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16.1 Polymers
16.2 Thermoplastic polymeric materials
16.3 Core materials
16.4 Thermosetting polymeric materials
16.5 Post-curing
16.6 Fillers
16.1 Polymers
A polymer (from the Greek words for 'many' and 'share') is a very large, strong molecule composed
of many small molecules chain-bonded together in a chemical reaction process. Monomers are the
small, light molecules capable of polymerisation; vinyl chloride and styrene, for example. When
polymerised, these produce polyvinylchloride and polystyrene, respectively. A copolymer is a
polymer made using two or more different monomers, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene [ABS] for
example although that is more correctly a 'terpolymer'. Polymers are often referred to as
'synthetic resins' (or 'resins') and can be classified as 'thermoplastics' (or 'plastics') and
'thermosetting' (or 'thermosets'), according to the effect of heat on their properties. Polymers are
used extensively in homebuilt aircraft as materials incorporated in primary and secondary
structures, as fittings, as structural adhesives, and as surface sealers/primers and finishes. To learn
more about the chemistry involved, and some of the terms appearing in the following text, visit
Macrogalleria or the Connecticut plastics learning center.
Polymers have a unique property called the glass transition temperature [Tg], the value of which
varies with the polymer and its chemical condition. Tg is not the melting point but a transition
temperature range below which the material is rigid, and to some extent, brittle. Above Tg polymers
start to become softer and flexible, and able to be shaped without stressing the material. Some
polymers have a Tg that is below normal room temperatures, so their normal useful condition is
above the Tg when they are soft and flexible. Aircraft structural materials are designed for use at
temperatures below the Tg. Such materials are significantly weakened if temperatures within the
airframe are allowed to build up to that material's Tg; see thermosetting polymeric materials.
Acrylic plastics or acrylics are any polymer or copolymer of acrylic acid or variants thereof.
Plexiglas (one 's'), Perspex, Acrylite and Lucite are trade names for polymethyl methacrylate
[PMMA] products. They are highly transparent to tinted or opaque, strong, light, and tough a 30
mm thick sheet is bullet-resistant. PMMA can be sheared, sawn, turned, routed, milled and drilled if
appropriate or modified tools or machine-tools are used and the material is prevented from
overheating by air or water cooling. But if PMMAs are exposed to a direct flame they will melt and
eventually burn. PMMAs have glass transition temperature ranges around 100 C.
Acrylic sheet may be purchased in an un-shrunk or a pre-shrunk condition. Un-shrunk sheet will
shrink about 2% in the planar dimensions and expand in thickness during any subsequent heatforming operation. The primary use for PMMA acrylics in aircraft is in canopies, windshields,
windows and light covers because of its clarity and its abilities to be:
bent at room temperature without overstressing as long as the bend radius is greater
than (roughly) 180 times the sheet thickness
shaped without stressing if heated and subsequently annealed
chemically bonded with methylene chloride solvent and heat after the cement has
dried to produce a seamless (though slightly weakened) joint
buffed to remove scratches
PMMA acrylic also provides some thermal insulation in an enclosed cockpit because it is a
poor heat conductor.
Polycarbonates: Lexan, Makrolon/Hyzod and Tuffak are trade names for polycarbonate
products widely used in sheet form for ultralight aircraft canopies, windshields and doors.
Polycarbonate properties are similar to the PMMA acrylics but have very much greater
impact strength to withstand bird-strike and are easier to bend at room temperature; the
minimum bend radius is reduced to 100 times the sheet thickness. Polycarbonates will craze
if exposed to fuel, some solvents used in paints and primers, and some alcohols used in
cleaners and engine coolants; the crazing will lead to stress cracking. For more information
on forming techniques, etc. see the fabrication guide for Makrolon polycarbonate sheet (375
KB pdf file).
Fitting the polycarbonate windscreen and cabin roof to Keith Manwaring's SkyRanger.
"The one piece 1.5 mm thick windscreen and cabin roof was marked out and cut from a roll of GE Lexan in
accordance with a diagram in the manual which indicated that three people were required to fit and rivet in
place. I preferred to hold in place with alligator clips and secure the windscreen to the fibreglass cowling with
small bolts instead of rivets. And, by the way, Loctite and polycarbonate are not compatible."
stainless steel wire that vaporizes the foam without actually touching it thus providing a very
smooth cut surface. The shapes created are used as core material in control surfaces and wings
where aerodynamic loads are transferred from the outer skins to a spar or some other internal
structure. The core material also prevents the flexing of the outer skins under changing bending
loads; such compressive buckling is generally not a particular problem with metal skins (where it is
known as oil-canning) but can be with composites.
Polystyrene foam is quite compatible with epoxy resin but not with polyester or vinyl ester resins.
Exposure to leaking fuel will dissolve it, so it should not be used in the vicinity of fuel tanks and
lines.
Polyurethane foams are compatible with epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins, and are resistant
to fuel (including those containing ethanol) and other solvents. But the vapour generated from hotwire cutting of polyurethane foam contains a form of cyanide so it must be cut or shaped with a
saw, file, knife or an abrasive means such as those normally used in shaping wood. The dust from
sawing or sanding is hazardous. Usual colours are green or light brown.
There are other expanded foam compounds (e.g. polyvinyl chloride, polymethacrylamide,
polyetherimide) available in a range of densities. Polyvinyl chloride [PVC] foam is difficult to cut,
though it can be used with polyester resins and is suitable for mouldless structure core material.
The other foams mentioned are high performance but perhaps over-expensive for homebuilt light
aircraft applications and shaping may be hazardous.
