Chapter 9 :

Manufactured
Substances
In
Industry

Name : Nurul Nabila Binti Rosely Nor

I.C. number : 930821-14-5700

Class : Perdagangan Gigih ’09 & ‘10

Teacher’s name : Mrs Elizabeth A/P Koilpillay

 Appreciation

Sulphuric Acid

Ammonia

Alloys

Synthetic Polymers

Glass and Ceramics

Composite Materials
I would like to give a big thanks to for giving me
a help while I’m doing this folio. A special
thanks also to my friends because they have
helped me.
Lastly, I would like to say thank you to my
parents because they have helped me to finish
this folio.
 SULPHURIC ACID

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

• To manufacture fertilizers

1. Almost one-third of sulphuric acid is used to manufacture fertilizers.

2. examples :
a) Ammonium sulphate is formed when sulphuric acid reacts
with ammonia
H2 SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) (NH4)2 SO4 (aq)

b) calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate) is formed

when sulphuric acid reacts with calcium phosphate.
2H2 SO4 (aq) + Ca (PO4)2 (S) Ca (H2PO4)2 (aq) + 2Ca SO4 (S)

• To manufacture paint pigments

1. Neutralisation of sulphuric acid with barium hydroxide solution produces

barium sulphate which is used as white pigment in paint.
H2 SO4 (aq) + Ba (OH)2 (aq) BaSO4 (S) + 2H2O (I)

• To manufacture detergents

• To manufacture synthetic fibres

1. Example : Rayon is produced by the sulphuric acid with cellulose threads

soaked in alkaline solution.

• To clean metals

1. Before electroplating, sulphuric acid is used for cleaning metals to remove

the surface oxides.
• To manufacture plastics

• As an electrolyte in car batteries

• To manufacture other chemicals

1. Examples : Pharmaceuticals, insecticides, tartaric acid and explosives.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID IN INDUSTRY

CONTACT PROCESS

1. Contact process produces more than 90% of the world’s sulphuric acid

2. The raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :

• Sulphur

• Air

• Water

3. consists of three stages :

• stage I – Production of sulphur dioxide

• stage II – Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide

• stage III – Production of sulphuric acid

Stage 1 • sulphur is burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide

S (s) + O2(s) SO2 (s)

• burning of metal sulphides also produce sulphur dioxide

2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (s) 2SO2 (s) + 2ZnO (s)

2PbS (s) + 3O2 (s) 2SO2 (s) + 2PbO (s)
• the sulphur dioxide is then mixed with excess air

• the mixture is dried and purified to remove impurities such

as arsenic compounds

Stage 2 • the mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen is pass

through a converter
• the sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide

2SO2 (s) + O2 (s) 2SO3 (s)

• optimum conditions used are as follows

1. temperature : 450 C
2. pressure : 1 atmosphere
3. catalyst : Vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5

• about 97% conversion occurs under these optimum

conditions
 Stage 3 • the sulphur trioxide is first dissolved is concentrated
sulphuric acid to form a product called oleum, H2S207
SO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) H2S2O7 (I)

• sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water to form sulphuric

acid
• the oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated
sulphuric acid of about 98%
H2S2O7 (I) + H2O (I) 2H2SO4 (aq)

SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

1. sulphur dioxide is acidic and poisonous. Inhaling sulphur dioxide causes coughing,
chest pain and shortness of breath. It is the thought to be one of the causes of
bronchitis and lung diseases.
2. acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the
rain. These strong acid will cause the pH of the rain to fall between to fall 2.4 and 5.0

• when sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater, sulphurous acid is formed

SO2 (g) + H2O (I) H2SO3 (aq)

• sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid

2SO2 (s) + O2 (s) + 2H2O (I) 2H2SO4 (aq)

3. Acid rain corrodes buildings, monuments and statues made from marble and
sandstone. The calcium carbonate in the marble reacts with sulphuric acid from the
rain to form calcium sulphate.

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (s) + H2O (I)

4. acid rain corrodes metallic structures. The iron from the steel bridges reacts with
sulphuric acid to form iron (II) sulphate.

Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (s)

WAYS TO CONTROL AND REDUCE THE EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

I. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce emission of sulphur dioxide into the air.
II. Add calcium oxide (lime), CaO, calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 and powdered
limestone, CaCO3 into the acidic lake or river to neutralize the acids present.

CaO (s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + H2O (I)

Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O (I)
CaCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O

STRUCTURE AND BASIC CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

• The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape, as predicted by VSEPR

theory.
• The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, and ammonia acts as a
base, a proton acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and
makes it polar so that ammonia readily dissolves in water.
• The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonia ion increase upon lowering the
pH of the solution.
 NATURAL OCCURRENCE

• Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the
putrefaction of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter.
• Ammonia and ammonium salts are found in small quantities in rainwater, whereas
ammonium chloride and ammonium sulphate are found in volcanic districts.

HISTORY

• The Romans called the ammonium chloride deposits they collected from near the
Temple of Jupiter Amun in ancient Libya’sal ammoniacus’ (salt of Amun)
because of proximity to the nearby temple.
• In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known to the Arabic alchemists as
early as the 8th century, first mentioned by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan).
• Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Priestly in 1774 and was termed by
him alkaline air, however it was acquired by the alchemist Basil Valentine.

USES OF AMMONIA

• To make fertilizers which provide plants nitrogen. These fertilizers are

ammonium salts obtained from the neutralization of ammonia with different
acids.

Example :

Ammonium Phosphate

The reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid produces ammonium phosphates.

NH2 (aq) + H3PO4 (aq) NH4H2PO4 (aq)

2NH3 (aq) + H3PO4 (aq) (NH4)2 HPO4 (aq)

• Ammonia is used as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the
Ostwald process. This process involves three stages.
 a) Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen monoxide in the presence of platinum as
the catalyst.
4NH3 (s) + 5O2 (s) 4NO (s) + 6H2O (I)

b) nitrogen monoxide is further oxidised to nitrogen dioxide.

2NO (s) + O2 (s) 2NO2 (s)

c) the mixture of nitrogen dioxide and air is dissolved in water to form nitric
acid

4NO2 (s) + O2 (s) + 2H2O (I) 4HNO3 (aq)

• liquid ammonia is used as a cooling agent in refrigerator because ammonia is

highly compressible and has a high heat capacity.
• Ammonium salts is used as smelling salts to revive people who have fainted.

TO INVESTIGATE THE PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA

Material : 0.1 mol dm ammonia solution, 0.1 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution,
ammonium chloride, calcium hydroxide, concentrated hydrochloric acid, soda-lime,
distilled water, red litmus paper, pH paper.

Apparatus : test tubes, beaker, U-tube, Bunsen burner, glass rod, delivery tube, stoppers.

Procedure :

A. Preparation of ammonia gas

1) Some ammonium chloride is mixed with some calcium hydroxide.

2) The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram below.
 Preparation of ammonia gas

3) the mixture is heated.

4) The ammonia gas produced is collected in a few test tubes. The test tubes
containing ammonia gas must be closed with stoppers.

B. Alkalinity of ammonia
1) 5 cm of 0.1 mol dm ammonia solution and 5 cm of 0.1 mol dm sodium
hydroxide solution are poured into two separate test tubes.
2) A piece of pH paper is dipped into the solution in each test tube.
3) The pH values of both solutions are recorded.

C. colour, physical state, smell and solubility of ammonia

1) the colour and physical state of ammonia are observed.

2) The stopper of a test tube containing ammonia gas is removed and the smell of
the gas is identified.
3) A test tube containing ammonia gas is inverted into a beaker of water.
4) All observations are recorded.

Testing the solubility of ammonia gas in water

D. Density of ammonia

1) A test tube containing ammonia gas is held upright and another test tube
containing ammonia gas is held upside down.
2) The stoppers of the two test tubes are removed.
3) After 20 seconds, a piece of moist red litmus paper is put at the mouth of each
test tube as shown in the figure below.
 Testing the density of ammonia gas

4) the colour of the red litmus paper is recorded.

