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Lecture Notes

Trigonometry
Andrew Koines
January 26, 2010

Contents
1 Trigonometric Functions
1.1 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Angle Relationships and Similar Triangles . . . . . .
1.3 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

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2 Acute Angles and Right Angles


2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Trigonometric Functions of Non-Acute Angles . . . . . . .
2.3 Finding Trigonometric Function Values Using a Calculator
2.4 Solving Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Further Applications of Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Radian Measure and Circular Functions
3.1 Radian Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Applications of Radian Measures . . . .
3.3 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions .
3.4 Linear Angular Speed . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 The Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions


44
4.1 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2 More Translations of the Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1

1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
4.3
4.4

Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions . . . . . . . . 49


Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions . . . . . . . . . 51

5 Trigonometric Identities
5.1 Fundamental Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Sum and Differences Identities for Cosine . . . . . .
5.4 Sum and Difference Identities for Sine and Tangent
5.5 Double-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Half-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 Inverse Trig Functions and Trig Equations


6.1 Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Trigonometric Equations I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Trigonometric Equations II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Equations Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
7 Applications of Trigonometry and Vectors
7.1 Oblique Triangles and the Law of Sines . .
7.2 The Ambiguous Case of the Law of Sines .
7.3 The Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Vectors, Operations, and the Dot Product
7.5 Applications of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.1

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70
72
72

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73
73
75
77
79
86

Trigonometric Functions
Angles

Basic Terminology
An angle consists of two rays in a plane with a common endpoint. The two
rays are called the sides of the angle, and the common endpoint is called the
vertex.
If we position the angle so that one side is horizontal and points to the
right, then we call this side the initial side. The other side will be called the
terminal side. We imagine the initial side as being in a fixed position. We
imagine the terminal side being able to move. A counterclockwise rotation

1.1 Angles

generates a positive measure, while a clockwise rotation generates a negative


measure.
Terminal side

Vertex

Initial Side

Degree Measure
The degree is a unit of measurement for angles. There are 360 degrees in
a circle. A half circle has 180 , and a right angle has 90 .
If an angle has measure greater than 0 and less than 90 , then it is
called an acute angle.
If an angle has measure greater than 90 and less than 180 , then it is
called an obtuse angle.
If an angle has measure equal to 90 , then it is called a right angle.
An angle that has measure equal to 180 is called a straight angle.
If the sum of the measures of two positive angles is 90 , then the angles
are called complementary angles.
If the sum of the measures of two positive angles is 180 , then the angles are called supplementary angles.

Example 1 Finding the Complement and the Supplement of an


Angle For an angle measuring 40 , find the measure of its
1. complement
2. supplement

1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example 2 Finding the Measures of Complementary and Supplementary Angles Find the measure of each marked angle.

6
*


(6x)
(3x)


There are 60 minutes, written 600 , in one degree. There are 60 seconds,
written 6000 , in one minute. That is,
600 = 1

and 6000 = 10

Example 3 Calculating with Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds


form each calculation.

Per-

1. 51 290 + 32 460
2. 90 73 120
Example 4 Converting Between Decimal Degrees and Degrees,
Minutes, and Seconds
1. Convert 74 80 1400 to decimal degrees to the nearest thousandth.
2. Convert 34.817 to degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Standard Position
If we position an angle in the xy-plane with the vertex is at the origin and
one side along the positive x-axis, then the angle is said to be in standard
position. The side that lies along the positive x-axis is called the initial
side. The other side opens counter-clockwise and is called the terminal
side.

1.1 Angles

Angles in standard position whose terminal sides lie on the x-axis or


y-axis are called quadrantal angles.
Coterminal Angles
Two angles are coterminal if their difference is a multiple of 360 . The
terminal sides of coterminal angles coincide.
Suppose that an angle is in standard position and that its terminal side
lies at 90 . This is a right angle. If we rotate the terminal side another 360
around the circle, then we are back where we started. The angle has the
same position as the 90 angle, but its measurement is 90 + 360 = 450 .
The angles 90 and 450 are coterminal because their terminal sides coincide
and their difference is a multiple of 360 , that is 450 90 = 360 .
Example 5 Finding Measures of Coterminal Angles Find the angles
of least possible measure coterminal with each angle.
1) 908

2) 75

3) 800

There are two different approaches to solving this problem.


Method I: If the given angle is positive, then subtract 360 repeatedly
until we get an angle between 0 and 360 . If an angle is negative, then add
360 repeatedly until we get an angle between 0 and 360 .
Method II: If the given angle is positive, then divide the angle by 360 .
The remainder will be our answer, a coterminal angle between 0 and 360 .
If the given angle is negative, then we again divide the angle by 360 . The
remainder will be a negative coterminal angle between 360 and 0 . Now
add 360 to this angle to get a coterminal angle between 0 and 360 .
Solution
1. 908
2. 75
3. 800

1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.2

Angle Relationships and Similar Triangles

Geometric Properties
In this section we review some Euclidian geometry involving angles.
Two angles are said to be congruent if they have the same measure.
Two angles are said to be complementary if their sum is 90 .
Two angles are said to be supplementary if their sum is 180 .
Two lines are parallel in the plane if they never intersect.
Vertical Angles are congruent.

Corresponding Angles are congruent.

Alternate Interior Angles are congruent.

1.2 Angle Relationships and Similar Triangles

Alternate Exterior Angles are congruent.

Interior Angles on the same side of a transversal are supplementary.

Example 1 Finding Angle Measures Find the measures of angles 1, 2,


3, and 4, where the lines m and n are parallel.

1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

A
A
(3x + 2) A

1A 2
A3

A
A
A
A

n
A4 (5x 40)
A
A

Angle Sum of a Triangle


triangle is 180 .

The sum of the measures of the angles of any

Example 2 Applying the Angle Sum of a Triangle Property The


measures of two of the angles of a triangle are 48 and 61 . Find the measure
of the third angle, x.
Types of Triangles
Acute: All angles are acute (less than 90 ).
Right: One angle is right.
Obtuse: One angle is obtuse (greater than 90 .
Equilateral: All sides are equal in length.
Isosceles: Two sides are equal in length.

1.2 Angle Relationships and Similar Triangles

Scalene: No sides are equal in length.

Congruent and Similar Triangles


Two triangles are said to be congruent if they have the same shape and
size. Two triangles are said to be similar if they have the same shape, but
not necessarily the same size. If two triangles are similar, then the corresponding angles are equal, and the corresponding sides are proportional.
Example 3 Finding Angle Measures in Similar Triangles Triangles
ABC and N M P are similar. Find the measures of angles B and C.
AH
BB HH

B45 HH

HH
H

B
B

N HH
B

HH
H
HH

B
B

B HH
B
HH
B
H

HH
B104

H
HH

B
B

Example 4 Finding Side Lengths in Similar Triangles Given that


4ABC and 4DF E are similar, find the lengths of the unknown sides of
4DF E.
C HH
BB

HH
HH

B
B

H
HH
32
H
HH
H

16 B
B

HH
H

B
B

24

H
BBHH
HH
B
HH
8B
H
B
H

Example 5 Finding the Height of a Flagpole Fire fighters at


Irvine Fire Station need to measure the height of the station flagpole.
the instant when the shadow of the station is 18 m long, the shadow of
flagpole is 32 m long. The station is 10 m high. Find the length of
flagpole.

the
At
the
the

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1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.3

Trigonometric Functions

We will denote the distance in the plane from a point P (x, y) to the origin
as r, short for radius. If we have the x and y coordinate of the point P ,
then the following formula follows directly from the Pythagorean Theorem.
x2 + y 2 = r 2
Example Find the distance from the given point to the origin.
1. (3, 4)
2. (5, 12)
3. (1, 1)

1.3 Trigonometric Functions

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We define the six trigonometric functions of an angle . We assume that


is in standard position and that P (x, y) is any point that lies on the terminal
side of the angle.

cos = x/r
sin = y/r
tan = y/x

reciprocal

sec = r/x
csc = r/y
cot = x/y

Example 1 Finding Function Values of an Angle The terminal side


of in standard position passes through the point (8, 15). Find the values of
the six trigonometric functions of the angle .
Example 2 Finding Function Values of an Angle The terminal side
of in standard position passes through the point (3, 4). Find the values
of the six trigonometric functions of the angle .
Example Verify that the points P (3, 4) and Q(6, 8) lie on the terminal
side of the same angle, . Then show that the six trigonometric functions
take the same values when using both P and Q.
Quadrantal Angles
Quadrantal angles are angles in standard position whose terminal side lies
along either the x-axis or the y-axis.
Example 4 Finding Function Values of Quadrantal Angles Find the
values of the six trigonometric functions for each angle.
1. an angle of 90
2. an angle in standard position with terminal side through (3, 0).
Undefined Function Values
A fraction with zero in the denominator is undefined. Some of the trig functions of quadrantal angles will be undefined.
Example State which trig functions will be undefined for the angle 270 .

