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C. Fase cementita:
E. Fase grafito:
Cuando las aleaciones hierro carbono, exceden el 2% de
carbono se tiende a formar grafito, en la matriz de la
aleacin. Es especialmente cierto en la fundicin gris, donde
el grafito aparece en forma de escamas y es una
caracterstica predominante de la microestructura.
3. CLASIFICACION DE LOS ACEROS:
A. Segn el modo de fabricacin
Aceros, elctrico.
Acero fundido.
Acero Colmado.
Acero efervescente.
Acero fritado.
B. Segn el modo de trabajarlos
Acero moldeado.
Acero laminado.
b) LAMINADO:
El laminado es un proceso de deformacin volumtrica en
el que se reduce el espesor inicial del material trabajado,
mediante las fuerzas de compresin que ejercen dos
rodillos sobre la pieza/material de trabajo. Los rodillos
giran en sentidos opuestos para que fluya el material
entre ellos, ejerciendo fuerzas de compresin y de
cizallamiento, originadas por el rozamiento que se
produce entre los rodillos y el metal. Los procesos de
laminado requieren gran inversin de capital; debido a
ello los molinos de laminado se usan para la produccin
de grandes cantidades de productos estndar (lminas,
placas, etc.).
Los procesos de laminado se realizan, en su gran
mayora, en caliente por la gran deformacin ejercida
sobre el material trabajado. Adems, los materiales
laminados en caliente tienen propiedades isotrpicas y
carecen de tensiones residuales. Los principales
inconvenientes que presenta el laminado en caliente son
que el producto no puede mantenerse dentro de
tolerancias adecuadas, y que la superficie de la pieza
queda cubierta por una capa de xido caracterstica.
c) EXTRUSIN:
La extrusin es un proceso utilizado para crear objetos
con seccin transversal definida y fija. El material se
empuja o se extrae a travs de un troquel de una seccin
transversal deseada. Las dos ventajas principales de este
proceso por encima de procesos manufacturados son la
habilidad para crear secciones transversales muy
complejas y el trabajo con materiales que son
quebradizos, porque el material solamente encuentra
fuerzas de compresin y de cizallamiento. Tambin las
piezas finales se forman con una terminacin superficial
excelente.
d) TREFILADO:
Se entiende por trefilar a la operacin de conformacin en
fro consistente en la reduccin de seccin de un alambre
o varilla hacindolo pasar a travs de un orificio cnico
practicado en una herramienta llamada hilera o dado. Los
materiales
ms
empleados
para
su
conformacin
B. MOLDEO:
a) MOLDEO EN ARENA:
Es el mtodo ms comn en el que se emplea arena
comn como material de molde. Se forma un molde de
dos piezas apisonando arena en torno a un patrn que
tiene
la
forma
de
la
pieza
proyectada.
Adems
para
darles
una
forma
determinada
herramientas de
la
unin
de
dos
materiales,
usualmente
son
pudiendo
en
contraste
con
la
soldadura
blanda
(en
D. NORMALIZADO:
Este tratamiento se emplea para eliminar tensiones internas
sufridas por el material tras una conformacin mecnica, tales
como una forja o laminacin para conferir al acero unas
propiedades que se consideran normales de su composicin.
El normalizado se practica calentando rpidamente el material
hasta una temperatura crtica y se mantiene en ella durante un
tiempo. A partir de ese momento, su estructura interna se
vuelve ms uniforme y aumenta la tenacidad del acero.
7. NORMAS NTP Y ASTM:
NORMAS NTP:
NTP 001: Estadsticas de accidentabilidad en la empresa
NTP 002: Estadsticas de accidentabilidad en la empresa. Caso
Prctico
NTP 003: Sealizaciones de conducciones
NTP 004: Sealizacin de vas de evacuacin
NTP 005: Identificacin de productos qumicos por etiqueta
NTP 006: Radiaciones en soldadura. Gua para la seleccin de
oculares filtrantes
NTP 007: Soldadura. Prevencin de Riesgos Higinicos
NTP 008: Reglamentaciones relativas a productos qumicos
NTP 009: Lquidos inflamables y combustibles. Almacenamiento en
recipientes mviles
NTP 010: Resguardos. Distancias de seguridad
NTP 011: Detectores de posicin elctricos en resguardos de
enclavamientos
NTP 012: Enclavamiento de movimientos peligrosos con inercia
NTP 013: Enclavamientos de seguridad mediante cerraduras
NTP 014: Troqueles cerrados
NTP 015: Construccin de una escala de actitudes tipo Likert
NTP 016: Modelo para el diseo y preparacin de una clase
NTP 017: Protectores auditivos. Atenuacin en dB A
NTP 018: Estrs trmico. Evaluacin de las exposiciones muy
intensas
NTP 019: Instrucciones generales para la toma, conservacin y
envo de muestras
NTP 021: Toma de muestras de polvo inerte o molesto
NTP 020: Toma de muestras de contaminantes con filtro. Norma
general
NORMAS ASTM:
Concrete Reinforcement
A90/A90M-95a Standard Test Method for Weight [Mass] of
Coating on Iron and Steel
Articles with Zinc or Zinc-Alloy Coatings
A99-82(2000) Standard Specification for Ferromanganese
A100-93(2000) Standard Specification for Ferrosilicon
A101-93(2000) Standard Specification for Ferrochromium
A102-93(2000) Standard Specification for Ferrovanadium
A105/A105M-98 Standard Specification for Carbon Steel
Forgings for Piping
Applications
A106-99e1 Standard Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel
Pipe for High-Temperature Service
A108-99 Standard Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon, ColdFinished, Standard Quality
A109/A109M-98a Standard Specification for Steel, Strip,
