ARTICLE IN PRESS

Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Buckling of thin-walled conical shells under uniform external pressure

B.S. Golzana, H. Showkatib,
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran

b
Engineering Faculty, University of Urmia, Urmia, Iran

Received 7 May 2007; received in revised form 18 October 2007; accepted 18 October 2007
Available online 20 February 2008

Abstract
Shells are for the most part the deep-seated structures in manufacturing submarines, missiles, tanks and their roofs, and uid
reservoirs; therefore it is a matter of concern to bring about some basic regulations associated with the existing codes. Above all,
truncated conical shells (frusta) and shallow conical caps (SCC) subjected to external uniform pressure when discharging liquids or wind
loads are discussed closely in this paper concerning and thrashing out their empirical nonlinear responses along with envisaging
numerical methods in contrast. The buckling aptitude of shells is contingent upon two leading geometric ratios of slant-length to
radius (L/R) and radius to thickness (R/t). In this paper, developing six frusta and four shallow cap specimens and their relevant FE
models, use is made of laboratory modus operandi to enumerate buckling elastic and plastic responses and asymmetric imperfection
sensitivity, whose adequacy has been reckoned through comparisons with arithmetical and numerical data correspondingly. These
obtained upshots were aimed at validating and generalizing the data for unstiffened truncated cones and SCC in full scale.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Truncated conical shells (frusta); Shallow conical caps (SCC); Buckling; Sole-sh buckling; Postbuckling; Nonlinear response; External
uniform pressure

1. Introduction
Performing test on manufactured specimens is the most
steadfast method in engineering researches. Buckling of a
general conical shell depends on scores of variables, for
instance, the geometric properties of the shell (the cone
semi-vertex angle, the base radius, the slant length of the
shell and the thickness), the material properties (isotropic,
composite, laminated, etc.), and the type of the applied
load (axial compression, hydrostatic or uniform pressure,
torsion and combined load). The various parameters
change the buckling behavior of the shell, making it
difcult to achieve a general depiction. Due to the
relatively high slenderness of the specimens, the failure is
in all cases signicantly inuenced by plasticity effects. The
elastic buckling behavior of unstiffened cones under
compression has been the subject of early analytical studies
based on linear theory, in which axisymmetric elastic
buckling was investigated.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 914 141 1065; fax: +98 441 277 7022.

E-mail address: h.showkati@mail.urmia.ac.ir (H. Showkati).

0263-8231/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tws.2007.10.011

These structures encompass light weight with high

strength in different industrial applications. The signicance is largely due to their widespread use in tanks and
silos [1], offshore structures, aeronautical and aerospace
technology, ship and submarine hulls [2], pipelines and
industrial chemical plants [3,4].
The critical aptitude of frusta and SCC shells under
uniform external pressure is contingent upon geometric
slenderness ratio of their slant length to radius (L/R) and
radius to thickness (R/t).
There is not enough literature devoted to the analysis
of geometrically imperfect conical shells. Koiters general
postbuckling theory provides a basis for analysis of
geometric imperfection sensitivity. All of these imperfection analyses were done on the shells of constant thickness.
Ansourian [5] presented simplied design method about
imperfections and boundary constraint effects on shells
subjected to wind loading. Holst et al. [6] investigated the
method of considering the strains resulted from fabrication
mist of perfect and imperfect shells to attain equivalent
residual stresses. Shen and Chen [7] studied buckling and
postbuckling behavior of perfect and imperfect shells with

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

nite length which were subjected to combined axial and

external pressure. They showed that this behavior is
dependant on geometry, loading and initial imperfections.
Also Yamaki [8] has studied the nonlinear behavior of
externally pressurized cylindrical shells and effects of
geometrical imperfections. Further, other authors have
studied stability of the shells that are outlined in the
perspective to come.
Performing test on manufactured specimens is the most
steadfast method in engineering researches. In this paper,
six frusta and four shallow conical cap (SCC) specimens
have been manufactured and tested under the effect of
uniform external pressure. The material consisted of mild
steel with yield stress of 277 MPa [9]. Boundary conditions
are all simply supported in which only a radial constraint is
provided at the edges. A loading of uniform external
pressure is produced by gauged vacuum pump using
suction process. The stages of prebuckling, initial buckling,
overall buckling and collapse have been observed and
evaluated and nonlinear response of these conical shells has
been studied.

