposed as
a method of increasing ultimate performances at sea-level. That has been shown t
o be incorrect (Troup, 1992). The physical requirements of altitude performance
are markedly different to those at sea-level. Consequently, training at altitude
does not prepare a swimmer for maximally efficient sea-level swimming. It takes
as much as three weeks for altitude trained swimmers to readjust to efficient s
ea-level swimming. However, if a competition is at altitude, training there will
assist the body to adapt to unusual performance demands. It is very unlikely th
at an important international swimming competition will again be held at an alti
tude that will cause performance degradation.Training at altitude as part of or
for the full taper will not enhance performance and is more likely to cause it t
o be degraded.
Self-questions a Coach Should Ask
A taper period and competition preparation phase are stressful for athletes but
often more stressful for coaches. Heightened self-monitoring by coaches of their
decisions, programs, and actions should occur. Radical alterations in behavior
can signal panic to swimmers which, in turn, could destroy their confidence and
self-efficacy. To ensure that the coach is a constructive rather than inappropr

iate model, the following considerations should be contemplated daily.

1. With regard to the type of swimming that is being performed, to what is the s
wimmer's body adapting? Nonspecific work will have no value and can be counterpr
oductive. Setting swims at 90% intensity is meaningless to the body. The swimmer
's mind may know that intention, but the body will only practice the neuromuscul
ar patterns and stimulate the energy supply that facilitates performing at that
less than race-pace speed. Only race-specific paces that require exact energy co
mponents and stimulate competition-specific mental control will have beneficial
effects on performance. Any other form of swimming should be used for recovery p
urposes and should not be associated with serious intentions.Remove all non-spec
ific training activities so that maladaptation will not occur.
2. Are each swimmer's personal needs being accommodated? Be prepared to rest swi
mmers at odd times, to progra2 separate vactivities, and to attend to personal r
equirements. The taper is too critical to persist with the convenience of group
programming. Because it is easy for a coach to set a single program for all swim
mers to follow, does not mean that it is bestor all swimmers. During a taper and
at competitions, coaches have to be prepared to work harder than normal, for in
dividualized attention and programming are more demanding than singular group co
ntrol actions.
3. What assessment swims have been performed to detect malingerers and over-zeal
ous swimmers? Gradual recovery, with increasingly better levels of performance,
particularly in activities which require a power component, should be expected.
If changes are too rapid, then a slowing of the improvement might be achieved by
increasing the daily training load. If performances are poor, even though incre
ased rest has been programmed, malingering or outside-of-swimming intrusions sho
uld be investigated. Measurement is an essential feature for judging tapering pr
ogress. It will NOT consume a swimmer's potential to perform well in a race.
5. Have the swimmers been prepared to do warm-ups, recovery routines, and race-s
imulations before traveling to the competition? A coach should not be afraid to
perform event simulations prior to important meets. If an athlete is not practic
ed at performing between-event recovery routines prior to a competition, why sho
uld he/she be expected to be proficient at doing them under the stress of compet
ition? There is a real programming need to perform these activities as part of n
ormal training in the pre-competition and taper phases.Since swimmers are asked
to alter their behaviors and become more serious as a competition approaches, th
e coach should model those expectations by improved behaviors, planning, self-co
ntrol, and provision of individual attention.
Implications
The taper has traditionally been given more credit than it deserves for effectin
g performance. It primarily is a period that allows recovery, restitution, speci
fic practice refinements, and planning of competition behaviors. What will be ex
hibited in races are the beneficial effects ofEXTENSIVE training that was experi
enced prior to the taper.
The psychological activity and state of the athlete becomes increasingly more im
portant as the taper progresses and should be the primary focus of the program.
It is incorrect to think that skills can be altered in any beneficial manner or
that extra physical condition can be gained by short bouts of intense training.
When a taper is started, it is too late to consider any biomechanical or physiol
ogical change training.
As the taper progresses, indications that performance is improving and that comp
etition conduct activities are being practiced will have beneficial effects on t
he athlete's psychological state. If events are predictable, practiced, and acco
mpanied by a self-efficacy of performance excellence, then a successful competit

ion is likely (Houmard & Johns, 1994).

The role of the coach as the model of seriousness, control, planning, and profes
sional competence is important for athletes to witness if they are expected to p
erform in a similar manner. Positive and constructive coaching exhibiting a capa
city to cope with any problem in a competent manner will contribute to athletes
believing that all conditions exist for them to perform well.
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