Water Retaining Structures August 2004 12

Water Retaining Structures
Modeling, Analysis, Design
August 25-27
Dr. Naveed Anwar
Asian Center for Engineering

Computations and Software
Asian Institute of Technology
Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT
Overall Topics
Types of Water Retaining Structures

System Selection and Preliminary Design
Modeling and Analysis Concepts
Special Modeling Considerations
Special Analysis Considerations
Special Design Considerations
Special Detailing Considerations
Types of Structures Considered
Water Tanks
Water Reservoirs
Sanitary Structures
Swimming Pools
Concrete Dams
System Selection And

Proportioning
Total Design Process

Functional Design
Physical Plant Layout

Hydraulic Design
Structural Design
Why they are special?

Common Requirements
Strength, stability, economy, etc
Special Requirements
Variable pressure type of loads
Serviceability
Limited deflection
Cracking, creep, shrinkage
Durability
Permeability/water tightness
Chemical attacks
Corrosion
Construction
High quality control
Difficult situations
Main Steps
System selection
Dimensioning
Modeling
Analysis
Design for strength & stability
Check for serviceability
Detailing
Construction
Environmental aspects
Maintenance consideration
Classification
Based on Usage
Based on Location
Based on Shape
Based on Size
Based on Material
Based on Structural System
Based on Construction Method
Classification
Based on Usage
Water Storage
Water Containment
Water Treatment
Water Transmission
Waste-water tanks
Manholes, Junction chambers
Pump stations
Swimming pools
Dams
Classification
Based on location
Under ground
On ground
Elevated
Offshore
Onboard
On vehicle
Classification
Based on Shape
Rectangular
Circular
Spherical
Spheroids
General Shells and
Curvilinear shapes
Classification
Based on Material
Reinforced concrete
Prestressed concrete
Steel
Aluminum
Plastic
Fibre-reinforced
Composite
Ferrocement
Overhead Tanks
Overhead Tanks
Overhead Tanks
Swimming Pools
Swimming Pools
Dams and Reservoirs
Dams and Reservoirs
Special Tanks
Major Components
Water Retaining Walls

Base Slabs
Roof/Covers
Framing Systems
Ring Beams
Columns
Braces
Stiffeners
Foundation System
Joints
Proportioning of Tanks
Un-constrained, optimized proportioning is

extremely difficult
Choice between Circular/ Rectangular
Choice between Tall/ Flat
Often the constrains provided by the

functional requirements help to determine
overall shape and dimensions
The proportioning generally limited to
Selection of wall/ slab thickness
Providing counterforts and stiffeners
Minimum Requirements
Minimum Wall Thickness

Absolute minimum 150mm
With 50mm cover, minimum 200mm
For walls above 3 m high and in contact with
water, minimum 300 mm
Minimum Slab Thickness

Absolute minimum 150mm
Preferable is 200 mm
Proportioning of Tank Walls
High Cantilevers should be avoided
Add
Add
Add
Add
vertical counterforts
cross-walls
transverse beams
Tie-backs or props
Choice between uniform and variable wall

thickness
Material vs construction and formwork saving
Slip form considerations
Proportioning of Floor Slabs

Different considerations for Elevated, Onground and Underground tanks
If elevated then provide small span is
preferable due to heavy loads
Domes or shells can be used to reduced
bending
If underground upward pressure may be
considered
Modeling and Analysis
Analysis Methods
Simplified Method
Using coefficients for slabs and walls

Using frame analysis for supporting structure
Using Simplified Equations
Suitable for ordinary and common cases
Detailed Method
Using Finite Element Method
Suitable for all types of structures
Structural Analysis
The Purpose of Analysis

The Significance of Modeling
Analysis Types
Linearity and Non-Linearity
Static and Dynamic Analysis
Modeling of Foundations
Use of Different Types of Elements
Structural System Analysis Model

STRUCTURE
RESPONSES
EXCITATION
Loads
Vibrations
Settlements
Thermal Changes
Displacements
Strains
Stress
Stress Resultants
pv
Structural
Model
Analysis of Structures
xx yy zz
pvx 0
x
y
z
pv
Real Structure is governed by

Partial Differential Equations of
various order
Direct solution is only possible for:
Simple geometry
Simple Boundary
Simple Loading.
The Need for Modeling

A - Real Structure cannot be Analyzed:
It can only be Load Tested to determine
response
B - We can only analyze a Model of the
Structure
C - We therefore need tools to Model the
Structure and to Analyze the Model
Finite Element Method: The Analysis Tool
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
A discretized solution to a continuum

problem using FEM
Finite Element Method (FEM)

A numerical procedure for solving
(partial) differential equations
associated with field problems, with
an accuracy acceptable to
engineers
Continuum to Discrete Model
pv
3D-CONTINUM
MODEL
CONTINUOUS MODEL
OF STRUCTURE
(Governed by partial (Governed by either

differential equations) partial or total differential
equations)
DISCRETE MODEL
OF STRUCTURE
(Governed by algebraic
equations)
From Classical to FEM Solution

Equilibrium
Actual Structure
xx yy zz
pvx 0
x y z
Partial
Differential
Equations
FEM
Assumptions
Classical
Structural Model
Kr R
Stress-Strain Law
Compatibility
Algebraic
Equations
_
dV p u dV p u ds
t
v
t
s
(Principle of Virtual Work)
K = Stiffness
r = Response
R = Loads
Simplified Structural System

Deformations (D)
Loads (F)
Fv
F=KD
The Analysis System

STRUCTURE
RESPONSES
EXCITATION
pv
Static
Dynamic
Elastic
Inelastic
Linear
Nonlinear
Eight types of equilibrium equations are possible!
The Equilibrium Equations

1. Linear-Static
Elastic
Ku F
2. Linear-Dynamic
Elastic
Mu(t ) Cu(t ) Ku(t ) F (t )
3. Nonlinear - Static Elastic OR Inelastic

Ku FNL F
4. Nonlinear-Dynamic
Inelastic
Elastic OR
Mu(t ) Cu(t ) Ku(t ) F (t ) NL F (t )
Basic Analysis Types