2. Experimental syllabus
2.1. Model size
In deciding on the model size for testing, a number of
issues were considered. Firstly, the models should not be
too large, to avoid any undesirable inconveniences
associated with laboratory testing. Secondly, the models
should not be too small, so as to cause difculties in their
fabrication. Thirdly, the radius-to-thickness ratios (R/t) of
the models should be analogous to those used in realistic
structures, since the effect of interaction between yielding
and buckling needs to be appropriately captured in the
tests. Typical real values for the R/t ratio are within the
range of 3001000. As thin steel sheets of 0.5 mm and
above can be easily obtained, welded or soldered effortlessly to produce high quality models with special welding
machine or soldering apparatus, it was decided that the
models ought to be of 600 mm in diameter. Consequently,

517

proper (R/t) ratios can be achieved with different steel

sheet thicknesses.
2.2. Test specimens
In this paper, six different frusta specimens were used,
namely SC1, SC2, SC3, SC4, SC5, SC6 along with four
SCC specimens represented by SCC1, SCC2, SCC3,
and SCC4. . The properties of all models are outlined in
Table 1. The thickness of specimens is totally constant. The
frusta specimens have the same lower base diameter of
600 mm whereas the top base of the rst three measures
200 mm in diameter and in the second three it is 100 mm.
The SCC specimens have the same lower base diameter of
600 mm except for SCC3 with a base diameter equal to
500 mm. For the detailed geometry and slenderness ratios
of specimens refer to Table 1. Edge conditions are all
simply supported, in which only radial restraint was
provided.
Three tensile coupon tests were performed identically to
obtain the properties of material. The yield and failure
stresses of this mild steel are 277 and 373 Mpa, correspondingly. The Young modulus acquired, equals 210 GPa.
Each specimen was assembled by cord-oriented welding
over the rolled sheet fragment edges, as is shown in Fig. 1.
A loading of uniform external pressure is produced by
gauged vacuum pump using suction process.
2.3. Fabrication modus operandi
An important issue in shell buckling experiments is the
fabrication of good quality specimens, including the choice
of material and fabrication method. Many fabrication
techniques have been developed [10,11], among which are
electroforming (making duplicates by electroplating metal
onto a mold of an object, then removing the mold in which
the intricate surface details are precisely reproduced by this
process), thermal forming of plastics (PVC, polyethylene,
Lexan, or other materials) and cold working of metal
(spinning, explosive forming, or hydroforming). Most of
these are specialized laboratory techniques for fabricating
nearly perfect model shells. Where tests are intended to

Table 1
Dimensions and aspect ratios of the specimens
Specimen code

Thickness t
(mm)

Top radius
(mm)

Bottom radius
(mm)

Height h
(mm)

Semi-vertex
angle (a)

R/t

R/r

L/R L slant
length

SC1
SC2
SC3
SC4
SC5
SC6
SCC1
SCC2
SCC3
SCC4

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.5
0.8

100
100
100
50
50
50

300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
250
300

223.6
403.2
565.7
165.8
374.2
545.4
60
60
62.5
75

41.81
26.36
19.47
56.44
33.75
24.62
78.69
78.69
75.96
75.96

500
500
500
500
500
500
600
375
500
375

3
3
3
6
6
6

1
1.5
2
1
1.5
2
1.02
1.02
1.03
1.03

ARTICLE IN PRESS
518

B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

It is quite intricate to obtain clear-cut conical shapes

using the manual rolling process since a number of things
have to be carefully controlled during the process. Firstly, a
small angle (the dip angle) is required between the axis of
the top roll and those of the lower rolls. Secondly, the
rolling speed should be smaller at the small end than that at
the large end of the cone. Consequently, special heed is
required during the cone rolling process and the same
modus operandi needs to be recurring a few times until the
desired shape is achieved. Many radial lines were drawn on
the panel. Such lines have to be kept parallel to the axes of
the rolls when the lines pass through the rolls. To weld
together the shell components is another arduous task. The
meagerness of the models insinuates that special concern is
required in assembling these models to guarantee that the
weld or solder is sturdy enough so that structural failure
precedes joint malfunction, and that the level and form of
geometric imperfections bear some resemblance to those in
real structures.
3. Empirical set-up
3.1. SCC testing system

Fig. 1. Sector cutting process and slant length weld lines.

duplicate full-scale steel shell construction as closely as

possible, the method of rolling thin steel sheets followed by
seam welding has been commonly used (e.g. [1216]).
Another method in seam fusing is soldering the seams that
resulted in a good upshot both in manufacturing and testing
processes and inspired a good prognostication of welds
performances. This method was adopted in the present work.