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1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.4

Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

Reciprocal Identities
We obtain immediately From the definition of the six trig functions the following identities sometimes called the reciprocal identities.
1
cos
1
csc =
sin
1
cot =
tan
There is a mnemonic used to remember the reciprocal identities. The cos
dont go. (What on earth does this mean?)
sec =

Example 1 Using the Reciprocal Identities Find each function value.


1. cos , given that sec =

5
3

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2. sin , given that csc =
2
Signs and Ranges of Function Values
The plane is partitioned by the x- and y-axis into four quadrants. We label
the quadrants I, II, III, and IV, as shown below.
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QII

QI

QIII

QIV

1.4 Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

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When we talk about the sign of a


number, we are talking about whether the
number is positive or negative. This is
sort of confusing in this context because
we have the sine function which is pronounced the same as sign, but means
something totally different.
When we talk about the sign of a function, we are talking about whether
the output values are positive or negative. Lets assume that a function is
in standard position with terminal side passing through the point P (x, y).

The Cosine Function: By definition, cos = x/r. Keep in mind that


r is always positive. Therefore, the sign of cos depends entirely on
whether x is positive or negative. We see that cos will be positive
when x is positive (quadrants I and IV, to the right of the y-axis), and
negative when x is negative (quadrants II and III, to the right of the
y-axis).

The Sine Function: By definition sin = y/r. Therefore, sin will be


positive when y is positive (quadrants I and II, above the x-axis), and
negative when y is negative (quadrants III and IV, below the x-axis).

We can do a similar analysis to determine the sign of the remaining


trigonometric functions. The sign of a trigonometric function depends entirely on the quadrant in which the terminal side of the angle lies.
The diagram below shows the signs of the x- and y-coordinates. We can
use this diagram to determine the sign of a trig function.

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1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

QII
, +

QI
+, +
-

QIII
,

QIV
+,

Example 2 Determining Signs of Functions of Non-Quadrantal Angles Determine the signs of the trigonometric functions of an angle in
standard position with the given measure.
The key is to determine in which quadrant the terminal side of the angle
lies.
1. 87
2. 300
3. 200
Example 3 Identifying the Quadrant of an Angle Identify the quadrant (or possible quadrants) of an angle that satisfies the given conditions.
1. sin > 0, tan < 0
2. cos < 0, sec < 0
The Range of Trigonometric Functions
The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values. The range
of a function is the set of all possible output values.
We have already pointed out that for quadrantal angles some of the trig
functions are undefined. This restricts the domains of those trig functions.
Lets find the range of the sine and cosine functions. Suppose that P (x, y)
is a point lying on the terminal side of an angle is standard position. We
have
x2 + y 2 = r 2

1.4 Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

15

It then follows that x2 r2 which means that


r x r
By a similar argument, we have
r y r
If we divide these inequalities through by r, which is always positive, then
we get
1 x/r 1
1 y/r 1

From the definition of cos and sin , we get


The Range of Sine and Cosine
1 cos 1 and 1 sin 1
This tells us that the range of cos and sin is the interval [1, 1].
From the above inequalities, we can derive the inequalities shown below
which tell us the range of the secant and cosecant functions.
The Range of Secant and Cosecant
sec 1
csc 1

or
or

1 sec
1 csc

y
x
and cot = . Any output value is possible by
x
y
picking appropriate x and y.
By definition tan =

The range of the tangent and cotangent functions is the set of all real numbers.
Example 4 Deciding Whether a Value is in the Range of a Trigonometric Function Decide whether each statement is possible or impossible.

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1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1. sin = 2.5
2. tan = 111.47
3. sec = .6

Example 5 Finding All Function Values Given One Value and the
2
Quadrant Suppose that angle is in quadrant II and sin = . Find the
3
values of the other five trigonometric functions.

Pythagorean Identities
Suppose that P (x, y) is a point lying on the terminal side of an angle in
standard position. Form the Pythagorean Theorem we have
x2 + y 2 = r 2
Dividing through by r2 gives
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
r2
r
We then get the very important Pythagorean Identity.
cos2 + sin2 = 1
Here cos2 means (cos )2 , and sin2 means (sin )2

1.4 Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

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If we divide through by cos2 for the above identity, we get


cos2 sin2
1
+
=
cos2 cos2
cos2
This gives the next identity.
1 + tan2 = sec2
If we divide the first identity through by sin2 for the above identity, we
get
1
cos2 sin2
+
=
2
2
sin sin
sin2
This gives the next identity.
1 + cot2 = csc2
In summary, we have
Pythagorean Identities
cos2 + sin2 = 1
1 + tan2 = sec2
1 + cot2 = csc2
From the definition of tangent and cotangent we get what are called the
quotient identities.
Quotient Identities
sin
cos
cot =
cos
sin
Example 6 Finding other Function Values Given
One Value and the
Quadrant Find sin and tan , given that cos = 3/2 and sin > 0.
Example 7 Finding Other Function Values Given one Value and
the Quadrant Find sin and cos , given that tan = 4/3 and is in
quadrant III.
tan =

18

2 ACUTE ANGLES AND RIGHT ANGLES

Acute Angles and Right Angles

2.1

Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles


P (x, y) 
s

Hypotenuse

Opposite

Adjacent

We now study right triangles. In a right triangle, there is a 90 angle


and two remaining angles whose sum is 90 . Remember, the sum of all of
the angles of a triangle is 180 . It follows that each of the remaining angles
will have measure greater than 0 and less than 90 . That is, the remaining
angles must be acute angles.
If an acute angle is in standard position in the plane, then its terminal
side lies in quadrant I. In quadrant I, all of the trig functions will be positive.
We label the sides of the right triangle with angle as adjacent, opposite,
and hypotenuse. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is the longest side. The
word adjacent means next to. The adjacent side is the side next to the
angle . The opposite side is the side opposite .
In the context of right triangles, we can give an equivalent definition of
the six trigonometric functions.
sin =

opposite
y
=
r
hypotenuse

x
adjacent
=
r
hypotenuse
y
opposite
tan = =
x
adjacent

cos =

2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles

19

In this context, x corresponds to adjacent, y corresponds to opposite, and


r corresponds to hypotenuse.
To remember this definition, we can use the following acronym: SOHCAH-TOA.
Sine equals
Opposite over
Hypotenuse
|
Cosine equals
Adjacent over
Hypotenuse
|
Tangent equals
Opposite over
Adjacent
The remaining reciprocal trigonometric functions can be found by using
the reciprocal identities. Recall, the cos dont go.

csc =

1
sin

sec =

1
cos

cot =

1
tan

Example 1 Finding the Trigonometric Function Values of an Acute


Angle Find the sine, cosine and tangent values of angles A and B in the
right triangle shown below.

20

2 ACUTE ANGLES AND RIGHT ANGLES

BP

PP
PP
PP

PP 25
PP
PP

PP
P

PP
PP
P

PP
P

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Co-Functions
(90 )
Hypotenuse

Opposite is the same as


Adjacent to 90

Adjacent to is the same as


Opposite (90 )
The above figure will hopefully explain where the co-function identities
come from. Lets look at cos .
cos =

adjacent to
opposite (90 )
=
= sin(90 )
hypotenuse
hypotenuse

Co-Function Identities
For any acute angle ,
sin = cos(90 ) sec = csc(90 ) tan = cot(90 )
cos = sin(90 ) csc = sec(90 ) cot = tan(90 )
Example 2 Writing Functions in Terms of Co-Functions Write each
function in terms of its co-function.
1. cos 52

2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles

21

2. tan 71
3. sec 24
Example 3 Solving Equations Using the Co-Function Identities
Find one solution for each equation. Assume all angles involved are acute
angles.
1. cos( + 4 ) = sin(3 + 2 )
2. tan(2 18 ) = cot( + 18 )
Example 4 Comparing Function Values of Acute Angles Determine
whether each statement is true or false.
1. sin 21 > sin 18

2. cos 49 cos 56

Trigonometric Values of Special Angles


Trigonometry involves right triangles. There are two special right triangles
for which we can find exact values for the lengths of the sides. We begin with
the giving the hypotenuse length 1.
The 45 45 90 triangle with hypotenuse 1 is an isosceles triangle.
We find the lengths of the legs using the Pythagorean Theorem.

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2 ACUTE ANGLES AND RIGHT ANGLES

s2 + s2 = 12
45
1

s=

45
s=

2s2 = 1
2/2

s2 = 1/2

1
2
s= =
2
2

2/2

The 30 60 90 triangle with hypotenuse 1 is half of an equilateral


triangle with side 1. We find the height of the equilateral triangle by using
the Pythagorean Theorem.

