RADIOACTIVITY

Radiation
Basics
The ATOM
Proton
Neutron
Electron

Nucleus made up of Protons and Neutrons

Proton is positively charged
Neutron has no charge

Electron is negatively charged

Sources of Radiation

Alpha Particles

Beta Particles
Gamma Rays

Unstable atoms give up energy

(Radiation) as they try to seek a more stable state
The radiated energy can take several forms
Alpha radiation which consists of two protons and
two neutrons. Alpha particles have limited
penetrating power and can be stopped by a piece
of paper
Beta radiation consists of particles similar to
electrons. They travel at the speed of light and
have more penetrating power than Alpha
particles. Beta radiaation can be stopped by your
skin
Gamma radiation consists of electromagnetic
waves and has considerable penetrating power, up
to several inches of steel.

Ionisation
Ionisation
A process which changes the electrical balance of an
atom
It causes the negative and positive charges to separate
The sub particles are called ions
An example shown below is an Alpha particle striking an
atom and dislodging an electron from its orbital leaving
two separate charged particles.

Ionising particle

Negative ion (free electron)

Positive ion
Effect of ionisation by Radiation
Radiation effects are caused principally by the action of
ionisation
The body consists of 70 % water which contributes to
cell formation. Radiation ionises the water molecules
and hinders normal cell reproductive activity.

Sources of Radiation
Other Sources of radiation
X-Rays are similar to Gamma rays but are
not emitted by unstable atoms. X-rays are
formed when fast moving electrons strike
a target and reduces its velocity thereby
giving up energy (X-rays).
Neutron radiation consists of neutron
particles. It is not a product of natural
radioactive decay
Can be generated from a chemical source via
bombardment. This type of radioactive source
is always active (ie turned ON)
Can be produced electronically in a particle
accelerator (minitron). This type of radioactive
source can be turned ON and OFF

Biological Effects of
Radiation
Effect of radiation depends on several
factors

The actual dose of radiation applied

The rate of application
The part of the body radiated
The age of the individual
Biological variation among individuals

Average annual background level is about

2.0 mSv
< 500 mSV Possible temporary blood
change
< 1500 mSV Possible permanent blood
change
< 4,500 mSv Death may occur in 3-8 weeks.
Bone marrow damage
<10,000 mSV Death within 3-5 days

Principles of Protection

Time

The less time spent near a source

the less radiation is received

Distance
The greater the distance from a
source the less radiation is received
The quantity of radiation received
is inversely proportional to the
-ah
I
=
I
e
o the distance from the
square of
source

Shielding

Units of Measurement
Activity
A measure of the number of
disintegrations per second. The
unit of measurement is the
Becquerel
One Becquerel (Bq) is one
disintegration / sec
Older unit is the Curie (1 Curie = 37
Giga Bq)

Half Life
The time required for a radioactive
isotope to decay to half its original
activity.

Units of Measurement
Dose Equivalent
Measures the biological significance
of the absorbed radiation
Each type of radiation has its own
biological effect
H=DxQxN
H= Dose Equivalent
D= Absorbed dose
Q= Quality Factor
Q reflects how damaging is the type of
radiation
TYPE OF RADIATION
Q-Factor
Gamma Rays, X-rays, Beta particles
1
Thermal or epithermal neutrons
3

Common Radiation
Exposure
Limits
Radiation worker 50 m Sv / year
(whole body)
Public
1 m Sv / year
(note older unit is Rem. 1 mRem =
10uSv)

Exposure from Natural Sources

Cosmic Rays
Less exposure at sea level due to
atmospheric shielding
Less exposure at equator, more at
poles
eg . 0.35 mSv/yr at sea-level on equator
4.00 mSv/yr at 5000m above equator

Common Radiation Exposure

Exposure from Natural Sources

(continued)
Human body
Derived from food and water due to
Potassium content
about 0.38 mSv / yr

Exposure from manmade sources

Medical diagnostic and treatment
processes
X-rays
to 2.0 mSv)

(eg. X-ray of lungs - 0.4

Personnel Protection
Types of radiation
Alpha particles / Beta particles /
Cosmic rays / Fission fragments /
Gamma Rays / X-rays / Neutrons /
Protons

Radiation from Schlumberger

sources
Alpha particles / Beta particles /
Gamma Rays / Neutrons / X-rays
Gamma Rays and Neutrons are the
only radiation which can escape the
encapsulation of Schlumberger
source packages

Dosimeters
Thermoluminescent
Dosimeter
e
Light
(TLD)
g-Ray

eeeeee

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eeeeee

Lithium
Fluoride
chip
Unirradiated

Irridiated

Heated

Lithium Fluoride chip sensitive to Gamma-ray

Incident gamma-ray ionises the chip
When the chip is heated ionisation is reversed
and light is generated
Photo multiplier used to count light pulses

Neutron exposure
dosimeter
Incorporated in TLD badge
Two detection methods
FAST neutrons thermalised by
FAST neutrons
body then detected by chip.
Cadmium
shield on outside of
Thermal
badgeneutrons
shields badge from
Thermal
neutrons
external thermal neutrons.
Cadmium shield

Thermal Neutron detector

Dosimeters
PROTON RECOIL Track Neutron
Dosimeter
FAST neutrons
PROTON

Polyethylene

Proton track
detector-CR39 plastic

Fast neutron incident on Polyethylene

ejects a proton
Proton collides with CR39 plastic and
makes a particle track
CR39 is exposed and etched and particle
count recorded

