Chapter 2 - Kinematics

Chapter 2 - Kinematics
2.1 Reference frames

2.2 Transforma0ons between BODY and NED
2.3 Transforma0ons between ECEF and NED
2.4 Transforma0ons between BODY and FLOW

The study of dynamics can be
divided into two parts: kinema0cs,
which treats only geometrical
aspects of mo0on, and kine0cs,
which is the analysis of the forces
causing the mo0on
1

Lecture Notes TTK 4190 Guidance and Control of Vehicles (T. I. Fossen)

BODY

Overall Goal of Chapters 2 to 8

Represent the 6-DOF dynamics in a compact matrix-vector form
according to:
!" ! J!!"#
M#" " C!#"# " D!#"# " g!!" " g 0 ! $ " $wind " $ wave #
The nota0on and representa0on are adopted from:

Fossen, T. I. (1991). Nonlinear Modeling and Control of Underwater Vehicles,

PhD thesis, Department of Engineering Cyberne6cs, NTNU, June 1991.

Fossen, T. I. (1994). Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons
Ltd. ISBN: 0-471-94113-1.
2


ze
2.1 Reference Frames

zi , z e
NED

BODY

ECEF/ECI

e t
ECEF/ECI

ye
ye
yi
xi
xe
xe
ECI {i}: Earth centered iner0al frame; non-accelera0ng frame (xed in space) in which Newtons
laws of mo0on apply.
ECEF {e}: Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed frame; origin is xed in the center of the Earth but the axes
rotate rela0ve to the iner0al frame ECI.
NED {n}: North-East-Down frame; dened rela0ve to the Earths reference ellipsoid (WGS 84).
BODY {b}: Body frame; moving coordinate frame xed to the vessel.
xb- longitudinal axis (directed from a_ to fore)
yb- transversal axis (directed to starboard)
zb-normal axis (directed from top to bo`om)

2.1 Reference Frames Body-Fixed

Reference Points
CG - Center of gravity
CB - Center of buoyancy
CF - Center of ota0on

CF is located a distance LCF from CO in the
x-direc0on
The center of ota0on is the centroid of
the water plane area Awp in calm water. The
vessel will roll and pitch about this point.
Coordinate-free vector
!
u " u n1 !
n 1 # u n2 !
n 2 # u n3 !
n3
!
n i !i " 1,2,3" are the unit vectors that define #n$
! in !n"
Coordinate form of u
un ! !u n1 , u n2 ,u n3 " !
4


2.1 Reference frames and 6-DOF motions

forces and
DOF
moments
linear and
positions and
angular velocities Euler angles
motions in the x-direction (surge)
motions in the y-direction (sway)
motions in the z-direction (heave)
rotation about the x-axis (roll, heel)
rotation about the y-axis (pitch, trim)
"
rotation about the z-axis (yaw)
The nota0on is adopted from:

SNAME (1950). Nomenclature for Trea0ng the

Mo0on of a Submerged Body Through a Fluid.
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers, Technical and Research Bulle6n No.
1-5, April 1950, pp. 1-15.
v (sway)
q (pitch)
yb
r (yaw)
p (roll)
u (surge)
w (heave)
xb
5


zb
2.1 Reference Frames - Notation

x
ECEF
e
!
pb/e
position:
Longitude and
! !3
latitude
z
N
NED
n
pb/n
!
position:
! !3
b
!
v b/n
linear
velocity
Body-fixed
! !3
angular
Body-fixed
!!
6

" nb
, #!
v bb/n
$ bb/n
, %!

! S3
p
" bb/n !
m bb
M
N
Generalized posi0on, velocity and force

pnb/n !or peb/n )
! !3
moment
! S2
Body-fixed
! !3
velocity
X
f bb
! nb !
(Euler angles)
! en !
"
Attitude
Body-fixed
force:
f bb
mbb
! !3
2.2 Transformations between

BODY and NED
Orthogonal matrices of order 3:
O!3" ! #R|R ! !3!3 , RR " ! R! R ! I$

Special orthogonal group of order 3:
SO!3" ! #R|R ! ! 3!3 , R is orthogonal and detR !1$
Rota0on matrix:
RR ! ! R ! R ! I,
Example:
det R ! 1
Since R is orthogonal, R !1 ! R !

