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Measurementerrorsareimpossibletoavoid
9 ariseduringthemeasurementprocess
9 ariseduenoise
Systematicerrorsdescribeerrorsintheoutputreadingsofa
measurementsystemthatareconsistentlyononesideofthe
correctreading,thatis,eitherallerrorsarepositiveorareall
negative.Twomajorsourcesofsystematicerrorsare
9 systemdisturbance duringmeasurement
9 theeffectofenvironmentalchanges
` Randomerrorsareperturbationsofthemeasurementeither
side ofthetruevaluecausedbyrandomandunpredictable
effects.
Introduction
10Apr15
Uncertainty Analysis
Calibration
SignalFiltering
EstimationofRandomErrorinaSingleMeasurement
DistributionofManufacturingTolerances
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disturbanceinducedbytheactofmeasurement
effectofenvironmentaldisturbances
duetowearandagingininstrumentcomponents
resistanceofconnectingleads
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AggregationofErrorsfromSeparateMeasurementSystemComponents
Aggregation ofMeasurementSystemErrors
CalculationofOverallSystematicError
SourcesandTreatmentofRandomErrors
StatisticalAnalysisofMeasurementsSubjecttoRandomErrors
SourcesofSystematicError
ReductionofSystematicErrors
SourcesofSystematicError
Contents
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circuitinwhichthevoltage
acrossR5istobemeasured
Theprocessofmeasurementalwaysdisturbsthesystembeing
measured.Waysofminimizingdisturbanceofmeasured
systemsareimportantconsiderationsininstrumentdesign
Inacaseofmeasuringwatertemperaturewithamercury
inglassthermometer,aheattransferwouldtakeplace
betweenthewaterandthethermometer.Thisheattransfer
wouldchangethetemperatureofthewater.
Measurementsinelectriccircuit
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ThedesignstrategyshouldbetomakeRm ashighaspossible
tominimizedisturbanceofthemeasuredsystem.
Bridgecircuitsformeasuringresistancevaluesareafurther
exampleoftheneedforcarefuldesignofthemeasurement
system.
Measurementsinelectriccircuits
Disturbanceinducedbytheactofmeasurement
10
Toincreasethenumberofturnsin
thecoilcanachieveahighinternal
resistanceinthedesignofa
movingcoilvoltmeter,butthatwill
decreasesthecurrentflowingin
thecoilanddecreasingthe
measurementsensitivity
Anyattempttoimprovethe
performanceofaninstrumentin
onerespectgenerallydecreases
theperformanceinsomeother
aspect.
Example:movingcoilmeter
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circuitusedtofindthe
equivalentsingle
equivalentcircuitby
Thvenins theorem
voltageacrossresistorR5
istobemeasuredbya
voltmeterwithresistance
Rm
Errorduetomeasurementdevice
Req
Veq
13
Solution
I SC
7.5
2k
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Example:Equivalentcircuit
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Measurement output
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ErrorsduetoEnvironmentalInputs
9 Anenvironmentalinputisdefinedasanapparentlyreal
inputtoameasurementsystemthatisactuallycausedbya
changeintheenvironmentalconditionssurroundingthe
measurementsystem.
9 Itcausesasensitivitydriftand/orzerodrift
9 Themagnitudeofanyenvironmentalinputmustbe
measuredbeforethevalueofthemeasuredquantity(the
realinput)canbedeterminedfromtheoutputreadingofan
instrument.
SystematicErrors
12
Example
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Example:thethermometerisseparatedfromotherpartsofthe
measurementsystembyperhaps100meters.Theresistanceof
suchalengthof20gaugecopperwireis7 :,andthereisa
furthercomplicationthatsuchwirehasatemperaturecoefficient
of1m : /qC.
WearinInstrumentComponents
9 Systematicerrorscanfrequentlydevelopoveraperiodof
timebecauseofwearininstrumentcomponents.