Fig. 2 shows an overall view of the experimental set-up

for SCC specimens. Concerning the application of this
machine, we coined the name machine of detection and
investigation of yield-lines and failure in bending behavior
of steel plates and shells that was invented by the authors
in the preceding year to come up with some empirical
features in accordance with the plates and conical shells
with different shapes and aspect ratios. The full guide and
explanation to this machine has been presented in another
paper and is not the issue of concern in this study.
The base brink of the model junction is placed in the
groove of a rigid circular rim, which in turn sits on vertical

2.4. Process of model fabrication

To build the conical shell, it is rst made by cutting and
rolling a plate into the desired shape and soldering the
meridional seams. Sheet cutting in the present work is done
using a manually controlled shears and stonecutter cutting
installation. A beam compass, Fig. 1, consisting of a
precisely machined aluminum strip with two end units was
employed for quality sector cutting. One end unit is
equipped with a small bearing to center the required circle
at a small hole pre-drilled on the sheet and the other end
unit is used to position the tip of the liner. Circles of
different sizes can be obtained by using aluminum strips of
different lengths. Accordingly, sectors can be obtained with
a cutting accuracy within 70.1 mm.

Fig. 2. View of test rig for the cap specimens.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

supports. To ensure that the brink is properly tenable in the

groove it is covered by a grooved rubber and both the
groove of rubber and the rim is lled with silicone sealant.
Then connecting the vacuum pump to the rig the process of
air suction is conducted under the specimen. This trend is
performed in such a way that the loading is exerted
incrementally and in all stages every thing is under the very
control so that the specimen is not destroyed abruptly to
not let us study the process hesitantly and exhaustively.

519

placed exactly over the top edge of the frusta in which the
simply supported boundary conditions were geared up at
both trimmings. The modication nuts could foil any axial
load to be applied to the specimens. On the top plate, three
holes were drilled for the purpose of air suction,
manometer installation and air release valve assembly to
control the rate of loading and unloading on shell
specimens. The produced pressure was measured by the
above-mentioned monometer. Fig. 3 shows a total view of
test provision.

3.2. Frusta testing system

3.3. Measurement of imperfections and deformations
The test rig of the frusta specimens is composed of two
parts (Fig. 3), which was invented by the authors. The rst
part is designed to hold the test specimen at the desired place,
which is composed of two rigid circular grooved plates.
These grooves are entrenched in both sides of specimen.
Four threaded long bars are provided to adjust the plates for
the specimen height. The second part of the rig consisted of a
small platform to be used for installation of vacuum pump.
This pump is employed to generate uniform external pressure
over the shell surface. Careful measurements of the test
results were done by six circumferentially and meridionaly
mounted strain gauges, a manometer and four transducers.
All collected data were processed using a data logger and a
software named UCAM-20PC.
3.2.1. Setting up the frusta
The upper and lower brinks of the frusta were covered
by grooved rubber and then silicon glue was used over all
openings to prevent any possible air seepage during the
suction process. The frusta were placed on the lower
grooved rigid plate. For specimens SC1 and SC4, as the
slant of their inclined surfaces exceeded far more than
vertical position, they could luxate from the grooves; so a
special ring truncated on the edges equal to the slant of the
surfaces was employed to not let the frusta edges luxate
outwardly in case of higher loading and disarticulation.
For the top edges, as there is liability to luxate inwardly,
another specic round plate chamfered inwardly at the
edges is located to prop up this susceptible location
(Fig. 3). Using four threaded bars, the upper plate was

Supporting ring

Fig. 3. View of the frusta test rig and chamfered ring to support the lateral
luxating of edges.

Buckling of shells is generally known to be sensitive to

geometric imperfections; so precise surveys of initial
geometric imperfections are an essential step in any high
quality shell buckling experiments. In addition, it is also
desirable to have precise measurements of deformed shapes
of the shell during its loading so that the buckling/collapse
mode can be accurately determined and compared with
theoretical predictions. Many shell imperfection measurement techniques have been developed [18]. LVDTs or other
contacting probes were usually used in most of the earlier
measurement systems [12,13]. For very thin shells with a
relatively low transverse stiffness, the small probe force
may induce distortions of the shell surface, so non-contact
probes are favored.
A simpler way has been applied in the present measurement system for appraising both initial imperfections and
displacements. Seeing that the complete measurements of a
conical surface require a three-dimensional survey of the
radial, circumferential and meridional coordinates, manual
scanning was implemented as the measurement technique.
At rst a number of meridians were drawn on the
expanded surfaces of the cones at specied degrees, and
then they were assembled, conducting their meridional
joints. After fabricating, circumferential segments were
segregated on the surface and then the cone was installed in
its place. Subsequently, at the contiguous of each meridian
a ruler was mounted and another ruler was employed to
measure the horizontally projected distance between nodes
of drawn meshes and the edge of the specimens identied
by the ruler rim. In each node of obtained mesh, three
coordinates of r, y and z are measured carefully in all
specimens. Therefore, a real geometry of shell is obtained
and then is used in nite element modeling of the structure
for further comparative analyses.
Despite the relatively stocky geometry of the specimens,
initial geometric imperfections were recorded on all specimens, with the method and mesh outlined above. In order to
render these measurements functional for comparative
studies and numerical modeling, the unrened imperfections
were subjected to some data processing techniques that
enable the identication of dominant modes and facilitate
comparisons of imperfections with observed buckling and
collapse modes. Fig. 4 shows typical imperfection layouts for
some of the models, (inward/outward) in two different views.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
520