! to ! Rtofrom! from

BODY and NED
Cross-product operator as matrix-vector mul0plica0on:
! ! a :! S!!"a
S!!" ! !S! !!" !
!! 3
!2
!3
!! 1
!!2
!1
!1
where S ! !S
! is a skew-symmetric matrix

, ! "
!2
!3

BODY and NED
Eulers theorem on rota0on:
2
R!," ! I 3#3 ! sin" S!"" ! !1 ! cos"" S !""
! ! !!1 , ! 2 , ! 3 " ! , |!| ! 1
v nb/n ! R nb v bb/n , R nb :! R !," #
where
R 11 ! !1 ! cos !" "21 " cos !
R 22 ! !1 ! cos !" "22 " cos !

R 33 ! !1 ! cos !" "23 " cos !
R 12 ! !1 ! cos !" "1 " 2 ! " 3 sin !
R 21 ! !1 ! cos !" "2 " 1 " " 3 sin !
R 23 ! !1 ! cos !" "2 " 3 ! " 1 sin !
R 32 ! !1 ! cos !" "3 " 2 " " 1 sin !
R 31 ! !1 ! cos !" "3 " 1 ! " 2 sin !
R 13 ! !1 ! cos !" "1 " 3 " " 2 sin !
9


2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

x3
Three principal rota0ons:

!
!! "

! ! !0, 0, 1"
! ! !0, 1, 0" !
!! "
! ! !1, 0, 0" !
!! "
x2
u2
U
u3
v3
R z,! !
s!
c! 0
y3
y2
v2
c! !s! 0
(1) Rotation over yaw

angle about z3.
Note that w3=w2.
(2) Rotation over pitch

angle about y2.
Note that v2=v1.
x1
u1
u2
x2
w2
U
w1
c! 0 s!
R y,! !
1 0
z1
z2
!s! 0 c!
1 0
R x,! !
10

0 c! !s!
0 s!
v1
v=v2
w=w0
c!
z0=zb

w1
z1
y1
y0=yb
(3) Rotation over roll

angle about x1.
Note that u1=u2
.

Linear velocity transforma0on (zyx-conven0on):
p! nb/n ! R nb !" nb "v bb/n #
where
Rnb !! nb " :! Rz,!Ry," Rx,#
Rnb !! nb " !1 ! Rbn !! nb " ! R!x,!R!y," R!z,#
R nb !! nb " !
c!c" !s!c# " c!s"s#
s!s# " c!c#s"
s!c"
c!c# " s#s"s!
!c!s# " s"s!c#
!s"
c"s#
c"c#
Small angle approxima0on:
R nb !!! nb " ! I3"3 ! S!!! nb " "
11

"!#
!$
!#
"!%
"!$
!%


NED posi0ons (con0nuous 0me and discrete 0me):
n !k" ! hR n !! !k""v b !k" #

pnb/n !k ! 1" " pb/n
nb
b
b/n
Euler
integra0on
Component form:

N! " u cos!!" cos!"" # v!cos!!" sin!"" sin!#" ! sin!!" cos!#""

# w!sin!!" sin!#" # cos!!" cos!#" sin!"""
" u sin!!"cos!"" # v!cos!!" cos!#" # sin!#" sin!"" sin!!""

# w!sin!"" sin!!" cos!#" ! cos!!" sin!#""
D! " !u sin!"" # v cos!"" sin!#" # w cos!"" cos!#"
12


#
#

Angular velocity transforma0on (zyx-conven0on):
!" nb ! T"!! nb "# bb/n # ! b !
b/n
!"
# R !x,!
0
""
0
# R !x,! R !y,"
0
#"
#
:! T!1
$ !" nb "" nb #
where
T!1
! !! nb " "
!s!
c"
c!s"

T !! " "
!
nb
0 !s" c!c"
Small angle approxima0on:
T! !!! nb " !
!"
"!#
0 !#
13


1 s"t!
c"t!
!s"
c"
0 s"/c! c"/c!
No0ce that:
1.
Singular point at
! ! " 90 o
!
T!1
! !! nb " " T! !! nb "

Euler angle adtude representa0ons:
ODE for Euler angles: ODE for rota0on matrix
n
R! b ! R nb S!" bb/n " #
!" nb ! T"!! nb "# bb/n #
Component form:
!! " p # q sin " tan ! # r cos " tan ! #

"! " q cos " ! r sin "
#
sin "
cos "
#! " q
#r
, ! " $90 o #
cos !
cos !
14


where
S!! bb/n " !
!r
0 !p
!q p
q
#
+ algorithm for computa0on

!
of Euler angles !
nb ! !!,",#"

from the rota0on matrix Rnb !! nb "

Summary: 6-DOF kinema0c equa0ons:
!! " J!!""
#
p# nb/n
$# nb
"
R nb !$ nb "
0 3!3
v bb/n
0 3!3
T$ !$ nb "
% bb/n
3-parameter representa0on

! nb ! !!,",#" !

with singularity at ! ! " 90 o
Component form:
N! " u cos ! cos " # v!cos ! sin" sin# ! sin! cos #"
# w!sin! sin# # cos ! cos # sin""
" u sin!cos" # v!cos ! cos # # sin# sin" sin!"