Below the 30 60 90 triangle is turned on its side.

2.2 Trigonometric Functions of Non-Acute Angles

60
1/2

30

3/2

1
30

23

60
1/2

3/2

Example 5 Finding Trigonometric Function Values for 60 . Find


the six trigonometric function values for a 60 angle.
Example Finding Trigonometric Function Values for 45 . Find the
six trigonometric function values for a 45 angle.

2.2

Trigonometric Functions of Non-Acute Angles

Suppose that an angle is in standard position. The reference angle, R


is the angle which the terminal side of makes with the x-axis.
Example 1 Finding Reference Angles Find the reference angle for each
angle.
1. 218
2. 1387
FACT: If R is the reference angle of , then
sin = sin R and cos = cos R

24

2 ACUTE ANGLES AND RIGHT ANGLES

Here the plus or minus is the sign that must be determined be looking at the
quadrant in which lies. A similar statement is true for all of the remaining
trigonometric functions.
Finding the Trigonometric Values for any Non-Quadrantal Angle .
Step 1: If > 360 , then find a co-terminal angle by subtracting 360 as
many times as is needed to get an angle between 0 and 360 . If < 0 ,
then find a co-terminal angle by adding 360 as many times as is needed
to get an angle between 0 and 360 .
Step 2: Find the reference angle R .
Step 3: Find the trigonometric function values for the reference angle R .
Step 4: Determine the correct sign for the values found in Step 3 by looking
at the quadrant in which the terminal side of lies.
Example 2 Finding Trigonometric Function Values Using Reference
Angles Find the exact value of each expression.
1. cos(240 )
2. tan 675
Example 3 Evaluating an Expression with Function Values of Special Angles Evaluate the expression.
cos 120 + 2 sin2 60 tan2 30
Example 4 Using Co-Terminal Angles to Find Function Values
Evaluate each function by first expressing the function in terms of an angle between 0 and 360 .
1. cos 780
2. tan(405 )

2.3 Finding Trigonometric Function Values Using a Calculator

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Finding Angle Measures with Special Angles


Example 5 Finding Angle Measures Given an Interval and a Function Value.
Find all values of , if is in the interval [0 , 360 ) and

2
cos =
.
2

2.3

Finding Trigonometric Function Values Using a


Calculator

Finding Function Values Using a Calculator


Example 1 Finding Function Values with a Calculator Approximate
the value of each expression.
1. sin 49 120
2. sec 97.977
3.

1
cot 51.4283

4. sin(246 )
Finding Angle Measures Using a Calculator
On the game show Jeopardy!, the contestants are given an answer, and then
the contestants try to guess what the question is.
Try to find the question: The answer is 1/2. Okay, this is not enough
information. There are an infinite number of questions that have the answer
1/2. So lets try this: The answer is sin = 1/2 and is an acute angle.
What is ?
To find , we use the inverse sine function. Punch in sin1 (1/2) into
your calculator, by the way, make sure the calculator is set to degrees, and
you will get 30 . This means that sin 30 = 1/2.
A scientific calculator should have buttons sin1 , cos1 , and tan1 . Put
in a positive number, press one of these buttons, and the calculator will spit

26

2 ACUTE ANGLES AND RIGHT ANGLES

out an angle between 0 and 90 .


This is only a brief introduction to inverse trigonometric functions. We
will talk about them extensively later on.
Example 2 Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions to Find Angles
Use a calculator to find an angle in the interval [0 , 90 ] that satisfies each
condition.
1. sin 0.9677091705
2. sec 1.0545829

2.4

Solving Right Triangles

Significant Digits
When making a calculation, we often give an approximate answer. When
giving an approximate answer, we round to a certain number of decimal
places. We must decide to what place we should round the answer to. A
scientific calculator will give as many digits as there will fit in the screen. Is
this a good practice?
A measurement can be an exact measurement if the thing being measured
is something that can be counted. However, it is often the case that when
a measurement is taken, the result is only accurate to a certain number of
digits.
Significant digits are the number of digits after the first nonzero digit.
Example State the number of significant digits.
1. 12.005
2. 0.0004507
3. 12.00
Suppose we are putting data into a function that is accurate to only three
significant digits. Then the output should be rounded to three significant digits.

2.4 Solving Right Triangles

27

Suppose some of the data put into a function is accurate to within five
significant digits, while other data is only accurate to three significant digits.
Then the output should be rounded to only three significant digits. We
should round the output to the least number of significant digits of the input.

Solving Right Triangles


Example 1 Solving a Right Triangle Given an Angle and a Side
Solve the right triangle ABC, if mA = 34 300 and c = 12.7 in.
B







c = 12.7 in 







 34 300

Example 2 Solving a Right Triangle Given Two Sides.


triangle ABC if a = 29.43 cm and c = 53.58 cm.
B
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

a = 29.43 cm

Q c = 53.58 cm
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

Solve right

28

2 ACUTE ANGLES AND RIGHT ANGLES

Angles of Elevation and Depression




Angle of Elevation
-

@ Angle of Depression
@
@
@
@
@
@
R
@

Example 3 Finding a Length when the Angle of Elevation is Known.


Shelly McCarthy knows that when she stands 123 ft from the base of a
flagpole, the angle of elevation to the top of the flagpole is 26 400 . If here
eyes are 5.30 ft above the ground, find the height of the flagpole.
Example 4 Finding the Angle of Elevation When Lengths are Known.
The length of the shadow of a building 34.09 m tall is 37.62 m. Find the
angle of elevation of the sun.

2.5

Further Applications of Right Triangles

Bearing
Bearing is an important concept in navigation. There are two methods to
express bearing.
Method I: When expressing bearing, an angle is measured in a clockwise
direction from due north.

Example 1 Solving a Problem Involving Bearing (First Method).


Radar stations A and B are on an east-west line, 3.7 km apart. Station A

2.5 Further Applications of Right Triangles

29

detects a plane C, on a bearing of 61 . Station B simultaneously detects the


same plane, on a bearing of 331 . Find the distance from A to C.

Method II: The second method for expressing bearing starts with a
north-south line and uses an acute angle to show direction, either east of
west, from this line. Either N or S always comes first, followed by an acute
angle, ant then E or W.

Example 2 Solving a Problem Involving Bearing (Second Method).


The bearing from A to C is S 52 E. The bearing from A to B is N 84 E.
The bearing from B to C is 38 W . A plane flying at 250 mph takes 2.4 hr
to to from A to B. Find the distance from A to C.

30

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

Further Applications
Example 4 Solving a Problem Involving Angles of Elevation. Francisco needs to know the height of a tree. From a given point on the ground,
he finds that the angle of elevation to the top of the tree is 36.7 . He then
moves back 50 ft. From the second point, the angle of elevation to the top
of the tree is 22.2 . Find the height of the tree to the nearest foot.

3
3.1

Radian Measure and Circular Functions


Radian Measure

Radian: An angle with its vertex at the center of a circle that intercepts
an arc on the circle equal in length to the radius of the circle has measure of

3.1 Radian Measure

31

1 radian.
An angle of measure 2 radians will intercept an arc equal in length to
twice the radius of the circle. An angle of measure 1/2 radians will intercept
an arc equal in length to half the radius of the circle. In general, if is the
angle measurement in radians, r the radius of a circle, and s the length of
the intercepted arc, then
s
=
r
Converting Between Degrees and Radians
The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle. By the
definition of ,
C = 2r
The angle which corresponds to one rotation about the circle is 360 . In
radians, the angle which corresponds to one rotation about the circle is 2
radians.
360 = 2 radians.
Dividing both sides by 2 gives
180 = radians.
Converting Between Degrees and Radians.
1. To convert from degrees to radians, multiply a degree measure by
radians
.
180 degrees
2. To convert from radians to degrees, multiply a radian measure by
180 degrees
.
radians
Example 1 Converting Degrees to Radians.
measure to radians.
1. 45

Convert each degree

32

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS


2. 270

3. 249.8

Example 2 Converting Radians to Degrees.


measure to degrees.

1.

Convert each radian

9
4

2.

5
6

3. 4.25

Note: Another way to convert a radian measure to degrees is to substitute 180 for . For example, /6 = 180 /6 = 30 .
If no unit of angle measure is specified, then the angle is understood to
be in radians.
The angles marked below are important when we study trigonometry.

3.1 Radian Measure

33

Finding Function Values for Angles in Radians


Example 3 Finding Function Values of Angles in Radian Measure.
Find each function value.
1. tan

2
3

2. sin

3
2


3. cos

4
3

34

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

3.2

Applications of Radian Measures

Arc Length
In the previous section, we defined the concept of radian by saying that
= s/r. If we clear the fraction, we get the following formula for arc length.
Formula for Arc Length: The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle
of radius r by a central angle of measure radians is given by s = r.