B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

342
324

0
300

18

250

36

200

306

54

150
288

100

72

50
270

90

252

108

234

126
216

144
198

180

162

SCC4

Fig. 4. Initial imperfection layout for SC3, SC6 and SCC4.

It is worth bearing in mind that the measured imperfections

on the models are too large and this is attributed to the small
scale of the models but should be taken into account in
correlating the experimental results with analytical and
design dealings. The rst geometric imperfections in the
main lead to a considerable difference between theoretical
and empirical consequences.
A number of strain gauges were installed on the specimens, with some of them being used to measure circumferential strains and the others to measure meridional strains all
over the specimens and near the weld transitions. The exact
locations of circumferential (SH) and meridional (SV) strain
gauges and transducers are provided in Table 3.
It is worth saying that the difference in external pressure is
less sensitive than that of axial loading. This is because of
postbuckling capacity, which is available in lateral pressure.
4. Exhaustive executions of the tests
The steps of test implementation were as follows:




Installation and calibration of instrumental apparatus.

Calculation of approximated critical buckling load by
Jawad [19] equation to determine load steps all through
the tests.






Gauging initial geometric imperfections.

Applying an initial external load up to approximately
20% of calculated buckling load, and unloading for the
purpose of system conditioning.
Applying the external gradually increasing load to reach
to initial buckling and ongoing until the incidence of
overall buckling and failure mode of shell is attained;
Measuring all required records throughout the test
progress.

5. Failure behavior and potency

Most of the circumferential strains were also similar
and approximately proportional to the load in the initial
stage of loading (Figs. 5(a) and (b)), indicating linear
and dominantly axisymmetric behavior. However, a small
number of circumferential strain gauges had different
readings right from the beginning, which is attributable
to the attendance of relatively large local imperfections
close by. As the load increased, the strain readings at
different locations gradually diverged from each other.
This divergence is a reection of the growth of nonsymmetric deformations. At a certain increment of the
load, non-periodical deformations could be observed on

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

the shells by naked eyes. These deformations continued to

grow with further loading, leading to obvious buckles of
non-similar wavelengths. The development of these buckling lobes was associated with a reduction in the load
carrying capacity as it led to some deformations at the
radial base edge that caused seepage of the air. Explicitly,
the specimens indicated a stable postbuckling path.
Ultimate failure occurred by the formation of a plastic
collapse mechanism with nearly non-uniform plastic
deformations over a large part of the circumference that
resulted in failure of the supports to sustain the proper
function. Figs. 6 and 7 show the models after the failure.

Table 2
Buckling pressure and mode of the specimens
Specimens

Buckling
load
obtained by
experiments
(KPa)

Buckling
load
obtained by
FEA (KPa)

Buckling
load
obtained by
Jawad
equation
(KPa)

Mode
numbers by
experiments

SC1
SC2
SC3
SC4
SC5
SC6
SCC1
SCC2
SCC3
SCC4

25
20
14
20
25
21
5.7
8
7.5
10

28
25
22
27
40
35
6.2
14.5
13
25

35.4
32.3
24.68
24.1
31.35
27.27
3.83
20.3
4.02
16.2

7 (skirt mode)
7 (skirt mode)
6 (skirt mode)
6 (skirt mode)
6 (skirt mode)
6 (skirt mode)
Sole-sh mode
Sole-sh mode
Sole-sh mode
Sole-sh mode

521

These results show that most of the buckles on the

models were amplied from initial geometric imperfections
(Fig. 4). The buckling load can be dened as the pinnacle
load of a nonlinear loaddisplacement curve. Such a
buckling load incorporates the effect of imperfections.
For the in attendance models, the buckling load of the
corresponding perfect structure is believed to be a good
assess of its veracity, but the determination of buckling
load is not straightforward. A rough approach may be, to
take the load at which the strain readings started to
diverge, the same as the buckling load. This, on the other
hand, does not allocate a precise denition of the buckling
load as the strain readings had some differences right from
the beginning of loading due to the presence of initial
imperfections. Another drawback of using strain readings
is that due to the cost and installation considerations,
normally, merely part of the cone circumference is installed
with strain gauges. So the most sought-after locations of
strain measurements for buckling load determination may
have been disregarded. For these reasons, the use of
displacements of the cones, which are appraised around the
whole circumference in the current set-ups, is preferred for
attaining the buckling loads.
In Table 2, the buckling pressures and modes of six
frusta and four SCC specimens in diverse test stages are
tabulated. Before initial buckling the behavior of shell
is quite static with no pragmatic buckle lobe. As a
comparison three obtained buckling loads from different
approaches have been presented in this table. It is quite
apparent that the experimental outcomes are taking up the
lower range of load owing to the presence of initial