Carbon (0.25 Maximum Percent), Cold-Rolled
A111-99a Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
"Iron" Telephone and Telegraph Line Wire
A116-95 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Woven Wire Fence Fabric
A121-99 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Barbed Wire
A123/A123M-97a(1999)e1 Standard Specification for Zinc
(Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
A125-96 Standard Specification for Steel Springs, Helical,
Heat-Treated
A126-95e1 Standard Specification for Gray Iron Castings for
Valves, Flanges, and Pipe Fittings
A128/A128M-93(1998) Standard Specification for Steel
Castings, Austenitic Manganese
A131/A131M-94 Standard Specification for Structural Steel for
Ships
A132-89(2000) Standard Specification for Ferromolybdenum
A134-96 Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Electric-Fusion
(Arc)-Welded (Sizes NPS 16 and Over)
A135-97c Standard Specification for Electric-ResistanceWelded Steel Pipe
A139-96e1 Standard Specification for Electric-Fusion (Arc)Welded Steel Pipe (NPS 4 and Over)
A143-74(1999) Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against
Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Products
and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
A146-64(2000) Standard Specification for Molybdenum Oxide
Products
A148/A148M-93b(1998) Standard Specification for Steel
Exchanger Tubes
A214/A214M-96 Standard Specification for ElectricResistance-Welded Carbon Steel Heat-Exchanger and
Condenser Tubes
A216/A216M-93(1998) Standard Specification for Steel
Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Welding, for HighTemperature Service
A217/A217M-99 Standard Specification for Steel Castings,
Martensitic Stainless and Alloy, for Pressure- Containing Parts,
Suitable for High-Temperature Service
A220/A220M-99 Standard Specification for Pearlitic Malleable
Iron
A225/A225M-93(1999) Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Manganese-Vanadium-Nickel
A227/A227M-99 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, ColdDrawn for Mechanical Springs
A228/A228M-93 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Music
Spring Quality
A229/A229M-99 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, OilTempered for Mechanical Springs
A230/A230M-99 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, OilTempered Carbon Valve
Spring Quality
A231/A231M-96 Standard Specification for ChromiumVanadium Alloy Steel Spring Wire
A232/A232M-99 Standard Specification for ChromiumVanadium Alloy Steel Valve Spring Quality Wire
A234/A234M-99 Standard Specification for Piping Fittings of
Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for Moderate and High
Temperature Service
A239-95 Standard Practice for Locating the Thinnest Spot in a
Zinc (Galvanized) Coating on Iron or Steel Articles
A240/A240M-00 Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting
Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet,
and Strip for Pressure Vessels
A242/A242M-00 Standard Specification for High-Strength LowAlloy Structural Steel
A247-67(1998) Standard Test Method for Evaluating the
Microstructure of Graphite in Iron Castings
A249/A249M-98e1 Standard Specification for Welded
Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and
Condenser Tubes
A250/A250M-95 Standard Specification for ElectricResistance-Welded Ferritic Alloy-Steel Boiler and Superheater
Tubes
A252-98 Standard Specification for Welded and Seamless
Bearing Steel
A297/A297M-97(1998) Standard Specification for Steel
Castings, Iron-Chromium and Iron-Chromium-Nickel, Heat
Resistant, for General Application
A299/A299M-97e1 Standard Specification for Pressure Vessel
Plates, Carbon Steel, Manganese-Silicon
A302/A302M-97e1 Standard Specification for Pressure Vessel
Plates, Alloy Steel, Manganese-Molybdenum and ManganeseMolybdenum-Nickel
A304-96 Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel
Bars Subject to End-Quench Hardenability Requirements
A307-97 Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts and
Studs, 60 000 PSI Tensile Strength
A308-99 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Terne (LeadTin Alloy) Coated by the Hot-Dip Process
A309-94a Standard Test Method for Weight and Composition
of Coating on Terne Sheet by the Triple-Spot Test
A311/A311M-95 Standard Specification for Cold-Drawn,
Stress-Relieved Carbon Steel Bars Subject to Mechanical
Property Requirements
A312/A312M-00 Standard Specification for Seamless and
Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
A313/A313M-98 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel
Spring Wire
A314-97 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Billets and
Bars for Forging
A319-71(1995) Standard Specification for Gray Iron Castings
for Elevated Temperatures for Non-Pressure Containing Parts
A320/A320M-99 Standard Specification for Alloy Steel Bolting
Materials for Low-Temperature Service
A321-90(1995)e1 Standard Specification for Steel Bars,
Carbon, Quenched and Tempered
A322-91(1996) Standard Specification for Steel Bars, Alloy,
Standard Grades
A323-93(2000) Standard Specification for Ferroboron
A324-73(2000) Standard Specification for Ferrotitanium
A325M-97 Standard Specification for High-Strength Bolts for
Structural Steel Joints [Metric]
