Back Charge

Cost of corrective action by purchaser and chargeable to the supplier under terms of the
contract.
Bid Protest
allows an unsuccessful supplier an opportunity to protest the award of a government
contract to another supplier.
Bill of Lading
A receipt issued by a carrier for merchandise to be delivered to a party at some
destination.
Constructive Change
occurs when the PM's conduct enables performance differing from that prescribed by the
contract. The PM's conduct in effecting constructive change may either be affirmative or
a failure to act. Not part of change control of contract: For instance, if final product
performs better than standard specified in contract, or if the PM increases the quality over
and beyond what's stated in the contract.
Contract
a legal document of purchase or sale which is binding on both parties.
When entering into a contract, the people involved must have legal capacity to do so.
(the definition of legal capacity varies from state to state). Consideration must be
provided to both parties (in other words, there must be sufficient cause to contract). There
must be mutual assent.
Invitation for Bid (IFB)
PMBOK equates this with Request for Proposal and recognizes that it may have a more
specific meaning in certain application areas. (appropriate for high dollar, standard
items.)
Low-ball
In order to get an award, a contractor may submit at bid that's unrealistically low.
Pink Team Review
A seller responds to an RFP by developing a proposal. For sanity purposes, the proposal
is passed through the pink team once the outline is completed. The pink team looks at the
outline through the perspective of the buyer. The purpose of the team is to catch problems
with the proposal in the early stages.
Price Forecast
based on information gathered and analyzed about demand and supply. This forecast
provides a prediction of short and long term prices and the underlying reasons for those
trends.
Red Team Review
Once the proposal is in draft form, it passes through a red team which again looks at the
proposal through the buyer's perspective.
Reformation
A judicial remedy by which a court interprets the contract so as to express the real
intention of the parties (this is different from changes to the contract)
Request for Proposal (RFP)
A type of bid document used to solicit proposals from prospective sellers of products or
services. In some application areas, it may have a more specific meaning. (appropriate for
high dollar, non-standard items).

Request for Quotation (RFQ)

PMBOK does not distinguish between RFQ and RFP. However, PMBOK does recognize
that some application areas have a more specific meaning for RFQ (appropriate for low
dollar items such as supplies and materials).
Statement of Work (SOW)
Describes the portion of the product to be contracted. In general, this is different from the
product description (which tends to be more broader). Under the circumstance where the
seller is producing the entire product, the distinction between SOW and the product
description becomes moot. Government terms: SOW is reserved for a procurement item
that is a clearly specified product or service, and Statement of Requirements (SOR) is
used for procuring an item that is presented as a problem to be solved.

Procurement Planning

Process of identifying which project needs can be best met by procuring products or
services outside the project organization.

Involves knowing whether to procure, how to procure, what to procure, how much to
procure, and when to procure.

Input includes:

Scope statement

Product description

Procurement resources

Market conditions

Other planning Output

Constraints

Assumptions

Methods include: make-or-buy analysis, expert judgment, and contract type selection
(fixed, cost reimbursable, etc.).

Output includes: Procurement management plan and statement of work (SOW) for each
planned contract.

Solicitation Planning

Process of preparing documents needed to support solicitation.

Input includes: procurement management plan, SOW's, and other planning Output.

Methods include: standard forms and expert judgment.

Output includes:

Procurement documents such as IFB's, RFQ's, and RFP's.

Evaluation criteria: the criteria that will be used to rate or score proposals. The
criteria may be subjective or objective.
o
Statement of work updates.
o

Solicitation

The process of obtaining information (bids and proposals) from prospective sellers on
how project needs can be met.

Most of the actual effort in this process is expended by the prospective sellers, normally
at little or no cost to the project.

Input includes: procurement documents and qualified seller lists.

Methods include: bidders conferences and advertising.

Output includes: Proposals prepared by the sellers explaining how the seller can provide
the requested product or service.

Source Selection

The process of receiving the bids and proposals from the sellers and applying the
evaluation criteria to select a provider.

Input includes: proposals, evaluation criteria, and organizational policies.

Methods include:

Contract negotiation.

Weighting system: A method for quantifying qualitative data in order to

minimize personal prejudice on source selection.
o
Screening system: Involves establishing minimum requirements of performance
for one or more of the evaluation criteria. For example, the seller project manager must
be certified before the remainder of the proposal would be considered.
o
Independent estimates: The procuring organization may prepare its own
estimates as a check on proposed pricing. These estimates are generally referred to as
should cost estimates.
o

Output includes: Contract.

Contract Administration

The process of ensuring that the seller's performance meets contractual requirements.

Input includes: contract, work results, change requests, and seller invoices.

