Flight Dynamics and Aircraft

Performance
Lecture 1:
Introduction – Longitudinal
Static Stability

G. Dimitriadis
University of Liege
What is it about?
 Introduction
•
The study of the mechanics and
dynamics of flight is the means by
which :
–
We can design an airplane to accomplish
efficiently a specific task
–
We can make the task of the pilot easier by
ensuring good handling qualities
–
We can avoid unwanted or unexpected
phenomena that can be encountered in
flight
 Reference material
•
Lecture Notes
•
Flight Dynamics Principles, M.V. Cook,
Arnold, 1997
•
Fundamentals of Airplane Flight
Mechanics, David G. Hull, Berlin,
Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-540-46573-7
 Aircraft description

Flight Control
Pilot System
Airplane Response Task

The pilot has direct control only of the Flight Control

System. However, he can tailor his inputs to the FCS by
observing the airplane’s response while always keeping an
eye on the task at hand.
 Control Surfaces
•
Aircraft control is accomplished through
control surfaces and power
–
Ailerons
–
Elevators
–
Rudder
–
Throttle
•
Control deflections were first developed by
the Wright brothers from watching birds
Wright Flyer
The Flyer did not have
separate control surfaces.
The trailing edges of the
windtips could be bent by
a system of cables
 Modern control surfaces
Rudder

Aileron
Elevator
Rudderon
(rudder+aileron)

Elevon
(elevator+aileron)
 Other devices
Flaps Airbreak

Spoilers
•
Combinations of control surfaces and other devices: flaperons,
spoilerons, decelerons (aileron and airbrake)
•
Vectored thrust
 Mathematical Model
Flight Condition

Input Output
Aileron
Aircraft
equations of Displacement
Elevator
Velocity
Rudder motion Acceleration
Throttle

Atmospheric Condition
 Aircraft degrees of freedom
Six degrees of
freedom:
3 displacements
x: horizontal motion
y: side motion

z: vertical motion v
cg
3 rotations
x
x: roll
y: pitch y
z
z: yaw

v: resultant linear velocity, cg: centre of gravity

: resultant angular velocity
 Aircraft frames of reference
•
There are many possible coordinate systems:
–
Inertial (immobile and far away)
–
Earth-fixed (rotates with the earth’s surface)
–
Vehicle carried vertical frame (fixed on aircraft cg,
vertical axis parallel to gravity)
–
Air-trajectory (fixed on aircraft cg, parallel to the
direction of motion of the aircraft)
–
Body-fixed (fixed on aircraft cg, parallel to a
geometric datum line on the aircraft)
–
Stability axes (fixed on aircraft cg, parallel to a
reference flight condition)
–
Others
 Airplane geometry

c
s = b /2
c(y)

y
c /4 cg c /4

lT
lt
c
 Airplane references (1)
•
Standard mean
s
chord
s
(smc)
c=
c ( y )dy /
dy
s s

•
Mean aerodynamic chord (mac)

s s
2
c =
c ( y )dy /
c ( y )dy
s s

•
Wing area
S = bc

•
Aspect Ratio
AR = b 2 /S
 Asymmetric Aircraft

Blohm und Voss 141

Ruttan Bumerang

Blohm und Voss 237

 Wing geometry example
Given this wing R=0.8,
=30o
calculate:
1.
The Standard
Mean Chord R


2.
The Mean
Aerodynamic
/3
Chord
3.
The wing area
4.
The Aspect Ratio
5.
The Mean
Aerodynamic
Centre
 Airplane references (2)
•
Centre of gravity (cg)
•
Tailplane area (ST)
•
Tail moment arm (lT)
•
Tail volume ratio: A measure of the
aerodynamic effectiveness of the
tailplane
ST lT
VT =
Sc
 Airplane references (3)

c /4 cg c /4

lF
lf

•
Fin moment arm (lF)

•
Fin volume ratio
SF lF
VF =
Sc
Aerodynamic Reference Centres
•
Centre of pressure (cp): The point at which
the resultant aerodynamic force F acts. There
is no aerodynamic moment around the cp.
•
Half-chord: The point at which the
aerodynamic force due to camber, Fc, acts
•
Quarter-chord (or aerodynamic centre): The
point at which the aerodynamic force due to
angle of attack, Fa, acts. The aerodynamic
moment around the quarter-chord, M0, is
constant with angle of attack
 Airfoil with centres
By placing all of L La
the lift and drag Lc
Camber line
on the F Fa
Fc
aerodynamic cp ac
centre we move D Da
Dc
the lift and drag V0
due to camber L
from the half- M0
chord to the D
quarter chord. c /2 hn c c /4
This is
c
balanced by the
moment M0
 Static Stability
•
Most aircraft (apart from high performance
fighters) are statically stable
•
Static stability implies:
–
All the forces and moments around the aircraft’s
cg at a fixed flight condition and attitude are
balanced
–
After any small perturbation in flight attitude the
aircraft returns to its equilibrium position
•
The equilibrium position is usually called the
trim position and is adjusted using the trim
tabs
Pitching moment equation