Example 1 Finding Arc Length Using s = r.


A circle has radius
18.20 cm. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle having
each of the following measures.
1.

3
radians
8

2. 144
Example 2 Using Latitude to Find the Distance Between Two
Cities.
Latitude gives the measure of a central angle with vertex the
Earths center whose initial side passes through the equator and whose terminal side passes through the given location.
Reno, Nevada is approximately due north of Los Angles. The latitude of
Reno is 40 N, while that of Los Angeles is 34 N. The N means north of the
equator. The radius of the Earth is 6400 km. Find the north-south distance
between the two cities.
Example 3 Finding a Length Using s = r.
A rope is being wound
around a drum with radius 0.8725 ft. How much rope will be wound around
the drum if the drum is rotated through an angle of 39.72 .
Example 4 Finding an Angle Measure Using s = r. Two gears are
adjusted so that the smaller gear drives the larger one. If the smaller gear
rotates through an angle of 225 , through how many degrees will the larger
gear rotate?

3.3 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

35

Area of a Sector of a Circle


A sector of a circle is the portion of the interior of a circle intercepted by
a central angle. It looks like a piece of pie.
A complete circle can be though of as an angle with measure 2. If a central angle has measurement radians, then the sector makes up the fraction

of the complete circle.


2
The area of a circle is given by A = r2 . If we multiply the area of the
circle by the fraction of the circle that represents the sector, then we get a
formula for the area of the sector.
area of the sector =

 2 1 2
r = r
2
2

1
Formula for the Area of a Sector: A = r2 , where is in radians.
2

Example 5 Finding the Area of a Sector-Shaped Field.


Find the
area of a sector shaped field with radius 321 m and central angle 15 .

3.3

The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

In this section, we give yet another definition for the six trigonometric functions.
The unit circle is the circle or radius 1 centered at the origin. If an
angle is in standard position with terminal side intersecting the unit circle
a the point (x, y), then we define the six trigonometric functions as follows.
cos = x
sec = 1/x
sin = y
csc = 1/y
tan = y/x cot = x/y

36

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

The key is to remember the definition for sine and cosine. If you can
remember these, then the others follow by using identities.

Unit Circle Definition of Sine and Cosine: If (x, y) is the point intersected by the terminal side of angle in standard position on the unit circle,
then
cos = x and sin = y
This is consistent with the first definition that was given for the six
trigonometric functions. Here r has been replaced by 1 because on the unit
circle, r = 1.
The textbook calls these six trigonometric functions circular functions.
Example 1 Finding Exact Circular Function Values: Multiples of
/2. Partition the unit circle into multiples of /2 and give the coordinates
at those points. Then evaluate the following trigonometric expressions. Give
exact values.

3.3 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

a) sin

b) cos

37

c) tan

3
2

For the next couple problems, we will use the 45-45-90 and the 30-60-90
triangles.

45
1

45

2
2

2
2

38

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

30

60

3/2
30

1/2

60

1/2

3/2

Example Finding Exact Circular Function Values: Multiples of


/4. Partition the unit circle into multiples of /4 and give the coordinates
at those points. Then evaluate the following trigonometric expressions. Give
exact values.

a) sin

b) cos

5
4

3.3 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

c) tan

3
4

39

d) cos

7
4

Example Finding Exact Circular Function Values: Multiples of


/3. Partition the unit circle into multiples of /3 and give the coordinates
at those points. Then evaluate the following trigonometric expressions. Give
exact values.

a) sin

c) tan

2
3

b) cos

5
3

d) cos

4
3

Example Finding Exact Circular Function Values: Multiples of


/6. Partition the unit circle into multiples of /6 and give the coordinates

40

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

at those points. Then evaluate the following trigonometric expressions. Give


exact values.

a) sin

c) tan

b) cos

11
6

Example Find the exact value of cos

7
6

d) cos

5
6

4
.
3

Step 1: Locate 4/3 on the unit circle.


Step 2: Find the reference angle and draw an appropriate triangle.
Step 3: Label the x- and y- coordinates of the point of intersection.
Step 4: Cosine is the x-coordinate, sine is the y-coordinate.

3.3 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions

41

Example Partition the unit circle into multiples of /6, /4, /3, and /2.
Label the x- and y-coordinates of those points.

42

3 RADIAN MEASURE AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

Example 3 Approximating Circular Functions Values.


calculator approximation for each trig function value.

Find a

1. cos 1.85
2. cos 0.5149
3. sec(2.9234)
Example 4 Finding a Number Given its Circular Function Value
For this example, we will use a calculator and the buttons sin1 , cos1 , tan1 .
1. Approximate the value of in the interval [0, /2], if cos = 0.9685.

3.4 Linear Angular Speed

43

2. Find the exact value of in the interval [, 3


], if tan = 1.
2

3.4

Linear Angular Speed

Linear Speed
Suppose that a point P moves at a constant speed along a circle of radius
r and center O. The measure of how fast the position of P is changing is
called linear speed, denoted v. We have the formula
speed =

distance
,
time

that is v =

s
t

Angular Speed
The measure of how fast the angle is changing is called angular speed.
Angular speed, symbolized , is given by

= ,
t

in radians.

Recall the formula s = r. We then get


v=

s
r

=
= r = r
t
t
t

Example 1 Using Linear and Angular Speed Formulas.


Suppose
that point P is on a circle with radius 10 cm, and ray OP is rotating with
angular speed pi/18 radian per sec.
1. Find the angle generated by P in 6 sec.

44

4 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS


2. Find the distance traveled by P along the circle in 6 sec.
3. Find the linear speed of P in centimeters per second.

Example 2 Finding Angular Speed of a Pulley and Linear Speed of


a Belt. A belt runs a pulley of radius 6 cm at 80 revolutions per minute.
1. Find the angular speed of the pulley in radians per second.
2. Find the linear speed of the belt in centimeters per second.
Example 3 Finding Linear Speed and Distance Traveled by a Satellite. A satellite traveling in a circular orbit 1600 km above the surface of
Earth takes 2 hr to make one orbit. The radius of Earth is approximately
6400 km.
1. Approximate the linear speed of the satellite in kilometers per hour.
2. Approximate the distance the satellite travels in 4.5 hr.

4
4.1

The Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions


Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

If y = f (x) is a function and a is a nonzero constant such that f (x) = f (x+a)


for every x in the domain of f , then f is called a periodic function. The
smallest such positive constant a is period of the function.

The Graph of the Sine Function


The sine function looks like a wave that passes through the origin. The graph
of y = sin x or any transformation of y = sin x is called a sine wave, a sinusoidal wave, or a sinusoid.

y = sin x

4.1 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

45

Domain: All Real Numbers.


Range: [1, 1]
Period: P = 2
Quarter Period: 2pi/4 = pi/2.
The Fundamental Cycle: [0, 2]
Symmetry: The graph of y = sin x is symmetric about the origin. The
function y = sin x is an odd function. That is, sin(x) = sin x.
The Graph of the Cosine Function
The cosine function looks like a wave that passes through the point (0, 1).
y = cos x

Domain: All Real Numbers.

46

4 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS


Range: [1, 1]
Period: P = 2
Quarter Period: 2pi/4 = pi/2.
The Fundamental Cycle: [0, 2]
Symmetry: The graph of y = cos x is symmetric about the y-axis. The
function y = cos x is an even function. That is, cos(x) = cos x.

Changes in Amplitude
Multiplying a function by a positive number a will stretch the graph vertically if a > 1 and compress the graph vertically if 0 < a < 1.
Example 1 The Graph of y = a sin x.

Graph the following functions.

1. y = 2 sin x
2. y = 21 sin x
The amplitude of a sine wave, or the amplitude of the function, is the
absolute value of half the distance between the maximum and minimum ycoordinates on the wave.
The amplitude of y = a sin x or y = a cos x is |a|.

Changes in Period
The period P of y = sin bx or y = cos bx is given by
P =

2
b

I call the quarter period the value obtained by divided P by 4.


For any function y = f (x), multiplying x by a positive number b, giving
y = f (bx), will stretch the graph horizontally if 0 < b < 1, and compress the

4.2 More Translations of the Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions 47
graph horizontally if 1 < b.
Example 2 The Graph of y = sin bx. Graph y = sin 2x, and compare to
the graph of y = sin x. Sketch two cycles of the graph and label the quarter
interval endpoints.
Example 3 Graphing y = cos bx.
Graph y = cos 32 x, and compare to
the graph of y = cos x. Sketch two cycles of the graph and label the quarter
interval endpoints.
Reflection about the x-axis.
Multiplying any function, y = f (x), by 1, and thus resulting in y = f (x),
will reflect the graph of the function about the x-axis.
Example 4 The Graph of y = a sin bx. Graph y = 2 sin 3x. Sketch at
least two cycles of the function and label the quarter interval endpoints.
Example 5 The Graph of y = a cos bx for b equal to a Multiple of .
Sketch the graph of y = 3 sin x. Sketch at least two periods and label the
quarter interval endpoints.

4.2

More Translations of the Graphs of the Sine and


Cosine Functions

Phase Shifts
For any function y = f (x), if x is replaced by x d, resulting in the function
y = f (x d), then the graph of f is shifted to the right if d > 0 and to the
left if d < 0. For trigonometric functions, a translation to the right or the
left is called a phase shift.
Example 1 Sketching the Graph of y = sin(x d). Sketch two cycles
of the graph of y = sin(x /3). Label the quarter period endpoints.
Example 2 Sketching the Graph of y = a cos(x d). Sketch two cycles
of the graph of y = 3 cos(x + /4). Label the quarter period endpoints.
Example 3 Sketching the Graph of y = a cos b(x d).
Sketch two
cycles of the graph of y = 2 cos(3x+). Label the quarter period endpoints.

48

4 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Vertical Translations
For the graphs of sine waves, I call the axis of the function the horizontal
line, y = L, where L is the average value of the maximum and the minimum
of the function. For y = sin x and y = cos x, the axis of the function is just
the x-axis. I dont think that anybody else uses this terminology.
Adding a number c to any function y = f (x), resulting in the function
y = c + f (x), will shift the graph of f upward if c > 0 and downward if c < 0.
Example 4 Sketching the Graph of y = c + a cos bx. Sketch two cycles
of the graph of y = 3 2 cos 3x. Label the quarter period endpoints.
Guidelines for Sketching the Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions
To sketch the graph of y = c + a sin b(x d) or y = a cos b(x d), with b > 0,
follow these steps.
Step 1: Find the period. Use P = 2pi/b, where b is the coefficient of x.
Step 2: Find the quarter period by dividing the period by 4. QtrPer= P/4.
Step 3: Find the phase shift, d. This is the starting point of the graph.
Step 3: Sketch two cycles of the the wave curve. The sine graph starts at
the x-axis, while the cosine graph starts at its maximum.
Step 4: Label the starting point. This is the phase shift d.
Step 5 Add the quarter period to the starting point. If necessary, get a
common denominator for the starting point and the quarter period in
order to make the addition easier. Repeat to label the quarter interval
endpoints.
Step 4: Label the maximum and minimum values of the curve using the
amplitude |a|.
Step 5: If the graph has been shifted up or down by c, then draw a dotted
line for y = c. Sketch the graph of the function as if the line y = c is
the x-axis. Then later go back and draw the x-axis.

4.3 Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions

49

Combinations of Translations
Example 5 Sketching the Graph of y = c + a sin b(x d).
Sketch
two cycles of the graph of y = 1 + 2 sin(4x + ). Label the quarter period
endpoints.

4.3

Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions

The Tangent Graph


y = tan x

Domain: All Real Numbers except x = (2k + 1)/2 (Everything except


odd multiples of /2).
Range: R, all real numbers.
Period: P =
The Fundamental Cycle: (pi/2, /2)

50

4 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS


Symmetry: The graph of y = tan x is symmetric about the origin. The
function y = tan x is an odd function. That is, tan(x) = tan x.

The Cotangent Graph


y = cot x

Domain: All Real Numbers except x = k (Everything except multiples of ).


Range: R, all real numbers.
Period: P =
The Fundamental Cycle: (0, )
Symmetry: The graph of y = cot x is symmetric about the origin. The
function y = cot x is an odd function. That is, cot(x) = cot x.

4.4 Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions

51

Guidelines to Sketching the Tangent and Cotangent Graphs.


Step 1: Determine the period. Use P = /b, where b is the coefficient of x.
Step2: Locate the vertical asymptotes.
For y = a tan bx, solve for bx = /2, bx = /2, bx = 3/2, etc.
For y = a cot bx, solve for bx = 0, bx = , bx = 2, etc.
Find the x-intercepts by finding the midpoint of the vertical asymptotes
(add the two values and then divide by 2).
Step 3: Sketch three vertical asymptotes.
Step 4: Sketch the graph. The graph should look pretty much like the graph
of the original function before any translations.
Step 5: Label the x-intercepts.

Example 1 Sketching the Graph of y = tan bx. Sketch y = tan 2x.


Example 2 Sketching the Graph of y = a tan bx. Sketch y = 3 tan 21 x.
Example 3 Sketching the Graph of y = a cot bx. Sketch the graph of
y = 21 cot 2x.
Example 4 Sketching a Tangent Graph with a Vertical Translation.
Sketch the graph of y = 2 + tan x.
Example 5 Sketching a Cotangent Graph with a Vertical and Horizontal Translation. Sketch the graph of y = 2 cot(x /4).

4.4

Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions

The Secant Graph

y = sec x

52

4 THE GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Domain: All Real Numbers except x = (2k + 1)/2 (Everything except


odd multiples of /2).
Range: y 1 or 1 y.
Period: P = 2
Symmetry: The graph of y = sec x is symmetric about the y-axis. The
function y = sec x is an even function. That is, sec(x) = sec x.

The Cosecant Graph

y = csc x

4.4 Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions

53

Domain: All Real Numbers except x = k (Everything except multiples of ).


Range: y 1 or 1 y.
Period: P = 2
Symmetry: The graph of y = csc x is symmetric about the y-axis. The
function y = csc x is an even function. That is, csc(x) = csc x.
Guidelines for Sketching the Graphs of Cosecant and Secant Functions
Step 1: Graph the corresponding reciprocal function as a guide. The cos
dont go.
To sketch y = csc x, sketch y = sin x.
To sketch y = sec x, sketch y = cos x.
Step 2: Sketch the vertical asymptotes. The vertical asymptotes will be
pass through the x-intercepts of the reciprocal functions.

54

5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Step 3: Sketch the graph of the function by making loops.


Example 1 Sketching the graph of y = a sec bx. Sketch the graph of
y = 2 sec 21 x.
Example 2Sketching
the graph of y = a csc(x d). Sketch the graph


3
of y = 2 csc x 2 .

Trigonometric Identities

5.1

Fundamental Identities

Fundamental Identities
An identity is an equation that is satisfied by every value in the domain of
its variable.
Reciprocal Identities. The cos dont go.
cot =

1
tan

sec =

1
cos

csc =

sin
cos

cot =

cos
sin

Quotient Identities.
tan =
Pythagorean Identities.
sin2 + cos2 = 1
tan2 + 1 = sec2
1 + cot2 = csc2
Other Forms of the Pythagorean Identities
sin2 = 1 cos2
cos2 = 1 sin2

1
sin

5.1 Fundamental Identities

55

Odd and Even Identities


Odd Identities
sin() = sin
csc() = csc
tan() = tan
cot() = cot

Even Identities
cos() = cos
sec() = sec

Using the Fundamental Identities


Example 1 Finding Trigonometric Function Values Given One Value
and the Quadrant. If tan = 35 and is in quadrant II, then find each
function value.
When taking the square root, be sure to choose the sign based on the
quadrant of and the function being evaluated.
1. sec
2. sin
3. cot()
Example 2 Expressing One Function in Terms of Another.
cos x in terms of tan x.

Express

56

5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Example 3 Rewriting an Expression in Terms of Sine and Cosine.


Write tan +cot in terms of sin and cos , and then simplify the expression.
Caution: When working with trigonometric expressions and identities, be
sure to write the argument of the function. For example, we would not write
sin2 + cos2 = 1.

5.2

Verifying Trigonometric Identities

In this section we will prove the validity trigonometric identities. We will


assume that the identities given in the previous section are true.
Verifying Identities with One Side
Example 1 Verifying an Identity (Working with One Side).
that the following equation is an identity.

Verify

cot + 1 = csc (cos + sin )


Example 2 Verifying an Identity (Working with One Side).
that the following equation is an identity.
tan2 x(1 + cot2 x) =

Verify

1
1 sin2 x

Example 3 Verifying an Identity (Working with One Side).


that the following equation is an identity.

Verify

tan t cot t
= sec2 t csc2 t
sin t cos t
Example 4 Verifying an Identity (Working with One Side).
that the following equation is an identity.

Verify

1 + sin x
cos x
=
1 sin x
cos x
Verifying Identities with Both Sides
Example 5 Verifying an Identity (Working with Both Sides).
that the following equation is an identity.
sec + tan
1 + 2 sin + sin2
=
sec tan
cos2

Verify

5.3 Sum and Differences Identities for Cosine

5.3

57

Sum and Differences Identities for Cosine

Sum Identity for Cosine


Cosine of a Sum or Difference
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
cos(A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

|P R| = |QS|
Example 1 Finding Exact Cosine Function Values.
value of each expression.

