Soil Engineering For The Technician: Project Preparation

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5
Soil Engineering for
the Technician
A main responsibility of the soil technician is to help confirm that the recommendations presented in the geotechnical report are implemented in the field
during the grading and other construction processes. To properly interpret the
recommendations, the technician must be familiar with soil engineering terminology. Both trainees and more experienced field personnel can use the glossary in Appendix A as a quick reference.
Project Preparation
Many grading recommendations in the geotechnical report are common practice, such as removing debris, stockpiles, and the stripping of vegetation. Minimum requirements typically include the removal of undocumented fill, as well
as porous (collapsible) and loose or soft soils, followed by the preparation
of the exposed soils by scarification, moisture conditioning, and compaction.
However, each soil report is based on specific site conditions and must be read
carefully. Too often, technicians may become overconfident and neglect to read
the geotechnical report closely, thus overlooking a recommendation that may
not be typical during normal grading operations.
It is good practice for the technician to prepare for a new project by highlighting specific recommendations in the geotechnical report. These include the
following:
depth of removals (cut or over-ex);
type of materials to be removed (such as loose, soft, porous, expansive,
or highly cemented soils);
degree of compaction recommended (which may vary with soil conditions
or proposed structure type);
moisture limits to be targeted during compaction (i.e., near optimum, 2 to
4% over optimum, etc.);
Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation
2008 American Society of Civil Engineers
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62 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

placement of specific soil or material (including oversized material, expansive clays, gypsiferous soils, or other unique materials); and
all other project-specific recommendations.
Pay careful attention to the type of soils encountered in the geotechnical

report through close review of the boring and/or trench logs. Compare materials exposed during excavation and site grading with those described in the
soils report. Any discrepancy should be discussed with the project engineer
immediately.
Flatland Projects
When grading generally flat sitesafter removal of unacceptable materialthe
degree of compaction and percent moisture content are usually the most critical factors. However, prior to placing any fill, the existing ground surface must
be prepared by scarification (typically 6 in. deep), moisture conditioning, and
then compaction.
When placing expansive soils, the moisture content of the material is as important as the degree of compaction. Many silty and clayey soils are extremely sensitive to moisture changes. In some silty soils (diatomaceous soils, for example), a variation of only a few percent in water content could change the soils
dry density by as much as 5 or 10 lb/ft3 during compaction. Also, many plastic
soils increase in volume (expand) with added moisture (and, conversely, shrink
when dried back); therefore it is standard practice to place expansive soils in a
slightly over-optimum condition, and often at a lower degree of compaction
compared with nonexpansive soilsto help limit expansion potential.
Even sandy and silty noncohesive soils generally compact better when placed
at or slightly above optimum, thus lubricating the particlesas well as helping
to mitigate any future settlement or consolidation caused by increases in moisture from landscape watering or heavy rains.
Road Construction
The final surface of the road sectionthe asphaltdepends on the materials
supporting it: the aggregate base and the subgrade. The first step is the preparation of the existing ground surface to create a compact, stable subgrade. Often
the area must be cut down to reach the proposed finish subgrade elevation,
during which time rocks and/or soft pockets are often exposed. To create a
homogeneous subgrade, it is important to prepare the cut surface (prior to placing aggregate base) by scarifying, removing cobbles and larger rock, moisture
conditioning, and then compacting. Improperly prepared subgrade is often the
cause of potholes, cracks, and areas of uneven pavement.
During the grading of subgrade and aggregate base course for road construction
it is important not only to test for compaction, but also to observe the actions
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Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician
of the compaction equipment on the road material during the compaction process. For instance, although a density test taken on the subgrade may indicate
that the moisture content of the material is only a few percentage points over
optimum (which is generally desirable within building areas), you may notice
that the subgrade soil is moving (pumping or rolling) beneath the compaction
equipment. Soft and yielding soils are not acceptable. The surface must be firm
and relatively unyielding prior to paving. Soils that deflect or move can be detrimental to pavement.
Tip: It is a good idea to walk next to the compaction equipment during
the final compaction of both the finished subgrade and aggregate base
surfaces to closely observe the action of the material for any movement
or deflection beneath the tires or roller. Before accepting a subgrade or
aggregate base as finished, the surface should be proof rolled. A fully
loaded water truck works well for proof rolling. Beware that some contractors will try to proof roll with a partially filled truck!
Often, remixing and/or drying back of the material to bring it closer to optimum,
followed by recompaction, will stabilize the subgrade. However, sometimes
overly wet or soft soils need to be excavated and replaced with compacted
aggregate base or other acceptable material. For more severe cases of unstable subgrade, stabilization may first include the placement of woven fabric or
geogrid, overlain by compacted aggregate base. (See Fig. 5-1.)
Tip: Woven stabilization fabrics work quite well when used properly.
However, all too often the fabrics are placed improperly and are not
overlapped enough, or not loaded down with sufficient aggregate base
or other material. A minimum overlap is usually 24 in., and experience
has shown that less than 18 in. of aggregate base cover is often inadequate.
The technician should also watch the finished baserock surface for any nesting
or segregation of the material. Sometimes surface areas or pockets containing
mostly gravel with few or no fines may occur. This segregation (nesting) may
be due in part to too much rubber-tire traffic allowed on the baserock prior to
paving. Surface areas that are not homogeneous or fail to meet gradation standards should be remixed and recompacted.
Density testing of aggregate base can sometimes be tricky. If a baserock section is relatively thin, 5 in. or less, better test results may be obtained by using
the backscatter mode of a nuclear gauge. Many times when the drill rod is
being driven in (to prepare for a direct transmission test), the baserock may
move and become too disturbed to accurately test. Using the backscatter mode
will not disturb the aggregate base, and silica sand (or aggregate base fines)
may be used to fill in any minor surface voids, thus providing a more reliable
test. Through experience, a technician will develop a better feel for which test
method may work best in a specific situation.