# w!sin" sin! cos # ! cos ! sin#"
D! " !u sin" # v cos " sin# # w cos " cos #
15


#
#
!! " p # q sin! tan" # r cos ! tan"

#
"! " q cos ! ! r sin!
#
sin!
cos !
#! " q
#r
, " " $90 o #
cos "
cos "
2.2.2 Unit Quaternions

4-parameter representa0on:
-avoids the representa0on singularity of the Euler angles
-numerical eec0ve (no trigonometric func0ons)
Q ! !q|q! q !1, q ! !!, " !" !, " ! "3 and ! ! ""
! " !!1 , ! 2, ! 3! !
Unit quaternion (Euler parameter) rota0on matrix (Chou 1992):
R!,! ! I3"3 " sin ! S!!" " !1 ! cos !" S !!"
! ! cos
"
2
! ! !!1 , ! 2, ! 3" ! ! " sin
q!
"
2
Rnb !q! : ! R !,! ! I3"3 " 2!S!!! " 2S2 !!"

16


"1
"2
"3
cos
#
2
! sin
#
2
!Q

Linear velocity transforma0on
NB! must be integrated under

the constraint q ! q ! 1 or
! 2 ! "21 ! " 22 ! " 23 " 1
p! nb/n ! R nb !q"v bb/n #

where
1 ! 2!!22 " ! 23 " 2!!1 !2 ! !3 "" 2!!1 !3 " ! 2 ""

R nb !q! !

" ! ""

1 ! 2!!
2!! 1 !2 " !3 "" 1 ! 2!! 21 " ! 23 " 2!!2 !3 ! ! 1 ""

2!! 1 !3 ! !2 "" 2!!2 !3
2
1
" !22 "
Component form (NED posi0ons):

N! " u!1 ! 2! 22 ! 2! 23 " # 2v!! 1 ! 2 ! ! 3 "" # 2w!! 1 ! 3 # ! 2 "" #
" 2u!! 1 ! 2 # ! 3 "" # v!1 ! 2! 21 ! 2! 23 " # 2w!! 2 ! 3 ! ! 1 "" #
D! " 2u!! 1 ! 3 ! ! 2 "" # 2v!! 2 ! 3 # ! 1 "" # w!1 ! 2! 21 ! 2! 22 " #
17


R nb !q" !1 ! R nb !q" !

Angular velocity transforma0on
q! ! Tq !q"" bb/n #
Alterna0ve representa0on (Kane 1983)

q! !
!"
!" !
! 1
2
"!
!I3"3 # S!""
# bb/n #
where
!!1 !! 2 !! 3
Tq !q" !
1
2
"
!! 3
!2
!3
"
!! 1
!!2
!1
"
T!q !q"Tq !q" !
NB! nonsingular to
the price of one more
parameter

1
I
4 3#3
Component form:
!! " ! 1 !" 1 p # " 2 q # " 3 r"
2
"! 1 " 1 !!p ! " 3 q # " 2 r"
2
"! 2 " 1 !" 3 p # !q ! " 1 r"
2
"! 3 " 1 !!" 2 p # " 1 q # !r"
2
18

#
#
#
#

The equa0ons are derived using

R
! n ! Rn S!" b "
b
b/n

Summary: 6-DOF kinema0c equa0ons (7 ODEs):
!! " J!!""
#
p# nb/n
q#
"
R nb !q"
0 3!3
v bb/n
0 4!3
Tq !q"
$ bb/n
4-parameter representa0on

q ! !!, " 1, "2, "3 ! !