A325-97 Standard Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel,
Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength
A327M-91(1997) Standard Test Methods for Impact Testing of
Cast Irons (Metric)
A327-91(1997) Standard Test Methods for Impact Testing of
Cast Irons
A328/A328M-00 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet Piling
A331-95 Standard Specification for Steel Bars, Alloy, ColdFinished
for Nitriding
A356/A356M-98e1 Standard Specification for Steel Castings,
Carbon, Low Alloy, and Stainless Steel, Heavy-Walled for
Steam Turbines
A358/A358M-98 Standard Specification for Electric-FusionWelded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Steel Pipe for HighTemperature Service
A363-98 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Overhead Ground Wire Strand
A366/A366M-97e1 Standard Specification for Commercial
Steel (CS) Sheet, Carbon (0.15 Maximum Percent) ColdRolled
A367-60(1999) Standard Test Methods of Chill Testing of Cast
Iron
A368-95a Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire
Strand
A369/A369M-92 Standard Specification for Carbon and Ferritic
Alloy Steel Forged and Bored Pipe for High-Temperature
Service
A370-97a Standard Test Methods and Definitions for
Mechanical Testing of Steel Products
A372/A372M-99 Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy
Steel Forgings for Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
A376/A376M-98 Standard Specification for Seamless
Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-Station
Service
A377-99 Standard Index of Specifications for Ductile-Iron
Pressure Pipe
A380-99e1 Standard Practice for Cleaning, Descaling, and
Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, and Systems
A381-96 Standard Specification for Metal-Arc-Welded Steel
Pipe for Use With High-Pressure Transmission Systems
A384-76(1996) Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against
Warpage and Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel
Assemblies
A385-98 Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc
Coatings (Hot-Dip)
A387/A387M-99 Standard Specification for Pressure Vessel
Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum
A388/A388M-95 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination
of Heavy Steel Forgings
A389/A389M-93(1998) Standard Specification for Steel
Castings, Alloy, Specially Heat-Treated, for PressureContaining Parts, Suitable for High-Temperature Service
A390-95 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Poultry Fence Fabric (Hexagonal and Straight Line)
A391/A391M-98 Standard Specification for Grade 80 Alloy
Steel Chain
A392-96 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated Steel ChainLink Fence Fabric
A394-93 Standard Specification for Steel Transmission Tower
Bolts, Zinc-Coated and Bare
A395/A395M-99 Standard Specification for Ferritic Ductile Iron
Pressure-Retaining Castings for Use at Elevated
Temperatures
A400-69(1995)e1 Standard Practice for Steel Bars, Selection
Guide, Composition, and Mechanical Properties
A401/A401M-98 Standard Specification for Steel Wire,
Chromium-Silicon Alloy
A403/A403M-99a Standard Specification for Wrought
Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping Fittings
A407-93(1998) Standard Specification for Steel Wire, ColdDrawn, for Coiled-Type Springs
A409/A409M-95ae1 Standard Specification for Welded Large
Diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for Corrosive or HighTemperature Service
A411-98 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Low-Carbon Steel Armor Wire
A413/A413M-00 Standard Specification for Carbon Steel
Chain
A414/A414M-00 Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet,
Carbon, for Pressure Vessels
A416/A416M-99 Standard Specification for Steel Strand,
Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A417-93(1998) Standard Specification for Steel Wire, ColdDrawn, for Zig-Zag, Square-Formed, and Sinuous-Type
Upholstery Spring Units
A418-99 Standard Test Method for Ultrasonic Examination of
Turbine and Generator Steel Rotor Forgings
A420/A420M-99 Standard Specification for Piping Fittings of
Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for Low-Temperature
Service
A421/A421M-98a Standard Specification for Uncoated StressRelieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A423/A423M-95 Standard Specification for Seamless and
Electric-Welded Low-Alloy Steel Tubes
A424-00 Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet, for Porcelain
Enameling
A426-92(1997) Standard Specification for Centrifugally Cast
Ferritic Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
A427-74(1996)e1 Standard Specification for Wrought Alloy
Steel Rolls for Cold and Hot Reduction
A428/A428M-95 Standard Test Method for Weight [Mass] of
Concrete Reinforcement
A497-99 Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric,
Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
A498-98 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded
Carbon, Ferritic, and Austenitic Alloy Steel Heat-Exchanger
Tubes with Integral Fins
A499-89(1997)e1 Standard Specification for Steel Bars and
Shapes, Carbon Rolled from "T" Rails
A500-99 Standard Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and
Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing in Rounds and
Shapes