Figure 5-1
Geotextile products.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(A) This combination of a nonwoven filter fabric overlain by a geogrid was used to stabilize
a seasonally wet, soft subgrade for a parking lot at a U.S. Post Office in Riverside, California.
(B)The nonwoven fabric was placed to limit the piping of fines into the overlying aggregate base
layer. The strengthening geogrid was placed to limit pumping and deflection of the aggregate base
caused by heavy postal trucks and other vehicles. (C) The aggregate base was then compacted
to 95% over the geogrid/filter fabric combination. At completion the aggregate base was proof
rolled, and no pumping was observed.
Hillside Grading
On hillside projects, a technician will observe a multitude of conditions. The
first stepas alwaysis to become familiar with the project by reviewing the
geotechnical report, and then to highlight project-specific recommendations.
The approved grading plans should also be reviewed, taking notice of important
surface features, such as canyons, landslides, steep slopes, seeps, and the like.
Areas of concern during grading include the following:
Cleanout of soft or otherwise unacceptable materials from swales,
canyon sides and bottoms, previously farmed areas, etc. (Fig. C-18).
Adequate compaction or overbuilding of fill slopes.
Proper keyway construction at the toe of fill slopes that are steeper than
5:1 (Fig. C-16).
Proper benching into competent material as fill is placed against existing
slope or canyon sides (Figs. C-16 and C-18).
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Observation of cut slope faces for any loose materials, seeps, slide planes,
or out-of-slope bedding planes.
Close observation of slide removals or buttress fills (Fig. C-16).
Placement of drainage systems in canyon and buttress fills (Figs. 5-2 and
5-3 and Fig. C-18).
Areas in which rocks have been blasted (Fig. 5-4), with close observation
to help determine that significantly fractured material has been removed.
Full-time observation of rock fillsfill composed of 30% or more material larger than in. in size (and therefore not testable per ASTM D1557).
Consider as an example a canyon in Lake Elsinore, California. During grading,
seepage was observed near the top of the canyon. The canyon was cleaned
out, a slot was cut, and a burrito-type subdrain was installed. The drain was
formed by placing a few inches of -in. crushed rock atop a woven geotextile
filter fabric, on which a 6-in. perforated pipe was laid, covering with more -in.
rock, and then finally wrapping the fabric over the top to completely envelop
the rock and pipe. A 40-ft length of solid pipe was connected at the outlet end
of the drain.
Engineered fill was then placed in the canyon, benching the sides as the fill
was placed in level lifts. This particular subdrain continues to run, nearly yearround.
Rock Fill (Oversize Material Placement)