Nonsingular but one more
ODE is needed
Component form:
N! " u!1 ! 2! 22 ! 2! 23 " # 2v!! 1 ! 2 ! ! 3 "" # 2w!! 1 ! 3 # ! 2 "" #
2! 21
2! 23 "
!
# 2w!! 2 ! 3 ! ! 1 "" #
" 2u!! 1 ! 2 # ! 3 "" # v!1 !
D! " 2u!! 1 ! 3 ! ! 2 "" # 2v!! 2 ! 3 # ! 1 "" # w!1 ! 2! 21 ! 2! 22 " #
19


!! " ! 1 !" 1 p # " 2 q # " 3 r"

2
"! 1 " 1 !!p ! " 3 q # " 2 r"
2
"! 2 " 1 !" 3 p # !q ! " 1 r"
2
"! 3 " 1 !!" 2 p # " 1 q # !r"
2
#
#
#
#

Discrete-0me algorithm for unit quaternion normaliza0on
q! q ! !21 " !22 " ! 23 " " 2 ! 1
20



Discrete-0me algorithm for unit quaternion normaliza0on
21



Con0nuous-0me algorithm for unit quaternion normaliza0on:
d !q! q" ! 2q! T !q"! b ! 0 #
b/n
q
dt
If q is ini0alized as a unit vector, then it will remain a unit vector.

However, integra0on of the quaternion vector q from the dieren0al equa0on
will introduce numerical errors that will cause the length of q to deviate from unity.

In Simulink this is avoided by introducing feedback:
q! " Tq !q"!bnb #
d
!q! q"
dt
!
2 !1
! q !q"q
! ! 0 (typically 100!
! 2q!Tq !q"!bnb " !!1 ! q! q"q! q ! !!1 ! q!q"q!q

0 if q is ini0alized as
a unit vector
Change of coordinates x ! 1 ! q ! q (x=0 gives q ! q ! 1 )

x! " !!x!1 ! x"
22

lineariza0on about x=0 gives

x! " !!x
2.2.3 Quaternions from Euler Angles

Ref. Shepperd (1978)
23


2.2.4 Euler Angles from Quaternions

Require that the rota0on matrices of the two kinema0c representa0ons are equal:
! nb ! !!,",#" !
Rnb !! nb " :! Rnb !q"

c!c" !s!c# ! c!s"s#
s!s# ! c!c#s"
s!c"
c!c# ! s#s"s!
!c!s# ! s"s!c#
!s"
c"s#
c"c#
R 11 R 12 R 13
"
R 21 R 22 R 23
R 31 R 32 R 33
Algorithm: One solu0on is:
q ! !!, " 1, "2, "3 ! !
! ! atan2!R 32 , R 33 "
" ! ! sin !1 !R 31 " ! ! tan !1
R 31
1 ! R 231
" " "90 o #
# ! atan2!R 21 , R 11 "
where atan2(y,x) is the 4-quadrant arctangent of the real parts of the elements
of x and y, sa0sfying:
!! " atan2!y, x" " !
24


2.3 Transformation between

ECEF and NED
A point on or above the Earths surface is
uniquely determined by:
ze
NED
{n}-frame
Longitude: l (deg)
La0tude: m (deg)
Ellipsoidal height: h (m)
N
E
D
ECEF
{e}-frame
ye
xe
NED axes deni0ons:

N - North axis is poin0ng North
E - East axis is poin0ng East
D Down axis is poin0ng down in the normal direc0on to the Earths surface
25


2.3.1 Longitude and Latitude transformations

The transforma0on between the ECEF and NED velocity vectors is:
! en ! !l, !" ! ! S 2
Two principal rota0ons:

1.
2.
n
b
p! eb/e ! R en !" en "p! b/e
! R en !" en "R nb !" nb "v b/e
#
a rota0on l about the z-axis

a rota0on ( !!
! "/2
) about the y-axis.
cos l ! sin l 0
R en !! en " ! R z,l R y,!!! "2 !
sin l
0
cos l 0
0
! cos l sin! ! sinl ! cos l cos !

R en !! en " !
26

! sinl sin!
cos l
! sinl cos !
cos !
! sin!

cos !!! ! "2 " 0 sin !!! ! "2 "

0
! sin !!! ! "2 " 0 cos !!! ! "2 "
2.3.1 Flat Earth Navigation

For at Earth naviga0on it can be assumed that the NED tangent plane is xed on
the surface of the Earth-that is, l and m are constants, by assuming that the
opera0ng radius of the vessel is limited:
n
b
p! eb/e ! R en !" en "p! b/e
! R en !" en "R nb !" nb "v b/e
#
! cos l sin! ! sinl ! cos l cos !
27

Ren !! en " ! Ro ! constant
! en ! constant
R en !! en " !
! en ! !l, !" ! ! S 2
! sinl sin!
cos l
! sinl cos !
cos !
! sin!