E. chemical property of ammonia

1) one end of a glass rod is dipped into concentrated hydrochloric acid

2) the glass rod is then put on top of a test tube of ammonia gas.
3) Any changes taking place is observed.

Observation :

Section observation Inference

A • pH of ammonia solution is
10
• pH of sodium hydroxide
solution is 14
B • colourless gas
• pungent smell
• water rushes up and fills up
the whole test tube
C • moist red litmus paper on top
of the upright test tube does
not change colour
• moist red litmus paper under
the interved test tube turns
blue
D • dense white fumes are
formed
o ammonia is a weak alkali
o sodium hydroxide is a strong
alkali
o ammonia is a colourless gas
with a pungent smell
o ammonia is very soluble in
water
o ammonia gas has escaped
from the upright test tube and
thus is slightly less dense
than air
o ammonia reacts with
hydrogen chloride gas to
formed ammonium chloride
Discussion :

1) Ammonia is a weak alkali and has a pH of 10.

2) Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent smell.
3) Ammonia is very soluble in water, ionizes partically in water to form ammonium
ions and hydroxide ions.

NH3 (s) + H2O (I) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)

4) ammonia is slightly less dense than air.

5) Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form ammonium chloride.

NH3 (s) + HCl (s) NH4Cl (s)

Conclusion : ammonia is an alkaline, colourless gas with a pungent smell. It is very

soluble in water and is less dense than air. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form
dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.
Haber process

• used to produce ammonia from the nitrogen in the air.

• Developed by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910.
• First used on an industrial scale by the Germans during World War 1.

Manufacture of ammonia in industry

1) the raw materials for the Haber process are hydrogen and nitrogen.
2) Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2
3) The mixture is compressed to 200 atom and heated to a temperature of about 450
C.
4) The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.
Ammonia is produced.

N2 (s) + 3H2 (s) 2NH3 (s)

The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat. The high
pressure and iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction

5) the ammonia gas produced is liquefied and separated to get a better yield.
6) The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into reactor
together with the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Ammonium Fertilisers

• Contain ammonium ions. In the soil, the ammonium ions are converted to
nitrate ions by bacteria.
• Examples of ammonium fertilizers :

I. Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

II. Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2 SO4

• The
fertilizers that contain a high percentage of nitrogen are more effective than
those fertilizers with a low percentage of nitrogen.
• Ammoniu
m fertilizers can be prepared by reactions between ammonia solution and
acids.
ALLOYS

PURE METALS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• High density
• High melting and boiling point
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Malleable
• Ductile
• Lustrous

1. the properties of a pure metal are reflected by its arrangement of

atoms. It is made up of one type of atom, thus all atoms are of the same size.
2. in the solid state, the atoms in the pure metal are orderly
arrangement and closely packed together. Thus, pure metals have high densities.

Atoms in a pure metal are orderly arranged and closely packed together.

3. the atoms in metals are orderly arranged in layers to form a three-

dimensional crystal lattice. The forces of attraction between the very closely packed
atoms are very strong. Thus, a large amount of energy is required to overcome these
forces. As a result, pure metals have high melting and boiling points.
 4. although the forces of attraction between the metal atoms are
strong, they are not rigid. Therefore, when a force is applied, the layers of atoms can
slide over one another. Thus, metals are ductile or can be stretched.

5. the arrangements of atoms in pure metals are not perfect. There are
some empty spaces in between the atoms. When a metal is knocked or pressed, group
of atoms may slide and then settle into new positions. This explains why metals are
malleable or can be shaped.

6. Pure metals are weak and soft due to their ductility and
malleability. Thus, pure metals have limited uses.

7. to improve the properties of a pure metal, it is made into an alloy.

ALLOYS

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which
the major component is a metal. Most alloys are mixtures of metals. For example, bronze
is an alloy of copper and tin. Both pure copper and tin are soft. When copper is alloyed
with tin, bronze which is stronger and harder is produced. Some alloys may contain
mixtures of a metals and a non-metal such as carbon. For example, steel is an alloy of
iron and carbon. Iron is a soft metal. When some carbon is added to iron, steel which is
stronger and harder is formed. Pure metals are normally soft and easily oxidized. This is
the reason why monuments or statues are made of branze and not copper. Cutlery is made
of stainless steel and not steel or iron. This is because stainless steel is shiny and does not
rust. Alloys are stronger, harder, resistant to corrosion, have a better finish and lustrous.
By changing the percentage of composition of the metals, the properties of the resulting
alloy can be altered.