Recalibrationoftenprovidesafullsolutiontothisproblem.
ConnectingLeads
9 Thefailuretotakeproperaccountoftheresistanceof
connectingleads.Iftheyarethoughtlikelytobesubjectto
electricalormagneticfieldsthatcouldotherwisecause
inducednoise.
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Oncesystematicerrorshavebeenreducedasfarasreasonably
possibletechnically,asensibleapproachtoestimatethe
variouskindsofremainingsystematicerrorwouldbe
9 Environmentalconditionerrors
9 Calibrationerrors
9 Systemdisturbanceerrors
9 Measurementsystemloadingerrors
QuantificationofSystematicErrors
SystematicErrors
SignalFiltering:bandstopfiltercanbeappliedtoreduce
periodicnoisecorruptionintroducedbycurrentcarrying
cables,mechanicalvibration.
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Environmentalconditionerrors
9 subjecttounpredictableenvironmentalconditions
9 Asystematicerrorratherthanarandomerror
9 toassumemidpointenvironmentalconditionsandspecifythe
maximummeasurementerrorasx%oftheoutputreading
Calibrationerrors
9 Themaximumerrorjustbeforetheinstrumentisduefor
recalibrationbecomesthebasisforestimatingthemaximum
likely.
9 Themaximummeasurementerrorbetweenwhenthe
instrumenthasjustbeencalibratedandtimejustbeforethe
nextcalibrationisduecanthenbeexpressedasx%ofthe
outputreading.
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IntelligentInstruments
Intelligentinstrumentscontainextrasensorsthatmeasurethe
valueofenvironmentalinputsandautomaticallycompensate
thevalueoftheoutputreading.
Tradeoffbetweenperformanceandcost
`
ReductionofSystematicErrors
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Randomerrorsinmeasurementsarecausedbyunpredictable
variationsinthemeasurementsystem.
AlsocalledasPrecisionerrors
Sourcesofrandomerrors
9 measurementstakenbyhuman
observationofananaloguemeter,
especiallywherethisinvolvesinterpolation
betweenscalepoints.
9 randomenvironmentalchanges,
forexample,suddendraughtofair.
9 electricalnoise.
RandomErrors
21
Measurementuncertaintyorinaccuracyvaluequotedinthe
datasheetsindicatestheperformancewhenitisnew,used
underspecifiedconditions,andrecalibratedatthe
recommendedfrequency.
Aworstcasepredictionofmaximumerrorwouldbetosimply
addupeachseparatesystematicerror.
Applyingthismethodfornsystematiccomponenterrorsof
magnitudex1%,x2%,x3%,xn%,thebestpredictionoflikely
maximumsystematicerrorbytherootsumsquaresmethodis
CalculationofOverallSystematicError
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Smallperturbationsofthemeasurementduetorandomerrors
appearsoneithersideofthecorrectvalueandcanbelargely
beeliminatedbycalculatingtheaverageofanumberof
repeatedmeasurements.
TreatmentofRandomErrors
22
Example
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Supposethatthelengthofasteelbarismeasuredbyanumberof
differentobserversandthefollowingsetof11measurementsare
recorded(unitsmillimeter).WewillcallthismeasurementsetA.
398420394 416404408400420396413430
mean=409.andmedian=408.
` A bettermeasuringruleproducesthefollowingmeasurementsetB:
409 406402 407405404407404407407408
mean=406andmedian=407
Remark:
SetBismorereliablebecausethemeasurementaremuchmorecloser
together.thesmallerthespreadofthemeasurements,themore
confidencewehaveinthemeanormedianvaluecalculated.
Example
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A Mean iscomputedbyaddingupallthevaluesanddividingthat
scorebythenumberofvalues.The arithmeticmean ofasample
x1,x2,,xn,isthesumthesampledvaluesdividedbythenumber
ofitemsinthesample:
MeanandMedianValues
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Asthenumberofmeasurementsincreases,thedifference
betweenmeanandmedianvaluesbecomesverysmall.