Methods includes: contract change control system, performance reporting, and payment
system.

Output includes: correspondence, contract changes, and payment requests.

Contract Closeout

The process of completing and settling the contract including any resolution of open
items.

Input includes: contract documentation.

Methods include: procurement audits.

Output includes: contract file and formal acceptance and closure.

Procurement Management Concepts

Contract Origination
Two ways in which a contract can originate: unilaterally or bilaterally
Unilaterally:
Common form for contract is a relatively simple type of document called a
purchase order.
o
A purchase order is used when routine, standard cost items are needed.
o

A purchase order is legally binding and should be specific.

Bilaterally:
Procurement documents are used to solicit proposals from prospective sellers. The
procurement document then becomes the basis for the seller's proposal. The following
are examples of procurement documents:

1. Request for quotation (RFQ) from different suppliers:

Items are of relatively low dollar value such as supplies and materials

A survey of potential suppliers is completed.

The quotation request informing suppliers of the goods or services needed

is sent to a scaled-down number of possible suppliers.

2. Request for proposal (RFP):

Items or services are usually high dollar and non-standard.

Examples: construction project, a research and development project; a

made-to-order, highly complex piece of machinery.
Blueprints, drawings, specifications, and other appropriate data should be
included with proposal.

3. Invitation for bid (IFB):

Appropriate for high dollar, standard items.

A prerequisite to this process is a clear and accurate description of the

supplies, equipment, and services required.
Includes specifications, drawings, industry standards, performance
requirements, etc.
Must ensure fair competition among all bidders.
Provisions should be stated in such a manner to avoid misinterpretation.

Formal bids are submitted to the contracting department in sealed

envelopes. All bids are opened at a specific time.
In most cases, the contract award goes to the lowest responsible bidder. If
not awarded to the lowest bidder, must document reasons, carefully.
Type of contract is open to fraud, collusion, and other dishonest conduct.
Hence, PM and contracting personnel must practice defined ethical business
procedures.

Contract Types
Principal Types

Cost

Fixed

Unit Price

Simple purchase order

Fixed price per unit of goods or service

Cost-Plus-Award-Fee (CPAF): (from the Frame Book)

An award pool is created. The level of award is determined by an award committee.

Buyers have more flexibility than CPIF. Subjective judgments can be used to determine
rewards (such as a contractor's attitude).

Type of contract is gaining with popularity.

Downside: administrative cost is high due to award committee.

The following contracts are ordered in increasing risk to the seller and
decreasing risk to the buyer.
Cost-Plus-Percentage of Cost (CPPC)

Seller is reimbursed for allowable costs of performing the contract and receives as profit
an agreed upon percentage of the costs.

No limit on the seller's profit. If the seller's cost increases, so does the profit.

Most undesirable type of contract from buyer's standpoint.

Prohibited for federal government use. Used in private industry, particularly construction
projects.

Susceptible to abuse. No motivation for seller to decrease costs.

The buyer bears 100% of the risk.

The buyer project manager must pay particular attention to the control of the labor and
material costs so that the seller does not purposely increase these costs.

Bottom line: no limit on seller's profit!

Cost-Plus-Fixed Fee (CPFF)

Seller is reimbursed for allowable costs of performing the contract and receives as profit
a fixed fee payment based on the percentage of the estimated costs.

The fixed fee does not vary with actual costs unless the scope of work changes.

Susceptible to abuse in that there is a ceiling on profit, but no motivation to decrease

costs.

Primarily used in research projects where the effort required to achieve success is
uncertain until well after the contract is signed.

Bottom line: limit on profit but no incentive to control costs.

Cost-Plus-Incentive Fee (CPIF)

Seller is paid for allowable performance costs along with a predetermined fee and an
incentive bonus.

If the final costs are less than the expected costs, both the buyer and seller benefit by the
cost savings based on a pre-negotiated sharing formula.

The sharing formula reflects the degree of uncertainty faced by each party.

Primarily used when contracts involve a long performance period with a substantial
amount of hardware development and test requirements.

Risk is shared by both buyer and seller.

Bottom line: provides incentive to seller to reduce costs by increasing profit potential.

Fixed Price-Plus-Incentive Fee (FPI)

Most complex type of contract.

Consists of target cost, target profit, target price, ceiling price, and share ratio.

For every dollar the seller can reduce costs below the target cost, the savings will be
shared by the seller and buyer based on the share ratio.

The share ratio is a negotiated formula which reflects the degree of uncertainty faced by
each party.

If the costs exceed the ceiling price, the seller receives no profit. Regardless of the actual
costs, the buyer pays no more than the ceiling price.