Personal Dosimeter usage

Purpose of dosimeter
Monitor personnel exposure
Evaluate handling / transportation /
storage procedures
Satisfy regulatory requirements
Permissable badge area

Placement
Parallel and close to the body
Close to the chest as possible

Personal Dosimeter usage

Causes of non-occupational high
readings
Carrying badge in same
compartment with sources during
transport
Storing badge near radiation
sources at facility or at home
Sending badge through airport X-ray
machine
Having the badge on during medical
treatment

Other effects

Radioactive sources used

by Schlumberger
Gamma Ray emitting - Logging
sources
SOURCE

TOOL

GSR-J
GSR-T
GSR-WB
GSR-V
PIP tag

LDT
NFD
NFD
GPPT
Perfo

MATERIAL ACTIVITY
(GBq)
Cesium-137
Cesium-137
Cesium-137
Cesium-137
Cobalt-60

63.0
5.6
11.1
9.2
37KBq

HALF-LIFE
(Years)
30.2
30.2
30.2
30.2
5.2

Gamma Ray emitting - Calibrating

sources
SOURCE

TOOL

MATERIAL ACTIVITY
(GBq)

GSR-H
GSR-U/Y

TDT
Cobalt-60
30.0 MBq
SGT/NGT Monazite
0.059 MBq

HALF-LIFE
(Years)
5.2
1.4 x10 10

Radioactive sources used

by Schlumberger
Neutron emitting - Logging
sources
SOURCE

TOOL

MATERIAL ACTIVITY
(GBq)

NSR-F
CNT-A/H Am-241/Be
NSR-R
CNT-G Californium
NSR-L
CNT-D Am-241/Be
Minitrom RST/GST Electronic

HALF-LIFE
(Years)

592
1
592
****

432
2.65
432
****

(**** Electronic source - NON-chemical)

Neutron emitting - Calibrating

sources
SOURCE

TOOL

MATERIAL ACTIVITY

HALF-LIFE

Source Packaging and

Transportation
General concept
Actual radioactive source material is
contained within a sealed capsule
This sealed capsule is placed in a
steel housing (Pressure vessel)
Access Plug
which is inserted into the tool for
logging
Shield
The pressure vessel (with source) is
Pressure Vessel
locked in a shield which attenuates
the radiation. The shield is usedSource
for
storage and transportation of the
source.
All source packages are IAEA certified

Source Packaging and

Transportation
A substance is classified as
radioactive only if its specific
activity exceeds 74 KBq/Kg (UN
class 7 classification of dangerous
goods)
Radioactive sources must be
transported as Source Packages

The radiation level at the surface

of the package must not exceed
2.0 mSv/hr

Source Packaging and

Transportation
Schlumberger Sealed sources are
leak tested (wipe test) at regular
intervals to identify
contamination

A specific wipe test kit is used

A specific wipe test procedure
applies to each source
Wipe tests are performed in
Schlumberger every six months

Source storage
Shop storage pit
Dry
Separated from explosives storage
by at least
1.5 m of earth or concrete
Provide shielding such that
radiation level at surface is less than
0.02 mSv/hr
Must contain a controlled locking
system on the lid or hoist
An In / OUT movement report must
be maintained

Source Transportation
Multi padlock rule must be
followed
Source shield lid padlocked
Shield padlocked to transport
container
Container padlocked / chained to
transport vehicle / vessel

Source Transportation
Transport box
Must have buoy with length of rope
three times maximum expected
water depth
Must have functional beacon with
fresh batteries
Beacon operational check made
before departure
Present beacon sends a 37.5 KHz signal
which can be detected within a 2 mile
radius for up to 30 days

Source Shield Labelling Gamma Ray

Source Shield Labelling Neutron

Source loading into a tool

Source handling
tool

Safety clip
Neutron
Logging
Source
Source door
wrench
Source
door

Vertical-makeup
plate (Covers well)

Source handling tools

Source handling
tool

Source door
wrench

Safety clasp
for Gamma ray
source

Ring
Safety clip
for Neutron
source

Gamma ray source Radiation Pattern

1000 inches
2.0 mrem/hr

800 in.
600 in.

10 mrem/hr
400 in.
100 mrem/hr

Operations
Only the engineer is permitted to
transfer a radioactive source from
its shield to a tool. Operators are
allowed to assist the engineer.

Source handling tools must be

used
The well must be covered while
transferring the source to/from
the tool
Non-essential persons must be

Operations
Fishing operations
Cut and thread is normally the
recommended procedure for fishing
nuclear logging tools
Mud returns must be monitored
during critical phase of the fishing
operation. A gamma ray tool placed
so that mud returns will flow over it
is a suitable monitoring device.

Procedures
Mud circulation and fishing should

Operations
Abandonment procedures
Normally includes an hydraulic seal
(A 20m cement plug)
Coloured cement should be used as
a tell tale for future drilling
operations
Casing
Producing
Includes a mechanical
protection
Open holeCompletion
Perforations
zone
Mechanical
device to protect
the source from
device
damage during Cement
future drilling
operations. (A whipstock or other
Tool
deflecting device above the cement
Radioactive
plug.
source
A sign on the wellhead indicating
the presence of a radioactive source

Procedures
Abandonment

Radioactive source
Package
Pressure
Vessel

Source

Wipe test plug

O-Rings

Upper
Plug
Neutron
Carrying
Shield

Retaining
Cable

Source in
Pressure
Vessel

Plug

Regulatory agencies
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency

ICRP
International Commission on
Radiological Protection

ISO
International Organisation for
Standardisation

IATA
International Air Transport

Radioactive Safety

The End