Find the exact

1. cos 15
2. cos 5
12
3. cos 87 cos 93 sin 87 sin 93
Cofunction Identities
The cofunction identities were presented in Section 2.1. We can now prove
these identities using the Cosine Sum-Difference Formula. Here they are once

58

5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

again.
Co-Function Identities
For any acute angle ,
sin = cos(90 ) sec = csc(90 ) tan = cot(90 )
cos = sin(90 ) csc = sec(90 ) cot = tan(90 )
Example 2 Using Cofunction Identities.
each of the following.

Find an angle that satisfies

1. cot = tan 25
2. sin = cos(/6)
3. csc 3
= sec
4

Applying the Sum and Difference Identities


Example 3 Reducing cos(A B) to a Function of a Single Variable.
Write cos( ) as a trigonometric function of alone.
Example 4 Finding cos(s + t) Given Information About s and t.
, and both s and t are in quadrant II.
Suppose that sin s = 35 and cos t = 12
13
Find cos(s + t).

5.4

Sum and Difference Identities for Sine and Tangent

Sum and Difference Identities for Sine


Sine of a Sum or Difference
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

5.4 Sum and Difference Identities for Sine and Tangent

59

Sum and Difference Identities for Tangent


Tangent of a Sum or Difference
tan(A + B) =

tan A + tan B
1 tan A tan B

tan(A B) =

tan A tan B
1 + tan A tan B

Applying the Sum and Difference Identities


Example 1 Finding Exact Sine and Tangent Function Values.
the exact value of each function.

Find

1. sin 75
7
2. tan
12
3. sin 40 cos 160 cos 40 sin 160
Example 2 Writing Functions as Expressions Involving Functions
of . Write each function as an expression involving functions of .
1. sin(30 + )
2. tan(45 )
3. sin(180 + )
Example 3 Finding Function Values and the Quadrant of + .
Suppose that and are angles in standard position, with sin = 4/5,
angle in quadrant II, and cos = 5/13, angle in quadrant III. Find the
following.
1. sin( + )
2. cos( + )
3. The quadrant of +
Example 4 Verifying an Identity Using Sum and Difference Identities. Verify the equation is an identity.





sin
+ + cos
+ = cos
6
3

60

5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

5.5

Double-Angle Identities

Double-Angle Identities
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos2 sin2
cos 2 = 1 2 sin2
cos 2 = 2 cos2 1
2 tan
1 tan2
Example 1 Finding Function Values of 2 Given Information about
.
Given cos = 3/5 and sin < 0, find sin 2, cos 2, and tan 2.
Example 2 Finding Function Values of Given Information about
2. Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of if cos 2 = 4/5
and is in quadrant II.
Example 3 Verifying a Double-Angle Identity.
Verify that the
following equation is an identity.
tan 2 =

cot x sin 2x = 1 + cos 2x


Example 4 Simplifying Expressions Using Double-Angle Identities.
Simplify each expression.
1. cos2 7x sin2 7x
2. sin 15 cos 15
Example 5 Deriving a Multiple-Angle Identity.
of sin x.

Write sin 3x in terms

5.5 Double-Angle Identities

61

Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product Identities


Product-to-Sum Identities
cos A cos B =

1
[cos(A + B) + cos(A B)]
2

1
[cos(A B) cos(A + B)]
2
1
sin A cos B = [sin(A + B) + sin(A B)]
2
1
cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) sin(A B)]
2

sin A sin B =

Example 6 Using a Product-to-Sum Identity.


as the sum or difference of two functions.

Write 4 cos 75 sin 25

Sum-to-Product Identities
Sum-to-Product Identities
A+B
AB
sin A + sin B = 2 sin
cos
2
2


AB
A+B
sin
2
2




A+B
AB
cos A + cos B = 2 cos
cos
2
2




A+B
AB
cos A cos B = 2 sin
sin
2
2
sin A sin B = 2 cos

Example 7 Using a Sum-to-Product Identity.


as a product of two functions.

Write sin 2 sin 4

62

5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

5.6

Half-Angle Identities

Half-Angle Identities
s

A
1 + cos A
cos =
2
2
s

A
1 cos A
sin =
2
2

A
1 cos A
tan =
2
1 + cos A
A
sin A
=
2
1 + cos A
A
1 cos A
tan =
2
sin A
tan

Applying the Half-Angle Identities


Example 1 Using a Half-Angle Identity to find an Exact Value.
Find the exact value of cos 15 using the half-angle identity.
Example 2 Using a Half-Angle Identity to Find and Exact Value.
A
sin A
Find the exact value of tan 22.5 using the identity tan =
.
2
1 + cos A
Example 3 Finding Function Values of /2 Given Information about
.
Given cos = 2/3, with in quadrant III, find cos /2, sin /2, and
tan /2.
Example 4 Simplifying Expressions Using the Half-Angle Identities.
Simplify each expression.
s

1.

2.

1 + cos 12x
2

1 cos 5
sin 5

63
Example 5 Verifying and Identity.
is an identity.


sin

x
x
+ cos
2
2

Verify that the following equation

3

= 1 + sin x

Inverse Trig Functions and Trig Equations

6.1

Inverse Circular Functions

A Brief Review of Inverse Functions


A relation is a set of points (x, y). An example of a relation is the set of
all points that satisfy the equation x2 + y 2 = 1.

The graph of this relation is a circle with radius 1 centered at the origin.
A relation is a function if for every x-value, there is exactly one y-value.
The above example is relation but not a function. The value x = 0 corresponds to two y-values, y = 1 and y = 1.
The Vertical Line Test says that a relation is a function if and only if
no vertical line intersects the graph at more than one point.
The relation y = x2 is a function. This means that y is a function of x.
This is because for each x value, there exists a unique y value. The graph is
a parabola. We can plot some points.

64

6 INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS AND TRIG EQUATIONS

y = x2
x
2
1
0
1
2

y=x
4
1
0
1
4

The fact that the value x = 1 and x = 1 both correspond to y = 1, does


not contradict the definition of a function.
The inverse relation of a function f is the relation obtained by interchanging the x- and y-coordinates.
The inverse relation of y = x2 is the relation x = y 2 . It was obtained by
switching the x and y variables. This relation is not a function. The value
x = 1 corresponds to two values for y, that values y = 1 and y = 1. We
can also see that the relation x = y 2 does not pass the vertical line test, and
therefore is not a function.
x = y2
x = y2
4
1
0
1
4

y
2
1
0
1
2

What is a necessary and sufficient condition for a function to have an


inverse relation that is also a function?
A function is said to be one-to-one if every y value corresponds to exactly one x value. The function y = x2 is not one-to-one. This is because
the value y = 1 corresponds to two different x values, x = 1 and x = 1.
A function f has an inverse function, denoted f 1 , if and only if it is
one-to-one. The inverse function is obtained by interchanging the x and y

6.1 Inverse Circular Functions

65

coordinates of the function f .


The graph of the inverse relation of a function f is found by reflecting
the graph of the function f about the line y = x. When the graph of y = x2 ,
which is a function, is rotated about the line y = x, we get the graph of
x = y 2 . We see that the resulting graph of x = y 2 does not pass the vertical
line test. What would have to be true about the graph of the original function in order for its inverse to pass the vertical line test?
The Horizontal Line Test says that a function is one-to-one if and only
if no horizontal line intersects the graph of the function at more than one
point.
Suppose a function f satisfies the horizontal line test, which means that
it is one-to-one. The graph of the inverse relation is obtained by reflecting
the graph of f about the line y = x. Because the graph of f passes the
horizontal line test, the graph of the inverse will pass the vertical line test,
and it will be a function, f 1 .
The Inverse Sine Function
Suppose you are asked to give the value of one angle that satisfies the
equation
sin = 1/2.
There are an infinite number of possibilities, but if you had to pick one,
it would be reasonable to look for an angle in quadrant I, because that is
everyones favorite quadrant.
Lets rephrase the question. Solve for where sin = 1/2, and 0
/2. The answer is = /6.
Now suppose that you are asked to give the value of one angle that
satisfies
sin = 1/2.
Because quadrant I is your favorite quadrant, you would like to look there
for an answer. However, the values of sine are all positive in quadrant I.
Therefore, you instead go to the quadrant directly next to quadrant I where

66

6 INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS AND TRIG EQUATIONS

sine takes negative values. You look in quadrant IV.


Lets rephrase the question. Solve for where sin = 1/2, and /2
0. The answer is = /6.
Inverse Sine Function
= sin1 x or = arcsin x means that x = sin and /2 /2.
The inverse sine function returns only one value because it is a function.
Thats what functions do. They only return one value.
Example Try it on your calculator. Set the calculator to degrees and
punch in sin1 1/2. What do you get? Try punching in sin1 (1/2) on your
calculator. What do you get?
Example 1 Finding Inverse Sine Values Evaluate each expression.
1. arcsin(1/2)
2. sin1 (1)
3. sin1 (2)
The Inverse Cosine Function
Now lets define the inverse cosine function. If you had to give one answer
for where cos = 1/2, then it would be reasonable to look for your one
answer in quadrant I.
But if you had to pick one answer for cos = 1/2, which quadrant would
you look in? Because quadrant I is your favorite quadrant, you will go to the
quadrant closest to quadrant I where cosine is negative. Thats quadrant II.
Inverse Cosine Function
= cos1 x or = arccos x means that x = cos and 0 .
Example 2 Finding Inverse Cosine Values Evaluate each expression.
1. arccos 1

2. cos1 ( 2/2)

6.1 Inverse Circular Functions

67

The Inverse Tangent Function


Inverse Tangent Function
= tan1 x or = arctan x means that x = tan and /2 < < /2.
Why do we look in quadrants I and IV for the tangent inverse function?
Note that tan(/2) is undefined. For that reason, it would would be awkward to look in quadrant I and quadrant II. We would have to jump over
and undefined point.
Example Finding Inverse Cosine Values Evaluate each expression.
1. tan1 1
2. tan1 (1)
The Remaining Inverse Circular Functions
Here we define the remaining in inverse trig functions.
Inverse Cotangent, Secant, and Cosecant Functions
= cot1 x or = arccot x means that x = cot and 0 < < .
= sec1 x or = arcsec x means that x = sec and 0 < < ,
6= /2.
= csc1 x or = arccsc x means that x = csc and /2 <
< /2, 6= 0.
Example 3 Finding Inverse Function Values Find the degree measure
of in the following.
1. = arctan 1
2. = sec1 2
These are some identities that involve the inverse trig functions. We will
not go into detail here.

68

6 INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS AND TRIG EQUATIONS


Identities for the Functions
csc1 (x) = sin1 (1/x) for |x| 1
sec1 (x) = cos1 (1/x) for |x| 1

tan (1/x)

cot1 (x) = tan1 (1/x) +

/2

for
for
for

x>0
x<0
x=0

Example 4 Finding Inverse Function Values with a Calculator.


1. Find y in radians if y = csc1 (3)
2. Find in degrees if = arccot(0.3541).
Example 5 Finding Function Values Using Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions. Evaluate each expression without using a calculator.


1. sin tan


3
2

2. tan cos

13



Example 6 Finding Function Values Using Identities.


each expression without using a calculator.


1. cos arctan

2. tan 2arcsin

3 + arcsin

2
5

1
3

Example 7 Writing Function Values in Terms of u.


trigonometric expression as an algebraic expression in u.
1. sin (tan1 u)
2. cos(2 sin1 u)

Evaluate

Write each

6.1 Inverse Circular Functions

69

The Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions


We will sketch the graph of the inverse tangent function because it is an
important function with a nice graph. The graphs of the other inverse trig
functions are shown in the book.
The function y = tan x is not a one-to-one function. We can see that its
graph does not pass the horizontal line test.
y = tan x

However, if the function is restricted to the interval /2 < x < /2,


then the function passes the horizontal line test and it is one to one. Therefore, on this interval, the function y = tan x has an inverse function denoted
y = tan1 x.
y = tan x, /2 < x < /2

The graph of an inverse function is found by reflecting the graph of the


original function about the line y = x. The vertical asymptotes for y = tan x
become horizontal asymptotes for y = tan1 x.

70

6 INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS AND TRIG EQUATIONS

y = tan1 x

6.2

Trigonometric Equations I

Example Solve for all in [0 , 360).


1. cos = 1/2

2. sin = 3/2
Example Solve for all in [0, 2).

1. cos = 2/2
2. sin = 1/2
Example Solve for all real numbers , where is in radians.

1. cos = 3/2

6.2 Trigonometric Equations I

71

2. sin = 2/2
Solving by Linear Methods
Example 1 Solving Trigonometric Equations by Linear Methods.
Solve 2 sin + 1 = 0 over the interval [0, 360 ].
Solving by Factoring
Example 2 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Factoring.
over the interval [0, 2).

Solve

sin tan = sin


Solving Equations Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
Example Solve for all values in [0, 2].
1. sin = 0.70
2. cos = 0.20
Solving by Quadratic Methods
Example 3 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Factoring.
over the interval [0, 2).

Solve

tan2 x + tan x 2 = 0
Example 4 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Using The Quadratic
Formula.
Find all solutions and write the solution set.
cot x(cot x + 3) = 1
Solving by Using Trigonometric Identities
Example 5 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Squaring.
over the interval [0, 2).

tan x + 3 = sec x

Solve

72

6 INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS AND TRIG EQUATIONS

6.3

Trigonometric Equations II

Equations with Half-Angles


Example 1 Solving an Equation that Involves Half-Angles
Solve 2 sin(x/2) = 1
1. over the interval [0, 2).
2. give all real solutions.
Equations with Multiple Angles
Example 2 Solving an Equation with a Double Angle.
Solve
cos 2x = cos x over the interval [0, 2).
Example 3 Solving an Equation Using Double Angle Identities.
Solve over the interval [0 , 360 ).

4 sin cos = 3
Example Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle. Solve over the interval [0, 2).
sin 2x = 1/2
Example Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle. Solve over the interval [0, 2).

cos 2x = 2/2
Example 4 Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle.
the interval [0, 2).
tan 3x + sec 3x = 2

6.4

Solve over

Equations Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Solving for x in Terms of y Using Inverse Functions


Example 1 Solving an Equation for a Variable Using Inverse Notation. Solve for x.
y = 3 cos 2x

73
Solving Inverse Trigonometric Equations
Example 2 Solving an Equation Involving an Inverse Trigonometric
Function. Solve for x.
2 arcsin x =
Example 3 Solving an Equation Involving Inverse Trigonometric
Functions. Solve for x.
cos1 x = sin1

1
2

Example 4 Solving an Inverse Trigonometric Equation Using an


Identity. Solve for x.
arcsin x arccos x =

7
7.1

Applications of Trigonometry and Vectors


Oblique Triangles and the Law of Sines

A triangle that is not a right triangle is called an oblique triangle. We can


solve oblique triangles using the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines.
Law of Sines
In any triangle ABC, with sides a, b, and c,
b
c
a
=
=
sin A
sin B
sin C
This can also be written as
sin A
sin B
sin C
=
=
a
b
c
There are three sides and three angles to a triangle. This makes six pieces
of information in total. When we solve an oblique triangle, we are finding
all six pieces of information. To solve a triangle, we only need to be given
three pieces of information. We can break the possibilities into five cases:
side-angle-angle (SAA), angle-side-angle (ASA), angle-side-side (ASS), sideangle-side (SAS), and side-side-side (SSS).

74

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

Solving SSA and ASA Triangles


Example 1 Using the Law of Sines to Solve a Triangle (SAA). Solve
4ABC if A = 32.0 , B = 81.8 , and a = 42.9 cm.
Example 2 Using the Law of Sines in an Application (ASA). Jerry
Keefe wishes to measure the distance across the Big Muddy River. For
4ABC, he determines that C = 112.90 , A = 31.10 , and a = 347.6 ft.
Find the distance a across the river.

Example 3 Using the Law of Sines in an Application (ASA). Two


ranger stations are on an east-west line 110 miles apart. A forest fire is located on a bearing of N 42 E from the western station at A and a bearing of
N 15 E from the eastern station at B. How far is the fire from the western
station?

7.2 The Ambiguous Case of the Law of Sines

75

Area of a Triangle
Area of a Triangle (SAS)
In any triangle ABC, the area A is given by the following formulas:
1
1
A = bc sin A, A = ab sin C,
2
2

1
A = ac sin B
2

Example 4 Finding the Area of a Triangle (SAS).


4ABC.

Find the area of

Example 5 Finding the Area of a Triangle (ASA). Find the area of


triangle ABC if A = 24 400 , b = 27.3 cm, and C = 52 400 .

7.2

The Ambiguous Case of the Law of Sines

The ambiguous cases for solving a triangle using the Law of Sines refers to
the Angle-Side-Side (ASS) case. This is an ambiguous cases because it is
possible with the information given to have no triangle, one triangle, or two
triangles.
If angle A is acute, that is A < 90 , there are four possible outcomes.
The first step is to find the height, h = b sin A .

76

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

Conditions Number of Triangles

a<h

a=h

ab

h<a<b

Diagram

If angle A is obtuse, there are two possible outcomes.