Excitation
Structure
Response
Basic Analysis Type
Static
Elastic
Linear
Linear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static
Elastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static
Inelastic
Linear
Linear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Static
Inelastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Dynamic
Elastic
Linear
Linear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic
Elastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic
Inelastic
Linear
Linear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic
Inelastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Some More Solution Types
Non-linear Analysis
P-Delta Analysis
Buckling Analysis
Static Pushover Analysis
Fast Non-Linear Analysis (FNA)
Large Displacement Analysis
Dynamic Analysis
Free Vibration and Modal Analysis
Response Spectrum Analysis
Steady State Dynamic Analysis
Analysis Type
The type of Analysis to be carried out depends

on the Structural System
The Type of Excitation (Loads)
The Type Structure (Material and
Geometry)
The Type Response
Static Vs Dynamic
Static Excitation
When the Excitation (Load) does not vary rapidly with
Time
When the Load can be assumed to be applied
Slowly
Dynamic Excitation
When the Excitation varies rapidly with Time
When the Inertial Force becomes significant
Most Real Excitation are Dynamic but are

consideredQuasi Static
Most Dynamic Excitation can be converted to
Equivalent Static Loads
Elastic Vs Inelastic
Elastic Material
Follows the same path during loading and unloading

and returns to initial state of deformation, stress,
strain etc. after removal of load/ excitation
Inelastic Material
Does not follow the same path during loading and
unloading and may not returns to initial state of
deformation, stress, strain etc. after removal of load/
excitation
Most materials exhibit both, elastic and inelastic

behavior depending upon level of loading.
Linear Vs Nonlinear
Linearity
The response is directly proportional to excitation

(Deflection doubles if load is doubled)
Non-Linearity
The response is not directly proportional to
excitation
(deflection may become 4 times if load is doubled)
Non-linear response may be produced by:

Geometric Effects (Geometric non-linearity)
Material Effects (Material non-linearity)
Both
Action
Linear-Elastic
Linear-Inelastic
Deformation
Action
Deformation
Action
Action
Elasticity and Linearity
Nonlinear-Elastic
Deformation
Nonlinear-Inelastic
Deformation
Linear and Nonlinear

Linear, Static and Dynamic
Ku F
F
FNL
(t ) Cu (t ) Ku(t ) F (t )
Mu
Ku = F
Ku - FNL = F
Nonlinear, Static and Dynamic
Ku FNL F
u
Non Linear Equilibrium
Mu(t ) Cu(t ) Ku(t ) F (t ) NL F (t )
The Modal Analysis
The Modal Analysis

The modal analysis determines the inherent natural
frequencies of vibration
Each natural frequency is related to a time period
and a mode shape
Time Period is the time it takes to complete one
cycle of vibration
The Mode Shape is normalized deformation pattern
The number of Modes is typically equal to the
number of Degrees of Freedom
The Time Period and Mode Shapes are inherent
properties of the structure and do not depend on the
applied loads
Free Vibration Analysis

Definition
Natural vibration of a structure released from initial condition and
subjected to no external load or damping
Main governing equation -Eigenvalue Problem

M u c u K ut Pt
t
t
Solution gives
Natural Frequencies
Associated mode shapes
An insight into the dynamic behavior and response of the structure
The Modal Analysis

The Modal Analysis should be run before
applying loads any other analysis to check
the model and to understand the response of
the structure
Modal analysis is precursor to most types of
analysis including Response Spectrum, Time
History, Push-over analysis etc.
Modal analysis is a useful tool even if full
Dynamic Analysis is not performed
Modal analysis easy to run and is a fun to
watch the animations
Application of Modal Analysis

The Time Period and Mode Shapes, together
with animation immediately exhibit the
strengths and weaknesses of the structure
Modal analysis can be used to check the
accuracy of the structural model
The Time Period should be within reasonable
range, (Ex: 0.1 x number of stories seconds)
The disconnected members are identified
Local modes are identified that may need
suppression
Application of Modal Analysis
The symmetry of the structure can be

determined
For doubly symmetrical buildings, generally the
first two modes are translational and third mode
is rotational
If first mode is rotational, the structural is unsymmetrical
The resonance with the applied loads or

excitation can be avoided
The natural frequency of the structure should not
be close to excitation frequency
Eccentric and Concentric Response
Unsymmetrical Mass
and Stiffness
Symmetrical Mass and

Stiffness
Mode-1
Mode-2
Mode-3
Special Modeling Problems
Base Isolation
Isolators
Building Impact
Building Impact
Analysis
Dampers
Friction device
Concentrated damper
Nonlinear element
Gaps and Joints

Gap Element
Bridge Deck
ABUTMENT
Tension only element
Hinges
PLASTIC HINGES
2 Rotational DOF
Degrading Stiffness?
Dampers
Mechanical Damper
F= f(u,v,umax)
F= ku
F= CvN
Mathematical Model
Linear Viscous Damping

Does not Exist in Normal Structures and
Foundations
5 or 10 Percent modal Damping Values are
Often Used to Justify Energy Dissipation Due
to Non-Linear Effects
If Energy Dissipation Devices are Used Then
1 Percent Modal Damping should be Used for
the Elastic Part of the Structure
Uplift
FRAME WITH UPLIFTING ALLOWED
Uplifting
Allowed
Structural Modeling
Structural Members
Continuum
Regular Solid
(3D)
y
Plate/Shell (2D)
x z
t<<(x,z)
z
x
Beam (1D)
b h
L>>(b,h)
h
z
x
L
b
Dimensional Hierarchy of Structural Members
Structure Types
Cable Structures
Cable Nets
Cable Stayed
Bar Structures
2D/3D Trusses
2D/3D Frames, Grids
Surface Structures
Plate, Shell
In-Plane, Plane Stress
Solid Structures
Global Modeling of Structural Geometry
(a) Real Structure
(b) Solid Model
(c) 3D Plate-Frame
(d) 3D Fram e
(f) Grid-Plate
(e) 2D Fram e
Fig. 1 Various Ways to Model a Real Struture
Some Sample Finite Elements
Truss and Beam Elements (1D,2D,3D)
Plane Stress, Plane Strain, Axisymmetric, Plate and Shell Elements (2D,3D)
Brick Elements
DOF for 1D Elements