Risk is shared by both buyer and seller, but risk is usually higher for seller.

Usually used when contracts are for a substantial sum and involve a long production
time.

Bottom line: provides incentive to decrease costs which in turn increases profits. If costs
exceed a ceiling, then contractor is penalized.

Firm-Fixed Price (FFP)

Seller agrees to perform a service or furnish supplies at the established contract price.

Will also be called lump sum.

Seller bears the greatest degree of risk.

Seller is motivated to decrease costs by producing efficiently.

Best specifications are available and costs are relatively certain.

Common type of contract.

Examples of Contract Types

CPPC
Estimated Cost

$1,000K

Percentage

10% ($100K)

Estimated Total Price

$1,100K
(Estimated Cost + 10% * Estimated Cost)

If cost increases to $1,100K the total price would be $1,100K plus 10% of the
actual costs = $1,210K.

CPFF
Estimated Cost

$1,000K

Percentage

10% ($100K)

Estimated Total Price

$1,100K
(Estimated Cost + 10% * Estimated Cost)

If cost increases to $1,100K the total price would be $1,100K plus 10% of the
original estimated costs = $1,200K.

CPIF
Estimated Cost

$1,000K

Predetermined
Fee

$100K

Sharing Formula 85/15

(buyer absorbs 85% of the uncertainty and the seller absorbs 15%

of the risk)
Actual Cost

$800K

Savings

$200K

Seller Gets

$800K + $100K + $30K = $930K

(Actual cost + Fee + (15% * Savings))

Buyer Saves

$170K

FPI
Target Cost

$1,000K

Target Profit

$100K (Seller's Fee)

Target Price

$1,100K

Ceiling Price

$1,200K (The maximum pay-out to the seller)

Share Ratio

70/30

EXAMPLE A
Actual Cost

$800K

Savings

$200K
(Target cost - Actual cost)

Seller Gets

$800K + $100K + 60K = $960K

(Actual cost + fee + 30%*savings)

Buyer Saves

$140K

EXAMPLE B

Actual Cost

$1,300K

Seller Gets

$1,200K
(no profit and a $100K loss on costs)

Buyer Loses

$100K
(the pay-out is $100K over Target price = Ceiling Price)

FFP (Lump Sum)

Price

$1,000K

EXAMPLE A
Actual cost

$700K

Seller's Profit

$300K
(Price - Actual Cost)

EXAMPLE B
Final cost

$1,100K

Seller's Loss

$100K on contract

Contract Execution Special Considerations

Changes

The change control system should be defined and included in the changes clause
of the project.
o
The system should cover who initiates a change request, how is it processed and
funded and who has the final approval authority.
o
For major projects, a configuration control committee should be established
o

The change proposal must be explicit in terms of the impact of the change on the
contract work statement, specifications and drawings.
o
Legal: there must be mutual agreement to modify a contract and that agreement
must be supported by consideration (change clause is important!) OR
o
Change may also be accomplished by unilateral action if pursuant to the exercise
of options contained in the terms of the original contract.
o

Specifications

Either standard in nature where a specific design has been accepted throughout
the industry or tailored and unique to the situation at hand.
o
There is a behavioral component associated with the development of
specifications: These include:

Drive for competency: The person keeps changing the design which results
in increasing complexity and cost. (cannot come to a closure)
o

Safety margin coefficient: related to design parameters in terms of how

much is enough. At some point, costs increase exponentially, but safety gains do not.

Indifference methodology: related to an attitude that promotes a

contingency approach to specifications even when not warranted. (Design is too flexible
-- the engineer or architect is "indifferent" to the final structure of the product)

Monument syndrome: based on the desire to build a product that will last
forever regardless of the cost. (i.e., the pyramids)

Budget expansion: the designer develops the specifications with an eye to

the available funds. The more money available, the more complex and costly the design.

Sole-source shelter: specifications are developed so that equipment,

materials and supplies are tailored to require the products of a specific manufacturer or
supplier.
o
Careful review during the drafting stage of the contract is of extreme importance!
Correcting problems after the contract is signed may rarely be done without costly
negotiation or litigation.

Quality Control

Quality cannot be inspected into the product -- it must be built into it.

The attitude of quality must be present when the product is designed.

Controls must be established to ensure quality is kept in mind as work progresses.

Periodic checks for specification conformance are a must.

Cost of rework can be high -- the emphasis should be on doing it right the first

o
time.
o

Defects can be costly and damaging to the reputation of the company and the
project manager and the project team.