Table 3
Layout of strain gauges and transducers on all specimens
Strain gauges

Transducers

SH1 horizontal
gauge

SV2 vertical
gauge

SC1

3061, 140 mm

SC2

SH3 horizontal
gauge

SV4 vertical
gauge

SH5 horizontal
gauge

SV6 vertical
gauge

T1

T2

T3

T4

2451, 110 mm 1501, 90 mm

1221, 60 mm

541, 50 mm

181, 80 mm

771, 30 mm

961, 350 mm

1981, 220 mm 2581, 270 mm

3421, 170 mm

SC3

1901, 230 mm

2471, 385 mm 3071, 110 mm

81, 210 mm

691, 60 mm

1251, 310 mm

SC4

1751, 120 mm

1751, 170 mm 1501, 70 mm

481, 220 mm

3481, 50 mm

2641, 70 mm

SC5

91, 120 mm

3511, 120 mm 2791, 30 mm

2421, 270 mm 1891, 120 mm

991, 320 mm

SC6

8.51, 70 mm

261, 170 mm

1631, 370 mm 2051, 95 mm

2911, 220 mm

3121,
90 mm
181,
150 mm
1501,
310 mm
2051,
70 mm
3421,
70 mm
3511,
120 mm
3421,
120 mm
3151,
80 mm
3471,
70 mm
1441,
30 mm

1441,
190 mm
431,
100 mm
1501,
160 mm
601,
220 mm
2881,
220 mm
171,
170 mm
2341,
30 mm
2251,
20 mm
2571,
30 mm
721,
220 mm

841,
90 mm
2311,
130 mm
2701,
360 mm
3481,
70 mm
1981,
170 mm
1201,
270 mm
901,
70 mm
1691,
80 mm
Apex

3481,
90 mm
3021,
50 mm
3451,
210 mm
2641,
120 mm
1261,
120 mm
2491,
220 mm
1261,
280 mm
301,
230 mm
1031,
120 mm
1441,
150 mm

1341, 120 mm

941, 270 mm

SCC1 3421, 30 mm

3061, 280 mm 2701, 120 mm

1621, 150 mm 1081, 30 mm

541, 280 mm

SCC2 3261, 80 mm

3401, 30 mm

2751, 10 mm

1231, 230 mm

SCC3 511, 220 mm

2831, 220 mm 2311, 30 mm

2051, 120 mm 1771, 70 mm

771, 120 mm

SCC4 1081, 30 mm

1081, 288 mm 91, 120 mm

2971, 170 mm 2611, 285 mm

1891, 70 mm

1851, 130 mm

All distances are measured from the bigger base on the slant length.

701, 20 mm

3061,
285 mm

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

pressure(kpa)

4
3
t1

B
pressure(kpa)

522

4
3

t2

2
sh1

t3

sh3

t4

0
-22

sh5

-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

-0.002

-0.001

0.001

(i)

total deformation(mm)

0.002

strain

14

0
0.004

0.003

12

12

pressure(kpa)

8
6

pressure(kpa)

10
10

8
6
4

t1
t2

sv2

t3

sv4

t4

sv6

0
-21

-19

-17

-15

-13

-11

-9

-7

-5

-3

-1

(ii)

total deformation(mm)

-0.0023

-0.0018

-0.0013

-0.0008

-0.0003

strain

10

6
5
4

pressure(kpa)

pressure(kpa)

5
4
3

3
t1
t2
t3
t4

2
sh1

sh3

1
0

-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

(iii)

total deformation(mm)

pressure(kpa)

-0.002

-0.001

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0
0.006

0.005

strain

20

20

18

18

16

16

14

14

12
10
8
6
t1
t2
t3
t4

pressure(kpa)

-22

12
10
8
6
4

sv2
sv4
sv6

2
0

-19

-17

-15

-13

-11

-9

-7

total deformation(mm)

-5

-3

sh5

-1

(iv)

-0.0035

-0.003

-0.0025

-0.002

-0.0015

-0.001

-0.0005

strain

Fig. 5. (a) SCC total deformation and strain values vs. pressure. (i) SSC1, (ii) SSC2, (iii) SSC3, (iv) SSC4 (b) loaddeformation and loadstrain graph for
specimens SC1 and SC3 in different coordinates.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

Fig. 5. (Continued)

Digital transducer
Digital strain gauge

Wresting of apex point at the

bifurcation

Failure area

Fig. 6. Failure modes of specimens SC5 and SC6.

523

ARTICLE IN PRESS
524

B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

Fig. 7. General layout of failure by formation of plastic displacements in the circumference and supports.

geometrical imperfections, apparatus shortcomings and

other human and instrument-related factors. On the other
hand, for six frusta, taking into account both the buckling
load obtained from FEA and the equation developed by
Jawad it is noticed that for the rst three specimens the
latter amount of load exceeds the one that of the previous
one whereas for the second three the outcome is completely
vice versa. Bearing in mind that the all initial imperfections
have been entered to FE models too, one can understated
that the results of the rst three specimens are closer to
reality than the second three; that is because the equation
emanated by Jawad formulation is based on the transformed geometrical shape from cylinder to cone; and
according to Table 2, (R/r) ratio for the rst three is more
similar to a cylinder than the second three which have a
higher tapering ratio.

6. Buckling of conical shells

The derivation of the equations for the buckling of
conical shells is practically convoluted. The derivation
for the buckling pressure of the cone, shown in Fig. 8,
comprises obtaining expressions for the work carried out
by the applied pressure, membrane forces, stretching of the
middle surface and bending of the cone. The total work is
then minimized to obtain a critical pressure expression.
Seide [20] indicated that the buckling of a cone is affected
by the function f (1r/R) and is expressed as
pcr p f 1  r=R,

(1)

where p is the pressure of equivalent cylinder as dened

above, f the cone function as dened in Fig. 9.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

525

Fourier decompositions. Such decompositions were not

carried out for the imperfection or deformation measurements on these models, since the form of buckling that was
developed all over the cones was drastically outlying from a
well-ordered wave conguration. On such specimens there
was an overall buckling predisposed by position of weld
lines and efciency of the supports and formation of the
initial leakage point. So as to set forth a better depiction of
this buckling, principally based on empirical remarks and
for the rst time we coined the name sole-sh buckling
mode on this phenomenon. The spine of this animal can
better illustrate the weld line and its impact on the other
parts of the shell. The appearance of non-periodical waves
can be easily spotted from this plot.
7. Observations and milestones
Fig. 8. Parametric considerations.

7.1. Frusta specimens

125

pcr p

120
115
110
105
100

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6
1-r/R

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Fig. 9. Cone function.

In Figs. 10 and 11 a contrast is carried out between

initial and ultimate geometry of specimen SC5 in which the
maximum deformation is located roughly at the height
of 13 h.
In all shells of this study the loading was continued to
farther than the range of postbuckling behavior. It is
observed that a V shape yield line is developed in the
region close to the restrained boundaries of the frusta,
before failure takes place. The same phenomenon was
reported by Showkati [21]. In Fig. 6 a typical behavior is
represented for specimen SC5 and SC6.
By escalating the external pressure, the failure mode
was gradually approached. In most specimens, incidence
of a very large displacement in one edge caused an

By various substitutions [19], it can be shown that Eq. (1)

can be transferred to the form
0:92Ete =R25
pcr
,
Le =R

0
342

(2)

where te is the effective thickness of cone t cos a; t the

thickness of cone; and Le the effective length of cone L/2
(1+r/R). Thus, conical shells subjected to external
pressure may be analyzed as cylindrical shells with an
effective thickness and length.
6.1. Sole-fish buckling mode
An important parameter in buckling analysis of axisymmetrically loaded shells, for instance, the models thrashed
out herein, is the number of circumferential waves in the
buckling mode layout. Notionally speaking, the buckling
mode is in the form of a single harmonic mode around the
circumference, but in a test, owing to the incidence of
imperfections, miscellaneous modes may be implicated. A
well-established way of construing geometric imperfection
and deformation measurements to decipher the dominant
harmonic modes and their relationship is to carry out

324
306

288

270

300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

18
36
54

72

90

252

108

234

126
216

144
198

162
180

Fig. 10. Polar plot of nal geometry measured on specimen SC5.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

526
204
201
198

Radius (mm)

195
192
189
186
183
180
177
174

buckled form

171
168

initial imperfection

18

36

54

72

90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360

Degree

radius

Fig. 11. Initial and ultimate radial deformations in SC5 at the height of 141.4 mm.

250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Initial imperfection
Buckled layout
0

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
degree

Fig. 12. Initial imperfection and buckled form of SCC1.

unmanageable outow on vacuum function and then the

test was impeded. Fig. 6 shows plainly the breakdown of
frusta SC5 and SC6.
It is worth noting in externally pressurized frusta shells
that the inward deformations are as well, larger than
outward ones. Comparable geometries of this fact in
specimen SC5 and SCC1 have been plotted in Figs. 11
and 12. Graphs of loaddeformation and loadstrain paths
of specimens SC1 and SC3 are presented in Fig. 5(b) for
buckling and postbuckling stages.
In this experimental study it is observed that the longer
shells have more deformation and lesser buckling load than
shorter ones.

As another comparison Fig. 13 shows the diversity in

behavior between experimental and FEA methods for two
specimens SC1 and SC4.
7.1.1. Yield line wresting
As shown in Fig. 6 in specimens SC5 and SC6 along
with an increase in pressure at rst, initial buckling
lobes were formed, then up hilling the load general
deformation developed in the whole body of the specimens
to the extent that all lobes were complete. Exceeding
the ultimate buckling load and as we neared the failure
load the climax of some of the V shape yield lines
that were formed began to wrest. This trend kept

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

527

70
65

SC1

60
55

45
40
35
30

Pressure (KPa)

50

25
20
15
10
FEA
Expev

5
0

-10

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Radial displacement (mm)

65
60

SC4

55
50

40
35
30
25

Pressure (KPa)

45

20
15
10

FEA

Exper.

0
-10

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Radial displacement (mm)

Fig. 13. Radial displacement vs. external pressure for specimens, SC1 and SC4.

acting until the bifurcation point at the apex of two

or three yield lines caused resurgence of buckling lobes
in the opposite side of the frusta and eventually it
led to complete failure of one side of the frusta which
took place in the supporting point with luxating the lower
edge.
7.2. SCC specimens
In Fig. 12 a contrast is carried out between initial and
ultimate geometry of test specimen SCC1 in which the
utmost deformation is positioned at the height of 14L of the
specimen.

The loaddisplacement curves for the net displacements

are plotted for quite a few points in Fig. 5(a). In some of
the models the displacements were similar in the initial
stage of loading, while in the other ones the displacements
started to differ early in the loading stage of SCC1. These
two genuses of models were thus selected to contrast the
two types of behavior. These curves show similar
divergence as observed from the loadstrain curves,
Fig. 5(a). The rst set, Fig. 5(a) which had similar
displacements in the initial stage of loading, experienced
rapid increases in displacements at increased loads. It is
hence recommended that for the determination of the
buckling load of a model conical shell in its corresponding

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529

528

perfect state, a suitable loaddeection curve which shows

an obvious slope change be identied. This is likely to be
for a point in a relatively more perfect region of the shell.
The intersection point between the initial slope of this
curve and a tangent to the postbuckling part of the curve
can be taken as a good rough gure to the buckling load of
a corresponding perfect model. To identify such a suitable
point, loaddisplacement curves of all points at or near
wave crests and troughs can be contrived. This method
emerges to offer a rational approach for the determination
of buckling loads for conical caps.
8. Concluding remarks
This paper has described a recently developed experimental facility for buckling experiments on conical shells.
The facility consists of a loading system, a simple
measurement strategy for rather accurate geometric
imperfection and deformation surveys, and compulsory
equipment for the fabrication of quality test models.
Distinctive results of sample tests have been presented to
illustrate the competence of this facility. Procedures for
processing the test results to verify both the buckling load
and the modes of buckling have also been presented.
The deliberate data and obtained domino effects are
reported for six frusta and four SCC specimens with simply
supported ends subjected to uniform peripheral pressure.
The salient concluding tips are as follows [9]:








Fabrication and testing of small-scale models have been

undertaken to examine the buckling behavior of
unstiffened shallow conical shells. In all models, smallscale manufacturing has produced relatively high
imperfection values. However, since full imperfection
scans have been recorded, the test results can be used to
validate numerical or other models. Since the predictions are inuenced by imperfection amplitudes, a
reasonable assumption must be made in the absence of
test models.
In all specimens, the initial buckling occurred when one
or more buckling lobes were detected. The applied
pressure increased until an overall buckling mode was
formed.
The yield lines in the lower part of the frusta in all
specimens are in the form of V shape, which were
recognized in the range of postbuckling.
In all specimens, the inward deformations are so larger
than the outward deformations.
In all specimens, difference between initial buckling and
overall buckling loads was substantial.
Postbuckling potency exists apparently in all specimens
under the effect of external pressure.
In all specimens, it is experimentally corroborated that
the longer shells are more exible in radial direction and
therefore, they are weaker than shorter shells.
The buckling loads obtained from experiments are lower
than the ones derived from FEA and Jawad equation

while the two latter ones are different in some aspects

related to the tapering ratio of specimens (R/r) and
initial imperfections present in FE models but absent in
the arithmetical come up, which is worth noticing as
mentioned in the context.
Clearly, for more slender shells the collapse mode will
change and the kinematical assumptions of the mechanism approach would be inappropriate.

Acknowledgments
The work depicted herein outlined part of a scheme on
Stability and Strength of Conical Cones subsidized by
the Ministry of Science, Technology and Research in
the I.R. Iran and carried out in collaboration with the
Structural Research Center at Urmia University. We would
like to put across gratitude to the technicians in the
Structures Laboratory of Urmia University, in particular
Mr. Jafar Azim Zadeh and our best friend Mr. Emad
Jahangiri for their enthusiasm and professionalism in
conducting the probes. The authors are so appreciative to
Prof. J.G. Teng, for his great favors in providing
commentaries and presenting his constitutive remarks
regarding this research.
References
[1] Teng JG, Zhao Y, Lam L. Techniques for buckling experiments on
steel silo transition junction. Thin-Walled Struct 2001;39:685707.
[2] Ross CTF, Little APF, Adeniyi KA. Plastic buckling of ring-stiffened
conical shells under external hydrostatic pressure. Ocean Eng
2005;32:2136.
[3] Wintersetter ThA, Schmit H. Stability of circular cylindrical steel
shells under combined loading. Thin-Walled Struct 2001;40:893909.
[4] Popov AA. Parametric resonance in cylindrical shells: a case study in
nonlinear vibration of structural shell. Eng Struct 2003;25:78999.
[5] Ansourian P. On the buckling analysis and design of silos and tanks.
J Construct Steel Res 1992;23(13):27394.
[6] Holst FG, Rotter JM, Calladine ChR. Imperfection in cylindrical
shells resulting from fabrication mists. J Eng Mech 1999;125(4):
4108.
[7] Shen HS, Chen TY. Buckling and post buckling behavior of
cylindrical shells under combined external pressure and axial
compression. Thin-Walled Struct 1991;12:32134.
[8] Yamaki N. Elastic stability of circular cylindrical shells. Amsterdam:
North-Holland; 1984.
[9] Golzan SB. Investigation of the buckling and postbuckling behavior
of conical and truncated conical shells under uniform external
pressure. MEng thesis, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Urmia
University, Urmia, Iran; 2006.
[10] Babcock CD. Experiments in shell buckling. In: Fung YC, Sechler
EE, editors. Thin-shell structures: theory, experiment and design.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1974. p. 34569.
[11] Singer J. Buckling experiments on shellsa review of recent
developments. Solid Mech Arch 1982;7:213313.
[12] Dowling PJ, Harding JE. Experimental behavior of ring and stringer
stiffened shells. In: Harding JE, Dowling PJ, Agelidis N, editors.
Buckling of shells in offshore structures. London: Granada; 1982.
p. 73107.
[13] Walker AC, Andronicou A, Shridharan S. Experimental investigation of the buckling of stiffened shells using small scale models. In:

ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516529
Harding JE, Dowling PJ, Agelidis N, editors. Buckling of shells in
offshore structures. London: Granada; 1982. p. 2543.
[14] Scott ND, Harding JE, Dowling PJ. Fabrication of small scale
stiffened cylindrical shells. J Strain Anal 1987;22(2):97106.
[15] Knoedel P, Ummenhofer T, Schulz U. On the modeling of different
types of imperfections in silo shells. Thin-Walled Struct 1995;23:
28393;
Berry PA, Bridge RQ, Rotter JM. Imperfection measurement of
cylinders using automated scanning with a laser displacement meter.
Strain 1996; 32: 37.
[16] Schmidt H, Swadlo P. Strength and stability design of unstiffened
cylinder/cone/cylinder and cone/cone shell assemblies under axial

[18]
[19]
[20]

[21]

529

compression. In: Proceedings of the international conference on

carrying capacity of steel shell structures, October 13, 1997, Brno,
Czech Republic. p. 3617.
Singer J, Abramovich H. The development of shell imperfection
measurement techniques. Thin-Walled Struct 1995;23:37998.
Jawad Maan H. Theory and design of plate and shell structures.
London: Chapman & Hall; 1994. 344346.
Seide P. Calculations for the stability of thin conical frustums
subjected to external uniform hydrostatic pressure and axial load.
J Aerospace Sci 1962;29(8):9515.
Showkati H. The buckling strength of cylindrical shells under
external pressure. PhD thesis, The University of Sydney; 1995.