15 Questions

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
AE 2352 EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
QUESTION BANK
UNIT - I
1.
2.
3.
Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.

What are the types of Mechanical Extensometers? Explain with aid of neat sketch
Huggenberger extensometer.
What is Strain Gauge? Explain with a neat sketch the working principle of Acoustical
strain gage and measurements of strain using this gage. Also mention its advantages
and disadvantages.
UNIT - II
1. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Derive the expression of
strain experienced by electrical resistance type strain gages.
(ii) Explain how the electrical resistance type gage can be used to determine
modulus of Elasticity and Poissons ratio of engineering materials
2. Determine the principal stresses and principal strains with the help of a delta rosette
mounted on an aluminum specimen with values of A= 400 m/m; B= 200 m/m;
C= 100 m/m, E= 70 Gpa, = 0.3. Also determine the principal directions and shear
stress.
3. (i) Explain Wheat stone Bridge and obtain the balance condition.
(ii) Derive an expression for the output voltage measured from wheat stone bridge
circuit.
UNIT III
1. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the fringes
obtained in it
2. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.
3. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo elasticity. Why Tardys
compensation method is preferred over other methods?
UNIT IV
1. Explain the brittle coating method of stress analysis. Drive expression for brittle stress
2. What are fiber-optic sensors? What is their application in experimental mechanics?
3. Write notes on (a) moir method of strain analysis,
(b) Holography
Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)


UNIT V
1. State the uses and advantages of non-destructive testing procedures. Explain in
detail any one NDT procedure of evaluating a given specimen.
2. Explain in detail the principle of ultrasonic pulse echo testing and also explain the
sequence of test and its application.
3. Explain any four
(a)Eddy current testing
(b)Acoustic emission technique
(c)Radiography
(d) Fluorescent penetrant technique
(e)Magnetic particle inspection
(f)Resonance test

UNIT - I
1. Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.

DEFINITION:
The process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity such as length or mass
relative to a unit of measurement such as meters or kilogram.
The act of measuring or the process of being measured [used]
The system of measuring
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT:
The techniques of measurement are of immense importance in most
facets of scientific research & human civilization.
Computation with decimals frequently involves the addition or
subtractions of numbers do not have the same number of decimal places.
1. ESTIMATION:
Estimation is the calculated approximation of a result which is usable
even if input data may be incomplete or uncertain.
It can be computed
precisely.
2. PRECISION:
The Measurement of a precision depends upon how precisely the
instrument is marked. It is important to realize that precision refers to the size
of the smallest division on the scale.
Simply we can say, that one instrument is more precise than another does
not imply that the less precise instrument is poorly manufactured.
The precision of measurement system also called reproducibility or repeatability
It is degree to which repeated measurement under unchanged conditions show
the same results.
3. REPRODUCIBILITY:
It is one of the main principles of the scientific method & refers to the
ability of a test or experiment to be accurately reproduced.
4. REPEATABILITY:
It is the variation in measurement taken by a single, person or instrument
on the same item & under the same conditions.
5. ACCURACY:
The accuracy of measurement depends upon the relative size of the
probable error.
The Accuracy of a measurement system is the degree of closeness of
measurements of a quantity to its actual [true] value.
The measurement system is valid if it is both accurate & precise.
ACCURACY =
No of true positives + no of true negatives

no of true positives & false positives + false negatives + true negatives
Precision
No of true positives
No of true positives false positives
Accuracy = (Sensitivity) (prevalence) + specificity [1-prevalency]

Accuracy may be determined from sensitivity & specificity provided
prevalence.
6. RESOLUTION:
7. SENSITIVITY:
sensitivity
No of true positives
No of true positives + no of false negatives
8. SPECIFICITY:
Specificity=
No of true negatives
No of true negatives + no of false positives
Example:
True positives (TP) sick people correctly diagnose as sick
False positives (FP) _ Healthy as sick
True Negatives (TN) _ Healthy correctly identified as healthy
False negatives (FN)_ Sick people incorrectly identified as healthy
False positives & False negatives also called as Type I & Type II error
TP condition present + positive result
1)
FP condition absent + positive result

FN condition present + Negative result
TN condition absent + Negative result
Example:
3.72 inches or 2417 feet
We can say 3.72 inches is more precise
2417 feet is more accurate
2)
30 seconds or 28 seconds
30 second is more accurate & precise.
2. What are the types of Mechanical Extensometers? Explain with aid of

neat sketch Huggenberger extensometer.
The mechanical devices are generally known as extensometers and are used to
measure strain under static or gradually varying loading conditions.
CLASSIFICATION:
1. Wedge and screw magnification (Howard Strain gauge)
2. Simple mechanical lever magnification (Capps multiplying divider)
3. Compound magnification system (Berry strain gauge/ Tinius olsen strain
gauage)
4. Compound lever magnification (Huggenberger strain gauge/Porter Lipp
strain gauge)
5. Magnification by rack and pinion (Dial gauge indicator)
6. Combined lever, rack and pinion magnification. (Whitlemore strain gauge)
These mechanical devices are generally known as extensometers and are
used to measure strain under static or gradually varying loading conditions. An
extensometer is usually provided with two knife edges which are clamped
firmly in contact with the test component at a specific distance or gauge length
apart. When the test component is strained, the two knife edges undergo a
small relative displacement. This is amplified through a mechanical linkage
and the magnified displacement or strain is displayed on a calibrated scale.
HUGGENBERGER TENSOMETER:
Function: This is a device used to measure very small displacements between
its two tips. It is especially used for determining the changes in the length of
materials due to strain, temperature and other factors.

It has a system of levers and gears connected to a needle that amplifies the angle
between its two arms by factors of more than one thousand, and uses this
amplified needle movement to point the displacement on a scale.
In the Huggenberger extensometer a set of compound levers is used to
magnify the displacement of the knife edges. The extensometer is highly
accurate, reliable, light-weight and self-contained. The movable knife edge (f)
rotates the lever c about the lower pivot. The lever c in turn rotates the pointer
through the link d. The magnification ratio is given by (1112) / (a1a2)
Extensometers with this ratio varying between 300 and 2000 and with gauge
lengths in the range 6.5 to 100 mm are available. The sensitivity of these
extensometers could be as high as 10 micro strain. It is well suited for
applications where its unusually large height does not pose problems of
instability in mounting.
Advantages:
Light Weight
High amplification
Self contianed
Sensitivity is 10 strains
Dis-advantages:
Cannot measure dynamic strains
Huge size
The Berry strain gauge uses a system of a lever and dial gauge to magnify
the small displacement between the knife edges. It can Measure strains down
to 10 microstrain over a 50 mm gauge length. The mechanical amplifying
element in the CEJ extensometer is a twisted metal strip or torsion tape
stretched between the knife edges.
Figure: Berry Strain Gauge
Figure: Johansson extensometer

Half the length of this strip is twisted in one direction while the other half
is twisted in the opposite direction. A pointer is attached at the centre. The
displacement of the knife edges, i.e. starching of the torsion tape is converted
into a highly amplified rotational movement of the pointer. The CEJ
extensometer can measure strain with a sensitivity of 5 micro strain over a
gauge length of 50 mm.
3. What is Strain Gauge? Explain with a neat sketch the working

principle of Acoustical strain gage and measurements of strain
using this gage. Also mention its advantages and disadvantages.
ACOUSTICAL STRAIN GAUGE:
In these gauges the measurement and magnification are done optically. A
system of mirrors may be used to produce large displacement on scale. It is
suitable for measuring dynamics strains with a photographic recording system.
It is difficult to handle and is a heavy instrument.
The vibrating wire or acoustical gauge consists essentially of a steel wire
tensioned between two supports a predetermined distance apart. Variation of the
distance alters the natural frequency of vibration of the wire and this change in
frequency may be correlated with the change in strains causing it. An electromagnet adjacent to the wire may be used to set the wire in vibration and this
wire movement will then generate an oscillating electrical signal. The signal
may be compared with the pitch of an adjustable standard wire, the degree of
adjustment necessary to match the two signal frequencies being provided by a
tensioning screw on the standard wire. Calibration of this screw allows a direct
determination of the change of length of a measuring gauge to be made once the
standard gauge has been tuned to match the frequency of the measuring wire.
The visual display produced or a CRO renders adjustment easier. Tuning
is now more usually accomplished by feeding the two signals into the two pairs
of plates of an oscillograph and making use of the Lissajous figure formation to
balance the frequencies. Matching of the tones is simplified and made more
accurate by tuning out the beats which results when the vibration frequencies of
two wires are nearly the same, which can be compared by using earphones.
The fundamental frequency of a stretched wire may be estimated from the
expression.
1 P
1 E L / L
f
2L m
2L

Figure: Acoustical Strain Gauge

Where
A = cross sectional area of vibrating wire
E = Youngs modulus of wire material
L = length of vibrating wire
m = mass per unit length of the wire
P = tensioning force in the wire
L = increment in length of the vibrating wire.
Figure: Shows an acoustical gauge developed by Dr. O. Schaefer about 1933.
The sensitivity of this gauge is very high, with possible determinations of
displacement of the order of 0.25 cm. The range is limited to about 1/1000 of
the wire length. The gauge is temperature sensitive unless the thermal
coefficients of expansion of the base and wire are closely matched over the
temperature range encountered during a test.

UNIT - II
1. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Derive the expression of
strain experienced by electrical resistance type strain gages.
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGES:
1. Inductance or magnetic strain gauge
2. Capacitance strain gauge
3. Electrical Resistance strain gauge
In electrical resistance strain gauge the displacement or strain is measured as a
function of resistance change produced by the displacement in the gauging circuit.
.
When the conductor is stretched, its length will increase and area of cress section will
decrease this will result in change in resistance.
Change in resistance per unit strain is defined as Gauge Factor.
Gauge factor indicates the sensitivity of the strain gauge
As the wire is stretched along with the specimen, the wire's electrical resistance R
changes both because its length L is increased and its cross-sectional area A is
reduced
TYPES
OF
STRAIN GAUGES
ELECTRICAL
RESISTANCE

(ii) Explain how the electrical resistance type gage can be used to determine
modulus of Elasticity and Poissons ratio of engineering materials
2. Determine the principal stresses and principal strains with the help of a delta rosette
mounted on an aluminum specimen with values of A= 400 m/m; B= 200 m/m;
C= 100 m/m, E= 70 Gpa, = 0.3. Also determine the principal directions and shear
stress.
3. (i) Explain Wheat stone Bridge and obtain the balance condition.
(ii) Derive an expression for the output voltage measured from wheat stone bridge
circuit.
WHEAT STONE BRIDGE
The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in a number of
applications and today, with modern Operational Amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone
Bridge Circuit to interface various transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits.


The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel
arrangements of resistances connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground
producing zero voltage difference between the two parallel branches when balanced. A
Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals and two output terminals consisting of four
resistors configured in a diamond-like arrangement as shown.
WHEAT STONE BRUDGE CIRCUIT

Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to compare an unknown resistance RXwith
others of a known value, for example, R1 and R2, have fixed values, and R3 could be
variable. If we connected a voltmeter, ammeter or classically a galvanometer between
points C and D, and then varied resistor, R3 until the meters read zero, would result in the
two arms being balanced and the value of RX, (substituting R4) known as shown.
By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in the sensing

arm of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to RX and adjusting the opposing resistor, R3 to
balance the bridge network, will result in a zero voltage output. Then we can see that
balance occurs when:
The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of the unknown
resistance, RX at balance is given as:

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

UNIT III
PHOTOELASTICITY
1. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a
stressed model and the fringes obtained in it
In a circular polariscope setup two quarter-wave plates are added to the

experimental setup of the plane polariscope. The first quarter-wave plate is
placed in between the polariser and the specimen and the second quarter-wave
plate is placed between the specimen and the analyser.
The effect of adding the quarter-wave plates is that we get circularly
polarised light.
The basic advantage of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is that in
a circular polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics and not the isoclinics.
This eliminates the problem of differentiating between the isoclinics and the
isochromatics.
Experimental Setup of the Circular Polariscope

2. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.


3. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo

elasticity. Why Tardys compensation method is preferred over
other methods?
In compensation, we add to the birefringence of the model, at
some given point, an equal and opposite birefringence such as to
bring the total relative retardation to zero. This is done by placing an
instrument a compensator in the optical path adjacent to the
model, as shown in Fig. 6.12. The compensator is adjusted to bring
the center of a zero-order fringe to some given point on the
photoelastic model and the fringe order contributed by the
compensator is read off the instrument. Of course, this corresponds
to the fringe order in the model, too.
The active element of the compensator is usually a wedge of a
permanently birefringen crystal which is moved across any given
point in the model until compensation, or zero relative retardation is
achieved: alternatively, a photoelastic model with a simple
predetermined stress system is used as the active element. The
simple wedge, the Babinet compensator and the Babinet-Soleil
compensator are in this category.

UNIT IV
1. Explain the brittle coating method of stress analysis.
Drive expression for brittle stress
BRITTLE-COATING METHOD
Introduction
The brittle-coating method, servo the following broad objectives:
1. Diagnosis or failure-analysis of in-service failure of components, and
2. Determination of location and orientation of strain-sensors such as strain-gauges required
for further strain or stress analysis.
Tests with brittle coatings can be carried out with case and at lesser cost, as compared to
the cost of other surface strain measurement techniques.
Brittle coating is any thin surface coating applied on the surface of a model or a
component under test and which fractures or cracks in response to the strain applied to the
model on which it is coated, indicating quantitatively the direction in magnitude of surface
strains in the model. If these surface strains are within the elastic limit of the material of the
models, the resulting crack pattern provides an overall graphical picture of the distribution,
sequence and direction of surface strains. If the coatings are carefully calibrated, he crack
pattern also provides quantitative values for the magnitudes of principal surface strains. The
state of strain in the coating thus indicates, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the state of
strain in the model, and hence the state of stress.
Advantages:
1. The determination of stress concentrations in components under the influence of
static, dynamic and impact loads.
2. It is also used for the measurement of thermal and residual stresses. The models or
proto-type on which brittle coatings are applied can be made of any material plastics,
wood, paper, rubber, glass, bone and metals.
Disadvantages:
1. The brittle-coating method is the loss in the accuracy of results if elaborate
precautions are not taken in evaluating the sensitivity of the coating and the hazardous
nature of the chemicals involved in the application of this technique.
In order to understand the steps involved in a typical brittle-coating application, consider
a flat tension model as shown in fig. The width of the specimen varies along the length of the
model, the minimum width being at the middle of the model. The model is first coated with a
thin layer of brittle coating, 0.125 to 0.25 mm thick, which is later dried at room temperature
and cured at an elevated temperature. The details of the technique of applying brittle coating
and curing are discussed in later sections. The coated model is loaded in incremental steps.
When the strain or stress in the coating at point A exceeds a critical value a crack develops in
the coating. On further loading, this crack gets extended and, in addition, new cracks are also
grating is bonded onto which one can obtain the state of strain and hence the state of stress in
the model.
MOIRE TECHNIQUES FOR INPLANE PROBLEMS:
Moire fringes, i.e., the isothetics, in general, are obtained by optical interference
between a specimen grating which is either printed or bonded, and closely placed master
grating. Its diagram indicates a general set-up used for this purpose. The specimen grating is
either rigidly bonded to the specimen or chemically etched or printed by a photographic
process directly onto the transparent specimen. The master grating is placed very close to the

specimen grating. The primary directions of both the specimen and master gratings are
aligned to coincide with the imaginary x-axis in the specimen. Collimated light passes the
gratings. When the specimen is strained, the specimen grating undergoes deformation which
interference with the unstrained maser grating resulting in moir fringes. /this is
photographed by a camera. The fringe pattern gives the uy -displacement field. The specimen
grating is removed from the specimen and another specimen grating is bonded onto it such
that its primary direction coincides with the y-axis of the coordinate system. Alternatively, a
new specimen similar to the earlier on with the primary direction of the specimen grating
bonded to it coinciding with the y-axis can be used. The master grating is now aligned with
the specimen grating. The fringe pattern now obtained gives the ux displacement field. From
the ux and uy displacement fields, derivatives of displacements are evaluated and the strain
components at the points of interest are determined using these equations. These diagram
indicates the moire patterns for a diametrally compressed disk for ux and uy displacement
fields.
2. What are fiber-optic sensors? What is their application in

experimental mechanics?
FIBER OPTIC SENSORS:
A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fiber either as the sensing element
("intrinsic sensors"), or as a means of relaying signals from a remote sensor to the
electronics that process the signals ("extrinsic sensors").
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing.
Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or because
no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can
be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for
each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each
sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain
reflectometer.
Fiber optic sensors are also immune to electromagnetic interference, and do not
conduct electricity so they can be used in places where there is high voltage electricity
or inflammable material such as jet fuel. Fiber optic sensors can be designed to
withstand high temperatures as well.
WHY OPTICAL SENSORS

ELECTROMAGNETIC IMMUNITY
ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
COMPACT AND LIGHT
BOTH POINT AND DISTRIBUTED CONFIGURATION
WIDE DYNAMIC RANGE
AMENABLE TO MULTIPLEXING
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
LIGHT BEAM CHANGES BY THE PHENOMENA THAT IS BEING MEASURED
LIGHT MAY CHANGE IN ITS FIVE OPTICAL PROPERTIES i.e INTENSITY,

PHASE, POLARIZATION,WAVELENGTH AND SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION
INTENSITY BASED SENSORS EP (t)
FREQUENCY VARYING SENSORS - P(t)
PHASE MODULATING SENSING- (t)
POLARIZATION MODULATING FIBER SENSING
EP(t)cos[t+(t)]
CLASSIFICATION:
1. INTRINSIC SENSORS

Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other
quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity,
phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the
intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A
particularly useful feature of intrinsic fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide
distributed sensing over very large distances
Intrinsic sensors are different in that the light beam does not leave the optical fiber but is
changed whilst still contained within it.
2. EXTRINSIC SENSORS
Where the light leaves the feed or transmitting fiber to be changed before it continues to the
detector by means of the return or receiving fiber
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multimode one, to
transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor
connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to
reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of
temperature inside aircraft jet by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a
radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same
way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the
extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors provide excellent protection of measurement signals against
noise corruption. Unfortunately, many conventional sensors produce electrical output which
must be converted into an optical signal for use with fiber. For example, in the case of
a platinum resistance thermometer, the temperature changes are translated into resistance
changes. The PRT must therefore have an electrical power supply. The modulated voltage
level at the output of the PRT can then be injected into the optical fiber via the usual type of
transmitter. This complicates the measurement process and means that low-voltage power
cables must be routed to the transducer.
Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration,
torque, and twisting.
EXTRINSIC
APPLICATIONSTEMPERATURE, PRESSURE,
LIQUID LEVEL AND FLOW.
LESS SENSITIVE
EASILY MULTIPLEXED
INGRESS/ EGRESS
CONNECTION PROBLEMS
EASIER TO USE
LESS EXPENSIVE
INTRINSIC
APPLICATIONS- ROTATION,
ACCELERATION, STRAIN,
ACOUSTIC PRESSURE AND
VIBRATION.
MORE SENSITIVE
TOUGHER TO MULTIPLEX
REDUCES CONNECTION
PROBLEMS
MORE ELABORATE SIGNAL
DEMODULATION
MORE EXPENSIVE
APPLICATIONS:
MILITARY AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
NIGHT VISION CAMERA
BIOMETRICS
IMAGE CAPTURE
IMAGE PROCESSING
FEATURE EXTRACTION
FEATURE COMPARISON

3. Write notes on (a) moir method of strain analysis,

(b) Holography
(a) moir method of strain analysis
MOIRE PHENOMENON:
Two arrays of alternately placed transparent and opaque lines or dots, when
moved relative to each other, result in fringe patterns consisting of alternately placed bright
and dark bands which are termed moir fringes. An ensemble of equispaced opaque lines
separated by transparent slits or lines, which are used to obtain moir fringes is called a
grating. In parallel - line grating shown in figure which are most commonly used for the
moir method of strain analysis, the opaque and transparent lines are perfectly parallel and
equi spaced. In a radial-line grating opaque and transparent lines are alternate radial lines and
in a circular-line grating these form circles of varying radii. The opaque and transparent lines
in these line gratings can either be equal or unequal.
Figure shows a parallel line grating. The distance between corresponding points
in a grating is called the pitch and is denoted by p. The density of the grating, which
represents the number of lines per unit length is denoted by d. The direction perpendicular to
the lines in the plane of grating is called the primary direction, while the direction parallel to
the lines is called the secondary direction.


FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF THE MOIRES FRINGES:
The arrays used to produce Moires fringes may be a series of straight parallel
lines, a series of radial lines emanating from a point, a series of concentric circles, or a pattern
of dots. Arrays consisting of straight parallel lines having opaque bars with transparent
interspaces of equal width are the most commonly used for experimental work. Such arrays
are called grids, grading, or grills. Coarse arrays having upto about 4 lines per cm arre
generally called grids and arrays having from 20 to 400 lines per cm are called gratings. Two
mutually perpendicular line arrays are termed as cross grating. Gratings having upto 200 lines
per cm are most commonly used.
b) Holography is a method that uses the wave character of light, which depicts an exact
description that goes beyond the options of the classic photography.
Holography is a technique that enables a light field, which is generally the product of a light
source scattered off of objects, to be recorded and later reconstructed when the original light
field is no longer present, due to the absence of the original objects. Holography can be
thought of as somewhat similar to sound recording, whereby a sound field created by
vibrating matter like musical instruments or vocal cords, is encoded in such a way that it can
be reproduced later, without the presence of the original vibrating matter.
Apparatus
A hologram can be made by shining part of the light beam directly onto the recording
medium, and the other part onto the object in such a way that some of the scattered light falls
onto the recording medium.
A more flexible arrangement for recording a hologram requires the laser beam to be aimed
through a series of elements that change it in different ways. The first element is a beam
splitter that divides the beam into two identical beams, each aimed in different directions:
One beam (known as the illumination or object beam) is spread using lenses and directed
onto the scene using mirrors. Some of the light scattered (reflected) from the scene then
falls onto the recording medium.
The second beam (known as the reference beam) is also spread through the use of lenses,
but is directed so that it doesn't come in contact with the scene, and instead travels
directly onto the recording medium.
Several different materials can be used as the recording medium. One of the most common is
a film very similar to photographic film (silver halide photographic emulsion), but with a
much higher concentration of light-reactive grains, making it capable of the much
higher resolution that holograms require. A layer of this recording medium (film, etc.) is
attached to a transparent substrate, which is commonly glass, but may also be plastic.
Process
When the two laser beams reach the recording medium, their light waves intersect
and interfere with each other. It is this interference pattern that is imprinted on the recording
medium. The pattern itself is seemingly random; as it represents the way in which the scene's
light interfered with the original light source but not the original light source itself. The
interference pattern can be said to be an encoded version of the scene, requiring a particular
key that is, the original light source in order to view its contents.


This missing key is provided later by shining a laser, identical to the one used to record the
hologram, onto the developed film. When this beam illuminates the hologram, it
is diffracted by the hologram's surface pattern. This produces a light field that is identical to
the one originally produced by the scene and scattered onto the hologram. The image this
effect produces in a person's retina is known as a virtual image
RECORDING A HOLOGRAM
RECONSTRUCTING A HOLOGRAM

UNIT V
1. State the uses and advantages of non-destructive testing procedures. Explain in detail
any one NDT procedure of evaluating a given specimen.
Nondestructive testing (NDT) are noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity of a
material, component or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object.
In contrast to destructive testing, NDT is an assessment without doing harm, stress or
destroying the test object. The destruction of the test object usually makes destructive testing
more costly and it is also inappropriate in many circumstances.
NDT plays a crucial role in ensuring cost effective operation, safety and reliability of plant,
with resultant benefit to the community. NDT is used in a wide range of industrial areas and
is used at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of many components. The
mainstream applications are in aerospace, power generation, automotive, railway,
petrochemical and pipeline markets. NDT of welds is one of the most used applications. It is
very difficult to weld or mold a solid object that has no risk of breaking in service, so testing
at manufacture and during use is often essential.
While originally NDT was applied only for safety reasons it is today widely accepted as cost
saving technique in the quality assurance process. Unfortunately NDT is still not used in
many areas where human life or ecology is in danger. Some may prefer to pay the lower costs
of claims after an accident than applying of NDT. That is a form of unacceptable risk
management. Disasters like the railway accident in Eschede Germany in 1998 is only one
example, there are many others.
For implementation of NDT it is important to describe what shall be found and what to reject.
A completely flawless production is almost never possible. For this reason testing
specifications are indispensable. Nowadays there exists a great number of standards and
acceptance regulations. They describe the limit between good and bad conditions, but also
often which specific NDT method has to be used.
The reliability of an NDT Method is an essential issue. But a comparison of methods is only
significant if it is referring to the same task. Each NDT method has its own set of advantages
and disadvantages and, therefore, some are better suited than others for a particular
application. By use of artificial flaws, the threshold of the sensitivity of a testing system has
to be determined. If the the sensitivity is to low defective test objects are not always
recognized. If the sensitivity is too high parts with smaller flaws are rejected which would
have been of no consequence to the serviceability of the component. With statistical methods
it is possible to look closer into the field of uncertainly. Methods such as Probability of
Detection (POD) or the ROC-method "Relative Operating Characteristics" are examples of
the statistical analysis methods. Also the aspect of human errors has to be taken into account
when determining the overall reliability.
Personnel Qualification is an important aspect of non-destructive evaluation. NDT techniques
rely heavily on human skill and knowledge for the correct assessment and interpretation of
test results. Proper and adequate training and certification of NDT personnel is therefore a
must to ensure that the capabilities of the techniques are fully exploited. There are a number
of published international and regional standards covering the certification of competence of

personnel. The EN 473 (Qualification and certification of NDT personnel - General
Principles) was developed specifically for the European Union for which the SNT-TC-1A is
the American equivalent.
The nine most common NDT Methods are shown in the main index of this encyclopedia. In
order of most used, they are: Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Radiographic Testing (RT),
Electromagnetic Testing (ET) in which Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is well know and
Acoustic Emission (AE or AET). Besides the main NDT methods a lot of other NDT
techniques are available, such as Shearography Holography, Microwave and many more and
new methods are being constantly researched and developed.
Nondestructive Testing
The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that plays a
critical role in assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in a
reliable and cost effective fashion. NDT technicians and engineers define and implement tests
that locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause planes
to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and a variety of less visible, but
equally troubling events. These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future
usefulness of the object or material. In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be
inspected and measured without damaging them. Because it allows inspection without
interfering with a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality
control and cost-effectiveness. Generally speaking, NDT applies to industrial inspections.
While technologies are used in NDT that are similar to those used in the medical industry,
typically nonliving objects are the subjects of the inspections.
Nondestructive Evaluation
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably with NDT.
However, technically, NDE is used to describe measurements that are more quantitative in
nature. For example, a NDE method would not only locate a defect, but it would also be used
to measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and orientation. NDE may be
used to determine material properties such as fracture toughness, formability, and other
physical characteristics.
EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy-current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws
in conductive materials. There are several limitations, among them: only conductive materials
can be tested, the surface of the material must be accessible, the finish of the material may
cause bad readings, the depth of penetration into the material is limited by the materials'
conductivity, and flaws that lie parallel to the probe may be undetectable.
In a standard eddy current testing a circular coil carrying current is placed in proximity to the
test specimen (which must be electrically conductive).The alternating current in the coil
generates changing magnetic field which interacts with test specimen and generates eddy
current. Variations in the phase and magnitude of these eddy currents can be monitored using
a second 'receiver' coil, or by measuring changes to the current flowing in the primary
'excitation' coil. Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of the test
object, or the presence of any flaws, will cause a change in eddy current and a corresponding

change in the phase and amplitude of the measured current. This is the basis of standard (flat
coil) eddy current inspection, the most widely used eddy current technique.
However, eddy-current testing can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of the
material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically complex geometries can be
investigated. It is also useful for making electrical conductivity and coating thickness
measurements.
Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:
Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

Detects surface and near surface defects
Inspection gives immediate results
Equipment is very portable
Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
Minimum part preparation is required
Test probe does not need to contact the part
Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:
Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe

Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
Surface finish and roughness may interfere
Reference standards needed for setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as de-laminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable
2. Explain in detail the principle of ultrasonic pulse echo testing and also explain
the sequence of test and its application.
ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)

In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched
into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. A common
example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the test
object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it
can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is
a form of non-destructive testing used in many industries including aerospace,
automotive and other transportation sectors.
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic
machine is passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically
separated from the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in
immersion testing.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform, reflection and
attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the
sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to
the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of
the object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine
displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the
intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the
reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends
ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has
reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or
other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the
amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant
increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave
energy due to separation between the surfaces.
At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an

ultrasonic phased array instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame with
magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact with the pipe by a spring. The wet area
is the ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to pass into the pipe wall.
Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing spline cracking
Advantages
1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the
part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. Only one surface need be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the
depth of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of
defects.
6. Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity.
7. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
Disadvantages
1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc.,
although paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy
between transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact
technique is used. Non-contact techniques include Laser and Electro
Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants
that do not contain rust inhibitors.
3.Explain any four

(a)Eddy current testing

(b)Acoustic emission technique
(c)Radiography
(d) Fluorescent penetrant technique
(e)Magnetic particle inspection
(f)Resonance test
(a)EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy-current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws
in conductive materials. There are several limitations, among them: only conductive materials
can be tested, the surface of the material must be accessible, the finish of the material may
cause bad readings, the depth of penetration into the material is limited by the materials'
conductivity, and flaws that lie parallel to the probe may be undetectable.
In a standard eddy current testing a circular coil carrying current is placed in proximity to the
test specimen (which must be electrically conductive).The alternating current in the coil
generates changing magnetic field which interacts with test specimen and generates eddy
current. Variations in the phase and magnitude of these eddy currents can be monitored using
a second 'receiver' coil, or by measuring changes to the current flowing in the primary
'excitation' coil. Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of the test
object, or the presence of any flaws, will cause a change in eddy current and a corresponding
change in the phase and amplitude of the measured current. This is the basis of standard (flat
coil) eddy current inspection, the most widely used eddy current technique.
However, eddy-current testing can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of the
material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically complex geometries can be
investigated. It is also useful for making electrical conductivity and coating thickness
measurements.

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:
Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

Detects surface and near surface defects
Inspection gives immediate results
Equipment is very portable
Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
Minimum part preparation is required
Test probe does not need to contact the part
Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:
Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe
Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
Surface finish and roughness may interfere
Reference standards needed for setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as de-laminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable


(b)ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUE
Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic (elastic)

waves in solids that occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in
its internal structure, for example as a result of crack formation or plastic
deformation due to aging, temperature gradients or external mechanical forces.
In particular, AE is occurring during the processes of mechanical loading of
materials and structures accompanied by structural changes that generate local
sources of elastic waves. This results in small surface displacements of a
material produced by elastic or stress waves generated when the accumulated
elastic energy in a material or on its surface is released rapidly. The waves
generated by sources of AE are of practical interest in methods used to capture
AE in a controlled fashion, for study and/or use for inspection of structural
integrity, quality control, system feedback, process monitoring, and others.
The application of acoustic emission to non-destructive testing of materials,
typically takes place between 100 kHz and 1 MHz. Unlike conventional
ultrasonic testing, AE tools are designed for monitoring acoustic emissions
produced within the material during failure or stress, rather than actively
transmitting waves, then collecting them after they have traveled through the
material. Part failure can be documented during unattended monitoring. The
monitoring of the level of AE activity during multiple load cycles forms the
basis for many AE safety inspection methods, that allow the parts undergoing
inspection to remain in service

(c)RADIOGRAPHY
Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive

testing (NDT) method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the
ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons)
to penetrate various materials.
Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive source, like Ir-192, Co-60, or in
rarer cases Cs-137 are used in a X-ray computed tomographymachine as a
source of photons. Neutron radiographic testing (NR) is a variant of
radiographic testing which uses neutrons instead of photons to penetrate
materials. This can see very different things from X-rays, because neutrons
can pass with ease through lead and steel but are stopped by plastics, water
and oils.
Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the
material can be detected and measured, variations in this amount (or
intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or composition of
material. Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of the

electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength less than about 10 nanometres.

(d) FLUORESCENT PENETRANT TECHNIQUE
Fluorescent-Penetrant Inspection (FPI) is a type of dye penetrant

inspection in which a fluorescent dye is applied to the surface of a non-porous
material in order to detect defects that may compromise the integrity or quality of
the part in question. Noted for its low cost, simple process, FPI is used widely in a
variety of industries.
There are many types of dye used in penetrant inspections. FPI operations
use a dye much more sensitive to smaller flaws than penetrants used in other DPI
procedures. This is because of the nature of the fluorescent penetrant that is
applied. With its brilliant yellow glow caused by its reaction with ultraviolet
radiation, FPI dye sharply contrasts with the dark background. A vivid reference to
even minute flaws is easily observed by a skilled inspector.
Because of its sensitivity to such small defects, FPI is ideal for most metals which
tend to have small, tight pores and smooth surfaces. Defects can vary but are
typically tiny cracks caused by processes used to shape and form the metal. It is
not unusual for a part to be inspected several times before it is finished (an
inspection often follows each significant forming operation).
Selection of inspection type is, of course, largely based on the material in

question. FPI is a nondestructive inspection process which means that the part is
not in any way damaged by the test process. Thus, it is of great importance that a
dye and process are selected that ensure the part is not subjected to anything that
may cause damage or staining.
Inspection Steps
See the following main steps in a Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection:
1. Initial Cleaning:
Before the dye can be applied to the surface of the material in question one must
ensure that the surface is free of any contamination such as paint, oil, dirt, or scale
that may fill a defect or falsely indicate a flaw. Methods such as sand blasting or
chemical etching can be used to rid the surface of undesired contaminates and
ensure good penetration when the dye is applied. Even if the part has already been
through a previous DPI operation it is imperative that it is cleaned again. Most
dyes are not compatible and therefore will thwart any attempt to identify defects
that are already penetrated by any other dye. This process of cleaning is critical
because if the surface of the part is not properly prepared to receive the dye,
defective product may be moved on for further processing. This can cause lost time
and money in reworking, overprocessing, or even scrapping a finished part at final
inspection.
2. Penetrant Application:
The fluorescent penetrant is applied to the surface and allowed time to seep into
flaws or defects in the material. Time varies by material and the size of the flaws
that are intended to be identified but is generally around 30 minutes. It requires
much less time to penetrate larger defects because the dye is able to soak in much
faster. The opposite is true for smaller flaws.
3. Excess Dye Removal:

Penetrant on the outer surface of the material is next removed. This highly
controlled process is necessary in order to ensure that the dye is removed only
from the surface of the material and not from any identified flaws. Various
chemicals can be used for such a process and vary by specific penetrant types.
Typically, the cleaner is applied to a cloth that is used to carefully clean the
surface.
4. Developer Application:
Having removed excess penetrant a contrasting developer may be applied to the
surface. This serves as a background against which flaws can more readily be
detected. The developer also causes penetrant that is still in any defects to surface
and bleed. These two attributes allow defects to be easily detected upon inspection.
Time is then allowed for the developer to achieve desired results before inspection.
5. Inspection:
In the case of fluorescent inspection, the inspector will use ultraviolet radiation
with an intensity appropriate to the intent of the inspection operation. This must
take place in a dark room to ensure good contrast between the glow emitted by the
penetrant in the defected areas and the unlit surface of the material. The inspector
carefully examines all surfaces in question and records any concerns. Areas in
question may be marked so that location of defects can be identified easily without
the use of the UV lighting. The inspection should occur at a given point in time
after the application of the developer. Too short a time and the flaws may not be
fully blotted, too long and the blotting may make proper interpretation difficult.
6. Final Cleaning:
Upon successful inspection of the product, it is returned for a final cleaning before
it is either shipped, moved on to another process, or deemed defective and
reworked or scrapped. Note that a flawed part may never be cleaned if it is
considered not to be cost effective.
Advantages
Highly sensitive fluorescent penetrant is ideal for even the smallest

imperfections
Little training is needed for the operator/ inspector
Low cost and potentially high volume
Potential Disadvantages
Requires adequate cleaning (neglect of this step can have costly repercussions)
Test materials can be damaged if compatibility is not ensured
Dyes stain clothe and skin and must be treated with care

Penetrant dyes stain cloth, skin and other porous surfaces brought into contact. One
should verify compatibility on the test material, especially when considering the
testing of plastic components. Further information on inspection steps may be
found in industry standards
(e)MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for

detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferroelectric
materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a
magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect
magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed
through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect
magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the test object, but
a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are
perpendicular to the direction of the electric current which may be
either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows
the magnetic flux to leak. Ferrous iron particles are applied to the part. The
particles may be dry or in a wet suspension. If an area of flux leakage is present the
particles will be attracted to this area. The particles will build up at the area of
leakage and form what is known as an indication. The indication can then be
evaluated to determine what it is, what may have caused it, and what action should
be taken, if any.
Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface discontinuities.

Using AC to detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due to what is known
as the skin effect, where the current runs along the surface of the part. Because
the current alternates in polarity at 50 to 60 cycles per second it does not
penetrate much past the surface of the test object. This means the magnetic
domains will only be aligned equal to the distance AC current penetration into
the part. The frequency of the alternating current determines how deep the
penetration.
Direct current (DC, full wave DC) is used to detect subsurface discontinuities
where AC can not penetrate deep enough to magnetize the part at the depth
needed. The amount of magnetic penetration depends on the amount of current
through the part.[1] DC is also limited on very large cross-sectional parts how
effective it will magnetize the part.
Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) work similar to full wave DC, but
allows for detection of surface breaking indications. HWDC is advantageous
for inspection process because it actually helps move the magnetic particles
over the test object so that they have the opportunity to come in contact with
areas of magnetic flux leakage. The increase in particle mobility is caused by
the pulsating current, which vibrates the test piece and particles.
Each method of magnetizing has its pros and cons. AC is generally always best for
discontinuities open to the surface and some form of DC for subsurface.
A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass production
inspection machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is
placed to magnetize it. In between the head and tail stock is typically an
induction coil, which is used to change the orientation of the magnetic field by
90 from head stock. Most of the equipment is customized and built for a
specific application.
Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in wire
wrapping applications.
Magnetic yoke is a hand-held devices that induces a magnetic field between
two poles. Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations,
andweld inspection. The draw back of magnetic yokes is that they only induce
a magnetic field between the poles so large-scale inspections using the device
can be time-consuming. For proper inspection the yoke needs to be rotated 90
degrees for every inspection area to detect horizontal and vertical
discontinuities. Yokes subsurface detection is limited. These systems used dry
magnetic powders, wet powders, or aerosol cans
AC demagnetizing
Pull through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in Fig 3 are AC powered
devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly
pulled through by hand or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part
through and away from coil's magnetic field slows drops the magnetic
field in the part. Note many AC demagnetizing coils have power
cycles of several seconds so the part must be passed through the coil
and be several feet (meters) away before the demagnetizing cycle
finishes or the part will have residue magnetism.
AC step down demagnetizing: This is built in only a few MPI
equipment, the process is where the part is subjected to equal or
greater AC current, the current is reduced by X amps in several
sequential pulses till zero current is reached. The number of steps
required to demagnetizing a part is a function of amount current to
magnetize the part.
Reversing DC demagnetizing: The simply reverses the current flow of
magnetizing pulse canceling the magnetic flow. Note: This is built in the
MPI equipment by the manufacturer.
Wet system particle range in size from less than 0.5 to 10 micrometres for
use with water or oil carriers. Particles used in wet systems have pigments
applied that fluoresce at 365 nm (ultraviolet A) requiring 1000 W/cm2 (10
W/m2) at the surface of the part for proper inspection. If the particles do not
have the correct light applied in a darkroom the particles can not be
detected/seen. It is industry practice to use UV goggles/glasses to filter the
UV light and amplify the visible light spectrum (normally green and yellow)
created by the fluorescing particles. Green and yellow fluorescence was
chosen because the human eye reacts best to these colors.
Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres, designed to
be seen in white light conditions. The particles are not designed to be used
in wet environments. Dry powders are normally applied using hand operated
air powder applicators.
Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed
aerosol cans similar to hair spray.
The following are general steps for inspecting on a wet horizontal machine:
1. Part is cleaned of oil and other contaminants
2. Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to
magnetize the part. See ASTM E1444-05 for formulas.
3. The magnetizing pulse is applied for 0.5 seconds during which the operator
washes the part with the particle, stopping before the magnetic pulse is
completed. Failure to Stop prior to end of the magnetic pulse will wash
away indications.
4. UV light is applied the operator looks for indications of defects that are 0 to
+/- 45 degrees from path the current flowed through the part. Defects only
appear that are 45 to 90 degrees the magnetic field. The easiest way to
quickly figure out which way the magnetic field is running is grab the part
with either hand between the head stocks laying your thumb against the part
(do not wrap your thumb around the part) this is called either left or right
thumb rule or right hand grip rule. The direction thumb points tell us the
direction current is flowing, the Magnetic field will be running 90 degrees
from the current path. On complex geometry like an engine crank the
operator needs to visualize the changing direction of the current and
magnetic field created. The current starts at 0 degrees then 45 degrees to 90
degree back to 45 degrees to 0 then -45 to -90 to -45 to 0 and repeats this
for crankpin. So inspection can be time consuming to carefully look for
indications that are only 45 to 90 degrees from the magnetic field.
5. The part is either accepted or rejected based on pre-defined accept and reject
criteria
6. The part is demagnetized
7. Depending on requirements the orientation of the magnetic field may need
to be changed 90 degrees to inspect for defects that can not be detected
from steps 3 to 5. The most common way is change magnetic field
orientation is to a use Coil Shot. in Fig 1 a 36 inch Coil can be seen then
steps 4, 5, and 6 are repeated
Advantages:
Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most
stainless steels.
Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power
requirements.
Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired
inspection sensitivity.
Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum depth
sensitivity is approximately 0.6 (under ideal conditions).
Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.
Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important


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AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

1. Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

No of true positives + no of true negatives

Accuracy = (Sensitivity) (prevalence) + specificity [1-prevalency]

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

FP condition absent + positive result

2. What are the types of Mechanical Extensometers? Explain with aid of

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Figure: Berry Strain Gauge

Figure: Johansson extensometer

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

3. What is Strain Gauge? Explain with a neat sketch the working

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Figure: Acoustical Strain Gauge

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

WHEAT STONE BRUDGE CIRCUIT

By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in the sensing

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

In a circular polariscope setup two quarter-wave plates are added to the

Experimental Setup of the Circular Polariscope

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

2. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

3. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

2. What are fiber-optic sensors? What is their application in

Fibers have many uses in remote sensing.

WHY OPTICAL SENSORS

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

LIGHT BEAM CHANGES BY THE PHENOMENA THAT IS BEING MEASURED

LIGHT MAY CHANGE IN ITS FIVE OPTICAL PROPERTIES i.e INTENSITY,

INTENSITY BASED SENSORS EP (t)

FREQUENCY VARYING SENSORS - P(t)

PHASE MODULATING SENSING- (t)

POLARIZATION MODULATING FIBER SENSING

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Mr. HASTON AMIT KUMAR (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

AE 2352EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS