An Elementary Note: Inverse & Implicit Vector Fields and Contours in the

Complex Plane
John Gill

Spring 2015

Given a vector field F : f ( z ) our task is to construct the inverse field G : g( z ) = f 1( z ) when
such a field exists. This is not easily accomplished if g( z ) is not available in closed form and
must be calculated implicitly. Additionally, Zeno contours of the inverse field should be
displayed as graphics. Implicit function analysis then follows, generalizing the inverse.
The contours in the original VF may be expressed as:
(1) : z k ,n = z k 1,n + k ,n ( f ( zk 1,n ) zk 1,n )

z(t ):

or

dz
= ( z ) = f ( z ) z , t : 0 1
dt

1
. For the inverse VF we have ( z( ), ) = f ( z ) = 0 , to be solved for z for
n
by a simple gradient method (not requiring holomorphic functions). Then

Usually k ,n =
each

(2) 1 : k ,n = k 1,n + k ,n ( z( k 1,n ) k 1,n )

n

Where : lim{zk ,n }k =1 and

n

or
n

(t ):

d
= g( ) = f 1( )
dt

1 : lim{ k ,n }k =1 are continuums of points in C .

n

We begin with a simple explicit example:

Example 1 : F : e z and G : Ln( z )

In the next example the Liberty BASIC program I wrote uses an implicit evaluation procedure
that requires gradient searches to ascertain inverse function values at each grid point to plot
the vector field. Then the Zeno contour requires gradient searches, point to point, for 500
steps.
Example 2 : F : f ( z ) = z3 + iz and G : g( z ) = f 1 ( z )

Example 3 :

F : f (z ) = z + e z

and

G : g( z ) = f 1 ( z )

When the function is not univalent there can be an element of confusion in the program as the
inverse vectors and contour jump from one possibility to another. For analytic functions f , the
2

Jacobian J = f ( z ) . An inverse function exists wherever this is non-zero, (although inverse

function forms may change from one point neighborhood to another). In an intuitive sense the
reason is as follows: Suppose z1 , z2 N ( ) . Then f ( z1 ) f ( z2 ) f ( ) ( z1 z2 ) and
consequently

f ( z1 ) f ( z2 ) f ( ) z1 z2 > z1 z2 so that in a small neighborhood of

the function is univalent and the inverse is well-defined.

Example 4 :

F : f (z ) = z2 +

1
z

and

G : g( z ) = f 1( z )

Sometimes the implicit inverse is well behaved over a larger domain.

1

Example 5 : F : f ( z ) = z + e z and

G : g( z ) = f 1 ( z ) . Mapping of the unit circle under G :

Implicit Vector Fields and Contours

Suppose z and are related by ( z , ) = 0 and z = g( ) in regions of C . Then the
vector field of g( ) and associated Zeno contours can be graphed in those regions.
1
= 0 , z = g( ) . Mixed regions.
z

Example 6 :

( z , ) = z 2 +

Example 7 :

( z , ) = e z + + z = 0 , z = g( )

Example 8 : ( z , ) = e z + + z = 0 , z = g( )

The topographical image over [-1,1] shows areas of questionable definition. For example,
z = g(0) is non-finite.

The Implicit Function Theorem tells us that a function z = g( ) exists locally when

0.
z

Here is a sketch of a proof of that theorem:

Given that ( z , ) is analytic in both variables and ( z0 , 0 ) = 0 . The question arises: Is there

z1 z0 such that ( z1 , 0 ) = 0 or is z = z( ) a proper function there?

z ( z0 , 0 ) 0 . Define an auxiliary function F ( z , ):= z

Lets assume

( z , )
. Then
z ( z0 , 0 )

F ( z , ) = z ( z , ) = 0 . Now Fz ( z0 , 0 ) = 0 , and this means that there are

-neighborhoods about z0 and 0 in which Fz ( z , ) < < 1 . Therefore

z

F ( z , ) F ( , ) = Fs (s , ) ds and hence F ( z , ) F ( , ) < z , demonstrating that F

is a contraction mapping on the first variable, which in turn (using the Banach Fixed Point
Theorem) shows there is a unique such that F( , 0 ) = . I.e., ( , 0 ) = 0 , so that

z0 = z( 0 ) = is indeed unique. This reasoning extends to a small neighborhood about 0 .

e z + + z = 0

z +
In Example 8
0 takes the form e + 0 . Solving the system
to
z +
z
e + = 0
find an exceptional point, gives 1.557 + 0i .

Example 9 : ( z , ) = e z + z 2 = 0 , z = g( )

Implicit Functions and Attractors

Suppose a function z = z( ) is defined implicitly by ( z , ) = 0 .
(1) Choose and fix = 0 . Thus z0 = z( 0 ) = ? and ( z0 , 0 ) = 0 .
(2) Define a vector field (VF) by
(3) Observe that F( z , 0 ) = z

F ( z , 0 ) = ( z , 0 ) + z

( z , 0 ) = 0 and therefore z0 is a fixed point of F .

(4) If Fz ( z0 , 0 ) < 1 then z0 is an attracting fixed point of F .

(5) Form the Zeno contour zk ,n = zk 1,n + n (( zk 1,n , 0 )) = zk 1,n + n ( F ( zk 1,n , 0 ) zk 1,n )
(6) It has been shown that zn ,n z0 as n for starting points close to the attractor.
(7) Write F * ( z , 0 ) = 12 F ( z , 0 ) and * ( z , 0 ) = F * ( z , 0 ) z .
(8) Then zk ,n = zk 1,n + n ( * ( z k 1,n , 0 )) = zk 1,n + n ( F * ( zk 1,n , 0 ) zk 1,n ) and
zn ,n ( 0 ) = ( ( 0 ), 0 ) , the fixed point of the implicit function.

As a consequence, it is possible sometimes to determine z( ) for particular values of as

the end point an attractor - of a Zeno contour.
Example 10 :

1
2

( z , ) = z 2 + z( 1) + 1 , 0 = i , z( 0 ) = ? if ( z , 0 ) = 0

The Zeno contour has been boosted by employing 10n rather than n . z(i ) .414 + .414i
z
z
( z , ) = Cos
z = 0 . Then F ( z , ) = Cos

and the Zeno

10
10
contour terminates at z = z ( ) for in a neighborhood of the origin and initial values of z

Example 11 :

near the fixed points. For example, z (1 + 3i ) .1573 + 2.5197i

Example 12 : ( z , ) = 14 e z 12 z i + = 0 , = 1 . z(1) 1.97 + 1.58i , (1) .909 1.021i

Contours defined Implicitly

Instead of ( z , ) , consider an ordinary contour defined implicitly:

Example 13 : ( z , t ) = tz 3 2t 2 z + 4i =0, t :0 1 , z(t ) = ? for various values of t .

z(1) 1.18i

z(.5) 1.834i

z(.2) 2.67i

For each value of t a Zeno contour is drawn to an attractor. The actual contour z(t ) is not
shown (and is embedded in a time dependent vector field (TDVF) not graphed).

Example 14 : ( z , t ) = etz + z it 2 = 0 , t :0 1 . To derive the TDVF differentiate the equation

and solve for

dz
dz
z(1 + etz (t 1)) + 2ti
. Then
= ( z , t ) = F ( z , t ) z , where F ( z , t ) =
.
dt
dt
1 + tetz

Here the contour is determined directly from the original implicit format, rather than
dz
= ( z , t ) .
constructing it as a Zeno contour using
dt
Example 15 : ( z , t ) = ze z t 2 + C = 0 , C = 1 i ,

dz 2te z
=
= ( z , t ) = F ( z , t ) z
dt 1 z

z(0) 1.34 + 5.25i . The Zeno contour has been boosted using 10n .

Implicit Generating Functions

Normally, a Zeno contour is defined as follows: Let g k ,n ( z ) = z + k ,n ( z ) where z S and
g k ,n ( z ) S for a convex set S in the complex plane. Require lim k ,n = 0 , where (usually)
n

k = 1,2,..., n . Set G1,n ( z ) = g1,n ( z ) , Gk ,n ( z ) = gk ,n ( Gk 1,n ( z ) ) and Gn ( z ) = Gn ,n ( z ) with

G ( z ) = lim Gn ( z ) , when that limit exists. The Zeno contour is a graph of this iteration. The word
n

Zeno denotes the infinite number of actions required in a finite time period if k ,n describes a
partition of the time interval [0,1]. Normally, ( z ) = f ( z ) z for a vector field F = f ( z ) , and

( z, t ) = f ( z, t ) z for a time-dependent vector field , in which case g k ,n ( z ) = z + k ,n ( z, kn ) .

An implicit generator gk ,n ( z ) = z + k ,n( z , gk ,n ( z )) produces a contour

: z k ,n = zk 1,n + k ,n ( z k 1,n , zk ,n ) = z k 1,n + k ,n ( f ( z k 1,n , zk ,n ) zk 1,n )

Example 16 :

1 z gk ,n ( z )
gk ,n ( z ) = z +

2
n 1 + gk ,n ( z )

A result virtually indistinguishable from

z
1 z
zk ,n = zk 1,n + k 1,2 n , f ( z ) =
+z
1 + z2
n 1 + zk 1,n

. . . . for good reason:

dz
z2
=
= ( z , z ) = * ( z )
2
dt 1 + z

Implicit Iteration
Suppose z and are related by ( z , ) = 0 and z = g( ) in regions of C . How does
one iterate z = g( ) ? In theory, iteration would look like this:

0 z( 0 ) = z0 z( z0 ) = z1 z( z1 ) = z2

or

( zk , zk 1 ) = 0 , k = 1,2,

A simple application is seen in the following example:

Example 17 : Suppose we wish to find a root of the equation 4 2 3 + 2 = 0 . Observe that
1 2
1
Zn +
Z n1 = 0 , should it converge, will provide a root.
the implicit iteration scheme
2
Z n Z n 1
1
1
Toward this end set ( z , ) = z 2 +
= 0 and begin iteration with = 1 + i .
2
z

The image is magnified, with the point 1+i in green, and the 250th iterate in red. There are a
fair number of iterate points scattered in a roughly circular pattern (not shown) around the
initial value until finally the iterates fall into the spiral as shown. 500 iterates lead to the same
point, with a bit more accuracy.

Time Dependent Implicit Vector Fields

From Example 9,
Example 18 : ( z , ;t ) = e zt + zt 2 = 0 , t :0 1