ByextendingmeasurementsetBto23measurements
409406402 407405404407404407407408406410 406
405408406409406405409406407
mean=406.5andmedian
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A ninestudentclassresultsscoresonatest:2,4,5,7,8,10,12,
13,83.
Theaveragescore(orthe mean)isthesumofallthescores
dividedbynine, 144/9=16.Notethateventhough16isthe
arithmeticaverage,itisdistortedbytheunusuallyhighscore
of83comparedtootherscores.Almostallofthestudents'
scoresare below theaverage.Therefore,inthiscasethemean
isnotagoodrepresentativeofthe centraltendency ofthis
sample.
The median,ontheotherhand,isthevaluewhichissuchthat
halfthescoresareaboveitandhalfthescoresbelow.Soin
thisexample,themedianis8.Therearefourscoresbelowand
fourabovethevalue8.So8representsthemidpointorthe
centraltendencyofthesample.
Example
Unfortunately,theseformaldefinitionsforthevarianceand
standarddeviationofdataaremadewithrespecttoan
infinitepopulationofdatavalueswhereas,inallpractical
situations,wecanonlyhaveafinitesetofmeasurements.
truemean:Pforinfinitepopulation
Population:thecompletecollectionofallmembersrelevantto
aparticularissue
Sample:asubsetofthatpopulation,whichisobtainedbya
processofrandomselectionwithequalprobability.
Statisticsofthesample
providessamplemean
value()andsample
x
variance,whichcanbe
S2x
usedtoestimatetrue
meanvalue(x) andtrue
varianceV2 through
statisticalinference.
SampleversusPopulation
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Standarddeviation
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Variance
Measurementxi
Deviation(error)
StandardDeviationandVariance
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CalculatesandVformeasurementsetsA,B,andC.
A
Measurement398420394416404408400420396413430
B
Measurement409406402407405404407404407407408
C
Measurement409406402407405404407404407407408
406410406405408406409406405409406407
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Thisleadstoasimilarbetterpredictionofthestandard
deviationas
Abetterpredictionofthevarianceoftheinfinitepopulation
canbeobtainedbyapplyingtheBesselcorrectionfactor(n/n1)
Thatis
Exercise
DetermineVandV forFiniteDataSet
409
406
406.5
Variance
Confidence
11.7
2.05
1.88
Random Error
Standard deviation
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Graphicalanalysis:Randommeasurementerrorsdistribution
Histogram
GraphicalDataAnalysisTechniquesFrequency
Distributions
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Aswecanonlymakeafinitenumberofmeasurementsina
practicalsituation,theaveragevaluewillstillhavesomeerror.
Thiserrorcanbequantifiedasthestandarderrorofthemean.
V and V
11 137
11 4.2
23 3.53
Number of
measurements K
A
B
C
Mean
Solution
Signal:ameasurands magnitudewithrespecttotimeorspace
` Analog:continuousinbothmagnitudeandtimeorspace
` Discrete:continuousinmagnitudebutatspecifictimeor
space
` Digital:havingspecific,fixedintervalvaluesinboth
magnitudeandtimeorspace
Histogram:plottoprovidecentral
tendencyofthesignalandthe
frequencyofoccurrenceofdata
Example:
Theresolution ofthedigitization
processforthiscaseis0.5V.
Equalprobabilityintervalhistorams:
classintervalsofvariablewidth
eachcontainingthesamenumber
ofoccurrences
Equalwidthintervalhistotams:
classintervalsoffixedwidth
eachpossiblycontainingadifferent
numberofoccurrences
frequentlyusedtoshowboththe
frequencyandthedistributationof
occurrences
keyprameters:numberofinterval,
intervalorigin.
Histogram
PlottingStatisticalInformation
Scott
overestimatedoptimal
K=N1/2 usedbyExcelhistograms
Toofewortoomanyintervalswouldnotreflectthe
distributionofthepopulation.