Population increase and the need for more housing in many areas has led to construction being pushed into plots of land that were previously deemed unbuildable, oftentimes owing to the hilly and rocky nature of the landscape. In recent
years the construction of homes and industrial complexes over rock fills has
become common practice. Proper placement and observation of these fills are
mandatory to help minimize unacceptable settlement that can be caused by
nesting, voids, or lack of adequate densification.
A fill can be considered oversized (or rock fill) when more than 30% of the
material (by weight) is larger than -in. in size, and therefore according to
ASTM standards a Proctor (ASTM D1557) cannot be performed on the material.
Because rocks do not tend to fit together flush when placed by themselves in
a fill, it is critical that the matrix material (soil and material finer than -in.) is
able to infill the voids between the rocks. For this reason predominantly granular material must be used as matrix soil.
The geotechnical report will often indicate a criteria for the matrix soil, such as
an SE (sand equivalencyASTM D2914) of 32 or greater or a nonplastic PI (per
ASTM D4318). The report will also describe acceptable placement techniques
and require full-time observation by an engineering firm during placement.

Figure 5-2
Subdrain installation.
Figure 5-3
Canyon fill and working subdrain.
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Figure 5-4
Blasting, breaking, and placement of rock.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
This hard granite formation in Riverside, California, could not be broken up with conventional
grading equipment. Holes were drilled and packed with explosives (A), then blasted to predetermined depths (B). Remaining boulders were then broken down by an excavator with a rock
hammer attachment (C). The oversize material was then placed in shallow basins. Dozers and
loaders spaced the large material out, then relatively clean sand was flooded and compacted
around the boulders (D).

Placement and Observation of Rock Fill
It is generally not practical to take density tests in a rock fill (with the nuclear
gauge or 6-in. sand cone). Therefore it is important that full-time observation be
made during placement. During rock fill placement, primary concern should be
given to the following:
Is the matrix material granular enough?
Is the type of compaction equipment used heavy enough?

Is adequate water being added to help lubricate the matrix soil into the
voids between the rocks during compaction? Often a water content criterion
is recommended, such as 2% to 8% over optimum for the matrix soil.
Placement of rock fill is performed by pushing the rock and matrix material out as a blanket-type fill, with a water hose or truck continually wetting
the material as it is spread, and then the compaction equipment rolling over
the top. Placing the rocks in windrows and pushing soil into the rock from
the sides is not an acceptable method; compaction is harder to achieve by
pushing from the side (as compared to an applied load from the weight of
the equipment on top), and the rock is more likely to nest when placed in
windrows.
Help confirm your observations by having the contractor excavate an observation pit into each compacted lift of rock fill. Closely observe that the
contact between the rocks and the matrix material appears well densified
voids or loose material cannot be seenand that moisture is well blended
throughout the matrix soil.
Reworking areas of rock fill that do not appear sufficiently densified by the contractor (moisture conditioned, remixed, recompacted, etc.)
as necessary. Upon completion of the reworked area another observation pit
should be excavated and observed.
Cut, Fill, and Transition Pads

Another extremely important step is to daylight the grading plans. This
involves observing the elevation contours across the site, and then highlighting the cut/fill contacts (e.g., highlighting cut areas in red and fill areas in blue).
Tracing the daylight line across building pads may be particularly important in
determining whether the lot should be treated in a special manner because of a
transition (cut/fill contact).
Differential support conditions are a concern where foundations span cut and
fill soils or when foundations cross native rock and engineered fill. Review of
the geotechnical report will indicate whether over-excavation or other methods
(extra steel placement, use of a floating slab, etc.) are necessary to help mitigate
differential settlement.
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If there is no contact or daylight line across the pad, a determination should be

made as to whether the pad will be cut or fill. If material needs to be placed to
raise the existing ground to finished pad grade, then it is a fill pad. When material must be excavated to lower the ground to finished grade, the pad is considered a cut pad.
Deep Foundations
Driven piles, drilled piers, and caissons all require special observation, and this
work is usually carefully coordinated with the project engineer. Although shallow foundations may depend wholly on the bearing material, deeper foundations may gain support from friction and/or bearing. Therefore during the drilling of shafts for deep foundations it is critical to log the soil and rock strata
accurately.
Some important areas of observation include the following:
Log the strata of the material as it is drilled into and confirm that it matches
geotechnical recommendations. If different soil conditions are observed,
inform the project engineer or geologist immediately.
The straightness of the excavated shaft should be checked; it should be
vertical with no overhanging material.
Ensure that the tip depth and elevation are per plan.
Measure the hole diameter, and confirm that it is per plan.
Check the cleanliness of the hole; note any caving, water seepage, etc.
Note the time and date of completion. Holes should only remain open a
limited amount of time before placing steel and pouring concrete. (Check
with the project specifications or the project engineer for time constraints.)
Confirm that steel placement is correct: The cage must have proper clearance from the walls and bottom of the drilled shaft.
Watch that the concrete is tremied to the bottom of the hole during the
pour.
Compare the theoretical volume with the actual volume of concrete
placed. (Too much concrete may indicate a hole blow-out, whereas too
little may indicate hole caving.)
Shallow Foundations
Technicians are often called on to observe foundation excavations. The usual
areas of concern are the depth of the foundations and the density of the bearing

