--------------------Aditya Mongra @ Professors Classes-------------------Race and Ethnicity

Race refers to a classification of the human species in terms of observable

physical differences resulting from inherited biological characteristics. Such
physical characteristics may include a particular skin colour, eye or nasal shape,
hair texture, etc. The popular classification of human races recognizes three
groups: Caucasoid, Mongloid and Negroid. These three are also referred to as
White, Yellow and Black races, respectively. However, there are at least two
problems with this classification of races. First, some groups fit into none of these
categories. For example, natives of India and Pakistan have caucasoid facial
features but dark skin. Another problem with the biological classification of races
is that there are no pure races. People in these groups have been interbreeding for
centuries. (Miscegenation - process of intermixing of races)
Further, with the scientific development of genetics and the human genome
as fields of study, most scholars now recognize that the differences in physical
characteristics found among racial groups are probably the evolutionary result of
environmental adaptation. For example, the dark skin of Negroid people protects
them from the burning rays of the sun; the relative lack of body hair aids the
cooling action of evaporation when they perspire. Similarly Eskimos, a Mongoloid
people, have compact frames and tendency towards heaviness, which helps
insulate them from their cold climate.
Although it is true that people can be differentiated by their inherited
physical characteristics, racial identities are often more due to cultural factors than
biological characteristics. According to Alex Thio, race is not a biological or
genetic fact, but a socially constructed myth. Race is socially defined on the basis
of biologically determined characteristics. There is no statistically significant
difference in the genetic makeup between racial groups, thus it is often said that
race is socially constructed. There is in fact more genetic variation within a
particular racial group than between racial groups. Nonetheless, the perception of
racial differences is a powerful social force.
Since there are no clear-cut biological distinctions between racial groups - in
physical characteristics or genetic makeup - sociologists define race as a social
rather than a biological phenomenon. Defined sociologically, a race is a group of
people who are perceived by a given society to be biologically different from
others. People are assigned to one race or another not necessarily on the basis of
logic or fact but by public opinion, which in turn, is molded by societys dominant
group.

--------------------Aditya Mongra @ Professors Classes-------------------More than race, it is racism that is practiced through a false attribution
of inherited characteristics of personality. Racism is an ideology which correlates
the racial or physical characteristics of people with negative valuated social and
psychological traits, and therefore gives rise to the idea of racial superiority. In
other words, racism is an ideological orientation and a form of ethnocentrism in
which it is maintained that ones own group is a distinct race that is inherently
superior to other races.
In light of the disagreement among scholars with regard to the definition,
identification and classification of pure races, the term ethnic group is being more
commonly used in contemporary sociological literature. The term ethnic group
refers to a collectivity or group of people who share common racio-cultural traits.
Whereas race is based on popularly perceived physical traits, ethnicity is based on
cultural characteristics. Sociologists use the term ethnic group to refer to any kind
of group, racial or otherwise, which is socially identified as different and has
developed its own subculture. In other words, an ethnic group is one recognized by
society and by itself as a distinct group. An ethnic group, then, is a collection of
people who share a distinctive cultural heritage. Member of an ethnic group may
share a language, religion, history, or national origin. They always share a felling
that they are a distinct people.
According to Anthony Giddens, an ethnic minority is the one:
1. sense of belonging together (group solidarity)
2. usually to some degree, it is physically and socially isolated from the large
community (endogamy)
3. its members are disadvantaged, as a result of discrimination.
Sociologically, an ethnic minority is characterized by its experiences of
prejudice and discrimination at the hands of the dominant group in modern plural
societies. Prejudice comes from two Latin words, prae (before) and judicum
(a judgement). It implies a judgement expressed before knowing all the facts.
Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a certain category of people. Whereas
prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is an act. More specifically, discrimination
is an unfavourable action that is taken against certain individuals because they are
members of a certain category. Sometime, even state may actively promote such
discriminatory policies and programmes. Such prejudiced and discriminatory
attitude toward ethnic minorities has serious implications on their access to
opportunities and share in social resources.

--------------------Aditya Mongra @ Professors Classes-------------------In most cases, however, ethnic differences overlap with socio-economic and
political discrimination thus giving rise to ethnicity based inequality. For example,
Muslims in India low on educational parameters, government employment,
political representation, etc. Sachar committee report. However, in some cases,
minorities are prosperous Jews, Jains, Parsis, Sikhs, etc. ahead in socioeconomic indicators such as per capita income, gender equality, sex ratio,
education, etc. This leads to inequality in society based on ethnicity, which in turn,
gives rise to ethnic conflict.
Please note that an ethnic minority is not necessarily a small percentage of
the population. Blacks are considered a minority in South Africa, even though they
make up about 70% of the population, because they are the subordinate group.
Similarly the dominant group need not make a large part of the population. People
of English descent in the USA today constitute only about 13% of the population.
But because of their continuing social and cultural influence, they are still
considered the dominate group.

--------------------Aditya Mongra @ Professors Classes-------------------Prejudice and discrimination against minorities may take many forms:
Segregation defined as the involuntary separation of residential areas,
services or other facilities on the basis of the ethnic or racial characteristics
of the people using them. For example, Jim Crow Laws in USA (18761965), separate hamlets for untouchables in the traditional caste society in
India.
Expulsion forcing people out of an area. For example, in1970s, expulsion
of non- Africans from Uganda by its President Idi Amin.
Partition Hindus and Muslims (India and Pakistan, 1947)
Annihilation the ultimate form of discrimination (Genocide). Genocide
implies the deliberate and systematic extermination of an entire ethnic or
racial group. For example, Hitler extermination of Jews in Germany
Holocaust.
Contemporary relevance:

India Hindus vs Muslims communal riots

Bangladeshi migrants (Muslims) in Assam
Tamils in Sri Lanka

Remedial measures:
Policy of Affirmative Action (USA) The Civil Rights Acts of 1960, 1964
and 1968 outlawed discrimination. Government action against
discrimination was followed by a policy of affirmative action, which
required not only that there be no active discrimination but that positive
preference be given to groups who are victims of past discrimination. It also
requires employers and educational institutions to make special efforts to
recruit qualified minorities for jobs, promotion and educational
opportunities.
Welfare and social legislations (cite examples)
Interlinking concepts: Relative Deprivation, Social Exclusion
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--------------------Aditya Mongra @ Professors Classes--------------------