16.5 Post-curing
The thermosetting resin systems generally used by homebuilders are types that complete a
substantial part of the cross-linking at room temperatures during the initial curing cycle. However,
the cross-linking must be further extended throughout the matrix by post-curing heat-soaking at
higher temperatures for a particular time; i.e. a long period at a lower temperature, or a shorter
period at a higher temperature. No part of the structure should be under load during post-cure;
i.e. its weight should be supported. If post-curing of room-temperature systems is not done then all
the possible links will not be established, and the matrix will not achieve its optimum mechanical
properties and chemical resistance. The post-curing can be done in any rudimentary heating
chamber constructed for the purpose using aluminium foil-backed building insulation material. In
warmer climates, it can be done in the open air utilising solar radiation or in the roof space of the
house/workshop. Care must be taken in temperature control particularly in avoiding thermal shock
and ensuring that the breakdown temperature of any core material is not exceeded. (The
temperature should be brought up reasonably slowly, maintained around the required level for the
required time then brought down slowly.) Post-curing is usually done at least two weeks after initial
curing and after the initial surface sanding and filling is completed. Priming and painting is carried
out after post-curing.
Thus there are three stage points in the resin curing process: the A stage where the resin parts
have been mixed but are still liquid; the semi-cured B stage where the matrix is stiff but soft and
tacky to touch; and the fully cured C stage where the matrix is a solid. Cured epoxy is a honey
colour.
Also the heat resistance or glass transition temperature is dependent on the level of curing; Tg is at
its lowest following initial cure and will rise with post-curing. There is another temperature value, the
heat deflection temperature [HDT], which may be stated by a manufacturer in lieu of Tg. HDT is
the temperature at which a specified test piece of the material, subject to a specified load, softens
enough to allow deflection through a specified distance; it is also called the 'deflection temperature
under load' [DTUL]. HDT will be a few degrees (around 510 C) less than Tg and possibly a more
relevant means of comparing epoxy resins. Here are some post-curing and Tg figures for one
room-temperature curing epoxy system (others will differ):
Post-curing time and temperature Tg achieved
24 hours at 25 C
55 C
10 hours at 40 C
75 C
10 hours at 50 C
85 C
10 hours at 60 C
100 C
8 hours at 80 C
120 C
The temperatures that can develop within an airframe structure when parked and exposed to solar
radiation are very high; see the table in the module 'Surface coatings and finishes'. Obviously postcuring is necessary; it can be seen that even with a white finish (the norm for all composite aircraft)
the 68 C temperature reached is well above the initial room-temperature curing Tg.
Heat build-up will also damage foam cores
Note that unless a UV inhibitor has been included in the formulation, such as in polyester resin gel
coatings, the cured resins are UV-sensitive and will eventually weaken with exposure to sunlight;
the resins will need protection with a UV blocking surface coating.
Fully-cured thermoset matrices are medium weight, have reasonable rigidity and dimensional
stability, high compressive strength, high thermal stability and good thermal and electrical insulating
properties, but comparatively low tensile strength. Thus reinforcing fibres must be used with the
matrix material to produce useful composite structural materials.
16.6 Fillers
A number of filler materials of varying strength can be combined with resins for applications. These
include creating hardpoints for attachment of other elements to a composite structure, forming
internal corner radius fillets for subsequent application of structural reinforcing, sealing the surface
of foam cores before building the laminate, joining foam blocks together, gap filling in various
materials, used as a potting compound or filling dents, scrapes, hollows around countersunk rivets,
in foam cores, cured composite surfaces, wood, metals or other materials. However, fillers are just
that they are not structural materials.
Chopped fibres are 510 mm long and mixed with resin to form very strong, but heavy,
supporting fillets or hardpoints.
Milled or crushed fibres are very short lengths of fibreglass that, when mixed with resin,
are used as a filler material; or they are perhaps used instead of chopped fibre in
applications where lesser strength is needed.
Cotton flock or milled cotton fibres increase resin viscosity and strength, and are
generally used in 2:1 filler/resin ratio as internal corner reinforcement. These are not as
strong as milled fibreglass.
Hollow glass or phenolic microballoons in powder form the glass looks like castor
sugar and the phenolic is reddish increase the viscosity of the resin while reducing
density, thus providing a high strength-to-weight ratio and good sandability of the cured
filler. 'Micro' naturally disperses throughout the mixture, so the edges and internal corners
of the form tend to be stronger. Microballoons are used in various micro:resin mix ratios
from 1:1 to perhaps 5:1. A 1:1 wet mix is used as foam core surface sealing slurry, a
thicker 2:1 or 3:1 mix is used as filler or to bond non-porous materials while a 5:1
micro:resin dry mix is used as an adhesive when joining foam blocks or as the surface
weave filler for glass-epoxy laminate. Q(uartz)-cells are similar in size to microballoons;
microspheres are solid glass and probably no longer obtainable.
There are other fillers/epoxy thickeners commonly used, the colloidal (fumed) silica-based
epoxy thickener products are probably best known by trade names CAB-O-SIL for
example. Poly-Fiber's SuperFil is a light, non-shrinking, epoxy-based fully prepared mix, light
blue in colour, applied with a paint scraper or squeegee and in common use to fill surface
indentations and imperfections on wood, aluminium or composite structures. With all fillers,
check that they are compatible with the material being worked, and with the primers and top
coats to be used. Be aware that most filler materials are readily inhaled, thus hazardous to
the lungs; respiratory and eye protection should be worn, particularly when sanding.
Note: if an excessive amount of an exothermic compound is used to bond foam blocks
together, the trapped heat will lead to voids within the foam near the joint.
The next module in this fabrics, composites and coatings group is 'Reinforcing fibres and
composites'
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