Factors of making alloy

a) To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal

• In the process of making alloys, atoms of other elements are added,

usually in small amounts, into a molten pure metal.When the metal
becomes solid again, the positions of some of atoms of other elements of
different sizes.
• The presence of the atoms of other elements disrupts the orderly
arrangement of the pure metal. The layers of metal atoms are prevented
from sliding over one another easily. This makes alloys strongers and
harder than pure metals.
• During the making of steel, carbon atom which are smaller than iron
atoms are added into iron atoms. As a result, the uniformity of the
arrangement of iron atoms is discrupted and it is more difficult for the
layers of the iron atoms to slide over one another. This makes steel harder
and stronger than pure iron.

b) To increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal

• Unreactive metals such as gold and silver can be found in the free state.
This is because they do not react with oxygen and water vapour in the air.
• Most metals such as iron and copper corrode readily in the air.
• Alloying can prevent metals from corrosion. This is because alloying
helps to prevent the formation of oxide layer on the surface of the metal.
• for example, carbon, chromium and nickel are added to iron to make
stainless steel. Cutlery made from stainless steel does not corrode.

c) to improve the appearance of a pure metal

• metals have lustrous surfaces. However the formation of dull metal oxide
on the surface of a metal makes it quickly lose its shine.
• Alloying helps to keep the metal surface shiny as its prevents the
formation of the metal oxide.
 Alloy Compositon Properties Uses
Bronze 90% copper Hard, strong, does Medals, statues,
10% tin not corrode easily monuments
Brass 70% copper Harder than copper Musical
30% zinc instruments,
kitchenware, door
knobs
Cupro-nickel 75% copper Beautiful surface, Coins
25% nickel shiny, hard
Steel 99% iron Hard, strong Buildings, bridges,
1% carbon body of cars
Stainless steel 74% iron Shiny, strong, does Cutlery, surgical
8% carbon not rust instruments, sink
18% chromium pipes
Duralumin 93% aluminium Light, strong Aircraft’s body,
3% copper bullet trains
3% magnesium
1% manganese
Pewter 96% tin Shiny, strong, does Art objects,
3% copper not corrode souvenirs
1% antimony
Composition, properties and uses of alloy
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

POLYMERS

The term ‘polymer’ originated from Greek words, ‘poly’ means ‘many’ and ‘mer’ means
‘parts’. Polymers are large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many
identical repeating sub-units called monomers. Polymerization is a process by which the
monomers are joined together into chain-like molecule called polymer. A polymer may
consist of thousands of monomers.

M+M+M+M+M… -M-M-M-M-M
Or
nM M
where M = monomer, n = a big number

there are two types of polymers:

a) natural polymers
• obtained from living things such as plants animals.

RUBBER

Rubber is an elastic material obtained by “curdling” the milky sap (latex) of certain
plants. Natives in Central America and Mexico used rubber before Columbus. In 1839,
Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber, a form of natural rubber modified by
cross-linking (vulcanization). The monomer for natural rubber is isoprene or 2-
methylbuta-1, 3-diene. Each isoprene unit has two double bongs. Isoprene molecules
undergo addition polymerization to form poly (isoprene) or natural rubber.
 b) synthetic polymers
• polymers made by man through chemical reactions.
• Monomers used for the manufacture of synthetic polymers are
usually obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum.
• Used to make plastics, fibres, resins, and synthetic rubber.
• Prepared through addition polymerization and condensation
polymerisation.

Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization

• Involves monomers with double
bonds between the carbon atoms.
• Examples : ethane and styrene.
• Involves the joining up of
monomers with the formation of
other smaller and simple molecules
such as water
• Examples : nylon and terylene.

