INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH HANDOUT:

STEP 1: How to ask a question about your subject and turn them in to measurable,
testable propositions. (OPERATIONALIZING). Begin with a question and a theory(explains and organizes lots of observations and predictions of outcomes). What are
you interested in studying? Eg- how are divorce and academic achievement related?
STEP 2: Testable Predictions aka Hypothesis testing. Hypothesis- Best guess of
what you think is most likely to happen.
STEP 3: Test Hypothesis Experimental or Descriptive. Clear and common
language to report conclusions- (Conference/ Journal) Testing with a replicable
experiment- CONSISTENT( Results are same even if environment/ subjects change.
DESCRIPTIVE- DESCRIBE/ OBSERVE WHAT IS HAPPENING. DOESNT ESTABLISH
CAUSALITY.
1. CASE STUDIES: An in-depth look into an individual person/ small group. Often
used to describe something ATYPICAL- Eg- Dissociative Identity Disorder- rare in
general population.
CON: Misleading/ Cant be replicated/ Risk over-generalizing.
PRO: They help us frame questions for more extensive/ generalizable studies.
2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
Observe and record without interference- eg- parenting behavior- go to mall and
observe couples. Researchers watch behavior in a natural environment. Example (Chimps in jungle/ kids in classroom/ drunks at soccer game). No manipulation to
control situation.
LAB OBSERVATION: Controlled setting and observe.
Pro: Good at DESCRIBING BEHAVIOUR but poor at Explaining it. Controlled
environments.
Con: Social desirability.
3. SURVEYS/ INTERVIEWS- Collect data about opinions using self -report tools.
Example: Alfred Kinsey-Survey Book Sexual Behaviour in Human Male &
Female.
Word Choices can influence results. Eg- Ban/ Censor v/s Limit; or not allow/ Asking
do you believe in aliens v/s do you think there is intelligent life in the universe?
Asking the right representatives is important. Sample characteristics important to
match (age/sex). Sampling Bias- If I ask students what they think of about Arms

Control-NOT REPRESENTATIVE. Precaution- Random Sampling All members of

target group have an equal chance of being selected.
CORRELATION STUDIES: Correlation predicts possibility of cause-and-effect
relationships does not prove Causation. Measures strength and direction of
relationship between 2 variables (Coefficient range)- -1.00 to +1.00. Closer to -/+
1.00= stronger. Which is stronger -.89 or +.43?
If +ve then both variables move in same direction. If ve both variables in opposite
direction, dont move in same direction.

Eg +ve

-ve

Why use correlation:

1. If its difficult to assign, unethical to assign to group. Eg- gender/ abuse-The
experience of child abuse, how men experience anxiety.

RESEARCH DESIGNS:
VARIABLE- Anything that can be measured, rated, scored and vary from person to
person (height, weight, GPA, IQ)

IV- Variable that is manipulated and observe cause and effect relationship
DV- Variable that changes/ is affected by IV
Eg- IV-Number of hours worked/ DV- Increase in GPA

Confounding Variables- Variables other than IV that elicit change/ skew resultsTYPES: SOCIAL DESIRABILITY/ EXPERIMENTER BIASPREVENTION: DOUBLE BLIND/ PLACEBO GROUP
Experimental Group- Manipulation/ Control- No manipulation

IV- Presence of music

DV- Test score

Precaution/ Control conditions.

1. Random assigning to group- experimental or control- prevent sample bias