material. Excavations for continuous and spread footings should be probed
(with a hand probe) for loose or unsuitable material and checked to determine
whether the footings are free of water and debris. The width and depth of the
footings should also be measured to see if they conform to the project plans.
Retaining Walls
There are many types of retaining walls, with design determined not only by
structural needs but also by financial and even aesthetic reasons. Most retaining wall construction requires good bearing material at the wall base or footing.
Similar to continuous footings, the wall footings should be founded in dense
undisturbed soil, relatively unfractured rock, or compacted fill. In all cases
the technician must take time to review the wall foundation recommendations
from the geotechnical report, as well as the plan details. A few commonly used
retaining wall types, along with some important construction criteria to watch
for, are described in the following.
Gabion Baskets
As shown in Fig. 5-5 gabion baskets are often used as both erosion protection
and slope support. The baskets may be pre-formed or constructed on site. The
baskets are usually made from twisted heavy steel wire mesh to create the
desired size baskets; these are then filled with rock. The tops of the baskets
are then wired closed. These baskets are then wired together end to end and/or
stacked on each other.
Interlocking Block Walls

Block walls are still one of the most common wall types, are easily constructed,
and can be built to many configurations and for varied uses (see Fig. 5-6). The
following list notes the important areas to observe.
Check the footings for planned width and depth.
Probe the footing bottoms for soft or loose areas. Recompact or replace with
acceptable soil or concreteif approved by the project engineer.
Test the leveling pad material (typically aggregate base) for compaction.
Set blocks flush against each other with no gaps between them.
Watch that alignment pins have been installed completely.
Tip: Confirm that the pins have not been cut (lengthwise) in half; some
contractors have been known to do this to save money.
Confirm that the proper geogrid is used; often the size of opening in the
geogrid is determined by the backfill material.
71
Gabion baskets.
Figure 5-5
Block retaining and wing wall.
Figure 5-6
Check the plans for proper geogrid installation; usually the elongated direction is perpendicular to the wall. The geogrid should be pulled taut across the
compacted horizontal surface.
Check that there are no loose zones between the drainrock and the adjoining
backfill; use your hand probe to help verify this.
Rockery Walls
These types of walls are becoming more common. They are especially advantageous in developments in which the grading process (sometimes blasting) has
generated large quantities of angular rock of varying size. Rockery walls are not
only cost effective but can be aesthetically pleasing (Fig. 5-7).
Pay attention to the following during rockery wall construction:
Check footing depth for minimum embedment (typically a minimum of one
foot); the footing should be wide enough (front to back) to allow for a flush
Figure 5-7
Two-level rockery wall.
Photo courtesy of Robert Delk
fit at the face of the base rock or rocks. Check to see that the back cut is free
of loose material and is laid back at a safe gradient prior to placing the filter
fabric.
If a perforated drain pipe is placed along the bottom back of the wall, check
to see that the perforations are facing downwardallowing the water to flow
up into the pipe, but limiting the silting-up of the pipe with fines.
As the wall is being built, check for the proper batter (incline into the
slope).
Watch for the specified size of rocks and that they are angular and placed
according to recommendations. The long dimensions of the rocks should be
placed perpendicular to the wall, and each rock should bear on two rocks
below. If rocks are double stacked, the larger rock shall be at the face of the
wall.
The drain rock placed between the back of the wall and the filter fabric shall
be free draining and is usually 1.5 to 6 in. in size.
Reinforced Concrete Walls

For reinforced concrete walls, the following are of importance:
Check footings for planned width and depth.
Probe the bottoms to find any soft or loose areas. Deepen footings through
poor soil into acceptable material per the geotechnical report.
Closely observe the bottoms (and sides) of footing excavations for expansive
soils (which are typically unacceptable).
73
Watch for footing bottoms that span cut and fill soils, or for foundations that
cross native rock and engineered fill. In these cases consult the project engineer to determine whether over-excavation or other methods are necessary
to mitigate the potential of differential settlement.
Prior to placing steel, ensure that footings are free of water, ice, snow, loose
material, and any other debris.
The Technicians Steps to Success