2.3.2 Longitude/Latitude from ECEF
Coordinates
!
e
Satellite naviga0on system measurements are given in the ECEF frame: pb/e ! !x, y, z"
Not to useful for the operator.

Presenta0on of terrestrial posi0on data p eb/e
!
!x,
y, z"
! is therefore made in terms
of the ellipsoidal parameters longitude l, la0tude m and height h.

Transforma0on:
peb/e ! !x, y, z" !
! en ! !l, !" !
and height h
28



Coordinates
Parameters
peb/e ! !x, y, z" !
Comments
re
! 6 378 137 m
Equatorial radius of ellipsoid (semimajor axis)
rp
! 6 356 752 m
Polar axis radius of ellipsoid (semiminor axis)
! e ! 7. 292115 ! 10 !5 rad/s Angular velocity of the Earth

e
! 0. 0818
N!
Eccentricity of ellipsoid
r 2e
e!
r 2e cos 2!"r 2p sin 2!
1 ! ! r pe "
l ! atan! xee "

while la0tude m and height h are implicitly
computed by:
tan ! ! zpe 1 ! e 2 N
N"h
p
h ! cos ! ! N
29

!1
#
#


Coordinates
Ref. Hofman-Wllenhof et al. (2004)
30


2.3.3 ECEF Coordinates from Longitude/

Latitude
Ref. Heiskanen (1967)
e
The transforma0on from !

en ! !l,
!"
! for given heights h to p b/e
! !x,
y,
z"
is given by
!N " h" cos ! cos l
x
y
z
31

!N " h" cos ! sinl

r2p
r2e
N " h sin!

2.4 Transformation between

BODY and FLOW
FLOW axes are o_en used to express hydrodynamic data. The FLOW axes
are found by rota0ng the BODY axis system such that resul0ng x-axis is
parallel to the freestream ow.

In FLOW axes, the x-axis directly points into the rela0ve ow while the z-axis
remains in the reference plane, but rotates so that it remains perpendicular
to the x-axis. The y-axis completes the right-handed system.
xb
xflow
yb
xstab
zb
32


2.4.1 Definitions of Course, Heading and

Sideslip Angles
The rela0onship between the angular variables course, heading, and sideslip is important for
maneuvering of a vehicle in the horizontal plane (3 DOF) .
The terms course and heading are used interchangeably in much of the literature on
guidance, naviga0on and control of marine vessels, and this leads to confusion.
DeniKon (Course angle ): The angle from the x-axis
of the NED frame to the velocity vector of the vehicle,
posi0ve rota0on about the z-axis of the NED frame by
the right-hand screw conven0on
DeniKon: Heading (yaw) angle : The angle from the

NED x-axis to the BODY x-axis, posi0ve rota0on about
the z-axis of the NED frame by the right-hand screw
conven0on.
DeniKon: Sideslip (driT) angle : The angle from the
BODY x-axis to the velocity vector of the vehicle,
posi0ve rota0on about the BODY z-axis frame by the
right-hand screw conven0on
33


2.4.1 Definitions of Course, Heading and

Sideslip Angles
Course angle:
! ! ""#
Sideslip (driT) angle:
! ! arcsin
U!
! small
v
U
u 2 " v2
"
!!
v
U
Remark: In SNAME (1950) and Lewis (1989) the sideslip angle for marine cra_ is dened
according to:

SNAME = -
The sideslip deni0on follows the sign conven0on used by the aircra_ community, for
instance as in Nelson (1998) and Stevens (1992). This deni0on is more intui0ve from a
guidance point-of-view than SNAME (1950).
Note that the heading angle equals the course angle (y = ) when the sway velocity v = 0,
that is when there is no sideslip.
34


2.4.2 Sideslip and Angle of Attack

yb
v stab ! R y,! v b
v flow ! R z,!" v stab #

xb
xflow
xstab
u
v
U
!
R !y,! R !z,!"
v ! U sin "
w ! U sin ! cos "
cos "
cos! 0 sin!
R y,! !
R z,!" ! R !z," !
U!
sin " 0
!sin " cos " 0
!sin! 0 cos!
35

zb
u ! U cos ! cos " #
or

u 2 " v2

Extension to Ocean Currents

For a marine cra_ exposed to ocean currents, the concept of rela0ve veloci0es is
introduced. The rela0ve veloci0es are:
ur ! u ! uc
vr ! v ! vc
Ur !
wr ! w ! wc #
Hence,
u r ! U r cos!! r " cos!" r " #
36

u 2r " v 2r " w 2r
v r ! U r sin!" r "
w r ! U r sin!! r " cos!" r "
r
! r ! tan!1 w
ur
" r ! sin!1 v r
Ur