Dy
Dx
Dy
Dy
2D Truss
Rz
Dz
Dx
3D Truss
2D Beam
Ry
Dy
Rz
Dy
Dx
Rz
Dy
Dz
Rx
Dx
Rx
Rz
2D Frame
2D Grid
3D Frame
DOF for 2D Elements

Ry ?
Ry ?
Dy
Dy
Dy
Rz
Rx
Dx
Membrane
Plate
Dz
Dx
Rz
Shell
Rx
Membrane Element
General
Total DOF per Node = 3
(or 2)
Total Displacements per
Node = 2
Total Rotations per Node
= 1 (or 0)
Membranes are modeled
for flat surfaces
Application
For Modeling surface
elements carrying
in-plane loads
R3
U2
U2
Node 4
Node 3
U1
3
U1
2
R3
U2
Node 1
R3
U2
Node 2
U1
Membrane
U1
Variation of Membrane Elements

Plain-Strain
Assumptions
x
1 unit
x2
x1
x3
3D Problem
2D Problem
Plane Strain Problem
Plane Stress Problem
Plate Element
General
Node = 1
=2
Plates are for flat
surfaces
U3
U3
R2
Node 3
Node 4
R1
3
R1
2
U3
R2
Node 1
U3
R2
Node 2
R1
R1
Application
elements carrying
out of plane loads
R2
Plate
Shell Element
General
(or 5)
Node = 3
=3
Used for curved surfaces
U3, R3
U3, R3
U2, R2
Node 3
Node 4
U1, R1
3

elements carrying
general loads
U1, R1
U3, R3
U3, R3
U2, R2
Node 1
U2, R2
Node 2
U1, R1
Application
U2, R2
Shell
U1, R1
Shell Elements in SAP2000
Local Cords for Shell Element

Each Shell element has
its own local coordinate
system used to define
Material properties,
loads and output.
The axes of this local
system are denoted 1, 2
and 3. The first two
axes lie in the plane of
the element the third
axis is normal
DOF for 3D Elements

Dy
Dz
Dx
Solid/ Brick
Brick Element in SAP2000

8-Node Brick
Bricks can be added by
using Text Generation
in V7. New version 8
will have graphical
interface for Bricks
The Stress Strain Components

yy
y
x
yz
xy
zy
zz
yx
zx
xz
xx
At any point in a continuum, or solid,

the stress state can be completely
defined in terms of six stress
components and six corresponding
strains.
Connecting Different Types of Elements

Truss
Truss
Frame
Membrane
Plate
Shell
Solid
Frame
Membrane
Shell
Solid
OK
OK
Dz
OK
OK
OK
Rx, Ry, Rz
OK
Rx, Ry, Rz,

Dz
Rx ?
Dx, Dy
Rx ?
Rx, Ry, Rz
OK
OK
OK
Dx, Dy
OK
OK
Rx, Rz
OK
Rx, Rz
OK
OK
Rx, Rz
Rx, Ry, Rz
OK
Rx, Ry, Rz,

Dz
Dx, Dz
OK
Rx, Rz
OK
OK
Dz
Dx, Dz
OK
OK
Orphan Degrees Of Freedom:

0
Plate
Connecting Dissimilar Elements
When elements with different degree of freedom at ends

connect with each other, special measures may need to
be taken to provide proper connectivity depending on
Software Capability
Beams to Plates
Beam to Brick
Plates to Brick
Graphic Object Modeling
Use basic Geometric Entities to create FE

Models
Simple Graphic Objects
Point Object
Line Object
Area Object
Brick Object
Represents Node
Represents 1D Elements
Graphic Objects can be used to represent

geometry, boundary and loads
SAP2000, ETABS and SAFE use the concept
of Graphic Objects
Modeling Objects and Finite Elements

Structural Members are representation of
actual structural components
Finite Elements are discretized
representation of Structural Members
The concept of Graphic Objects can be used
to represent both, the Structural Members as
well as Finite Elements
In ETABS, the Graphic Objects representing
the Structural Members are automatically
divided into Finite Elements for analysis and
then back to structural members for result
interpretation
Model Creation Tools
Defining Individual Nodes and Elements

Using Graphical Modeling Tools
Using Numerical Generation
Using Mathematical Generation
Using Copy and Replication
Using Subdivision and Meshing
Using Geometric Extrusions
Using Parametric Structures
Analysis of
Basic Analysis Issues

Water retaining structures are Surface
Type structures so 2D/3D Frame Analysis is
generally in-adequate
Membrane/ Plate or Shell analysis is often
required
Special Structural Forms may have to be
handled
Special Loads and Load Combinations may
need to be handled
Design Loads
Fluid pressure (internal and external)

Earth pressure
Wind loads
Dead loads
Live loads
Earthquake loads
Temperature
Relative Settlement
Hydrodynamic loads (vibration, etc)
Impact load
Load Factors
Load Factors for Ultimate Strength Design
Dead load (D) additive effect

Dead load (D) subtractive effect
Fluid load, weight (Fv)
Lateral soil pressure (H)
Hydrostatic pressure (Fh)
Live load (L)
Effects due to Temperature
Effects due to Shrinkage, Creep (T)
1.4
0.9
1.4
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.4
1.4
Load Combinations
Similar to ACI 318 with following adjustments
Load factors
Lateral earth pressure H =1.7
Lateral liquid pressure F =1.7
Increase the Factored Loads U by Sanitary

Durability Coefficient
Reinforcement in flexure = 1.3 U

Direct tension/hoop reinforcement = 1.6 U
Excess shear = 1.3 U
Compression + Flexure = 1.0 U
Sample Load Combinations
Load Cases
U1
U2
U3
U4
U5
U6
U7
D+L
D+L+H
D+H
D+L+F
D+F
D+L+T
D+T
Dead Load
1.4
1.4
0.9
1.4
0.9
1.05
1.4
Live Load-1
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.28
Earth Pressure
1.7
1.7
Fluid Weight
Fv
1.4
1.4
Fluid Pressure
Fh
1.7
1.7
1.28
Temperature etc.
1.28
1.4
Factors of Safety
Factors of Safety for Stability
Cohesive heave at temporary state

Soil bearing at temporary state
Soil bearing at permanent state
Buoyancy at temporary state
Buoyancy at permanent state
Overturning of structures
1.2
1.5
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.5
Live Loads
Not a governing load case for WRS
Main Sources
American National Standard Institute