Geotechnical technicians gain much of their on-the-job experience from other
senior technicians and engineers, as there are currently no graduate degrees
tailored for the engineering technician. By following these guidelines a technician can be respected and effective on the job.
1. Be safe: Never sacrifice job safety for job expediency.
2. Always prepare: One way to gain the respect of the contractor and your
associates is to thoroughly understand the project.
Read and understand the geotechnical report.
Study the plans.
Meet with the project engineer to review the project.
Set up a field file.
Walk the project: Read the grade stakes, look at soil and rock in cut areas,
visualize how the contractor might grade the site, and note any areas of
concern.
Obtain Proctor samples.
Have a pre-job meeting (preferably on site) and take good notes.
3. Be professional:
Be on time to the project every day.
Make your decisions based on the plans and specifications and be
consistent.
Be ready by having the necessary safety and test equipment and supplies
on hand.

4. Document:
Fill out a daily field report, and document all work performed; document
site meetings and personnel present and all related job activities.
Keep a personal diary of your activities on site.
Take pictures (and videos if necessary).

Review previous documentation (check whether test failures have been
retested, whether lab test information is current, etc.).
5. Communicate:
Discuss the job with your supervisor or project engineer daily.
Communicate with the job foreman or superintendent daily.
Be proactive; try to foresee problems and discuss them in advance.
Should you spot a problem that was missed earlier in the job, do not ignore
it. Take corrective measures; unresolved problems should not be put off.
Plan ahead, and ask for help when needed.
Should you have to leave the job to work on another project, meet with
the replacement technician and do a complete update and review.
6. Take pride in your work:
Develop your career with certification programs (federal, county, and
local) and continuing education. Some important certification programs
include those offered by
NICET (National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies),
ACI (American Concrete Institute), and
ICC (International Code Council; formerly ICBO).
Maintain your testing and sampling equipment in good working order.
Wash your vehicleit is the first thing seen when you arrive on site.
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Chapter Questions
1. Minimum requirements in a geotechnical report often include the
following two recommendations:
A) The over-excavation of all sandy soils
B) The scarification of all existing surfaces prior to placing any fill
C) Removal of all undocumented fill
D) The placement of fill in lifts no thicker than 12 in.
2. Expansive soils are often compacted at lower densities and higher
moistures.
A) True
B) False
3. Pumping or deflection of clayey soils is acceptable in roadway
subgrade.
A) True
B) False
4. The backscatter method of testing with a nuclear gauge should not
be used when testing a thin layer of aggregate base.
A) True
B) False
5. Which two conditions are not desirable across a footing bottom?
A) Dense native soil
B) Compacted fill contacting bedrock
C) CL/CH soil at under-optimum
D) Bedrock
6. A caisson was drilled to a depth of 20 ft, and upon completion water
had seeped in and filled up 5 ft of the hole; what is not the proper
action to take prior to pouring concrete?
A) Remeasure the hole, and then redrill it to remove slough/sediment if
necessary.
B) Confirm that the contractor will place a tremie to the bottom of the caisson during the pour.
C) Pour low-slump concrete from the top of the caisson, making sure to
vibrate from the bottom of the hole during the pour.
D) Calculate the amount of concrete necessary to fill the caisson, with no
adjustment made for the 5 ft. of water.
7. When constructing a rockery wall, the long dimension of the rocks

should be perpendicular to the wall face.
A) True
B) False

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Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

62 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Pay careful attention to the type of soils encountered in the geotechnical

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

64 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Rock Fill (Oversize Material Placement)

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

66 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Canyon fill and working subdrain.

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Blasting, breaking, and placement of rock.

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

68 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Is the type of compaction equipment used heavy enough?

Cut, Fill, and Transition Pads

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

If there is no contact or daylight line across the pad, a determination should be

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

70 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Interlocking Block Walls

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Block retaining and wing wall.

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

72 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Two-level rockery wall.

Photo courtesy of Robert Delk

Reinforced Concrete Walls

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

The Technicians Steps to Success

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation

2008 American Society of Civil Engineers

74 Chapter 5: Soil Engineering for the Technician

Take pictures (and videos if necessary).

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation