Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Trigonometry
Andrew Koines
January 26, 2010
Contents
1 Trigonometric Functions
1.1 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Angle Relationships and Similar Triangles . . . . . .
1.3 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions
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1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
4.3
4.4
5 Trigonometric Identities
5.1 Fundamental Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Sum and Differences Identities for Cosine . . . . . .
5.4 Sum and Difference Identities for Sine and Tangent
5.5 Double-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Half-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.1
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86
Trigonometric Functions
Angles
Basic Terminology
An angle consists of two rays in a plane with a common endpoint. The two
rays are called the sides of the angle, and the common endpoint is called the
vertex.
If we position the angle so that one side is horizontal and points to the
right, then we call this side the initial side. The other side will be called the
terminal side. We imagine the initial side as being in a fixed position. We
imagine the terminal side being able to move. A counterclockwise rotation
1.1 Angles
Vertex
Initial Side
Degree Measure
The degree is a unit of measurement for angles. There are 360 degrees in
a circle. A half circle has 180 , and a right angle has 90 .
If an angle has measure greater than 0 and less than 90 , then it is
called an acute angle.
If an angle has measure greater than 90 and less than 180 , then it is
called an obtuse angle.
If an angle has measure equal to 90 , then it is called a right angle.
An angle that has measure equal to 180 is called a straight angle.
If the sum of the measures of two positive angles is 90 , then the angles
are called complementary angles.
If the sum of the measures of two positive angles is 180 , then the angles are called supplementary angles.
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Example 2 Finding the Measures of Complementary and Supplementary Angles Find the measure of each marked angle.
6
*
(6x)
(3x)
There are 60 minutes, written 600 , in one degree. There are 60 seconds,
written 6000 , in one minute. That is,
600 = 1
and 6000 = 10
Per-
1. 51 290 + 32 460
2. 90 73 120
Example 4 Converting Between Decimal Degrees and Degrees,
Minutes, and Seconds
1. Convert 74 80 1400 to decimal degrees to the nearest thousandth.
2. Convert 34.817 to degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Standard Position
If we position an angle in the xy-plane with the vertex is at the origin and
one side along the positive x-axis, then the angle is said to be in standard
position. The side that lies along the positive x-axis is called the initial
side. The other side opens counter-clockwise and is called the terminal
side.
1.1 Angles
2) 75
3) 800
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1.2
Geometric Properties
In this section we review some Euclidian geometry involving angles.
Two angles are said to be congruent if they have the same measure.
Two angles are said to be complementary if their sum is 90 .
Two angles are said to be supplementary if their sum is 180 .
Two lines are parallel in the plane if they never intersect.
Vertical Angles are congruent.
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
A
A
(3x + 2) A
1A 2
A3
A
A
A
A
n
A4 (5x 40)
A
A
B45 HH
HH
H
B
B
N HH
B
HH
H
HH
B
B
B HH
B
HH
B
H
HH
B104
H
HH
B
B
HH
HH
B
B
H
HH
32
H
HH
H
16 B
B
HH
H
B
B
24
H
BBHH
HH
B
HH
8B
H
B
H
the
At
the
the
10
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1.3
Trigonometric Functions
We will denote the distance in the plane from a point P (x, y) to the origin
as r, short for radius. If we have the x and y coordinate of the point P ,
then the following formula follows directly from the Pythagorean Theorem.
x2 + y 2 = r 2
Example Find the distance from the given point to the origin.
1. (3, 4)
2. (5, 12)
3. (1, 1)
11
cos = x/r
sin = y/r
tan = y/x
reciprocal
sec = r/x
csc = r/y
cot = x/y
12
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1.4
Reciprocal Identities
We obtain immediately From the definition of the six trig functions the following identities sometimes called the reciprocal identities.
1
cos
1
csc =
sin
1
cot =
tan
There is a mnemonic used to remember the reciprocal identities. The cos
dont go. (What on earth does this mean?)
sec =
5
3
12
2. sin , given that csc =
2
Signs and Ranges of Function Values
The plane is partitioned by the x- and y-axis into four quadrants. We label
the quadrants I, II, III, and IV, as shown below.
6
QII
QI
QIII
QIV
13
14
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
QII
, +
QI
+, +
-
QIII
,
QIV
+,
Example 2 Determining Signs of Functions of Non-Quadrantal Angles Determine the signs of the trigonometric functions of an angle in
standard position with the given measure.
The key is to determine in which quadrant the terminal side of the angle
lies.
1. 87
2. 300
3. 200
Example 3 Identifying the Quadrant of an Angle Identify the quadrant (or possible quadrants) of an angle that satisfies the given conditions.
1. sin > 0, tan < 0
2. cos < 0, sec < 0
The Range of Trigonometric Functions
The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values. The range
of a function is the set of all possible output values.
We have already pointed out that for quadrantal angles some of the trig
functions are undefined. This restricts the domains of those trig functions.
Lets find the range of the sine and cosine functions. Suppose that P (x, y)
is a point lying on the terminal side of an angle is standard position. We
have
x2 + y 2 = r 2
15
or
or
1 sec
1 csc
y
x
and cot = . Any output value is possible by
x
y
picking appropriate x and y.
By definition tan =
The range of the tangent and cotangent functions is the set of all real numbers.
Example 4 Deciding Whether a Value is in the Range of a Trigonometric Function Decide whether each statement is possible or impossible.
16
1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1. sin = 2.5
2. tan = 111.47
3. sec = .6
Example 5 Finding All Function Values Given One Value and the
2
Quadrant Suppose that angle is in quadrant II and sin = . Find the
3
values of the other five trigonometric functions.
Pythagorean Identities
Suppose that P (x, y) is a point lying on the terminal side of an angle in
standard position. Form the Pythagorean Theorem we have
x2 + y 2 = r 2
Dividing through by r2 gives
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
r2
r
We then get the very important Pythagorean Identity.
cos2 + sin2 = 1
Here cos2 means (cos )2 , and sin2 means (sin )2
17
18
2.1
Hypotenuse
Opposite
Adjacent
opposite
y
=
r
hypotenuse
x
adjacent
=
r
hypotenuse
y
opposite
tan = =
x
adjacent
cos =
19
csc =
1
sin
sec =
1
cos
cot =
1
tan
20
BP
PP
PP
PP
PP 25
PP
PP
PP
P
PP
PP
P
PP
P
24
Co-Functions
(90 )
Hypotenuse
adjacent to
opposite (90 )
=
= sin(90 )
hypotenuse
hypotenuse
Co-Function Identities
For any acute angle ,
sin = cos(90 ) sec = csc(90 ) tan = cot(90 )
cos = sin(90 ) csc = sec(90 ) cot = tan(90 )
Example 2 Writing Functions in Terms of Co-Functions Write each
function in terms of its co-function.
1. cos 52
21
2. tan 71
3. sec 24
Example 3 Solving Equations Using the Co-Function Identities
Find one solution for each equation. Assume all angles involved are acute
angles.
1. cos( + 4 ) = sin(3 + 2 )
2. tan(2 18 ) = cot( + 18 )
Example 4 Comparing Function Values of Acute Angles Determine
whether each statement is true or false.
1. sin 21 > sin 18
2. cos 49 cos 56
22
s2 + s2 = 12
45
1
s=
45
s=
2s2 = 1
2/2
s2 = 1/2
1
2
s= =
2
2
2/2
60
1/2
30
3/2
1
30
23
60
1/2
3/2
2.2
24
Here the plus or minus is the sign that must be determined be looking at the
quadrant in which lies. A similar statement is true for all of the remaining
trigonometric functions.
Finding the Trigonometric Values for any Non-Quadrantal Angle .
Step 1: If > 360 , then find a co-terminal angle by subtracting 360 as
many times as is needed to get an angle between 0 and 360 . If < 0 ,
then find a co-terminal angle by adding 360 as many times as is needed
to get an angle between 0 and 360 .
Step 2: Find the reference angle R .
Step 3: Find the trigonometric function values for the reference angle R .
Step 4: Determine the correct sign for the values found in Step 3 by looking
at the quadrant in which the terminal side of lies.
Example 2 Finding Trigonometric Function Values Using Reference
Angles Find the exact value of each expression.
1. cos(240 )
2. tan 675
Example 3 Evaluating an Expression with Function Values of Special Angles Evaluate the expression.
cos 120 + 2 sin2 60 tan2 30
Example 4 Using Co-Terminal Angles to Find Function Values
Evaluate each function by first expressing the function in terms of an angle between 0 and 360 .
1. cos 780
2. tan(405 )
25
2
cos =
.
2
2.3
1
cot 51.4283
4. sin(246 )
Finding Angle Measures Using a Calculator
On the game show Jeopardy!, the contestants are given an answer, and then
the contestants try to guess what the question is.
Try to find the question: The answer is 1/2. Okay, this is not enough
information. There are an infinite number of questions that have the answer
1/2. So lets try this: The answer is sin = 1/2 and is an acute angle.
What is ?
To find , we use the inverse sine function. Punch in sin1 (1/2) into
your calculator, by the way, make sure the calculator is set to degrees, and
you will get 30 . This means that sin 30 = 1/2.
A scientific calculator should have buttons sin1 , cos1 , and tan1 . Put
in a positive number, press one of these buttons, and the calculator will spit
26
2.4
Significant Digits
When making a calculation, we often give an approximate answer. When
giving an approximate answer, we round to a certain number of decimal
places. We must decide to what place we should round the answer to. A
scientific calculator will give as many digits as there will fit in the screen. Is
this a good practice?
A measurement can be an exact measurement if the thing being measured
is something that can be counted. However, it is often the case that when
a measurement is taken, the result is only accurate to a certain number of
digits.
Significant digits are the number of digits after the first nonzero digit.
Example State the number of significant digits.
1. 12.005
2. 0.0004507
3. 12.00
Suppose we are putting data into a function that is accurate to only three
significant digits. Then the output should be rounded to three significant digits.
27
Suppose some of the data put into a function is accurate to within five
significant digits, while other data is only accurate to three significant digits.
Then the output should be rounded to only three significant digits. We
should round the output to the least number of significant digits of the input.
c = 12.7 in
34 300
a = 29.43 cm
Q c = 53.58 cm
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Solve right
28
Angle of Elevation
-
@ Angle of Depression
@
@
@
@
@
@
R
@
2.5
Bearing
Bearing is an important concept in navigation. There are two methods to
express bearing.
Method I: When expressing bearing, an angle is measured in a clockwise
direction from due north.
29
Method II: The second method for expressing bearing starts with a
north-south line and uses an acute angle to show direction, either east of
west, from this line. Either N or S always comes first, followed by an acute
angle, ant then E or W.
30
Further Applications
Example 4 Solving a Problem Involving Angles of Elevation. Francisco needs to know the height of a tree. From a given point on the ground,
he finds that the angle of elevation to the top of the tree is 36.7 . He then
moves back 50 ft. From the second point, the angle of elevation to the top
of the tree is 22.2 . Find the height of the tree to the nearest foot.
3
3.1
Radian: An angle with its vertex at the center of a circle that intercepts
an arc on the circle equal in length to the radius of the circle has measure of
31
1 radian.
An angle of measure 2 radians will intercept an arc equal in length to
twice the radius of the circle. An angle of measure 1/2 radians will intercept
an arc equal in length to half the radius of the circle. In general, if is the
angle measurement in radians, r the radius of a circle, and s the length of
the intercepted arc, then
s
=
r
Converting Between Degrees and Radians
The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle. By the
definition of ,
C = 2r
The angle which corresponds to one rotation about the circle is 360 . In
radians, the angle which corresponds to one rotation about the circle is 2
radians.
360 = 2 radians.
Dividing both sides by 2 gives
180 = radians.
Converting Between Degrees and Radians.
1. To convert from degrees to radians, multiply a degree measure by
radians
.
180 degrees
2. To convert from radians to degrees, multiply a radian measure by
180 degrees
.
radians
Example 1 Converting Degrees to Radians.
measure to radians.
1. 45
32
3. 249.8
1.
9
4
2.
5
6
3. 4.25
Note: Another way to convert a radian measure to degrees is to substitute 180 for . For example, /6 = 180 /6 = 30 .
If no unit of angle measure is specified, then the angle is understood to
be in radians.
The angles marked below are important when we study trigonometry.
33
2
3
2. sin
3
2
3. cos
4
3
34
3.2
Arc Length
In the previous section, we defined the concept of radian by saying that
= s/r. If we clear the fraction, we get the following formula for arc length.
Formula for Arc Length: The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle
of radius r by a central angle of measure radians is given by s = r.
3
radians
8
2. 144
Example 2 Using Latitude to Find the Distance Between Two
Cities.
Latitude gives the measure of a central angle with vertex the
Earths center whose initial side passes through the equator and whose terminal side passes through the given location.
Reno, Nevada is approximately due north of Los Angles. The latitude of
Reno is 40 N, while that of Los Angeles is 34 N. The N means north of the
equator. The radius of the Earth is 6400 km. Find the north-south distance
between the two cities.
Example 3 Finding a Length Using s = r.
A rope is being wound
around a drum with radius 0.8725 ft. How much rope will be wound around
the drum if the drum is rotated through an angle of 39.72 .
Example 4 Finding an Angle Measure Using s = r. Two gears are
adjusted so that the smaller gear drives the larger one. If the smaller gear
rotates through an angle of 225 , through how many degrees will the larger
gear rotate?
35
2 1 2
r = r
2
2
1
Formula for the Area of a Sector: A = r2 , where is in radians.
2
3.3
In this section, we give yet another definition for the six trigonometric functions.
The unit circle is the circle or radius 1 centered at the origin. If an
angle is in standard position with terminal side intersecting the unit circle
a the point (x, y), then we define the six trigonometric functions as follows.
cos = x
sec = 1/x
sin = y
csc = 1/y
tan = y/x cot = x/y
36
The key is to remember the definition for sine and cosine. If you can
remember these, then the others follow by using identities.
Unit Circle Definition of Sine and Cosine: If (x, y) is the point intersected by the terminal side of angle in standard position on the unit circle,
then
cos = x and sin = y
This is consistent with the first definition that was given for the six
trigonometric functions. Here r has been replaced by 1 because on the unit
circle, r = 1.
The textbook calls these six trigonometric functions circular functions.
Example 1 Finding Exact Circular Function Values: Multiples of
/2. Partition the unit circle into multiples of /2 and give the coordinates
at those points. Then evaluate the following trigonometric expressions. Give
exact values.
a) sin
b) cos
37
c) tan
3
2
For the next couple problems, we will use the 45-45-90 and the 30-60-90
triangles.
45
1
45
2
2
2
2
38
30
60
3/2
30
1/2
60
1/2
3/2
a) sin
b) cos
5
4
c) tan
3
4
39
d) cos
7
4
a) sin
c) tan
2
3
b) cos
5
3
d) cos
4
3
40
a) sin
c) tan
b) cos
11
6
7
6
d) cos
5
6
4
.
3
41
Example Partition the unit circle into multiples of /6, /4, /3, and /2.
Label the x- and y-coordinates of those points.
42
Find a
1. cos 1.85
2. cos 0.5149
3. sec(2.9234)
Example 4 Finding a Number Given its Circular Function Value
For this example, we will use a calculator and the buttons sin1 , cos1 , tan1 .
1. Approximate the value of in the interval [0, /2], if cos = 0.9685.
43
3.4
Linear Speed
Suppose that a point P moves at a constant speed along a circle of radius
r and center O. The measure of how fast the position of P is changing is
called linear speed, denoted v. We have the formula
speed =
distance
,
time
that is v =
s
t
Angular Speed
The measure of how fast the angle is changing is called angular speed.
Angular speed, symbolized , is given by
= ,
t
in radians.
s
r
=
= r = r
t
t
t
44
4
4.1
y = sin x
45
46
Changes in Amplitude
Multiplying a function by a positive number a will stretch the graph vertically if a > 1 and compress the graph vertically if 0 < a < 1.
Example 1 The Graph of y = a sin x.
1. y = 2 sin x
2. y = 21 sin x
The amplitude of a sine wave, or the amplitude of the function, is the
absolute value of half the distance between the maximum and minimum ycoordinates on the wave.
The amplitude of y = a sin x or y = a cos x is |a|.
Changes in Period
The period P of y = sin bx or y = cos bx is given by
P =
2
b
4.2 More Translations of the Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions 47
graph horizontally if 1 < b.
Example 2 The Graph of y = sin bx. Graph y = sin 2x, and compare to
the graph of y = sin x. Sketch two cycles of the graph and label the quarter
interval endpoints.
Example 3 Graphing y = cos bx.
Graph y = cos 32 x, and compare to
the graph of y = cos x. Sketch two cycles of the graph and label the quarter
interval endpoints.
Reflection about the x-axis.
Multiplying any function, y = f (x), by 1, and thus resulting in y = f (x),
will reflect the graph of the function about the x-axis.
Example 4 The Graph of y = a sin bx. Graph y = 2 sin 3x. Sketch at
least two cycles of the function and label the quarter interval endpoints.
Example 5 The Graph of y = a cos bx for b equal to a Multiple of .
Sketch the graph of y = 3 sin x. Sketch at least two periods and label the
quarter interval endpoints.
4.2
Phase Shifts
For any function y = f (x), if x is replaced by x d, resulting in the function
y = f (x d), then the graph of f is shifted to the right if d > 0 and to the
left if d < 0. For trigonometric functions, a translation to the right or the
left is called a phase shift.
Example 1 Sketching the Graph of y = sin(x d). Sketch two cycles
of the graph of y = sin(x /3). Label the quarter period endpoints.
Example 2 Sketching the Graph of y = a cos(x d). Sketch two cycles
of the graph of y = 3 cos(x + /4). Label the quarter period endpoints.
Example 3 Sketching the Graph of y = a cos b(x d).
Sketch two
cycles of the graph of y = 2 cos(3x+). Label the quarter period endpoints.
48
Vertical Translations
For the graphs of sine waves, I call the axis of the function the horizontal
line, y = L, where L is the average value of the maximum and the minimum
of the function. For y = sin x and y = cos x, the axis of the function is just
the x-axis. I dont think that anybody else uses this terminology.
Adding a number c to any function y = f (x), resulting in the function
y = c + f (x), will shift the graph of f upward if c > 0 and downward if c < 0.
Example 4 Sketching the Graph of y = c + a cos bx. Sketch two cycles
of the graph of y = 3 2 cos 3x. Label the quarter period endpoints.
Guidelines for Sketching the Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions
To sketch the graph of y = c + a sin b(x d) or y = a cos b(x d), with b > 0,
follow these steps.
Step 1: Find the period. Use P = 2pi/b, where b is the coefficient of x.
Step 2: Find the quarter period by dividing the period by 4. QtrPer= P/4.
Step 3: Find the phase shift, d. This is the starting point of the graph.
Step 3: Sketch two cycles of the the wave curve. The sine graph starts at
the x-axis, while the cosine graph starts at its maximum.
Step 4: Label the starting point. This is the phase shift d.
Step 5 Add the quarter period to the starting point. If necessary, get a
common denominator for the starting point and the quarter period in
order to make the addition easier. Repeat to label the quarter interval
endpoints.
Step 4: Label the maximum and minimum values of the curve using the
amplitude |a|.
Step 5: If the graph has been shifted up or down by c, then draw a dotted
line for y = c. Sketch the graph of the function as if the line y = c is
the x-axis. Then later go back and draw the x-axis.
49
Combinations of Translations
Example 5 Sketching the Graph of y = c + a sin b(x d).
Sketch
two cycles of the graph of y = 1 + 2 sin(4x + ). Label the quarter period
endpoints.
4.3
50
51
4.4
y = sec x
52
y = csc x
53
54
5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
3
of y = 2 csc x 2 .
Trigonometric Identities
5.1
Fundamental Identities
Fundamental Identities
An identity is an equation that is satisfied by every value in the domain of
its variable.
Reciprocal Identities. The cos dont go.
cot =
1
tan
sec =
1
cos
csc =
sin
cos
cot =
cos
sin
Quotient Identities.
tan =
Pythagorean Identities.
sin2 + cos2 = 1
tan2 + 1 = sec2
1 + cot2 = csc2
Other Forms of the Pythagorean Identities
sin2 = 1 cos2
cos2 = 1 sin2
1
sin
55
Even Identities
cos() = cos
sec() = sec
Express
56
5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
5.2
Verify
Verify
1
1 sin2 x
Verify
tan t cot t
= sec2 t csc2 t
sin t cos t
Example 4 Verifying an Identity (Working with One Side).
that the following equation is an identity.
Verify
1 + sin x
cos x
=
1 sin x
cos x
Verifying Identities with Both Sides
Example 5 Verifying an Identity (Working with Both Sides).
that the following equation is an identity.
sec + tan
1 + 2 sin + sin2
=
sec tan
cos2
Verify
5.3
57
|P R| = |QS|
Example 1 Finding Exact Cosine Function Values.
value of each expression.
1. cos 15
2. cos 5
12
3. cos 87 cos 93 sin 87 sin 93
Cofunction Identities
The cofunction identities were presented in Section 2.1. We can now prove
these identities using the Cosine Sum-Difference Formula. Here they are once
58
5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
again.
Co-Function Identities
For any acute angle ,
sin = cos(90 ) sec = csc(90 ) tan = cot(90 )
cos = sin(90 ) csc = sec(90 ) cot = tan(90 )
Example 2 Using Cofunction Identities.
each of the following.
1. cot = tan 25
2. sin = cos(/6)
3. csc 3
= sec
4
5.4
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tan A + tan B
1 tan A tan B
tan(A B) =
tan A tan B
1 + tan A tan B
Find
1. sin 75
7
2. tan
12
3. sin 40 cos 160 cos 40 sin 160
Example 2 Writing Functions as Expressions Involving Functions
of . Write each function as an expression involving functions of .
1. sin(30 + )
2. tan(45 )
3. sin(180 + )
Example 3 Finding Function Values and the Quadrant of + .
Suppose that and are angles in standard position, with sin = 4/5,
angle in quadrant II, and cos = 5/13, angle in quadrant III. Find the
following.
1. sin( + )
2. cos( + )
3. The quadrant of +
Example 4 Verifying an Identity Using Sum and Difference Identities. Verify the equation is an identity.
sin
+ + cos
+ = cos
6
3
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5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
5.5
Double-Angle Identities
Double-Angle Identities
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos2 sin2
cos 2 = 1 2 sin2
cos 2 = 2 cos2 1
2 tan
1 tan2
Example 1 Finding Function Values of 2 Given Information about
.
Given cos = 3/5 and sin < 0, find sin 2, cos 2, and tan 2.
Example 2 Finding Function Values of Given Information about
2. Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of if cos 2 = 4/5
and is in quadrant II.
Example 3 Verifying a Double-Angle Identity.
Verify that the
following equation is an identity.
tan 2 =
61
1
[cos(A + B) + cos(A B)]
2
1
[cos(A B) cos(A + B)]
2
1
sin A cos B = [sin(A + B) + sin(A B)]
2
1
cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) sin(A B)]
2
sin A sin B =
Sum-to-Product Identities
Sum-to-Product Identities
A+B
AB
sin A + sin B = 2 sin
cos
2
2
AB
A+B
sin
2
2
A+B
AB
cos A + cos B = 2 cos
cos
2
2
A+B
AB
cos A cos B = 2 sin
sin
2
2
sin A sin B = 2 cos
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5 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
5.6
Half-Angle Identities
Half-Angle Identities
s
A
1 + cos A
cos =
2
2
s
A
1 cos A
sin =
2
2
A
1 cos A
tan =
2
1 + cos A
A
sin A
=
2
1 + cos A
A
1 cos A
tan =
2
sin A
tan
1.
2.
1 + cos 12x
2
1 cos 5
sin 5
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Example 5 Verifying and Identity.
is an identity.
sin
x
x
+ cos
2
2
3
= 1 + sin x
6.1
The graph of this relation is a circle with radius 1 centered at the origin.
A relation is a function if for every x-value, there is exactly one y-value.
The above example is relation but not a function. The value x = 0 corresponds to two y-values, y = 1 and y = 1.
The Vertical Line Test says that a relation is a function if and only if
no vertical line intersects the graph at more than one point.
The relation y = x2 is a function. This means that y is a function of x.
This is because for each x value, there exists a unique y value. The graph is
a parabola. We can plot some points.
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y = x2
x
2
1
0
1
2
y=x
4
1
0
1
4
y
2
1
0
1
2
65
66
2. cos1 ( 2/2)
67
68
tan (1/x)
/2
for
for
for
x>0
x<0
x=0
1. sin tan
3
2
2. tan cos
13
1. cos arctan
2. tan 2arcsin
3 + arcsin
2
5
1
3
Evaluate
Write each
69
70
y = tan1 x
6.2
Trigonometric Equations I
2. sin = 3/2
Example Solve for all in [0, 2).
1. cos = 2/2
2. sin = 1/2
Example Solve for all real numbers , where is in radians.
1. cos = 3/2
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2. sin = 2/2
Solving by Linear Methods
Example 1 Solving Trigonometric Equations by Linear Methods.
Solve 2 sin + 1 = 0 over the interval [0, 360 ].
Solving by Factoring
Example 2 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Factoring.
over the interval [0, 2).
Solve
Solve
tan2 x + tan x 2 = 0
Example 4 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Using The Quadratic
Formula.
Find all solutions and write the solution set.
cot x(cot x + 3) = 1
Solving by Using Trigonometric Identities
Example 5 Solving a Trigonometric Equation by Squaring.
over the interval [0, 2).
tan x + 3 = sec x
Solve
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6.3
Trigonometric Equations II
4 sin cos = 3
Example Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle. Solve over the interval [0, 2).
sin 2x = 1/2
Example Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle. Solve over the interval [0, 2).
cos 2x = 2/2
Example 4 Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle.
the interval [0, 2).
tan 3x + sec 3x = 2
6.4
Solve over
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Solving Inverse Trigonometric Equations
Example 2 Solving an Equation Involving an Inverse Trigonometric
Function. Solve for x.
2 arcsin x =
Example 3 Solving an Equation Involving Inverse Trigonometric
Functions. Solve for x.
cos1 x = sin1
1
2
7
7.1
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75
Area of a Triangle
Area of a Triangle (SAS)
In any triangle ABC, the area A is given by the following formulas:
1
1
A = bc sin A, A = ab sin C,
2
2
1
A = ac sin B
2
7.2
The ambiguous cases for solving a triangle using the Law of Sines refers to
the Angle-Side-Side (ASS) case. This is an ambiguous cases because it is
possible with the information given to have no triangle, one triangle, or two
triangles.
If angle A is acute, that is A < 90 , there are four possible outcomes.
The first step is to find the height, h = b sin A .
76
a<h
a=h
ab
h<a<b
Diagram
77
Number of Triangles
Diagram
Solve
Solve
Solve
7.3
78
79
7.4
Basic Terminology
A vector can be represented as a directed line segment or an arrow.
The initial point is where the vector starts; the terminal point is where
it ends.
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If the initial point is P , and the terminal point is Q, then the vector can
be written as P Q.
We add two vectors by placing the initial point of one of the vectors at
the terminal point at the other vector.
We can add vectors using the parallelogram rule. If vectors A and B are
positioned so that there initial points are the same, then a parallelogram can
be drawn. One side can be drawn parallel to A, another side can be drawn
parallel to B. The sum is the diagonal of the vertex. starting at the initial
point of A and B.
81
82
The numbers a and b are the horizontal component and the vertical
component. The positive angle between the x-axis and the position vector
is the direction angle for the vector.
We can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the magnitude of a vector.
Magnitude and Direction Angle of a Vector ha, bi. The magnitude (length) of a vector u = ha, bi is given by
|u| = a2 + b2 .
The direction angle satisfies tan = ab , where a 6= 0.
Find the
83
84
equals 0.225 lb.) If the angle between the forces is 100 , find the magnitude
of the resultant force.
Operations with Vectors
Vector Operations. For any real numbers a, b, c, d and k.
1. Addition.
ha, bi + hc, di = ha + c, b + di
2. Scalar Multiplication.
kha, bi = hka, kbi
3. Additive Inverse.
If a = ha, bi, then a = ha, bi.
4. ha, bi hc, di = ha, bi + (hc, di) = ha c, b di.
Example 4 Performing Vector Operations.
v = h4, 3i. Find the following.
1. u + b
2. 2u
3. 4u 3v
A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude 1. Two very useful unit
vectors are
i = h1, 0i j = h0, 1i
i, j Form for Vectors
If v = ha, bi, then v = ai + bj, where i = h1, 0i and j = h0, 1i.
Example Write the following vectors in terms of i and j.
1. u = h2, 3i
2. v = h5, 7i
85
1. h2, 3i h4, 1i
2. h6, 4i h2, 3i
Properties of the Dot Product
For all vectors u, v, and w and real numbers k,
1. u v = v u
2. u (v + w) = u v + u w
3. (u + v) w = u w + v w
4. (ku) v = k(u v) = u (kv)
5. 0 u = 0
6. u u = |u|2
Geometric Interpretation of the Dot Product
If is the angle between the two nonzero vectors u and v, where 0
180 , then
u v = |u||v| cos
or equivalently
cos =
uv
|u||v|
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7.5
Applications of Vectors
The resultant of two vectors is the same as the sum of the vectors. It is
used when referring to two force vectors. If the vector u is the resultant ,
then u is called the equilibrant. The equilibrant is the vector that will
counterbalance the resultant.
Example 1 Finding the Magnitude and Direction of an Equilibrant.
Find the magnitude of the equilibrant of forces of 48 newtons and 60 newtons
acting on a point A, if the angle between the forces is 50 . Then find the
angle between the equilibrant and the 48-newton force.
87
Navigation Applications
Example 4 Applying Vectors to a Navigation Problem.
A ship
leaves port on a bearing of 28.0 and travels 8.20 mi. The ship then turns
due east and travels 4.30 mi. How far is the ship from port? What is its
bearing from port?
88