TTS Integrated Training System Module 17 Propeller 17.1 Fundamentals 174 Fundamentals ce TiSinepated tes ‘Score a0 eScy Integrated Training System Copyright Notice (© Copyright. All worlwide rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: Le. photocopy. electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of ‘Total Training Suppot Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence San knowledge fox xtc A Ban B2 ar cate byte alocaton of knows ves neat (1,2 Shap ac appcabe stock Catgory appcats mst meet the te enogoy Bore calapoy 22 bese knowadpe even ‘Te tnowndge eventos are dened a ols: LEVEL 1 + _-Atamiaizaton wih the principal laments ofthe subject objectives: eT applicant shaua be fara wih the basic elements of he subject 5 Tages ae gv asp cecipon he wre sec eg cane wor and 1+ The applicant shouldbe able to us typical terms, LEVEL 2 + A.genera knowedge ofthe thecraticl and practca aspects of the subject. «An aby to apply that knowlege. onjctves: ‘The applicant shail be able to understand he theoretical undamenias of the subject, ‘The applicant shoul be able to gve a general desertion of the sujet using, 38 apropite, typical examples ‘+The applicant shoul be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical awe desing the subject ‘+ Theapplcant shout be abet read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subct ‘+The applicant shout be abe to apply his knowledge in a practical manner usirg detailed procedures LEVEL 3 + A.cetaie knowesge ofthe theoretical and practca aspacts of tha subject. {A capacty to comsine and apply the separate laments of rnowodge in a loeal and comprehensive Objectives: +The appicant shold know the theory ofthe subject and intcelatontipe withthe subjects {The appicant shold be abe fo giv 9 detailed description ofthe eutject using theoretical undarntale 0 spectfe eamples. ‘+The appleant should understand and beable to use mathematea forasge rete tothe subject ‘The applicant shoud be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple swings and schematics escrbing te sutject. ‘+The appleantshovi be abl to apply his knowledge in a practical manner usirg manufachire‘s ‘+The applcant shou be abe to nterpce resuts fom various sources and measurements ana apply Caen acton where appropri, 12 Module 17.4 Pundomertals hawor uname 1S apts tas Sten ee Seep 10| anonIntegrated Training System cy oes cou quem pee oo Table of Contents ‘Chapter 17.1 Fundamentals Introduction Propulsive Force Propeller Terms, ° Effective Pitch, Geemetrc Pitch and SI Angle of Attack B Propeller Configuration 6 Pusner is ‘Tractor 18 Conte Rory 6 Counter ctatng 7 Propeller Solidity 8 Propeller Clearances oy Right and Left Handed Propellers, a The Blade Element a Blade Angle and Blade Pitch 2B Blade Twist Pa Forces on a Blade Element a Variation of Propeller Efficiency with Speed 2 Winding 2 Feathering. 8 Reverse Thrust a7 Forces Acting on the Propeller. 9 Gentntvgal Force 2° Tress Bending FO 20 Torque Bending Fore a ‘Aerodynamic Twisting Tomant (ATA, a ‘Centiiga Twisting Moment (TM) 33 “Tumi Moment the Windra Condon 48 Pitch Ranges Handling Effects - Single Engine Aircraft “ ‘eymmiri ifect (-Paco) ‘Sipaveam effec ry Torque Reaction, rd Gyrosopic Ect, 0 Thrust and Power Development 53 Power Development Piston Engias 53 Power Development Tuboprep Engi Se teres Module 17:1 Fundamentals 13 =, TTS nape Tag Bamenees ecengn 20Turboprop Configuration Vibrational Forces and Resonance, Glossary 14 Tage raegsysen Seapets Integrated Training System Module 17.1 Fundamentals bnwse danasIntegrated Training System Orsipcn meson ane Ree Intentionally Blank erate Modul 171 Fundamental 45 =, TrSinepate Teg Sn tint ‘Somme r0capdorcou estonia Module 17.1 Enabling Objectives ‘Objective Blade element th Highflow biade angle, reverse angle, angie of atack, rotational ‘speed; Propeler sip; ai, Senrfagal Toe Relaive siflow on Bade angle of alack, ‘Vibration and resonance. 18. Module 174 Fundamenials — {TiS monte raring Syston eso caper a10|Integrated Training System ww Chapter 17.1 Fundamentals Introduction ‘Throughout the development of controlled fight as we know it, every aircraft required some kind ‘of device to convert engine power to some form of thrust. Nearly all ofthe early practical aircraft designs used propellers to create this thrust, ‘As the scien» of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs improved from flat boards, whieh ‘merely pushed the air backwards, o aerofol shapes. These aerofols produced lit to pul the aircraft forward through aerodynamic action. {As aircraft designs improved, propellers were developed which used thinner aerofol sections. ‘and had grealer strength. Because ofits structural strength, these improvements brought the ‘aluminium alloy propeller into wide usage. The advantage of being able to change the propeller blade angle ir fight led to wide acceptance of the two-position propeller and, later, the constant speed propeller system, ‘Today, propeler designs continue to be improved by the use of new composite materials, new aerofil shapes and muti blade conigurations. Propulsive Force ‘A propeller is a means of converting engine power into propulsive force. ‘A rotating propeller imparts rearward motion to a mass of air and the reaction to tis is forward force on the propeller blades, {A propeller moves a large mass of air rearward, ata relatively slow speed, as opposed to a gas turbine engine, which moves a small mass of air rearward ata high speed, Thrust = Mass(V.— Vi) ‘in More 17+ Futermetas 47 = ‘1S htgaed Yang yon =e ‘Scammer aooIntegrated Training System Propel wak ‘irra ‘Velocty Velocity Vo “ ~<— ‘ic Mass Flow < Figure 1.1: Thrust from a propeller 13 Module 171 Funders Stopme 2010Integrated Training Sysiem w@ J inde ck sion pn Propeller Terms Before starting any discussion about propellers, it is necessary to define some basic terms to ‘avoid confusion and misunderstanding, AA propeller isa rotating aerofoil that consists of two of more blades attached to a central hub \which is mounted on the engine crankshaft. The function of the propeller fs to convert engine power fo useful thrust, Propeller blades have a leading edge, traling edge, a tip, a shank. a face, and a back Blade Blade Butt Hub Centreine Blade Hub lade Back Blade Angle Plane of Rotation Blade Face Figure 1.2: Blade Terms emer scr Modul 174 Fundamentals 19 EE 7S meres Tang Sa Spo ‘onan a@ Integrated Training System anders cas wteen ace Blade angle is the angle between the propellers plane of rotation, and the chord line of the propeller aerofol Blade station isa reference postion on a blade that isa specified distance from the centre of the hub. Pitch isthe distance (in inches or millimetres) that a propeller section will move forward in one revolution Pitch distribution is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank totip, Blade Camber oF Suction Face ‘Black Back Blade Face or Blade Tio Pressure face or Thrust Fave Trailing Edge Seemeeers Erosion Sip Deicing Overshoe ‘Blade Shank or Figure 1.3: Blade Terms 410 Module 17.1 Fundamentals pou TiS tmapted Tag Sytem et Scope re csiIntegrated Training System 4 v7 Effective Pitch, Geometric Pitch and Slip ‘Since the angle ofa propeller blade varies along its length, a particular blade station must be ‘chosen to specty the pitch of a blade. Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some propeller manufacturers express Pitch in inches at 75% of the radius. This is the geometric pitch, or the distance this particular element would move forward in one ‘evolution along a helix, or spiral, determined by its blade angle, Figure 1.4: Effective pitch, Geometric pitch and Stip (measured at Master Station) ‘The offective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances through the air in one ‘evolution, This cannot be determined by the pitch angle alone because itis affected by the forward velocity ofthe aeroplane and air density ‘The difference between geometric and effective pitch is called propeller slip. {fa propeller has a pitch of 60 inches, in theory it should move forward 60 inches in one revolution. But fhe aircraft actualy moves forward only 35 inches in one revolution the “effective pitch is 35 inches and the propeller efficiency is 70%, eats Module 17.1 Fundamentais ait Se. ‘TTS apne Tinea Sen Conve 8Intentionally Blank. 41.42 Mocule 17.4 Fundamentals iE nantes rang Ste Sas Seana ore "one fossoeIntegrated Training System ow Sieve cok weston pest Angle of Attack Thrust produced by a propel, n the same way as lit produced bya wing, is determined by the blade's angle of attack. It is the acute angle between the chord line of a propeller blade and the relative wind ‘Angle of attack relates to the blade pitch angle, but tis nota fixed angle. It varies withthe forward speed ofthe aeroplane and the RPM of the propeller. ‘As an example, when there is no forward speed, angle of attack (a) and blade pitch angle are the same, 20°, \When the aeroplane is moving forward at 80 knots, angle of attack becomes much less than the blade pitch angle (see figure 1.5) — a Roped Nese 17-1 Feecareias ‘TIS itegeted Trainng Syn,Integrated Training System Ferry tees Figure 1.5: Angle of Attack at diferent forward speeds 14 Modul 17-1 Fundamentals peu Tiago rae yen bendPropeller Configuration ‘There are four main propeller configurations: © Pusher ¢ © Tractor © Contra Rotating = Counter-Rotating Allthe above types can be between two and five bladed propellers, but usually small two blade ‘propellers are used on small piston engines and three, four or five bladed propellers are used for high powered piston or gas turbine engines. Pusher ‘Atle confusing, a itis sometimes known as the ‘Propeller. This type, as the name implies, pushes the airframe through the air and is usually ited behind the mainplane. Figure 1.8: Pusher propellers on the Piaggio P.180 Avant Serteaesee Mouse 171 Fundomentas a5 == “TiS kasgate Tans Sen Soe ‘Sanne T8Integrated Training System Tractor ‘This type pulls ‘he airframe through the ‘and is usually fitted forward of the mainplane. Figure 1.7: The Cessna 337 Skymaster has a pusher AND a tractor propelle: Contra-Rotating ‘This configuration is where there are two propeller units on one shaft, driven by the sane engine, but rotating in opposite directions. This gives the advantage of reducing the disc area, ‘but maintaining the thrust to enable lower undercarriage configurations to be used or tigher RPM's fim ihe engine due to reduced tip speed. When a propeller has more than six blades, becomes ineficient, a cortrarotating propellers also a method of overcoming this preblem Figure 1.8: The Contra-rotating propeller ofthe P51 Unlimited Racer ‘The rear propeller is usually of a smaller diameter than the front propeller, so the blade tips wil Not be affected by air vortices from the front propeller tps. 116 Mosul 17.1 Fundamentals sere ecens Tre gtd Taig Sytem sa Teepe peelIntegrated Training System we Counter-Rotating With a large rotating mass such as a propeller, twill produce significant turning moment oF torque on the aiftame. To overcome this probiem on mut-engined aifcrafl, counter rotating propellers are often used. In this system you would have, for example, the port engine propeller ‘otating clockwise and the starboard engine propeller rotating anti-clockwise, thus balancing the: torque effects. Figure 1.9: Counter-rotating propellers sereseones Mesla 174 Fundamentals 147 Sem. “TTS igi Tne Syn meee econocy Integrated Training System ey casino kaon ac Propeller Solidity Solidity is the term used to describe the abilty ofthe propelir to absorb power from the engine. For example a C130 propel will require high solidity, whist a Cessna 150 wl be somewhat tess Solty is defined as ‘The surface area of the propeller divided by the surface area of the propeller disc’ Number of blades x Chord at the Master Station Saliity = Circumference at the Master Station Solidty may be increased by: ‘+ Increasing number of blades (imited by hub strength so contra-otating is an option) ‘+ Increasing the chord of the blades (C130 uses ‘paddle’ type blades) ‘+ Increasing the length of the biades (Limited by tips going sonic and ground clearance). Figure 1.10: Soliity 118 Mocule 17.1 Fundamentals oe FSi ann Sym Tania Sapa 0Integrated Training System & 7 Propeller Clearances Ground Clearance ‘The clearance that exists between the propeller tip and the ground when the aircraft isin the ‘normal fying attitude is termed ground clearance. On an aircraft wth a tall wheel configuration, it would have to be in the takeoff position to measure the ground clearance. Fuselage Clearance ‘With a mutt-engined aircraft, this isthe clearance between the side of fuselage and the propeller tip, BSR gona co Minn propel wae ces = Minimum peopel ral Manu ogi Ref EASA C8 25925 Figure 1.11: Propeller clearances ermers Mou 171 Fundomentle £29, = ‘TTS inte Ying Sree = ‘Scammer 18Integrated Training System caespe cu aben paca Intentionally Blank 1420 Module 17.1 Fundamentals ee TB tegate an Sten = Seopman sore enceIntegrated Training Syst Cugeth ernest eee ic 7 Right and Left Handed Propellers ‘Aight handed propellers one which rotates in a clockwise drecton when viewed from aft - looking forward ‘Alefthhanded propeller is one which rotates in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from aft + looking forward. The Blade Element ‘The aerodynamics ofthe propeller can most easily be understood by considering the motion of an element, or section ofthe propeller blade. Because the blade section of a propellers. an ‘aerofol section its aerodynamics can be studied inthe same way, using the same terms, ry “oa Reaction —» Maton of ert Through Air Figure 1.12: Aerofoil Terms Tralig Edge Rotational Velocity When the aircraft is stationary the motion of the element is purely rotational. Ata given RPM the: velocity ofthe blade element increases as it moves towards the blade tip. Shock wave effects, 25 the tip Seed approaches Mach 1 limit the lenath of blade. In addition there s the obvious limitation o tip to ground clearance. Forward Velocity \When the propeller is stationary the forward velocity is entirely the due tothe ferward speed of the aircraft (TAS). However when the propeller is rotating and therefore drawing air through the blade disc then there is an additional induced airflow. tee Module 17.4 Fundamenials eae) fonnoe" ee oreIntegrated Training System Direzion Relative Ai Flow (RAF) Figure 1.13: Airflow Components 422 Module 171 Fundam eee TS heegates any spe Se Seaprmse8 anaesIntegrated Training System ow eee cu usin pn Blade Angle and Blade Pitch In order to develop the required aerodynamic force on the blace element it must be set at a ‘smal positive angle of attack to the resultant relative airflow. The Helix Angle plus the angle of attack equals the blade angle, which is more usually known as biade pitch, ‘Ablade element advances through space as though itwas prescribing a helix it were 100% ‘efficient then the distance it moves in ‘-revolution is called the Geometric Pitch. However all blades have tip losses that cause Slip, resulting n a forward distance moved per revolution called Effective Pitch veer me Module 17-1 Fundamentals 429 Pi ‘T1Simapied trang Sam Seema aanIntegrated Training System Dicecton Plane of Rotation Figure 1.14: Blade Angle pitch relationships 1.26 Module 47-4 Fundamentals news acme TE eagate rang yen Sas Sonam a0 TapenaeIntegrated Training System oe Blade Twist Earle it was stated that the rotational velocity increases with distance towards the blade tip. It Is necessary therefore to reduce the blade angle towards the tip in order tomaintain an efficient angle of attack (4°- 6” fs the norm). This isthe reason forthe twist on a blade as shown in igure 1.8 Figure 1.15: Blade Twist 1.25 TTS meng Ten Ser ‘annex 210 edule 174 FundamentaleIntegrated Training System nese coon poses Intentionally Blank 28 Mofule 17.1 Fundomentals Te beantes ann Sten = Sapna Ie "ine lossoaeIntegrated Training System fe = Daag mace ine Forces on a Blade Element ‘The aerodynamic force produced by setting the blade element ata small positive angle of attack i.e. the total reaction - may be resolved with respect to the direction of motion ofthe aircraft. ‘The component thus obtained which is parallel tothe fight path isthe thrust force, and that “which remains is the propeller torque force. Notice that the propeller torque force is the resistance to motion inthe plane of rotation, | Propeller axis Forward Motion Figure 1.16: Blade Twist Sertedetae Module 17.1 Fundamentals 27 “TS enya Tang er Sa Taig Sa,Integrated Training System casgecack esi pn Intentionally Blank 1.28 Mocule 17.1 Fundamentals {TiS toga Taine Sten Ss Seppe So ‘cooetunooonIntegrated Training System ow Variation of Propeller Efficiency with Speed Thnustx TAS Thrust Horsepower Propeller ficiency = Torque x 2nN Shaft Horsepower Figure 1.17 ilustrates a fixed pitch propeller traveling at diferent speeds at a constant RPM. If the blade angle is fixed, the angle of attack will change with variations of forward speed, In Particular, as speed increases, the angle of attack decreases and withit the thrust, The effect ‘on propeller efficiency is as folows: ‘2 Atsome high forward speed the angle of attack of the blade willbe close to the zero lit incidence and thrust will reduce to zero. b There will only be one speed at which the blade is operating at its most efficient angle of attack (4°-6") and where the propeller efficiency will be a maximum. © Atlow speeds, the thrust wil increase as the angle of attack is increased . Provided that the blade is not stalled, the thrust is very large, but the speed is low and the propeller efficiency is low. Therefore at zero forward speed no useful work is being done and efficiency is zero, serene Moda 17 1 Fundameniis 429 EERE ‘Sooner zeIntegrated Training System: cance sean pon High Optimum Tow Speed ‘Speed Speed Figure 1.17: Eflect of speed on a fixed pitch propeller 1.30. Module 17.1 Funeria ScmnanseIntegrated Training System So ean et gue pees ‘These limitations to efficiency of a fied pitch propeller led tothe development ofthe two pitch propeller and later tothe variable pitch propeller that enables the optimum angle of attack to be ‘maintained throughout the fight range. ficiency 100% ‘Assuring: Diameter and RPM Constant ‘Acta Speed Figure 1.18: Efficiency Curves vereera Madly $$ Funders 13 Et TrSitegate Teng Sys oe ‘Sonne aor8Integrated Training System ausepe co grin pace Windmilling \ariabe ich propels are prone to a condition known as windmiling. the provele suffers a lots of postive torque, the ptch wil fine of nan attempt fo maintain he governed RPM Selectod athe tme. The relative ailow wl mpage onthe font surface of th bade section ‘and cause drag and negative torque that wil drve the engine rather han resist eation Figure 1.19: Windmiling Propeller Figure 1.20 shows that in the windmiling condition there is a small negative angle of attack, ‘causing the total reaction to act as shown. Resolving the Total Reaction into the two forces of thrust and torque results inthe thrust acting inthe reverse direction (however the magnitude is ‘not very great) and the torque is acting with, and is assisting, rotation, Its this force that causes, the propeller to speed up and cause a potentially damaging over speed of the powerplant {In addition the reverse thrust and extra form drag caused by the flat face of the propeller causes large drag forces to occur and hence cause considerable asymmetric forces on a twin or multiple engine aircraft 132 Module 17.1 Fundamentals Teta Ying yen Se Seopa soe sapienIntegrated Training System The acrodynamics are exactly the same as that which dives & ground based windail, hence ‘the name of tis condition. Note that the windmill positon ie defined as having a small positive blade angle. However this will also mean ithas a small negative angle of attack. 133 serene, Moda 17+ FundamentalsIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank. 4.34 ‘Module 17.1 Fundamentals eee TE tegates ann Se Peenrea} Scan soo rip huisoeeIntegrated Training System ow Feathering Following engine failure the windmiling propeler would cause drag and possibly cause engine ‘damage dve to over speeding leading to sere or possibly engine fe, By tuning the blades ‘so that the aggregate effect of the blade section produces zero torque, the propeller is stopped ‘and drag reduces to minimum. The feathered poston therefore at approximately 90" to the plane of rotation. Figure 1.20: Feathered Blade Section aeraemene le 174 Funder 4.35 oe Mole 47 4 Fundamentals cna Sameer ndeIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank. 1.36. Module 17.1 Fundamentals. TrSteegates rang Syston Perera Seeman 10 aIntegrated Training System cy Reverse Thrust If the propeller is tured through the fine pitch stop to around minus 20° and power applied, reverse thrust is obtained. The blade section is working inefficiently, withthe total reaction being ‘produced in the reverse direction to normal. Mechanical devices are used to prevent application ‘of power as the propeller passes through the windmill positon, until safely inthe braking range. Fropeler “otal now Figure 1.21: Reverse Thrust, Senter tle 17.4 Fu ‘ 137 ae a TS naps Tanne Se Salton ‘cme 18Integrated Training System sasrcnucenesten pice ‘This blade position is used on some enabled propellers to provide rapid braking after landing, and sometimes to reverse the aeroplane out from its parked position. A mechanical lock is. often incorporated to prevent the pilot selecting reverse pitch whist airborne. 1.38, edule 17.1 Fundamentals ewer eae Scoranon aaIntegrated Training System Forces Acting on the Propeller When a propeller rotates, many forces interact and cause tension, twisting, and bending stresses within the propeller. These forces are: ‘= Centrifugal Force ‘= Bending Force ‘= Torque Bending Force ‘+ Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) + Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) Centrifugal Force Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it tries to pull the blades out ofthe hhub. Its not uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several thousand times the weight of the biade. For example, a 10 kg propeller blade turing at 2,700 RPM may exert a force of 50 tons (on the biade root. Centritugal Force Figure 1.22: Propeller Centrifugal Force a Module 17+ Fundamentais 438 Eh ieeeww Integrated Training System Thrust Bending Force Thrust bending force attempts to bend the propeller blades forward atthe tips, because the ft ‘toward the tip ofthe blade flexes the thin blade sections forward. Thrust bending force opposes. centrifugal force to some degree. Figure 1.23: Thrust Bending Force: 149) ‘Modus 17.1 Fundameniais apres TrSomytd rang Syo0m Soh SocataIntegrated Tra Sager 1g System ow Torque Bending Force ‘Torque bending forces try to bend the propeller blade back in the direction opposite the direction of rotation Figure 1.24: Propeller Torque Bending Force onmaseenn 17 Foren 4 lee ‘stapes nIntegrated Training System asstocek ven occ 98 ‘Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) ‘Aerodynamic twisting (or turning) moment tries to tist a blade toa higher angle. This force is ‘produced because the axis of rotation ofthe blade is atthe midpoint ofthe chord line, while the Ccentre ofthe lft othe blade is forward ofthis axis. Ths force ties to increase the blade angle, ‘Aerodynamic twisting moment is used in some designs to help feather the propeller. Figure 1.25 ilustrates how ATM is produced. If the pitch change mechanism is behind the Centre of pressure (the normal situation) the Total Reaction wil tend to try to turn the blade ‘towards @ coarse pitch, Center of Pressure ‘Axis of Blade: Rotation s ‘Aerodynamic. ‘Twisting Force Figure 1.25: Propeller Aerodynamic Twisting Moment It should be noted that in the normal forward thrust situation the CTM and ATM oppose each ‘ther, but be aware that CTM is a much greater force than ATM and hence CTH will always. prevail and try to turn the propeller towards the windmill condition, 1.42 Module 17.1 Fundamentals aan, Tie grates rig Sytem Retreat Sonn toe cnennineIntegrated Training System Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) Centrifugal twisting (or turing) moment testo decrease the blade angle, and opposes aerodynamic twisting moment. This tendency to decrease the blade angle is produced since all the parts of a rotating propeler try to move inthe same plane of rotation as the biage centerline. This force is greater than the aerodynamic twisting moment at operational RPM and is used in some designs lo decrease the blade angio. Centrifugal Twisting Force ‘Axis of Blade Rotation Figure 1.26: Propeller Centrifugal Twisting Moment Figure 1.27 ilustrates how the centitugal force on the blade produces tensile stress atthe blade root and a torque about the pitch change axis. The CTM tends to ‘ine’ the pitch and therefore the effort required by the pitch change mechanism to increase the blade angle towards ‘coarse pitch’ s increased erereneee Module 174 Funiamenials 3 Ia ‘7S tga Tang ra an ecomnenreIntegrated Training System oor Direction of Ratation Conical Momort = Pic ) charge he Figure 1.27: Centrifugal Twisting Mement CTMis greater at higher RPM, and with lower aspect ratio blades 44 Module 171 Fundamentts a FS begses rata stan capac Seep te Sop lassaaIntegrated Training System Berens Turning Moments in the Windmill Condition, ‘When the propeller is windmiling the total reaction works in the opposite direction, As a result ATM will also work inthe opposite direction and add fo the CTM force. c™ + 4m Figure 1.28: Pitch Range for Variable Pitch propellers with Reverse Thrust capabiliy “Thus, when the power is lost tothe propeller, the tendency of the blade to tum to low pitch (windmill psition) is very large indeed. memrenn 17.1 Fundamentals 145, f= a Tsing SnIntegrated Training System arco ets Pitch Range “The total pitch range extends from feathered to reverse Plane of rotation | ae rants Sorte rN Range Reverseor \ y 1 "Negative Fighting | Pichangle Power on Teor erating Ground fre String and Dacbekng Figure 1.29: Pitch positions ‘Summary of typical blade angle settings indicating the large pitch range required to meet all requirements of a high performance engine Note: Pitch stops are fitted at each ofthe limits to prevent inadvertent operation outside of desired range. Module 171 Fundamentals mmeerenaenis 1-48, TTS igre Taking Syste SerIntegrated Trai Siecle ot geen pace wo we Handling Effects - Single Engine Aircraft Tete ate varus handing ees on sige engine sere inpericuar ue tothe tating propel ‘Asymmetric Effect (P-Factor) + Slipstream Effect, * Torque Reaction ‘+ Gyroscopic Erect Asymmetric Effect (P-Factor) In general, the axis ofthe propeller willbe incined upwards tothe direction of fight due to the angle of attack ofthe aircraft. re oe oe a = 2 a) — tn we aoe Omen ing — oe Figure 1.30: P-Factor “This causes the downward moving blade to have a greater effective angle of attack than the Upward moving blade and therefore to develop a greater thrust, “The difference in thrust on the two sides ofthe propeller disc causes a yawing moment. For a right-handed propeller ina nose-up attitude, the yaw willbe tothe eft. serene Moda 47.4 Fundamentals 147 Pra ‘TS huegte Te Stn ‘se ‘eames areIntegrated Training System Slipstream Effect In passing through the propelir, the air is accelerated and given velocity. ‘The parts of the aircraft that are in the propeller slipstream will therefore have higher speed air passing over them than the parts outside the slipstream. The drag ofthe parts wil therefore be higher and the effectiveness of any control surface in the slipstream will be greater. ‘The rotation given to the slipstream will cause itto meet the fin at an angle and so cause a yyawing moment Figure 1.31: Slipstream Effect This effect may be corrected by offsetting the fin or trimming the rudder. The amount of rotation given to the air will depend on the torque of the propeller and so the yawing moment will depend fn the power setting fae Module 47.4 Fundamentals cece Tisai rag Syste oe SeagoIntegrated Training System ow Beet So ar gamron pce 9 Torque Reaction In rotating the propeller against the resistance of the ai, reaction is produced which tries to rotate the aircraft in the opposite direction. For example, with a right hand propeller, the aircraft will tend to roll tothe let. This is described by Newton's Third Law of Motion: “For every action there is an equal and ‘opposite reaction’ This tendency may be corrected by ‘wash in’ on the down going wing and ‘wash out on the up going wing. This method is not used on modern high performance aircraft. Propeller action Figure 1.32: Torque Reaction causing the nd m4 ' 449 =e | camle el eee ‘TTSinapated Ving Sen i ScammerIntegrated Training System wy cancion eaten pan Gyroscopic Effect ‘A rotating propeller has the properties ofa gyro. If the plane of rotation is changed, a moment willbe produced at right angles to the applied moment For example, if an aircraft with a right handed propeller is yawed tothe right twill experience a ‘nose down pitching moment due to the gyroscopic effect of the propeller. Similarly, ifthe aircraft 's pitched nose up, it wil experience a yaw to the right. On most aircraft, the gyroscopic effects are small and easily controlled The property of a gyroscope that is discussed above is known as precession. See figure 1.33. Ita torque is applied as shown then precession will occur as shown. Direction of precession can 'be determined by taking the force causing the torque and rotating it through 90° inthe direction of rotation, Figure 1.59; Gyroscopic Effect ‘A tal dragger single engine aircraft wth arght-handed propeller wil experience a yaw to the left as the tail lit on ts takeoff run 1.50 Module 17.4 Fundam TSM Yig Sytem ss Sonne 10 eeIntegrated Training System Applied Force Force Figure 1.24: A tall wheoled acroplane experiences a yaw to left when the til lifts off the ground — Me 7 Fina ist a= TeIntegrated Training System canotpo asia senin pace 98 Intentonally Blank 1.52 Masala 174 Fundamentals ‘Trager Sen eigen:Integrated Training System Thrust and Power Development Power Development in Piston Engin “The power output of a piston engine depends on the density of the combustible mixture of fuel {and air introduced into its cylinders at that part of the operating cycle known as the induction Stroke. On this stake, the piston moues dwn the eylinder, an inal valva apane, and the fuel/air ‘mixture, or charge prepared by the carburetor enters the cylinder as a result of a pressure diiference acing across it during the stroke. I for example an engine is running n atmospheric Conditions corresponding tothe standard sea level pressure of 14.7 fin’, and the cylinder pressure is reduced to, say 2ibfn’ then the pressure difference is 12.7 Ibi, and tis this pressure difference that pushes the charge into the cylinder. ‘An engine in which the charge is induced in this manner is said to be normally aspirated. Its ‘outstanding characteristic is that the power it develops steadily falls off with decrease in atmospheric pressure. ‘Supercharging ‘The limitation on the high alttude performance of @ normally aspirated engine can be overcome by artificially increasing the available pressure so as to maintain as far as possible a sea-level value in the induction system. The process of increasing pressure and charge density is known 28 supercharging or boosting, and the device employed is, in effect, a centrifugal compressor Sted between the carburetor and cinders and civen fom the engine rankshat though ste- up gearing. Power may be measured in inches of mercury or Ibfin’ and is known as manifold pressure, ‘An alternative higher power supercharging system uses a turbine driven centrifugal compressor powered by exhaust waste gases. Ths later form is often known as a turbo-charger or ground, ‘boosting turbe-charger and is capable of increasing boost pressure above atmospheric for take off purposes. This system is fited at the inet tothe induction system and uses a fue injection. system at the induction vaive inlet to mix the fuel and air. Power is normally measured in Ibfin? and is offen called boost pressure. a Module 174 Fundamentals rs mepees tonne SS Esser Siewe Integrated Training System ? Danpat oseda ine Power Development in Turboprop Engin ‘A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine configured to transmit the majority ofthe jet exhaust to power a free or power turbine assembly connected directly to a reduction gear that drives a propeller. The propeller aivays runs slower than the engine and must be large enough to absorb the power developed by the engine. To increase power in agas turbine engine whether turboprop or pure jet one must increase fuel flow, thus increasing the energy available to drive the compressor and to turn the propellerreduction gear assembly orto produce thrust. Fuel flow is increased by opening a throttle valve in a Fue! Flow Governor. These vary in complexity but the princpple of more fuel for ‘more power is always Wve. Power output ina turbo shaft engine is measured either by Shaft or Brake Hersepower. For a turboprop engine power is measured in terms of Torque. Torque isa function of he resistance to rotation. Therefore for a greater torque, greater power Is required to tun the propeller. Resistance to motion can be varied by using a variable pitch propeller. In a coarse pitch setting the propeller is gathering more air and thus is harder to turn, Torque meters can be in the form of a mechanical system utlizng ol pressure, or digital strain gauge systems, Total loss of torque will indicate engine failure and can be used to intiate an ‘auto feather sequence. ‘The fuel control lever ina turboprop engine is often known as the Power Lever. Ina pure jet engine it is usually called the Throtle Lever, however both levers do exactly the same thing, they regulate the fuel supply o the combustion chambers. ‘Whereas in a piston engine there are two levers to control power - Throttle lever and Propeller Condition Lever - itis more normal in a turboprop engine to have a combined power lever, that through a cam arrangement presets the variable pitch system to the power required 4.54 Motul 17-1 Fundamentals aIntegrated Training System Figure 1.95: Turboprop engine power development serene Module 17.1 Fundarnias 1.55 es eG Mert ‘Ts megate Tan Ser maar ena aaIntegrated Training System cans cou ueson pacen Turboprop Configurations Note all the below configurations al incorporate a reduction gear prior to connecting tothe propeller shaft. This fs because whist tho turboprop engine fs required to rotate al speeds up to 400,000 RPM to maintain its effciency, the propeller must rotate at usta fraction ofthat speed in ordero prevent its tis exceeding soni speed 58, ese 17.4 FundemenialsIntegrated Training System Free Turbine Engine Compound Engine Figure 1.96. Tuboprop engines configurations eter ule 17-4 Fundamentals 4.87 Seytes ean TTS Tang San cn ‘conven a0a 5 y Integrated Training System / satrsca ik nton pa Vibrational Forces and Resonance When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are present which cause the blades ofthe propeller to vibrate (see figure 1.37). A person designing a propeller must take this into consideration. If his isnot done, these vibrations may cause excessive flexing, hardening ofthe metal and could result in sections of the propeller breaking off during ‘operation, ‘Aerodynamic forces have a great vibration effect atthe tip of the blade where the effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibrations ‘Mechanical vibrations are caused by power pulses in a piston engine and are more destructive then aerodynamic vibrations. The most critical location when looking forthe stresses fs about 2.5 om from the propeller tip. Most airframe-engine-prcpeller combinations have no problem in eliminating the effets of vibrational stresses. However some combinations are Sensitive to certain RPM ranges and they hhave a critical range indicated on the tachometer by a red arc. The engine should net be ‘operated in this range. Iftis operated inthe ertical range over @ period of time, there is a strong possibilty that the propeller wil sufer from structural failure due tothe vibrational stresses, ee Mojule 174 Fundamentls a TS tegates anna Sten cae Seg eis =Integrated Training System thao son goscn poe Propeler Shaft Vibrations Stress Point, Figure 1.37: Propeller Vibration verona Module 17.4 Fundamenisle 4-58 Baht Tsing Tang Sy haa ‘SanaaIntegrated Training System cnvetpan os pate Intertionally Blank, 1-60 Module 17.1 Funéementas ean TiS taps tang Syn a} Seep 1 coeIntegrated Training System i Glossary ‘Accumulator - A device to aid in unfeathering a propel. ‘Aerodynamic twisting moment - An operational force on a propeller which tends to increase the propeller blade angle Angle of attack - The argle between the chord line of @ propeller blade section and the relative wind: ‘Anti-icing system - A system which prevents the formation of ice on propeller blades. ‘Automatic propeller - A propeler which changes blade angles in response o operatonal forces and is not controled from the cockpit. Trade name: Aeromatic’ Back - The curved side cf a propeller airfoil section that can be seen while standing in front of the aeroplane, Blade - One arm ofa propeller from the hub tothe tip. Blade angle - The angle between the blade section chord line and the plane of rotatien of the propeller. Blade index number - The maximum blade angle on a Hamiton-Standard counterweight propeller. Blade paddle. tool used to tur the blades inthe hub, Blade root - The potion ofa blade which is nearest the hub. Blade station -A distance from the centre ofthe propeller hub measured in inches. Boots - Ice elimination cemponents which are attached tothe leading edge of propeller blades. Boss - The centre portion ofa fixed-pitch propeller. ‘Brush block - The component of a de-icing andlor reversing system which is mounted on the engine nose case and hods the brushes which transfer electrical power tothe slip ring, Centrifugal force - The force on a propeller which tends to throw the blades out from the propeller centre Centrifugal twisting moment - The force on a propeller which tends to decrease the propeller blade angle. ‘Chord line - The imaginary line which extends from the leading edge tothe trailing edge of a blade airfoil section, semanas Module 47.4 Fundameniae 18 Poorer TTS inp Syaen a “Sanam 0Integrated Training System ‘Comparison unit - The unitin a synchronization or synchrophasing system which compares the signals of the master engine and the slave engine and sends a signal to correct the slave engine RPM or blade phase angle. Cone - The component used in a splined-shaft installation which centers the propeller on the crankshaft CConstant-speod system -A system which uses a governor to adjust the propel blade angle to maintain a selected RPM, Controtlable-pitch propelier - A propeller whose pitch can be changed in fight by the plot's control lever or switch. Critical range - The RPM range at which destructive harmonic vibrations exist, Do-icing system - An ico elimination system which allows ice to form and then breaks it loose in cycles. Dome assembly - The pitch-changing mechanism of a Hydromatic® propeller. Effective pitch - The distance forward that an aircraft actualy moves in one revolution of the propeller. Face - The flat or thrust side of a propeller blade. Feathor - The rotation ofthe propeller blades to an angle of about 90 degrees which will ‘eliminate the drag of a windmilling propeller. Fixed:pitch propeller A propeller, used on ight aircraft, whose blade angles cannot be changed. Flanged shaft - A crankshaft whose propeller mounting surface forms a flat plate 90 degrees to the shaft centerline Frequency generator - The engine RPM signal generator for some synchronization systems. Geometric pitch - The theoretical distance that an aircraft will move forward in one revolution of the propeller Governor - The propeller control device in a constant: speed system Go no-go gauge -A gauge used to measure wear between the splines of splined crankshaft. Ground-adjustable propeller -A propeller which can be adjusted on the ground to change the blade angles, Hub - The central portion of a propeller whichis fitted to the engine crankshaft and cartes the blades. 1-82 Module 17,1 Fundamentals ‘Teint rig Satin SapoIntegrated Training System Siete cou guesnpsen a Hydromatic® - trade name for one type of Hamilton-Standard hydraulically operated propellers, Integral oil control assembly - A self-contained propeller control unit used on some trarsport aircraft Leading edge - The forward edge ofa propeller blade. ‘vernal fclity-An FAA approved feclty for major overhauls and repairs Pitch - The same as geometric pitch, Often used interchangeably wth blade ange Pitch distribution -The twist ina propeller blade along its length Pitch lock -A mechanism used on some transports to prevent excessive overspeeding of the propeller if the governor fails. Plane of rotation - Ine plane in which the propelier rotates, ¥0 degrees to he crankshat centerine Propeller - A device for converting engine horsepower into usable thrust. Propeller disc - The disc-shaped area in which the propeller rotates. Propeller repair station - See overhaul facilty. Propeller track - The arc described by a propeller blade as the propeller rotates. Pulse generator - The unit which generates an RPM and bade postion signal in a ‘synchrophasing system. Radial clearance - The distance from the edge of the propeller disc to an object near the edge: (of the dise, perpendicular to the crankshaft centerline Reversing -Rotation ofthe propeller blades to a negative angle to produce a braking or reversing thrust. ‘Safetying - The instalation of a safety device such safety wre or eater pin, Selector vaWe - Propeller control unit ina two-positon propeller system. ‘Shank - The thickened portion ofthe blade near the centre ofthe propeller. Shoe - See boot ‘Shoulder - The flanged area on the butt ofa propeller blade which is used to retain the propeller blades in the hub. resem Module 171 Fundamentals 1-83 pire TTS hinged Tan St =o ‘Scapran 28Integrated Training System Slinger ring - The fuid distribution unit onthe rear of a propeller hub using an anti-icng system. Slip - The diference between geometric pitch and effective pitch. ‘Snap ring - A component ofa splined or tapered shaft installation which is used to aid in removal ofthe propeller. Spider - The central component cn many controllable- pitch propellers which mounts on the ‘crankshaft and has arms on which the blades are installed ‘Splined shaft - A cylindrcal-shaped crankshaft extension which has splines on its surface to prevent propeller rotation on the shaft Static RPM - The maximum RPM that can be obtained at full throttle on the ground in @ no-wind condition, ‘Synchronization system A system which keeps all engines atthe same RPM, ‘Synchrophasing system - A refined synchronization system which ows the pilot to adjust the blade relative postion as they rotate. ‘Tachometer-generator - The RPM-sensing unit of some synchronization systems, ‘Tapered shaft -A crankshaft design whose propeller mounting surface tapers to a smaller diameter and acts like a cone seating surface. ‘Thrust bending force - An operational force which tends to bend the propeller blades forward, Tip - The portion ofthe blade farthest from the hub. Torque bending force - An operational force which tends to bend the propeller blades in the direction opposite tothe direction of rotation, ‘Two-position propeller - A propeller which can be changed between two blade angles in fight, 1.84 Module 17.1 Fundamentals oe Tage ong Syn 4 Seagate ota