ANSI A58.1
American Concrete Institute

ACI 350 Environmental Concrete Structures
Local Regulations Codes
Wind Loads
Factors to be considered:
Wind speed
Typically 70-110 miles/hr
Location of the structure
City area
Sub-urban area
Flat open terrain
Offshore
Shape of the structure

Cylindrical
Rectangular
etc
Height of the structure

Area resisting the wind
Dynamic effects (vortex shedding)
Wind Loads-UBC97 Approach
Wind Loads on Rigid tile Roof covering
M a qhCLbLLa 1.0 Gcp
Where
b = exposure width
CL = Lift Coefficient
Gcp = Roof Pressure Coefficient
L = Length of Roof
La = Moment arm from axis of rotation
qh = Wind velocity pressure
Ma = Aerodynamic uplift
Also see Tables provided
Special Loads
Impact
Vibration
Torque
Seismic
Special Loads
Impact
Impact loads are occasional
Conservative design approach is recommended
Complete Shock Analysis may be performed
using Dynamic Analysis options
Impact forces should be used in design
Impact allowance can be made by factoring the
static loads by Impact Factors
Special Loads
Vibration
Most environmental machinery is slow moving
and does not require separate dynamic analysis
Some other equipments, pumps, fans, etc., may
require special consideration for design
Natural frequency of support is significantly
different from the machinery
Preferable to maintain Frequency Ratio above 1.5
Use Isolators to reduce vibration transfer
Use dampers to reduce dynamic effects
Special Loads
Torque
Usually caused by clarifiers and other rotating
equipment (may have diameter up to of 150 m)
Foundation and central column are designed for
torque of 50% in access of the stalling torque
Concrete center column may be keyed and
doweled into the clarifier base slab to resist
torque
Special Loads
Seismic Loads
Hydrodynamics (sloshing) of fluid in the structure
should be considered
Should include both impulsive and convective
components
Also designed to resist earth-fill pressure and
dead load
Seismic action can induce large horizontal and
overturning forces
Joints on the base may be required to resist large
shear forces
Pressure Loads
Fluid Pressure
Empty
Partially Filled
Full
Uplifts
Soil Pressures
Adverse
Beneficial
Active
Passive
Behavior of
Water Retaining
Structures
Simple Wall Behavior
Fixed Base, Top Free

Fixed Base, Top Hinged
Fixed Base, Top Fixed
Fixed Base, Top Elastic
Pinned Base, Top Pinned
Elastic Base, Top Elastic
Simple Wall Response
Fixed Base Top Hinged
Rectangular Panel Behavior
Moment and shear distribution depends
The aspect ratio

The continuity conditions
The supporting condition
The load variation
The average size to thickness ratio
The corner fixity conditions
For single panels, response can be

determined by partial differential equations
of from coefficients
Circular Panel Behavior
The moment and shear distribution in

circular panel depends on
The Continuity conditions at the perimeter
The load variation on the panel
For single panels, response can be

determined by partial differential equations
of from coefficients
Stress State in Rectangular Tanks

Bending in Walls, often
in two directions
Axial tension/
compression in Walls
Bending in Base Slab
Axial Tension/
Compression in Base
Slab
High stress
concentration in
Corners
Moment In Long Wall
Tension
Moment In
Short Wall
Plan

Variation of M1 Along
width of Wall
M2
Variation of M2 Along
width of Wall
Elevation Short Side
M1 along
section A-A
Uplift Moment in Base Slab
Base Slab
Effect of Side Walls
W/B very high

Free
No effect of Stiffness of
Side Walls
PLAN
The Stiffness Effect of side walls

Increases as W/B ratio Decreases
Stress State
in
Rectangular
Tanks
Stress State in Circular Tanks

Direct
Tension/Compression
in Walls
Bending in Walls
Bending in Floor Slab
Direct Tension/
Compression in Floor
Slab
Typical Section of an Open Circular Water Tank
Tension in Wall
w/o Ring Beam
Typical Section of a Close Circular Water Tank
Tension in Wall
with Ring Beam
Modeling of
Modeling Issues
Modeling of Walls
Modeling of Floor Slab
Modeling of Roof structures
Modeling of Supporting Frames
Modeling of Supporting Shafts
Modeling of Soil Supports
Modeling of Pile Supports
Modeling of Water ?
Modeling of Walls and Slabs

Use Shell Elements as the walls and slabs
are subjected to out-of plane moments as
well as in plane tension and compression
Membrane or Plate elements may not give
adequate response
For domes or for shafts not subjected to
water or soil pressure, membrane elements
can be used
Elevated Tank Models
Modeling of Supporting Frames

For elevated tanks, the supporting structure
can be using frame or line elements
Non-linear links or tension only bracing may
be needed for steel frame or wire braced
structures
Haunches are often used in water tank
structures and should be included in the
model
Connection of frame element to shell/ plate/
membrane should be considered properly
Modeling the Soil Supports

Very critical for determining
the response correctly
Pin or fixed support will
interfere with the free
expansion of floor slab and of
walls
Use springs to model the
supports, both in vertical and
in lateral direction
Spring could be area Spring
or Pont Spring depending on
software
Modeling Of Soil
Simple Supports: Constraints
Fix, Pin, Roller etc.

Support Settlement
Elastic Supports
Spring to represent soil
Using Modulus of Sub-grade reaction
Full Structure-Soil Model

Use 2D plane stress elements
Use 3D Solid Elements
Modeling Options
Beam
Plate
Brick
Yes
Yes
Yes
Spring
Yes
Yes
Yes
Brick
No
Yes
Yes
Constraint
Soil
Modeling of Mat
Computing Spring Stiffness

A = Spacing of
Springs in X
B = Spacing of
Springs in Y
Ks = Modulus of
sub-grade reaction
(t/cu m etc.)
K = Spring
constant (t/m etc)
B
B
K= ks*A*B
Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction
It is defined as the ratio between the

pressure against the footing or the mat and
the settlement at a given point
Where k = Coefficient of Sub-grade reaction

q = Load per unit area
= Settlement
What is Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction
Load required to produce unit settlement in a unit area

Ks = P/(L*W*H)
P
3
Units = T/m
How to Obtain
Plate Load Test
Theory of Soil
Mechanics
Bearing Capacity
Related g, N, qc etc
1m
1m
1m
Soil as Brick
Soil as Spring
Mx
My
Raft on Piles
Stiffening Effect of Walls

Walls on top of the Raft
stiffen the raft and can
significantly alter the
deformation and moment
patterns
In SAFE, walls can be
modeled as beam with
large cross0section
Modeling of Water
Water can also be included in the model by
using Solid or Brick elements
The material properties can be selected in
such a way that shear stiffness Is very small
and material in in-compressible
This means very small Shear Modulus and
near zero Poison Ratio
Can be included in dynamic as well as staic
analysis
The Floatation Problem

For Underground tanks, empty tank with high
water table outside may cause floatation of
the tank
Floatation can be prevented by
Using Anchor Piles

Increased dead weight
Provide Safety Valves
Provide drainage and pumping outside
Increasing floor slab thickness to add weight may
not help much as it also increases total water
head
A Case Study
Overall Model
Wall Section
300 mm
400 mm
500 mm
Wall Section
Distribution of Myy in Base
Distribution of Mxx
Moment Mxx and Myy in Wall
Distribution of Fxx and Fyy in Wall
Stress Sxx in Wall
Stresses in Slab
Solid Vs Plate Models
Solid Vs Plate Models
Brick, Plate and Column
Plate Model: Pile represented by Brick Elements
Brick Model: Pile represented by Brick Elements
Plate Model; Pile represented by Beam Elements)
A Treatment Plant Layout
8
11
9
3
5
13
14
12
7
5
5
PTA
Office
Building
A Treatment Plant Layout

LEGEND
1. Screen & Grit Chamber (1 x 17m x 3m x 1.5m)
2. Equalization Tank (2 x Dia=39m, Depth=3.65m)
3. Primary Clarifier (1 x Dia=23.1m, Dpeth=3m)
4. Mixing Tank (1 x 3.5m x 3.5m x 4m)
5. UASB Reactor (4 x 25.6m 25.6m x 7.3m)
6. Aerated Lagoons (2 x 66m 45m x 3.25m)
7. Secondary Clarifier (2 x Dia=37.3m x Depth=2.5m)
8. Secondary Thickner (1 x Dia= 20.5m x Depth=3.25m)
9. Primary Thickner (2 x Dia=19.9m x Depth=2.25m)
10. Sludge Drying Bed
11. Treated Water Tank (1 x 3m x 3m x3m)
12. Division Box (1 x 5m x 5m x 3m)
13. Pumping Station (1 x 6.75m x 3.5 m x 3.5m)
14. Mixer (1 x 3.5m x 3.5 m x 3.0m)
Water Line
Sludge Line
Grass
Road
Construction line
Design Methods and Concepts
From Loads to Stresses
Applied Loads
Building Analysis
Member Actions
Cross-section Actions
Material Stress/Strain
From Strains to Response
The Response and Design

Material Response
Section Response
Member Response
Building Response
Load Capacity
Three Design Approaches

Working Stress Design
Stress is primary concern and objective
Ultimate Strength Design

Strain is primary concern
Performance Based Design

Deformation is primary concern
From Serviceability to Performance
Allowable material, control on

deformation limits for design loads
Material failure criteria, section capacity
for factored loads
Ductility considerations, deformation
capacity, load capacity at large
deformations. Extraordinary load
considerations
Serviceability
Design
Strength Design
Performance
Design
Satisfying one design level does not ensure

that other design levels will be satisfied
Serviceability design only ensures that
deflections and vibrations etc. for service loads
are within limits but says nothing about strength
Strength design ensures that a certain factor of
safety against overload is available within a
member or a cross-section but says nothing
about what happens if load exceeds design level
Performance design ensures that structure as a
whole reaches a specified demand level.
Performance design can include, both service and
strength design levels
The entire response of structure or a

member can be determined, in an
integrated manner from the ActionDeformation Curve
A Serviceability
B Cracking Limit
C Strength Limit
D Failure Limit
C
B
Load
Deformation
Cross-section Reponses
Stresses
Tension
Compression
Shear > Tension-Compression
Strains
Normal strain
Shear Strain
Deformations
Rotation
Shortening
Shearing
Twisting
Determining Cross-section Response

Material Stress-Strain Curves
Given P value
Given Moments
Given Axial Load
P-M Curve
M-M Curve
Moment-Curvature Curves
Moment for Given Curvature

Curvature for Given Moment
Yield Moment
Stiffness
Ductility
Moment for Given Load

Load for Given Moment
Capacity Ratio
Mx for Given My
My for Given Mx
Capacity Ratio
Strength
Capacity
Interaction Surface
Given Moment Direction
Performance
Cross-section Dimensions
The Moment Curvature Curve
Cross-section Stresses
Design of Frame Members
Capacity
Interaction Surface
P
My
Mx
P-M and M-M Interaction Curves
Total Reinforcement: P + Mx + My + V + T
Ast : To resist
tension due to My
Asc + Al/4: To resist compression due

to moment Mx (doubly reinforced
beams) and tension due to Torsion
Asc : To resist compression

due to My (may not be
needed)
Asvt + Asv/2: To resist shear due to
Torsion. Must be closed hoops on sides
of the section
Asw + Al/4 : To resist secondary

tension in deep beams due to moment
and due to Torsion
Ast + Al/4 : To resist main tension due to

moment and tension due to Torsion
Reinforcement For Plate Elements

Establish the principle
direction of Rebars
Compute the design
moments along the Rebar
directions from the plate
element moments Mx, My
and Mxy
Compute the
reinforcement from the
design moments using
conventional concrete
mechanics
Mx
My
Simplified Flexural Design of Slabs
Ast
Ast
Mu
f y (d a 2 )
Mu
0.9f y (d 0.05d )
Mu
0.9 f u (0.95d )
Mu
Ast
0.85 f y d
= 0.9
For slabs a= 0.1d
Units
fu
Mu
Ast
SI
N/mm2
KN-m
mm
M u 10 6
0.85 f y d
Metric
Kg/cm2
Ton-m
cm
M u 105
0.85 f y d
Ksi
Kip-ft
inch
M u 12
0.85 f y d
US
Punching Shear
Punching Shear
Punching Shear
vu AB
Vu g v M u c AB
Ac
Jc
vu CD
Vu g v M u cCD
Ac
Jc
Where
g v 1 g f
gv
gf
=Fraction of unbalanced Moment