Warranties The concept of warranty is based on one party's assurance to the other that
the goods will meet certain standards of quality, including condition, reliability,
description, function or performance.
o
Express warranty: applies when service or product does not meet the level of
quality specified in the contract. (Section 2-313(1)(a) of the Uniform Commercial Code)
o
Implied warranty: is measured by "merchantability" or "fitness for a particular
use".

The implied warranty of merchantability arises in every sale of goods

made by a merchant who deals in goods of the kind sold. It means the goods must be
reasonably fit for the ordinary purposes for which such goods are used. (applies to goods
which can be resold)

The implied warranty of fitness for a particular use applies to both

merchants and non-merchants, alike. The warranty is implied, if at time of contracting,
the seller knows a particular purpose for which the item is being purchased, and the seller
also knows the buyer is relying on the seller's judgment in selecting or furnishing suitable
goods. The implied warranty is NOT applicable in the following cases:

1.

The client PM is knowledgeable of the product, has inspected it,

and made his own independent judgment without relying on the seller's skill.
2.
The product meets the specifications and plans furnished by the
client project manager.

Analogy: If you buy a lawnmower, you would expect it to cut grass. If you
use it on the carpet, the warranty doesn't apply.

Waiver
The client PM must be continually aware of the waiver pitfall.

Under the doctrine of a waiver, a party may relinquish rights he otherwise has
under the contract.
o
If the client PM knowingly accepts incomplete, defective or late performance and
accepts that performance without objection, the PM has waived his right to strict
performance.
o

Bonds

Bonds contain penal amounts sufficient to assure performance and payment.

When appropriate, bonds are drafted into the contract.
o
Types of bonds:
o

Performance: secures the performance and fulfillment of all the

undertakings, terms and conditions of the contract. (The penal amount could be as much
as 100% of the contract price such as in construction projects)

Payment: secures the payment of subcontractors, laborers, and material

men by the prime contractor. Additionally, the PM may want to include a contract clause
requiring the prime contractor to secure payment bonds from any subcontractor on the
project for the subcontractor's suppliers of labor and material.

Under certain circumstances, fidelity and patent infringement bonds may

be required.
o
The Miller Act requires both performance and payment bonds on all but minor
construction projects in which the U.S. government is a party to the contract.

Breaches
Breach of contract: failure to perform a contractual obligation.

The measure of the damages for a breach is the amount of loss the injured party
has sustained.
o
Materials breach of contract: The non-faulted party is discharged from any
further obligations under the contract. The breach is so serious that it also deprives the
non-faulting party the expected benefits of the bargain.
o
Time: Should no time for performance be stated or implied in the contract, the
performance must be completed within a reasonable amount of time. However, if time is
critical, the contract should explicitly state "time is of the essence".
o

Time is of the essence: when explicitly stated within the contract, failure to
perform within the allotted time will constitute a materials breach of contract and the
buyer will not be required to accept late performance.

Negotiation

Stages of Negotiation

1. Protocol: Introductions are made, and the negotiators get to know each other. The
atmosphere for the rest of the negotiations is determined in this stage.
2. Probing: The negotiators begin the search process. Each party identifies issues of
concern. Strengths and weaknesses are identified and possible areas of interest.
3. Scratch Bargaining: This is the essence of the meeting. Actual bargaining occurs and
concessions are made. Points of concession are identified.
4. Closure: The two positions are summed up and final concessions are reached. The
agreements are summarized and documented.
5. Agreement: The main difficulty in this stage is ensuring both parties have an identical
understanding of the agreements. This stage should establish the plans for recording the
agreements in a written contract
2 Negotiation Tactics

The PM should be aware of the following negotiation tactics.

Imposing a deadline for reaching an agreement

A powerful tactic because it implies a possible loss to both parties

Other party does not have to accept deadline, but often does
Surprise -- One party springs information such as a price change on the

other party

Stalling
One party may claim that an agreement cannot be finalized
because he has limited authority and cannot commit the company's resources.
A party may claim that the person with final authority is absent.
The "missing man" technique may also be used when the party does not have the
information asked for by the other party.
Fair and reasonable
Negotiator may claim the price for a computer is equitable because
that is what another company is paying.
Delays
Useful when tempers are beginning to flare, a team member is
going astray, to divert from a subject, etc.
Examples of delays: arrival of refreshments, request for recess, etc.
Reasoning together

Confusing the other party: deliberately distorting issues and figures. (If
this is done, someone should speak up before agreeing to anything)
Withdrawal

Sometimes done to divert attention from an area of weakness

One party may make an attack upon an issue, then retreat.

Make the other party appear unreasonable by pointing out all the
concessions made by the party
Arbitration - a third party may be brought in when agreement cannot be
reached.
Fait accompli - a party may claim that what is being asked for has already
been accomplished and cannot be changed.