PLASTICS

The first man-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1862. he called this
plastic Parkesine. The development of plastics has come from the use of natural plastic
materials to the use of chemically modified natural materials and finally to completely
synthetic molecules. The raw materials used to make plastics are obtained from the
products of cracking of petroleum fractions. They are normally alkene molecules and are
made into plastics through addition polymerization. Plastics are the largest group of
synthetic polymers. It has low density, strong and inert to chemical too.
Here are some commonly used plastics :

• Polyethylene : shopping bags

• Polyvinyl chloride : pipes
• Polystyrene : packing materials
• Perspex : lenses

SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Synthetic fibres are long-chain polymers which are not easily stretched and have high
strength. Polyamides and polyesters are two group of synthetic polymers used as fibres
for making textile.

NILON

• The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was “polyamide” (PA), far better
known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fibre,
introduced by DuPont Corp at the 1939 World’s fair in New York City.
• Nylon is used to make toothbrushes, ropes, fishing lines, papachutes, carpets,
textile, threads, and electrical insulators.

TERYLENE

• Terylene is an example of polyester polymers and are diol molecules and diacid
molecules.
• Terylene is chemically inert, elastic and can be coloured and easily made into
fibres.
• It is suitable for making textile, stocking, parachutes and fishing nets.

SYNTHETIC RUBBERS

A polymer that was critical in World War II was “synthetic rubber”, which was produced
n a variety of forms. It is not plastics and are elastic materials. These synthetic polymers
are also called elastomers. Produced by addition polymerization, neoprene and styrene-
butadiene are examples of synthetics rubbers.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE

About 57% of the total production of polymers are used in packaging and building
industries. The uses of synthetic polymer are determined by its structure and properties.
Synthetic polymers are very stable. Unlike metals, wood or paper, they do not rust, rot or
decay. They are very useful but they also difficult to dispose of as they are not easily
biodegradable. Disposal of synthetic polymers has caused environmental pollution
problems.

Ways to solve the problems caused by the use of synthetic polymers

• Reuse
 • Recycle
• Use biodegradable synthetic polymers
• Dispose of unwanted synthetic polymers in a proper manner

GLASS AND CERAMICS

Glass

Glass is normally referred to a transparent, shiny substance that breaks rather easily.
Evidence has shown that glass has been used for more than 3000 years ago.

1. silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2 is the major component of glass. It can be found in
sand.
2. glass can be made by heating a mixture of silicon dioxide and metal carbonates to
a temperature above 1500 C.
• when sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 are heated to a high temperature, they
decompose to form metal oxides.

Na2CO3 (s) Na2O (s) + CO2 (s)

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (s)

• the metal
oxides then combine with silicon dioxide to form the respective metal
silicates.
SiO2 (s) + Na2O (s) Na2SiO3 (s)
Sio2 (s) + CaO CaSiO3 (s)

• the overall
reaction is as follows.

2SiO2 (s) + Na2CO3 (s) + CaCO3 (s) NaSiO3 (s) + CaSiO3 (s) + 2CO2 (s)

• glass is a
mixture of metal silicates.
3. In silicon dioxide, each silicon atom forms covalent bonds with four adjacent
oxygen atoms in a tetragonal shape. Each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon
atoms to form a macromolecule.

4. in glass, the SiO3 tetrahedras bond together by sharing oxygen atoms to build up a
giant non-regular 3-D structure containing the Si-O-Si linkages. Sodium ions and
calcium ions balance the negatively-charged silicate ions.
5. the physical properties of glass depend on percentage of the various silicates
present. Generally, all types of glass have the following common properties.
• Transparen
t
• Hard but
brittle
• Impermeab
le to liquid
• Heat
insulator
• Electrical
insulator
• Chemically
inert
Types and uses of glasses
Type of glass Composition Properties Uses
Fused glass • Silicon • High melting • Laboratory
dioxide point glassware
• High temperature • Lenses
and chemically • Optical fibres
durability
Soda-lime • Silicon • Low melting • Containers
glass dioxide point • Flat glass
• Sodium • Easy to mould • Windowpanes
oxide and shape • Mirrors
• Calcium • Transparent to • Light bulbs
oxide visible light
Borosilicate • Silicon • Resistant to • Cookware
glass dioxide chemicals • Laboratory
• Boron • Resistant to glassware
oxide thermal shock • Electrical tubes
• Sodium
oxide
• Calcium
oxide
Lead crystal • Silicon • High density • Tableware
glass dioxide • High refractive • Art objects
• Lead(II) index • Crystals
oxide • Soft and easy to
• Sodium melt
oxide

Ceramic
 Pieces of broken ceramics from more than 6000 years ago have been found by
archaelogists. Pottery is the oldest form of ceramic products.