LT Lw

ac cg
MT
M0

lT hc
mg
h denotes the cg
c position
h0c
 Equilibrium equations
•
Steady level flight is assumed
•
Thrust balances drag and they both
pass by the cg
•
Force equilibrium:
Lw + LT
mg = 0
•
Pitching moment around cg equilibrium:
M = M 0 + Lw (h
h0 )c
LT lT + MT = 0
(nose up moment is taken to be positive)
 Stable or Unstable?
•
An equilibrium point can be stable,
unstable or neutrally stable
•
A stable equilibrium point is
characterized by dM
M = 0 and <0
d

•
A more general condition (takes into
account compressibility effects) is
dM dC m
M = 0 and <0 or Cm = 0 and <0
dL dCL
 Degree of stability

Cm
1

3
Trim point

4

1: Very stable
2: Stable
3: Neutrally stable
4: Unstable
 Pitching moment stability (1)
•
The pitching moment equation can be
written as
Cm = Cm + CL (h
h0 )
CL VT = 0
0 w T

•
Where
M Lw LT
Cm = , CL w = , CL T =
1 1 1

V02 Sc
V02 S
V02 ST
2 2 2
•
And the tailplane is assumed to be
symmetric so that MT=0
 Pitching moment stability (2)
•
For static stability dC m /dCL < 0 or,
approximately, dC m /dCL w < 0
•
Then
dCm /dCL = (h
h0 )
VT dCL /dCL
w T w

•
Since M0 is a constant.
•
Unfortunately, the derivative of the tail
lift with respect to the wing lift is
unknown
 Wing-tail flow geometry
•
The downwash effect of the wing deflects the
free stream flow seen by the tailplane by an
angle
.
•
Total angle of attack of tail:
T=
-+T
Tailplane Wing
T
T


V0

 Elevator  V0
 Trim tab

•
The total lift on the tailplane is given by:

CLT =
0 + a1
T + a2 + a3
 Thin Airfoil Theory
•
Thin Airfoil Theory is the main tool for
modelling incompressible aerodynamic
forces on 2D wing sections.
•
It shows that cl=2
(A0+A1/2), where

•
and z is the tail’s camber line

 Aerodynamics example
•
Prove that for a tailplane
CL =
0 + a1
T + a2 + a3
T
 Pitching moment stability (3)
•
For small disturbances the downwash
angle is a linear function of wing
incidence
: d
=

d

•
Wing lift is also a linear function of
:
CL = a
or
= CL /a
w w

•
So that
CLw  d 
T = 1

+ T
a  d 
 Pitching moment stability (4)
•
The tail lift coefficient can the be written
as a1  d 
CL T = CL w
1
 + a1T + a2 + a3
a  d
•
The pitching moment
 a 
equation
d 
becomes

Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h
h0 )
VT
CLw 1
1
 + a2 + a3 + a1T 
 a  d
•
And the derivative of the pitching
moment coefficient

becomes 
dCm a1  d  d d
= (h
h0 )
VT

1
 + a2 + a3 
dCLw  a  d dCLw dCLw
•
since
T is a constant
 Elevator angle to trim
•
In order to trim the aircraft, Cm=0
•
The elevator angle required to achieve
this is given by
1 LwC  a  d  a a
=
V a
(C + C
m0 (h

Lw h )
0 )
1


1
3


a  a  d a


1
a
 T
T 2 2 2 2

•
i.e. it depends only on lift coefficient and

trim tab angle for a chosen angle of
attack
•
Elevator and trim tab are
interchangeable (up to a point)
 Controls fixed stability
•
Assume that the aircraft has reached
trim position and the controls are locked
•
What will happen if there is a small
perturbation to the aircraft’s position
(due to a gust, say)?
•
The pitching moment equation becomes
dCm a1  d 
= (h
h0 )
VT 1

dCLw a  d 
 Stability margin
•
Define the controls fixed stability margin as
dCm
Kn =

dCLw
•
And the controls fixed neutral point as
a1  d 
K n = hn
h, so that hn = h0 + VT 1

a  d 
•
A stable aircraft has positive stability margin.
The more positive, the more stable.
•
If the cg position (h) is ahead of the neutral
point (hn) the aircraft will by definition be
stable
•
Too much stability can be a bad thing!
 Stability margin (2)
•
Certification authorities specify that
K n
0.05c
at all times
•
Of course, the stability margin can change:
–
If fuel is used up
–
If payload is released:
•
Bombs
•
Missiles
•
External fuel tanks
•
Paratroopers
•
Anything else you can dump from a plane
 Elevator angle to trim
•
Setting the tab angle to zero (
=0), it can be
shown that the elevator angle to trim
characteristic is given by
d 1 1
=
(hn
h) =
Kn
dCLw VT a2 VT a2
•
It is therefore proportional to the controls fixed
stability margin.
•
Therefore, the stability margin can be
obtained using measurements of the elevator
angle to trim at various flight conditions
 Controls Fixed Example
•
Calculate the controls fixed stability margin
and neutral point
•
Is the aircraft stable?

These values of
elevator angle to trim
were obtained from a
Handley Page
Jetstream aircraft
 Controls Free Stability
•
Pilots don’t want to hold the controls
throughout the flight.
•
The trim tab can be adjusted such that, if the
elevator is allowed to float freely, it will at an
angle corresponding to the desired trim
condition.
•
This is sometimes called a hands-off trim
condition.
•
Therefore the pilot can take his hands off the
elevator control and the aircraft will remain in
trim.
 Elevator Hinge Moment (1)
•
The pitching moment equation is (earlier
slides)  a  d  
Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h
h0 )
VT
CLw 1
1
 + a2 + a3 + a1T 
 a  d
•
The elevator angle, , is unknown and
must be eliminated from the equation
•
Consider the elevator hinge moment
Tailplane
Elevator hinge H T


T
V0
 Elevator 
Trim tab

 Elevator Hinge Moment (2)
•
Since the elevator is free to rotate, the
elevator hinge moment must be equal to zero.
•
Assuming small displacement, the elevator
hinge moment is a linear function of total
angle of attack, elevator angle and trim tab
angle, exactly like the lift. Therefore:
C H = b1
T + b2 + b3

•
Where b1, b2 and b3 are known constants

•
Substituting for
T and solving for the elevator
angle gives
1 CLw b1  d  b3 b
 = CH

1


1 T
b2 a b2  d b2 b2
Controls Free Stability Margin
•
This is an expression for
that can be
substituted into the pitching moment
equation.
•
Differentiating the latter with respect to wing
lift coefficient gives
dCm a1  d  a2b1 
= ( h
h0 )
VT 1
1

dCLw a  d  a1b2 

•
Define the Controls Free Stability Margin, K'n,

such that dCm
K n =
= hn
h
dC Lw
•
With h'n being the controls free neutral point
 Controls Free Neutral Point
•
The controls free neutral point is then
a1  d  a2b1 
hn = h0 + VT 1

1

a  d  a1b2 

•
Using the expression for the controls

a1  d 
fixed neutral point hn = h0 + VT a 1
d  gives
a2b1  d 
hn = hn
VT 1

ab2  d 
 Discussion
•
As with the controls fixed stability margin, the
controls free stability margin is positive when
the aircraft is stable.
•
Similarly, the centre of gravity position must
be ahead of the controls free neutral point if
the aircraft is to be stable.
•
Usually, the constants of the elevator and tab
are such that h'n>hn.
•
An aircraft that is stable controls fixed will
usually be also stable controls free
 Hands-off trim positions
•
Assume that the aircraft is trimmed at a
hands-off position (elevator is free)
•
If the pilot changes elevator angle and then
releases the control stick, the aircraft will
return to the old trim position.
•
In order to adopt a new hands off trim position
the pilot must first move the elevator to the
desired angle and then adjust the trim tab.
•
The correct tab angle is the one that requires
zero control force. The pilot can then take his
hands off the control stick.
 Tab angle to trim
•
At a hands off

trim position
a1  d  a2b1   a2b3   a2b1 
Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h
h0 )
VT
CLw
1

1
 + a3
1
 + a1T
1
 = 0
 a  d  a1b2  a3b2  a1b2
•
Differentiating with respect to wing lift
coefficient but allowing
 to vary gives
d 
1
1
= ( hn
h) = K n
dCLw  ab   ab 
a3VT 1
2 3
a3VT 1
2 3

 a3b2   a3b2 

•
Therefore, the controls free stability margin

can be estimated by measuring the tab angle
to trim at various lift coefficients
 Control force to trim
•
The control force to trim is the parameter
more relevant to the pilot.
•
Consider an aircraft at a hands-off trim
position. If the pilot moves the stick to
assume a new position 
a1  d  a2b1   a2b3   a2b1  a2
Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h
h0 )
VT
CLw
1

1
 + a3
1
 + a1T
1
 + CH  = 0
 a  d  a1b2  a b
3 2  a b
1 2 b2
•
This time
 is constant but CH is non-zero
since the pilot is applying a force to the
control stick
•
Differentiate with respect to lift to obtain
dC H
1
1
= ( hn
h) = K n
dCLw V 2 a a
T VT 2
b2 b2
 Measuring Controls Free Stability

•
Therefore, the measurement of the controls

free stability margin and controls free neutral
point can be performed by measuring the
elevator hinge moment required to trim
around a given trim position
•
The elevator hinge moment can be obtained
from the mechanical gearing between the
control stick and the elevator, g
, as well as
the control force applied, F
.
1
F
= g
H = V 2 S
c
g
C H
2
 Controls free example
•
Calculate the controls free stability margin
and neutral point
•
Is the aircraft stable?

These values of hinge

moment coefficient to
trim were obtained from
a Handley Page
Jetstream aircraft
Summary of Longitudinal
Stability

K n
c

K nc

cg ac
h0c

hc
hn c
hn
c
c
Longitudinal stability when cg ahead of ac

Lw

LT ac cg

All the equations that have been derived up to now still

hold. The only difference is in the signs of h and
T.
Notice that this configuration is inherently stable. An
increase in angle of attack causes an increase in lift (i.e.
nose down moment) and a decrees in tail downforce (again
a nose down moment).