transferred by eccentricity of
shear at slab column connection
=Fraction of unbalanced Moment

transferred by flexure at slab
column connection
Ac 2d c1 c2 2d
d c1 d c1 d d 3 d c2 d c1 d
Jc
6
6
2
3
Design of Plate Elements
The reinforcement at
the bottom of the slab
in each direction is
designed to provide
resistance for the
positive moment
The reinforcement at
the top of the slab in
each direction is
designed to provide
resistance for the
negative moment
mry m y mxy
mrx mx mxy
mry and mrx are set to zero if they

yield a negative value
mry m y mxy
mrx mx mxy
mry and mrx are set to zero if they

yield a positive value
Design of Brick Elements

For Brick elements the FEA results in the nodal
stresses and strains.
The stresses on the brick elements need to be
integrated along x and y direction to obtain forces.
Stress variation in both the directions may be
considered and integrated.
These forces are then used to find the moment
about the two orthogonal axes and the net axial
force. Similar approach is used to obtain shear
forces in two directions
After the axial forces, moments and shear forces
are obtained then the section can be designed as a
rectangular beam
Design of Brick Elements

Sample Calculations for P and M
Following equations are based on the

assumption that there is no stress variation in
the transverse direction
Pi C1 C2 T ........
n
P Pi
i 1
C1
M i C1 x1 C2 x2 Tx3 .......
x1
x3
M Mi
i 1
CL
x2
C2
The Moment Curvature Curve
The Moment-Curvature Curve

Probably the most important action-deformation
curve for beams, columns, shear walls and
consequently for building structures
Significant information can be obtained from
Moment Curvature Curve to compute:
Yield Point
Failure Point
Ductility
Stiffness
Crack Width
Rotation
Deflection
Strain
What is Curvature
In geometry, it is rate
of change of rotation
In structural behavior,
Curvature is related to
Moment
For a cross-section
undergoing flexural
deformation, it can
computed as the ratio
of the strain to the
depth of neutral axis
e
C
Curvature = e / C (radian / unit length)
How to Read M-Phi Curve
Outputs from M-Phi Curve
2 -Failure Point
1 -Yield Point
y
3 - Ductility
u
4 - Stiffness of the Section at given M and Phi
EI
M
EI
5 - Slope of the section at given Moment

b
M
dx
EI
a

6 - Deflection of the section at given Moment
M
x dx
EI
a
7 - Strain at given Moment
c = distance from the NA to

the point where strain is
required

8 - Crack Width at given crack spacing
Specified Crack Spacing = X
W s X
W yX
NA
Rebar Centroid
9 - Crack Spacing at given crack width

W
X
W
X
y
Outputs from M-Phi Curve - Summary

Plot M-Phi Curve
EI
Determine curvature
at known moment
Determine Flexural
Stiffness (EI)
b
M

EI
a
b
x dx
Determine Deflection
M
dx
EI
Determine Slope
Determine Strain
W s X
s
Determine Crack
Spacing/Width
Outputs from M-Phi Curve - Example

For M=600 Phi = 0.00006
From M-Phi Diagram
P=160 K
L/2
24 in
EI
36 in
15 ft
EI=600x12/0.00006
EI=1.2E8 k-in^2
Slope at Mid Span

M=600 k-ft
b
M
dx
EI
a
=600x7.5x144/1.2E8
=0.0054 rad

Deflection at Mid Span
M
x dx
EI
a
=600x7.5x144x15x12/(6x1.2E8)
=0.162 in
Strain in Steel
c
M = 600 k-ft, y=16
=0.00006x16
=0.00096
NA
Rebar Centroid

Crack Width
Assuming crack spacing of 18 in
W s X
NA
=0.00096 x 18
=0.01728 in
Crack Spacing
Assuming crack width of 0.02 in
W
s
=0.02/0.00096
=20.8 in
Rebar Centroid
Corner and Joints
Detailing of Corners
Corner/ Joint efficiency is determined as the
percentage of moment capacity of corner
with respect to main wall
Often the efficiency of joints and corners is
less than the 100%
Special detailing is needed to obtain 100% or
higher efficiency
Joints
The design of Joints require a
knowledge of the forces to be
transferred through the joint and
the likely ways in which the
transfer can occur
Efficiency: Ratio of the failure moment of the
joint to the moment capacity of the members
entering the joint
Basic Stresses in Joints Single
Tension
Compression
Shear
Basic Stresses in Joints Lateral
Tension
Compression
Shear
Strut and Tie Model
Tension
Compression
Strut and Tie Model
Corner Joints
Opening Joints:
Tend to be opened by the applied moment
Corners of Frames
L-shaped retaining walls
Wing Wall and Abutments in bridges
Corner Joints
Closing Joints:
Tend to be closed by the applied moment
Elastic Stresses are exactly opposite as

those in the opening joints
Increasing the radius of the bend
increases the efficiency of such joints
Corner Joints
T-Joints
At the exterior column-beam connection
At the base of retaining walls
Where roof beams are continuous over
column
Beam-Column Joints in Frames

To transfer loads and moments at the end of
the beams to the columns
Exterior Joint has the same forces as a T
joint
Interior joints under gravity loads transmits
tension and compression at the end of the
beam and column directly through the joint
Interior joints under lateral loads requires
diagonal tensile and compressive forces
within the joints
Detailing of Joints
Detailing of Joints
Detailing of Joints
Movement Joints in
Movement Joints
Joints are necessary evil in the water

retaining structures
The are undesirable because
Difficult to construct
Very difficult to water-proof
Difficult to maintain and repair
May cause failure of the structure if leaking
occurs
Movement Joints
The are required because
To accommodate large movement

To facilitate construction
To relieve stress concentrations
To prevent un-controlled cracking
Movement Joint Types
Expansion
Contraction
Construction
Shear Keys
Water-stops
Expansion Joints
To allow for movement due to
Expansion and contraction during curing

