Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning

(Source: Tiberius & Tipping, 'Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning For Which There Is
Substantial Empirical Support, University of Toronto, 1990 )
(As with the "Faculty Inventory", you can use these twelve principles to help identify your areas of
strength and areas for improvement.)
These twelve principles are intended as guidelines to faculty and administrators interested in the
improvement of teaching and learning. The list is derived, in part, from a study co-sponsored by the
American Association for Higher Education and the Education Commission of the States (AAHE Bulletin,
March 1987). That study reported seven principles of good practice and six powerful forces in higher
education which has been extracted from fifty years of research on teaching and learning in higher
education. The study was conducted by a team of prominent educators, including Alexander W. Astin,
Howard Bowen, Carol H Boyer, K Patricia Cross, Kenneth Eble, Russel Edgerton, Jerry Gaff, Joseph Katz,
C. Robert Pace, Marvin W. Peterson, and Richard C. Richardson Jr.
We have added five principles, based on our review of the literature (including review articles such as
T.M. Shermin et.al. "The quest for excellence in university teaching" in the Journal of Higher Education,
Vol 58, No 1, 1987, pp.66-84; and John Centra et. Al. "A guide to evaluating teaching for promotion and
tenure", 1987, a publication of Syracuse University).
1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important teaching
tasks
Teachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be more effective and efficient at
organizing the subject matter, connecting the subject with the students' previous knowledge, finding
useful analogies and examples, presenting current thinking on the subject, and establishing appropriate
emphases.
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning
Learning is an active process which requires that the learner work with and apply new material
to past knowledge and to everyday life. Some of the methods that encourage active learning in the
classroom are: discussion, practice sessions, structured exercises, team projects, and research projects.
In the words of William James:
Teaching without an accompanying experience is like filling a lamp with water. Something has
been poured in, but the result is not illuminating.

3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation and
involvement
Interaction between students and faculty, particularly informal interaction, is one of the most
important factors in student motivation for learning. The opportunity to know a few faculty well often
enhances students' intellectual commitment and provides valuable rolemodeling.
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning
Students are more motivated when they take control of their own learning. This is the belief
which has stimulated active interest in self-directed learning.
5. There are many roads to learning
Students learn in different ways and vary in their abilities to perform certain tasks.
Understanding that each student has unique strengths and weaknesses related to the ways in which
they approach learning is an important component of effective education. Providing a variety of learning
activities for a class enables individual students to choose the activity which is the most effective for
them at the moment.
6. Expect more and you will achieve more
Simply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or she believes in their ability to
succeed learning is enhanced.
7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation
Learning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and cooperative effort between
students. The opportunity to share ideas without threat of ridicule and the freedom to respond to the
ideas of others increases complexity of thinking and deepens understanding.
8. Material must be meaningful
If new material is presented in a pattern or framework that the learner can perceive, it is more
readily learned and retained. New material will be more easily learned if the learner is helped to see its
relationship to what s/he already knows. Material which is seen by the learner as relevant to his or her
own problems and experiences will be more readily learned.
9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback
Without feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve because they will not know what
they need to know or to what extent they are fulfilling their goals. The learners' behavior will more
quickly reach the objectives if they are informed (or given feedback) frequently about the correctness of
their responses. Correct responses should be immediately reinforced to increase the "permanence" of
learning. A positive reinforcer is anything that will increase the probability that the desired behavior will
be repeated. A smile or comment to let the learner know he or she has successfully completed the task

is especially good because awareness of successful completion is, in itself, the most effective of all
reinforces.
Feedback about progress is helpful because learning is facilitated when the learner is aware that
he or she is progressing towards the goals.
10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue
There is no use giving teachers or students feedback about their performances unless they can
do something about it, that is, unless they have some alternative course of action or behaviour.
11. Time plus energy equals learning
Lectures or seminars that are canceled will not help the learner. Conversely, teachers who arrive
at their lecture or small group setting a little before the scheduled time and stay around for a few
minutes afterward provide opportunities for valuable interaction between students and teachers. Office
hours also help students to arrange time to talk with teachers. Students must learn how to organize
their time so that they can find time to study. And the curriculum must be organized to allow students
time to study.
12. Experience usually improves teaching
Experience is associated with increasing teacher effectiveness for some teachers, probably for
those teachers who obtain feedback about their teaching and who are flexible enough to modify their
methods in response to the feedback.

Teaching Principles
Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle
multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly. The following small but powerful set of principles
can make teaching both more effective and more efficient, by helping us create the conditions that
support student learning and minimize the need for revising materials, content, and policies. While
implementing these principles requires a commitment in time and effort, it often saves time and
energy later on.

1. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that
knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching.
When we teach, we do not just teach the content, we teach students the content. A variety of student
characteristics can affect learning. For example, students cultural and generational backgrounds
influence how they see the world; disciplinary backgrounds lead students to approach problems in
different ways; and students prior knowledge (both accurate and inaccurate aspects) shapes new
learning. Although we cannot adequately measure all of these characteristics, gathering the most
relevant information as early as possible in course planning and continuing to do so during the
semester can (a) inform course design (e.g., decisions about objectives, pacing, examples, format),
(b) help explain student difficulties (e.g., identification of common misconceptions), and (c) guide
instructional adaptations (e.g., recognition of the need for additional practice).

2. Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning
objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.
Taking the time to do this upfront saves time in the end and leads to a better course. Teaching is
more effective and student learning is enhanced when (a) we, as instructors, articulate a clear set of
learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by the end
of a course); (b) the instructional activities (e.g., case studies, labs, discussions, readings) support
these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented practice; and (c) the assessments (e.g., tests,
papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for students to demonstrate and practice
the knowledge and skills articulated in the objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback
that can guide further learning.

3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and
policies.
There is amazing variation in what is expected of students across American classrooms and even
within a given discipline. For example, what constitutes evidence may differ greatly across courses;
what is permissible collaboration in one course could be considered cheating in another. As a result,
students expectations may not match ours. Thus, being clear about our expectations and
communicating them explicitly helps students learn more and perform better. Articulating our learning
objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by the end of a
course) gives students a clear target to aim for and enables them to monitor their progress along the
way. Similarly, being explicit about course policies (e.g., on class participation, laptop use, and late
assignment) in the syllabus and in class allows us to resolve differences early and tends to reduce
conflicts and tensions that may arise. Altogether, being explicit leads to a more productive learning
environment for all students.

4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.
Coverage is the enemy: Dont try to do too much in a single course. Too many topics work against
student learning, so it is necessary for us to make decisions sometimes difficult ones about what
we will and will not include in a course. This involves (a) recognizing the parameters of the course
(e.g., class size, students backgrounds and experiences, course position in the curriculum sequence,

number of course units), (b) setting our priorities for student learning, and (c) determining a set of
objectives that can be reasonably accomplished.

5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots.
We are not our students! As experts, we tend to access and apply knowledge automatically and
unconsciously (e.g., make connections, draw on relevant bodies of knowledge, and choose appropriate
strategies) and so we often skip or combine critical steps when we teach. Students, on the other hand,
dont yet have sufficient background and experience to make these leaps and can become confused,
draw incorrect conclusions, or fail to develop important skills. They need instructors to break tasks
into component steps, explain connections explicitly, and model processes in detail. Though it is
difficult for experts to do this, we need to identify and explicitly communicate to students the
knowledge and skills we take for granted, so that students can see expert thinking in action and
practice applying it themselves.

6. Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning goals.
Even though students are ultimately responsible for their own learning, the roles we assume as
instructors are critical in guiding students thinking and behavior. We can take on a variety of roles in
our teaching (e.g., synthesizer, moderator, challenger, commentator). These roles should be chosen
in service of the learning objectives and in support of the instructional activities. For example, if the
objective is for students to be able to analyze arguments from a case or written text, the most
productive instructor role might be to frame, guide and moderate a discussion. If the objective is to
help students learn to defend their positions or creative choices as they present their work, our role
might be to challenge them to explain their decisions and consider alternative perspectives. Such roles
may be constant or variable across the semester depending on the learning objectives.

7. Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and feedback.
Teaching requires adapting. We need to continually reflect on our teaching and be ready to make
changes when appropriate (e.g., something is not working, we want to try something new, the
student population has changed, or there are emerging issues in our fields). Knowing what and how
to change requires us to examine relevant information on our own teaching effectiveness. Much of
this information already exists (e.g., student work, previous semesters course evaluations, dynamics
of class participation), or we may need to seek additional feedback with help from the university
teaching center (e.g., interpreting early course evaluations, conducting focus groups, designing preand posttests). Based on such data, we might modify the learning objectives, content, structure, or
format of a course, or otherwise adjust our teaching. Small, purposeful changes driven by feedback
and our priorities are most likely to be manageable and effective.

Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are
physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for
learning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject
matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructors
responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning
something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation. In other words, when students are
ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructors job.
Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical
ability. Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning.
Students who are exhausted or in ill health cannot learn much. If they are distracted by outside
responsibilities, interests, or worries, have overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues,
students may have little interest in learning.

Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the
basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer
when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be
meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive
feedback.
The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or
practices after a single exposure. Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session. They
learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning
continues. These include student recall, review and summary, and manual drill and physical
applications. All of these serve to create learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items
of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for students to practice while
making sure that this process is directed toward a goal.

Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship
to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by
a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant

feeling. The student will strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning.
Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor
should recognize and commend improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain
elements that affect the students positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction. Therefore,
instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the classroom.
One of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning situation in such a manner
that each trainee will be able to see evidence of progress and achieve some degree of success.
Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant
for the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to teach advanced concepts on the initial
engagement, the student is likely to feel inferior and be frustrated. Impressing upon students the
difficulty of a task to be learned can make the teaching task difficult. Usually it is better to tell
students that a problem or task, although difficult, is within their capability to understand or perform.
Every learning experience does not have to be entirely successful, nor does the student have to
master each lesson completely. However, every learning experience should contain elements that
leave the student with some good feelings. A students chance of success is definitely increased if
the learning experience is a pleasant one.

Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things
learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this
means that what is taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be
right. Unteaching wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right the first time. If, for
example, a student learns a faulty technique, the instructor will have a difficult task correcting
bad habits and reteaching correct ones.
The student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to
follow. What the student learns must be procedurally correct and applied the very first time. The
instructor must present subject matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the students have
already learned the preceding step. If the task is learned in isolation, is not initially applied to the
overall performance, or if it must be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming.
Preparing and following a lesson planfacilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the first time.

Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely,
the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to

remember. For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it
is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time
is to the time of actual need to apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform
successfully.
Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarization help fix
in the mind the material covered. Instructors recognize the principle of recency when they carefully
plan a summary for a lesson or learning situation. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes
important points at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them. The principle of recency
often determines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction.

Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid,
dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The
principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.
For example, a student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it than
by reading the script. Likewise, a student is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks by
performing them rather than merely reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic the
learning is to a real situation, the more impressive the learning is upon the student. Real world
applications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are capable of learning will make a
vivid impression on them.
In contrast to practical instruction, the classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism that
can be brought into teaching. The instructor needs to use imagination in approaching reality as
closely as possible. Classroom instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids, to
improve realism, motivate learning, and challenge students. Instructors should emphasize important
points of instruction with gestures, showmanship, and voice. Demonstrations, skits, and role playing
do much to increase the learning experience of students. Examples, analogies, and personal
experiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should make full use of the senses
(hearing, sight,touch, taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth perception, and others).

Freedom
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the further a
student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is learned.
Compulsion and coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom enjoyed by
individuals within a society, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by society
as a whole.

Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom of choice, freedom of
action, freedom to bear the results of actionthese are the three great freedoms that constitute
personal responsibility. If no freedom is granted, students may have little interest in learning.

Requirement
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It can
be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting
point or root is needed; for example, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials
with which to draw, and you must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so on until you
reach your goal, which is to draw a person.