# New expressions for

sideslip and angle of
# a`ack, which includes
the eect of ocean
currents

Some interesKng observaKons regarding sideslip:

1) A vehicle moving on a straight line in calm water
(U > 0 and v = 0) will have a zero sideslip angle = 0
! ! arcsin
v
U
! small
"
!!
v
U
2) As soon as you start to turn, the sway velocity will be non-zero and consequently the
vehicle will sideslip, 6=
0
. This is referred to as sideslip due to turning.

3) A vehicle is also exposed to environmental forces, which induces a ow velocity
(wind/current). This again gives a second contribu0on to sideslip. Moreover,
37

vr
Ur


Li_ and drag forces can then be computed as a func0on of forward speed and
transformed back to BODY coordinates.

yb
u ! U cos ! cos " #
xb
xflow
v ! U sin "
w ! U sin ! cos "
Linear approxima0on:
u ! U, v ! !U, w ! "U
xstab
zb
BODY to FLOW axes:

! "!u, v, w, p, q, r" !
!flow ! T!U"!
!flow ! !U,!, ",p,q,r" !

T!U"MT!U" !1 !"flow ! T!U"NT!U" !1 !flow " T!U"# #
38


T!U" !diag#1,1/U,1/U,1,1,1$

Chapter 2 - Kinematics

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Chapter 2 - Kinematics

2.1 Reference frames

Overall Goal of Chapters 2 to 8

The nota0on and representa0on are adopted from:

Fossen, T. I. (1991). Nonlinear Modeling and Control of Underwater Vehicles,

2.1 Reference Frames

2.1 Reference Frames Body-Fixed

2.1 Reference frames and 6-DOF motions

angular velocities Euler angles

motions in the x-direction (surge)

motions in the y-direction (sway)

motions in the z-direction (heave)

rotation about the x-axis (roll, heel)

rotation about the y-axis (pitch, trim)

rotation about the z-axis (yaw)

The nota0on is adopted from:

SNAME (1950). Nomenclature for Trea0ng the

2.1 Reference Frames - Notation

Generalized posi0on, velocity and force

2.2 Transformations between

O!3" ! #R|R ! !3!3 , RR " ! R! R ! I$

SO!3" ! #R|R ! ! 3!3 , R is orthogonal and detR !1$

2.2 Transformations between

S!!" ! !S! !!" !

2.2 Transformations between

R!," ! I 3#3 ! sin" S!"" ! !1 ! cos"" S !""

! ! !!1 , ! 2 , ! 3 " ! , |!| ! 1

v nb/n ! R nb v bb/n , R nb :! R !," #

R 22 ! !1 ! cos !" "22 " cos !

2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

Three principal rota0ons:

(1) Rotation over yaw

(2) Rotation over pitch

(3) Rotation over roll

2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

Rnb !! nb " !1 ! Rbn !! nb " ! R!x,!R!y," R!z,#

c!c" !s!c# " c!s"s#

s!s# " c!c#s"

c!c# " s#s"s!

!c!s# " s"s!c#

Small angle approxima0on:

R nb !!! nb " ! I3"3 ! S!!! nb " "

2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

n !k" ! hR n !! !k""v b !k" #

N! " u cos!!" cos!"" # v!cos!!" sin!"" sin!#" ! sin!!" cos!#""

" u sin!!"cos!"" # v!cos!!" cos!#" # sin!#" sin!"" sin!!""

2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

Small angle approxima0on:

2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

!" nb ! T"!! nb "# bb/n #

!! " p # q sin " tan ! # r cos " tan ! #

+ algorithm for computa0on

2.2.1 Euler Angle Transformation

" u sin!cos" # v!cos ! cos # # sin# sin" sin!"

!! " p # q sin! tan" # r cos ! tan"

2.2.2 Unit Quaternions

Unit quaternion (Euler parameter) rota0on matrix (Chou 1992):

R!,! ! I3"3 " sin ! S!!" " !1 ! cos !" S !!"

! ! !!1 , ! 2, ! 3" ! ! " sin

Rnb !q! : ! R !,! ! I3"3 " 2!S!!! " 2S2 !!"

2.2.2 Unit Quaternions

NB! must be integrated under

p! nb/n ! R nb !q"v bb/n #