Dimensional changes in concrete due to load
Separate or isolate areas or members
May also function as contraction and construction
joints
Spacing of EJ should not be more than 120 ft

Special investigation if EJ spacing >150 ft
Expansion Joints
Locate at abrupt changes in structures
configuration
Designed to transfer shear
Should include some compressible
preformed filler and joint sealant or
compression seat at the liquid face
For watertight members a water stop should
be included
Reinforcement to terminate 2in from the face
of the joint
Construction Joints
Should not be taken as movement joints
Located at places to least impair the strength
of structure
Logical separation between segments
Facilitate construction
All reinforcement should be continued
across the joints
Use water-stop for water proofing
Contraction Joints
Used to dissipate shrinkage stresses

Intervals not exceeding 30 ft
Water-stops to ensure water-tightness
May be full or partial contraction joint
May not be required when using shrinkage
compensating concrete
Achieving Water Tightness

Well proportioned concrete mix
Controlled crack widths
Properly spaced, sized, designed and
constructed joints
Use of impervious coating/barriers
Adequate reinforcing steel
Proper detailing
Quality control
Achieving Durability
Use of cement and aggregates which can
resist the chemical attacks
Smooth finishing of surface
Adequate cover
Lower water-cement ratio
Use of fly ashes or other pozzolans
Protective materials
Detailing of Movement Joints
Detailing of Movement Joints
Temp. and Shrink. Reinforcement

For walls thicker than 610mm, the minimum
reinforcement may based on 300mm
thickness on each side
At bottom of base slab, can reduce to 50%
Maximum spacing 300mm, each face
Depends a lot on the structural
configuration, size, exposure conditions,
climate etc
May be appropriate to carry out special
Temperature/ Shrinkage analysis
Reinforcement Detailing
Maximum bar spacing

300 mm
Closely spaced smaller diameter bars preferred
over large diameter bars
Minimum size 10mm
Allowable Service Load Stresses
Minimum Covers
Crack Width Equations

Equation-1
Based on ACI-318-95 and ACI-35089 (by Gergely-Lutz) for beams and

one way slabs
Equation 2
Based on the ACI-224-90 (by NawyOrenstien) for two-way slabs
Equation 3:
Based on the ACI-224-90 for direct

tension
Equation 4
Based on the BS 5337 for flexure
Equation 5
Based on the BS 5337 for direct

tension
w 0.1081f s 3 dc A 105
w
kf s
70.31
cm
d b1S 2
r1
w 0.00000142 f s 3 d c A
w max 4. 5a cr m / K 1
w K 3a cr m
Checking for Cracking

Gergely-Lutz Method: ACI-318-95 and ACI-350-89
w 0.1081f s 3 dc A 105
cm
= crack width at face of concrete, cm., caused by flexural load
= ratio of distance between neutral axis and tension face to distance between neutral axis
and centroid of reinforcing steel
fs
=actual average service load stress lever, kg/cm2
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center f bar located
closest thereto, cm.
A
= effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexual tension reinforcement and
having the same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, cm2

Nawy-Orenstien Method: ACI-224
kf s d b1S 2
70.31 r1
w = crack width at face of concrete, cm., caused by flexural load

K= fracture coefficient, having a value k = 2.8 x 10-5 for uniformly
loaded restrained two way action square slabs and plates.
For concentrated loads or reactions, or when the ratio of short to long
span is less than 0.75 but larger than 0.5, a value of k = 2.1x10-5 is
applicable. For span aspect ratios 0.5, k= 1.6x10-5
= ratio of distance between neutral axis and tension face to distance
between neutral axis and centroid of reinforcing steel
fs= actual average service load stress level, kg/cm 2
db1= diameter of the reinforcement in direction 1 closest to the

concrete outer fibers, (cm.)
S2= spacing of the reinforcement in perpendicular direction 2,cm.
1 = direction of reinforcement closest to the outer concrete
fibers; this is the direction for which crack control check is to be
made
= active steel ratio
= Area of steel A, per m. width /100(db1+2C1)
C1 = is clear concrete cover measured from the tensile face of

concrete to the nearest edge of the reinforcing bar in direction
1,cm.
ACI-224 Method: For Direct Tension
w 0.00000142 f s 3 d c A
Fs = actual average service load stress level. kg/cm 2

dc = distance between tension face to centroid of reinforcing steel, cm
b = width of section = 100 cm for slab
N = no of bars per one meter width

BS5337 for Flexure
w max 4. 5a cr m / K 1
K1 1 2.5 (a cr c) /(h d n )
BS5337 for Direct Tension
w K 3a cr m
K3 1. 6 1. 4 (c/ ) /( A / B ) 1 / 2
Note: See attached notes or practice session examples for details
Allowable Crack Widths

0.20 mm
For inside face of structure without any protective

membrane and exposed to wastewater
0.41 mm
For inside face of structures with protective

membrane and exposed to waste water
0.26 mm
For outside face of structures exposed to soil
0.26 mm
For top of slabs above soil surface
Detailed Wind Load Calculations
Wind Load Profiles
Variation of Wind
Velocity with Time
Mean and Gust Wind Pressure
2D Flow of Wind-Simplified
Vortex Shedding
Cp Coefficients
Wind Loads-Pressure Variations
Face under Pressure

Faces
under Suction
The Main Equation:
P CeCq qs I w
Where
Ce= Exposure Coefficient
Cq = Drag Coefficient
Iw = Importance factor
Wind Loads on Rigid tile Roof covering
M a qhCLbLLa 1.0 Gcp
Where
b = exposure width
CL = Lift Coefficient
Gcp = Roof Pressure Coefficient
L = Length of Roof
La = Moment arm from axis of rotation
qh = Wind velocity pressure
Ma = Aerodynamic uplift
Also see Tables provided
For walls thicker than

610mm, the minimum
reinforcement may based
on 300mm thickness on
each side
At bottom of base slab, can
reduce to 50%
Maximum spacing 300mm,
each face
Concrete Dams
Introduction
Classification of Risk
45%
Hydraulic Conditions
30%
Type of Structure and Construction
7%
Geology
6%
Environment
6%
Consequences
Planning
Water Resources
Reservoir utilization
Water supply (requires a high reservoir)

Irrigation
Silt retention
Transportation
Electricity generation
Recreation and beautification (requires a constant
reservoir level)
Flood mitigation (requires a low reservoir)
Planning
Life of a Dam
It is usual to finance the building of a dam on the basis of

repayment of its cost over 50 or 60 years.
Environmental implications
Land inundation
Dislodgment
Wildlife
Beauty
Effects of Storage on Quality of Water
Criminological Change, etc.
Multi Disciplinary Approach

Civil Engineering
Sanitary Engineering
Hydraulic Engineering
Structural Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Illumination Engineering
Air Pollution Engineering
Acoustic Engineering
Demography
History
Landscape Planning
Traffic
Landscape Architecture
Transportation
Ecology
Geography
Environmental Engineering
Geomorphology
Geology
Hydrology
Hydrography
Meteorology
Soil
Agricultural Economics
Biology
Forestry
Range Management
Fish
Wildlife
Legal
Photogrammetry
Cartography
Systems Programming
Mathematical
Programming
Construction Methods Analysis
Remote Sensor Interpreting
Features of a Dam
A dam is a three dimensional structure and despite

assumptions, it is not homogeneous
The foundations are neither isotropic or truly elastic.
Concrete and rock are brittle, although elastic theories are
applied in stress calculations.
The dam and foundation will become saturated with varying
effects on the materials.
The dam will be subjected to water load, daily and seasonal
temperature cycles.
It will be subjected to random events such as : Floods, Waves,
Seiche Effects, Earthquakes, Ice Formation and other natural
phenomena.
Static Loading
Horizontal Loads
Headwater (H1)
Silt (H2)
Reservoir Behavior (H3)
Ice Loading (H4)
Tail-water (H5)
Seismic Force (H6)
Seiche effect (H7)
Static Loading
Vertical Loads
Weight of Dam (V1)

Vertical Water Loading (V2)
Uplift (V3)
Seismic Force (V4)
Static Loading
Other Loadings
Water Density
Reservoir set-up
Thermal Effects
Construction Loads
Direction of Forces
Hydrostatic Loading within the Foundation or
Abutment
Tectonic Forces
Dynamic Loading
Design
For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient generally adopted and
applied as an additional static load
For arch dams the dynamic effects received greater attention
For embankment dams additional horizontal static loads were
considered
Zoning
Seismic Coefficients
Seismic Waves
Loads Considered
Seismographs
Factor of Safety for Gravity Dams

A gravity dam must be
designed to safeguard
against overturning and
sliding
This is usually about
0.75 but must not
exceed 0.90 under
extreme loading
Range of Shearing Resistance

Parameters
Location of plane of shearing/sliding
Cohesion
(c)
Friction tan
mass concrete intact
1.5-3.5
1.0-1.5
mass concrete horizontal construction joint
0.8-2.5
1.0-1.5
concrete/rock interface
1.0-3.0
0.8-1.8
rock mass sound
1.0-3.0
1.0-1.8
rock mass inferior
<1.0
<1.0
Recommended Shear Friction Factors,

Fsf (USBR 1987)
Load Combination
Location of sliding plane
Normal
Unusual
Extreme
dam concrete, base interface
3.0
2.0
<1.0
foundation rock
4.0
2.7
1.3
Abutments and Foundations

The dam foundations and abutments should
be thoroughly investigated for any possible
mechanism of failure. This would involve
identification of joints, faults and any other
forms of weakness. A reasonable factor of
safety is:
the ratio of shearing resistance to the maximum
shearing stress predicted; the lowest value of the
ratio in the foundation being the factor of safety of
the foundation
Site Investigation
Time and Money

Desk Study
Preliminary Investigation
Geo-Physical Investigation
Investigation Methods
Evaluation of Selected Sites
Detailed Investigations
Monitoring
Geology
Classification of Rocks
Rock Properties
Surface Features of Valleys
Excavation and Filling of Valleys
Topographical and Geological Conditions
Seismic Activity
Geological Hazards
Hydrology
Hydrological Cycle
Storage Capacity
Freeboard
Floods
Hydrodynamic Flow Nets
Filled Reservoirs
Foundations
The foundations of a dam must be able to
withstand without unacceptable deformation
the loads imposed upon it by the structure,
both immediately after filling the reservoir
and in the long term
Foundation Preparation
Foundation program
Problematic foundation materials

Excavation in bedrock
Construction on unconsolidated deposits
Foundation Design
Pressures Associated with Dams and
Reservoirs
Mechanisms of Foundation Failure
Geologic Conditions Promoting Foundation
Failure
Bearing capacity
Seepage
Settlement
Foundations Improvement
Pre-Consolidation
Densification of cohesion less soils
Dynamic compaction
Grouting
Spillways
Handling of Flood
Waters
Uncontrolled Spillways
Gated Spillways
Spillways Chutes
Energy Dissipation
3D free surface
pattern at the upper
part of spillway
3D free surface
pattern at the
lower part of
spillway
Construction
Safety
Controlling Cost
Typical dissection of costs

of a Concrete Dam
Materials
25%
Formwork
20%
Plant Purchase
19%
Plant Operation
19%
Placing and consolidation of

concrete
4%
Pre cooling concrete
3%
Concrete Treatment
3%

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Water Retaining Structures

Modeling, Analysis, Design

Asian Center for Engineering

Asian Institute of Technology

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Types of Water Retaining Structures

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Types of Structures Considered

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

System Selection And

Total Design Process

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Physical Plant Layout

Why they are special?

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Dams and Reservoirs

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Dams and Reservoirs

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Walls

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Un-constrained, optimized proportioning is

Often the constrains provided by the

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Minimum Wall Thickness

Minimum Slab Thickness

Proportioning of Tank Walls

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

High Cantilevers should be avoided

Choice between uniform and variable wall

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Proportioning of Floor Slabs

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Modeling and Analysis

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Using coefficients for slabs and walls

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

The Purpose of Analysis

Structural System Analysis Model

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Real Structure is governed by

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

The Need for Modeling

Finite Element Method: The Analysis Tool

Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

A discretized solution to a continuum

Finite Element Method (FEM)

Water Retaining Structures, ACECOMS, AIT

Continuum to Discrete Model