1. ceramics are made from clay such as kaolin. Kaolin is rich in kaolinite
(hydrated aluminosilicate, Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O).
2. when the clay is heated to a very high temperature, it undergoes a series of
chemical reactions and is hardened permanently to form ceramics.
3. these chemical changes are not reversible and the ceramic cannot be melted
and remoulded.
4. bricks, tiles, mugs, and clay pots are some examples of ceramics.

Properties and uses of ceramics

Property Uses Examples

Hard and strong
attractive, easily moulded
and glazed
chemically inert and non-
corrosive
Very high melting point and
good insulator of heat
Electrical insulators
Inert and non-compressible
Building materials Tiles, bricks, roofs
Decorative pieces and Vases, porcelain ware,
household items sinks, bathtubs
Kitchenware Cooking pots, plates, bowl
Insulation Lining of furnace, engine
parts
Insulating parts in electrical Spark plugs, insulators in
appliances oven and electric cables
Medical and dental Artificial teeth and bones
apparatus

Comparing properties of glass and ceramics

Common properties of glass and ceramics

• hard and do not bend

• strong under compression
• brittle
• good heat and electrical insulators
• inert to chemicals
• do not corrode

differences between glass and ceramics

 • glass can be heated until molten repeatedly but not ceramics
• glass is usually transparent whereas ceramics are not
• glass has a lower melting point than ceramics

special glass and ceramics

glass optical fibres

Glass optical fibre is a pure silica glass thread that conducts light. This fibre can transmit
messages modulated onto ight waves. Using a glass optical fibre, information such as
telephone and tv signals as well as digital data can be transmitted over long distances
without distort and loss of signal. Optical fibre is particularly popular in local area
networks (LAN), control board displays and medical instruments. Fibre optic cables are
much thinner and lighter than the traditional metal cables. They can carry more data and
less susceptible to interference than metal cables.

Photochromic glass

Photochromic glass is made when a glass is embedded with certain photosensitive

chemicals that change colour when exposed to light. It darkens when exposed to
ultraviolet rays and clears up when the rays are removed. It is also used for windows,
sunglasses and instrument controls.

Glass-ceramics

Glass-ceramics are strong materials made by heating glass to rearrange some of its atoms
into regular patterns. It have better mechanical strength and are better electrical insulators
compared to normal glass. They can withstand high temperatures, sudden changes in
temperature and chemical attacks better than the normal glass. Glass-ceramics have been
used in cookware, rockets, tiles and engine blocks.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Made by combining two or more materials.

Examples :

• reinforced concrete- a mixture of concrete and steel rods

• superconductor- a combination of metals and metals oxides
• fibre glass- glass fibres embedded in plastic resins
• photochromic glass- a mixture of glass and photosensitive or lightsensitive
substances

reinforced concrete

concrete is a composite material which consists of a mixture of stones, chips and sand
bound together by cement. It is strong but brittle and weak in tensile strength. When
concrete is reinforced with steel wire netting or steel rods, the resulting combination is a
very tough material with high tensile strength.

Superconductors

Superconductors are capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance

when they are cooled to an extremely low temperature. Most of superconductors are
alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides. It is used in :

• magnetic energy-storage systems

• generators
• transformers
• computer parts

fiberglass

fiberglass is produced when glass fibres are embedded in plastic resins to produce glass
fibre reinforced plastics. Fibreglass has high tensile strength, can be easily coloured,
moulded and shaped. It is used in the making of water storage tanks, badminton rackets,
helmets, small boats skis and car bodies.