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Bands(databins)ofequalwidthacrosstherangeof
measurementvaluesaredefinedandthenumberof
measurementswithineachbandiscounted.
Example:Drawahistogramforthe23measurementsinsetC
Measurement409406402 407405404407404407407408
406410 406405408406409406405409406407
Equalwidthintervalhistotams
NumberofIntervals
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probability curve
probability density function (p.d.f.)
Normalization
ProbabilityDensityFunction
5
5
5
5
5
1 (0-50)
2 (50-60)
3 (60-65)
4 (65-75)
5 (75-100)
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Number of
students
category (score
range)
Theintervalshavedifferentwidths.
` Thewidthsaretypicallydeterminedsuchthattheprobability
ofanintervalequals1/K,whereKisthenumberofintervals.
` Example:
25studentsinatestaredividedinto5categorieswithequal
probabilityasthefollowingtables(i.e.5studentsineach
interval).Plottheequalprobabilityhistogram.
`
EqualProbabilityIntervalHistogram
44
46
V=1
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AsmallerV correspondswithsmallerdeviationsof
measurementsfromthemeanvalue
D=x m
Measurementsetsthatonlycontainrandomerrorsusually
conformtoadistributionwithaparticularshapethatiscalled
Gaussian.
AlternativenamesfortheGaussiandistributionarenormal
distributionorbellshapeddistribution.
misthemeanvalue
StandardGaussianTables
Gaussian(Normal)Distribution
`
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ForV ,z=1.0
P(1)=1 P(1)=1 0.8413=0.1587
68%
Howmanymeasurementshaveadeviationgreater
than|V|
45
theprobabilitythattheerrorliesin
abandbetweenerrorlevelsD1 and
D2 canbeexpressedas
ProbabilityofaparticularmeasurementinaGaussian
dataset
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Averaginganumberofmeasurementswillonlyyieldthetrue
valueifthenumberofmeasurementsisinfinite.
Standarderrorofthemean
D tendstowardzeroasthenumberofmeasurements(n)in
thedatasetexpandstowardinfinity.
Procedure
n subsetsaretakenfromaninfinitedatapopulation
themeansofthesubsetswillformaGaussiandistribution
withacorrespondingstandarddeviationV
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whichincludesdeviationofthemeasurementfromthe
calculatedmeanandthestandarderrorofthemean
Estimatethelikelymagnitudeoferrorofameasurements,if
onlyonemeasurementcanbemade.
Thenormalapproachtothisistocalculatetheerrorwithin
95%confidencelimits.Theselimitscorrespondtoadeviation
of1.96VV for
Themaximumlikelyerrorinasinglemeasurementcanbe
expressedas
EstimationofRandomErrorinaSingleMeasurement
StandardErroroftheMean
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Solution:
1.96(VD)=1.06.Themassvalueshouldthereforebe
expressedas105.6r 1.1kg.
Supposethatastandardmassismeasured30timeswiththe
sameinstrumenttocreateareferencedataset,andthe
calculatedvaluesofV andD areV =0.46andD =0.08.Ifthe
instrumentisthenusedtomeasureanunknownmassandthe
readingis105.6kg,howshouldthemassvaluebeexpressed?
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Themeasurementvaluecanbeexpressedas
406.5r0.4(68%confidencelimit).
Howtopredicttheerrorbetweenthecalculatedmeanofa
finitesetofmeasurementsandthemeanoftheinfinite
populationusingthestandarderrorofthemean?
Themeasurementvalueobtainedbycalculatingthemeanofa
setofnmeasurementscanbeexpressedas
with68%certainty
with95.4%certainty
and99.7%forr3D
Mean of measurements :
Forn=23,V =1.88,andD =0.39 409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404
Example
MeasurementswithConfidenceLimit
79
EndoftheChapter
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