7.3 The Law of Cosines


Conditions

77
Number of Triangles

A > 90 and a < b

A > 90 and a > b

Diagram

Solving ASS Triangles


Example 1 Solving the Ambiguous Case (No Such Triangle).
triangle ABC if B = 55 400 , b = 8.94, and a = 25.1 m.
Example 2 Solving The Ambiguous Case (Two Triangles).
triangle ABC if A = 55.3 , a = 22.8 ft, and b = 24.9 ft.
Example 3 Solving the Ambiguous Case (One Triangle).
triangle ABC, given A = 43.5 , a = 10.7 inches, and c = 7.2 inches.

Solve
Solve
Solve

Analyzing Data for Possible Number of Triangles


Example 4 Analyzing Data Involving an Obtuse Triangle. Without
using the Law of Sines, explain why A = 104 , a = 26.8 m, and b = 31.3 m
cannot be valid for a triangle ABC.

7.3

The Law of Cosines

Triangle Side Length Restriction


In any triangle, the sum of the lengths of any two sides must be greater
than the length of the remaining side.

78

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

The Law of Cosines


In any triangle ABC, with sides a, b and c,
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 2bc cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 2bc cos C

Solving SAS and SSS Triangles


Example 1 Using the Law of Cosines in an Application (SAS). A
surveyor wishes to find the distance between two inaccessible points A and
B on opposite sides of a lake. While standing at point C, she finds that
AC = 259 m, BC = 423 m, and angle ACB measures 132 400 . Find the
distance AB.

Example 2 Using the Law of Cosines to Solve a Triangle (SAS).


Solve triangle ABC if A = 42.3 , b = 12.9 m, and c = 15.4 m.
Example 3 Using the Law of Cosines to Solve a Triangle (SSS).
Solve triangle ABC if a = 9.47 ft, b = 15.9 ft, and c = 21.1 ft.
Example 4 Designing a Roof Truss (SSS). Find angle B for the truss.

7.4 Vectors, Operations, and the Dot Product

79

Herons Formula for the Area of a Triangle


Herons Formula
In atriangle ABC, with sides a, b and c, has semiperimeter
1
s = (a + b + c)
2
then the area of the triangle is
A=

s(s a)(s b)(s c).

Example 5 Using Herons Formula to Find and Area (SSS). The


distance as the crow flies from Los Angles to New York is 2451 mi, from
New York to Montreal is 331 mi, and from Montreal to Los Angeles is 2427
mi. What is the area of the triangular region having these three cities as
vertices? (Ignore the curvature of the Earth.)

7.4

Vectors, Operations, and the Dot Product

Basic Terminology
A vector can be represented as a directed line segment or an arrow.
The initial point is where the vector starts; the terminal point is where
it ends.

80

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

If the initial point is P , and the terminal point is Q, then the vector can
be written as P Q.

We add two vectors by placing the initial point of one of the vectors at
the terminal point at the other vector.

We can add vectors using the parallelogram rule. If vectors A and B are
positioned so that there initial points are the same, then a parallelogram can
be drawn. One side can be drawn parallel to A, another side can be drawn
parallel to B. The sum is the diagonal of the vertex. starting at the initial
point of A and B.

7.4 Vectors, Operations, and the Dot Product

81

The magnitude is the length of the vector. Two properties uniquely


describe a vector: magnitude and direction.

A scalar is a number. If a vector is multiplied by a scalar, the direction


of the vector remains the same, but the length may change. Multiplying a
vector by the scalar 2 doubles the length of the vector. Multiplying a vector
by the scalar 1/2 will half the length of the vector. If a vector is multiplied
by the scalar 1, then the vector remains unchanged.

If a vector is multiplied by a negative scalar, then the vector will point


in the opposite direction.

82

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

Algebraic Interpretation of Vectors


A vector with it initial point at the origin is called a position vector. A
position vector u with its endpoint at the point (a, b) is written as ha, bi, so
u = ha, bi

The numbers a and b are the horizontal component and the vertical
component. The positive angle between the x-axis and the position vector
is the direction angle for the vector.
We can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the magnitude of a vector.
Magnitude and Direction Angle of a Vector ha, bi. The magnitude (length) of a vector u = ha, bi is given by

|u| = a2 + b2 .
The direction angle satisfies tan = ab , where a 6= 0.

Example 1 Finding Magnitude and Direction Angle.


magnitude and direction angle for
u = h3, 2i.

Find the

7.4 Vectors, Operations, and the Dot Product

83

Horizontal and Vertical Components The horizontal and vertical


components, respectively, of a vector u = ha, bi, with magnitude |u|
and direction angle is given by
a = |u| cos theta and b = |u| sin .
That is, u = ha, bi = h|u| cos , |u| sin i.

Example 2 Writing Vectors in the Form ha, bi.


the form ha, bi.

Write each vector in

1. Vector u has length 5 and direction angle 60 .


2. Vector v has length 2 and direction angle 180 .
3. Vector u has length 6 and direction angle 280 .
Properties of Parallelograms
1. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.
2. The opposite sides and opposite angles of a parallelogram are
equal, and adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.
3. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, but do not
necessarily bisect the vertex angles of a parallelogram.
Example 3 Finding the Magnitude of a Resultant. Two forces of 15
and 22 newtons act on a point in the plane. (A newton is a unit of force that

84

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

equals 0.225 lb.) If the angle between the forces is 100 , find the magnitude
of the resultant force.
Operations with Vectors
Vector Operations. For any real numbers a, b, c, d and k.
1. Addition.
ha, bi + hc, di = ha + c, b + di
2. Scalar Multiplication.
kha, bi = hka, kbi
3. Additive Inverse.
If a = ha, bi, then a = ha, bi.
4. ha, bi hc, di = ha, bi + (hc, di) = ha c, b di.
Example 4 Performing Vector Operations.
v = h4, 3i. Find the following.

Let u = h2, 1i and

1. u + b
2. 2u
3. 4u 3v
A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude 1. Two very useful unit
vectors are
i = h1, 0i j = h0, 1i
i, j Form for Vectors
If v = ha, bi, then v = ai + bj, where i = h1, 0i and j = h0, 1i.
Example Write the following vectors in terms of i and j.
1. u = h2, 3i
2. v = h5, 7i

7.4 Vectors, Operations, and the Dot Product

85

Dot Product and the Angle Between Vectors


Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors u = ha, bi and v = hc, di is denoted
u v, read u dot v, and is given by
u v = ac + bd
Example 5 Finding the Dot Product.

Find each dot product.

1. h2, 3i h4, 1i
2. h6, 4i h2, 3i
Properties of the Dot Product
For all vectors u, v, and w and real numbers k,
1. u v = v u
2. u (v + w) = u v + u w
3. (u + v) w = u w + v w
4. (ku) v = k(u v) = u (kv)
5. 0 u = 0
6. u u = |u|2
Geometric Interpretation of the Dot Product
If is the angle between the two nonzero vectors u and v, where 0
180 , then
u v = |u||v| cos
or equivalently
cos =

uv
|u||v|

Example 6 Finding the Angle Between Two Vectors.


between two vectors u = h3, 4i and v = h2, 1i.

find the angle

86

7.5

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

Applications of Vectors

The resultant of two vectors is the same as the sum of the vectors. It is
used when referring to two force vectors. If the vector u is the resultant ,
then u is called the equilibrant. The equilibrant is the vector that will
counterbalance the resultant.
Example 1 Finding the Magnitude and Direction of an Equilibrant.
Find the magnitude of the equilibrant of forces of 48 newtons and 60 newtons
acting on a point A, if the angle between the forces is 50 . Then find the
angle between the equilibrant and the 48-newton force.

Example 2 Finding a Required Force. Find the force required to keep


a 50-lb wagon from sliding down a ramp inclined at 20 to the horizontal.
(Assume that there is no friction.)

Example 3 Finding an Incline Angle. A force of 16.0 lb is required to


hold a 40.0 lb lawn mower on an incline. What angle does the incline make
with the horizontal?

7.5 Applications of Vectors

87

Navigation Applications
Example 4 Applying Vectors to a Navigation Problem.
A ship

leaves port on a bearing of 28.0 and travels 8.20 mi. The ship then turns
due east and travels 4.30 mi. How far is the ship from port? What is its
bearing from port?

In air navigation, the airspeed of a plane is the speed relative to the


air, while the groundspeed is its speed relative to the ground. Because of
wind, these two speeds are usually different. The groundspeed of the plane
is represented by the vector sum of the airspeed and windspeed vectors.

88

7 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY AND VECTORS

Example 5 Applying Vectors to a Navigation Problem.


A plane

with an airspeed of 192 mph is headed on a bearing of 121 . A north wind is


blowing (from north to south) at 15.9 mph. Find the groundspeed and the
actual bearing of the plane.

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