1.

Overview of Water Problems

ater

net benefits, however measured, of

resources

planning

and

management
activities

are

usually motivated, as they were in each

of the previous sections case examples,
by the realization that there are both
problems to solve and opportunities to
obtain increased benefits from the use
of water and related land resources.
These benefits can be measured in many
different ways. Inevitably, it is not easy

alternative

plans

and

management

policies. System performance criteria of

interest have evolved over time. They
have developed from being primarily
focused on safe drinking water just a
century ago, to multipurpose economic
development a half-century ago, to
goals that now include environmental
and

ecosystem

restoration

and

protection, aesthetic and recreational

experiences,

and

more

recently,

sustainability (ASCE, 1998).

to agree on the best way to do so, and

Some of the multiple purposes served

whatever is proposed may provoke

by a river can be conflicting. A reservoir

conflict. Hence there is the need for

used solely for hydropower or water

careful study and research, as well as

supply is better able to meet its

full stakeholder involvement, in the

objectives when it is full of water, rather

search for a shared vision of the best

than when it is empty. On the other

compromised

management

hand, a reservoir used solely for

policy. Reducing the frequency and/or

downstream flood control is best left

severity of the adverse consequences of

empty, until the flood comes of course.

droughts, floods and excessive pollution

A single reservoir serving all three

are common goals of many planning

purposes introduces conflicts over how

and management exercises. Other goals

much water to store in it and how it

include the identification and evaluation

should be operated. In basins where

of

may

diversion demands exceed the available

increase the available water supplies or

supplies, conflicts will exist over water

hydropower, improve recreation and/or

allocations. Finding the best way to

navigation, and enhance the quality of

manage, if not resolve, these conflicts

water

alternative

and

Quantitative

plan

or

measures

that

aquatic

ecosystems.

that occur over time and space are other

system

performance

reasons for planning.

criteria can help one judge the relative

Too Little Water

Issues involving inadequate supplies to

flow and storage volumes.

meet demands can result from conflicts

or concerns over land and water use.
They

can

result

urbanization,

from

the

growing
of

Damage due to flooding is a direct

additional water supplies, the need to

result of floodplain development that is

meet in stream flow requirements, and

vulnerable to floods. This is a risk many

conflicts over private property and

take, and indeed on average it may

public

result in positive private net benefits,

rights

development

Too Much Water

regarding

water

allocations. Other issues can involve

especially

trans-basin water transfers and markets,

subsidize these private risk takers in

objectives

efficiency

times of flooding. In many river basins

versus the desire to keep non-efficient

of developed regions, the level of

activities

annual

of

economic

viable,

management

and

expected

public

flood

agencies

damage

is

including

increasing over time, in spite of

incentives for water reuse and water

increased expenditures on flood damage

reuse financing. Measures to reduce the

reduction measures. This is mainly due

demand for water in times of supply

to increased economic development on

scarcity should be identified and agreed

river floodplains, not to increased

upon before everyone has to cope with

frequencies or magnitudes of floods.

an

The increased economic value of the

actual

measures,

demand

when

water

scarcity.

The

institutional authority to implement

development

drought measures when their designated

justifies increased expenditure on flood

triggers such as decreasing storage

damage

volumes in reservoirs have been met

protection works decrease the risks of

should

flooding

be

established

before

the

on

reduction
and

floodplains
measures.

consequent

often
Flood

damage,

measures are needed. Such management

creating an incentive for increased

responses

increased

economic development. Then when a

groundwater abstractions to supplement

flood exceeding the capacity of existing

low surface-water flows and storage

flood protection works occurs, and it

volumes. Conjunctive use of ground and

will, even more damage results. This

surface waters can be sustainable as

cycle of increasing flood damage and

long as the groundwater aquifers are

cost of protection is a natural result of

may

include

recharged during conditions of high

the increasing values of floodplain

The hydrologic cycle is a conceptual

development.

model that describes the storage and

Just

what

is

the

appropriate level of risk? It may

movement

depend, as Figure 1. illustrates, on the

biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and

level of flood insurance or subsidy

the hydrosphere (see Figure 1). Water

provided when flooding occurs. Flood

on our planet can be stored in any one

damage will decrease only if restrictions

of the following major reservoirs:

are placed on floodplain development.

atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils,

Analyses carried out during planning

glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater.

can help identify the appropriate level

Water moves from one reservoir to

of development and flood damage

another by way of processes like

protection works, on the basis of both

evaporation,

the

precipitation,

beneficial

and

the

adverse

of

water

between

the

condensation,
deposition,

runoff,

economic, environmental and ecological

infiltration, sublimation, transpiration,

consequences

floodplain

melting, and groundwater flow. The

development. People are increasingly

oceans supply most of the evaporated

recognizing the economic as well as

water found in the atmosphere. Of this

environmental and ecological benefits

evaporated water, only 91% of it is

of allowing floodplains to do what they

returned to the ocean basins by way of

were formed to do: store flood waters

precipitation. The remaining 9% is

when floods occur.

transported to areas over landmasses

of

where climatological factors induce the

formation of precipitation. The resulting
imbalance between rates of evaporation
and precipitation over land and ocean is
corrected by runoff and groundwater
flow to the oceans.

Figure 1. The lowest risk of flooding on a

floodplain does not always mean the best risk,
and what risk is acceptable may depend on the
amount of insurance or subsidy provided when
flood damage occurs.

Hydrologic Cycle

Figure 2. Hydrologic cycle.

The water on the Earth's surface surface

water occurs as streams, lakes, and
wetlands, as well as bays and oceans.
Surface water also includes the solid
forms of water snow and ice. The water
below the surface of the Earth primarily
is ground water, but it also includes soil
water.

Figure 3. The diagram hydrologic cycle.

The hydrologic cycle commonly is

portrayed by a very simplified diagram
that shows only major transfers of water
between continents and oceans, as in
Figure 4. However, for understanding
hydrologic processes and managing

ycle describes the continuous movement of water above, on, and below the surface of the Earth.

water resources, the hydrologic cycle

needs to be viewed at a wide range of
scales and as having a great deal of
variability in time and space.

Humans significantly influence the

global water cycle, both quantitatively
and qualitatively. Concerning quantity,
humans withdraw 8% of the total annual
renewable freshwater, and appropriate
26% of annual evapotranspiration and
54% of accessible runoff. Humankinds
Figure 4. Ground water is the second smallest of
the four main pools of water on Earth, and river
flow to the oceans is one of the smallest fluxes,
yet ground water and surface water are the
components of the hydrologic system that
humans use most.

control of runoff is now global and we

Precipitation, which is the source of

population

virtually all freshwater in the hydrologic

percentage of appropriated water is

cycle, falls nearly everywhere, but its

increasing. Together with spatial and

distribution is highly variable. Similarly,

temporal variations in available water,

evaporation and transpiration return

the consequence is that water for all our

water

uses is becoming scarce and leading to a

to

everywhere,

the
but

atmosphere
evaporation

nearly
and

transpiration rates vary considerably

according to climatic conditions. As a
result, much of the precipitation never
reaches the oceans as surface and
subsurface runoff before the water is
returned to the atmosphere. The relative
magnitudes

of

the

individual

components of the hydrologic cycle,

such as evapotranspiration, may differ
significantly even at small scales, as
between an agricultural field and a
nearby woodland.
Human Influences on the Water
Cycle

are

significant

players

in

the

hydrological cycle. Per capita use is

increasing (with better lifestyles) and
is

growing.

Thus

the

water crisis (WWAP 2003).

Local water cycles are also influenced
by the way we plan our cities: When
land is paved, water cannot soak into
the soil. It runs off these hard surfaces
very rapidly, so pipes are needed to
rapidly carry the resulting large volumes
of stormwater to the nearest stream or
beach. The result is that streams carry
less water or dry up when it is not
raining

and

flood

when

it

does.

Pollutants on roads and yards are also

swept

into

waterways

sustainable sanitation).

(see

also

Figure 5. Influences on the water cycle in cities through sealed surfaces. Source: AUCKLAND CITY
COUNCIL (2010)
Figure 6. The main uses of water are for agriculture, industry and household use. Industrial use of water
increases with country income, going from 10% for low- and middle-income countries to 59% for highincome countries. Source: WBCSD (2009)

Good Water Management Concept

trees more prone to insect damage

Using Hydrologic Cycle Approach

and

disease

and

increase

the

in develop water management system.

potential for grass and forest fires.

2. The Focus of Water Managers
Because fresh surface water and

They must have each component to

fresh groundwater are the only

support sustainable water cycle. This is

parts of the hydrologic

my concept to handle it, as follows:

cycle that can be used by

Hydrologic cycle approach can be used

1. When less rain falls than usual,

there is less water to maintain
normal soil moisture, stream flows,
and reservoir levels and to recharge
ground water. Falling levels of
surface waters create unattractive
areas of exposed shoreline and
reduce the capacity of surface
waters to dilute and carry municipal
and industrial wastewater. Water
quality often decreases as water
quantity

decreases,

adversely

affecting fish and wildlife habitats.

In addition, dry conditions make

humans, most interest in

the hydrologic cycle by
water
focused

managers
on

is
these

resources. Although it is
important to know how
much water is stored in
groundwater, lakes, and
wetlands, understanding
the movement of water
to, within, and from
watersheds is far more
important, and a far
greater

challenge.

The
hydrologic
cycle is a basic
concept
that
water managers
need to keep in
mind
in
their
daily work. When
the flow of water
is manipulated to
fulfill
human
needs,
it
is
necessary
to
understand how
these actions will
affect
the
hydrologic cycle
and, ultimately,
the
availability
and quality of
water
to
downstream
users. Thorough
understanding of
the
hydrologic
cycle
is
absolutely
necessary
if
maximum use of
the
water
resources is to be

Indeed,

most

research

in

the

through, and leave watersheds. This

hydrologic sciences is devoted to

is a challenge because the relative

understanding movement of water,

magnitudes

and the movement of chemicals and

transfers in the hydrologic cycle

sediment transported by water in

can vary substantially. For example,

watersheds.

in mountainous areas, precipitation

of

the

individual

is more difficult to measure high in

To assure adequate water resources

the mountains compared to in the

for human use, water managers

valleys.

need to be able to measure the

amounts of water that enter, pass
Mountain

snowpack

and

the

billion people do not have access to

amount of melt water it can deliver

improved water sources, and 2.6

can vary widely, thereby affecting

billion

natural water budgets at lower

elevations.
As a second example, evaporation

do

not

use

improved

sanitation options.
Single sector approaches such as
wastewater

treatment

or

water

rates may differ greatly among an

management as such are limited in their

agricultural

nearby

actions. To save and recycle water,

woodland, and a nearby wetland.

regain resources, to protect ecosystems

Thirdly,

and

field,
the

discharge

of

to

provide

mankind

with

groundwater to surface water may

prosperous and healthy environment,

vary in different parts of watersheds

the whole water cycle needs to be taken

because different rock and sediment

into account in an integrated, holistic

types may be present.

3. Water scarcity is a

way linking up sustainable water

complex

management sanitation and agriculture.

problem. It is one of unsustainable

thinking,

4. From a hydrologic viewpoint,

mismanagement and a lacking and

the first step of watershed

holistic water governance. As so

management is to evaluate past,

often, it is the life of the poor who

present,

are affected most: by water related

management

disease, by degraded and dangerous

watershed with respect to the

environments, by a lack of food and

watershed

water for hygiene. Almost one

Basically,

use,

sectoral

and

proposed

practices
water
watershed

on

balance.
water

balance is an accounting tool to

analysis one can evaluate the

keep track of the hydrologic

hydrologic,

cycle of a watershed over time.

ecological feasibility of past,

When

present, and potential activities

the

watershed

water

balance concept is used in

conjunction

2. Integrated

with

Water

"Integrated"

Resources

Management
sustainability

is
is

Water

Resources

essentially
the

and

on a watershed.

probability

Management (IWRM)
The relationship between "Sustainable"
and

economic,

general

that
goal

whereas Integrated Water Resources

Integrated

Water

Resources

Management (IWRM) is what most

people aim to achieve in both, research
and practice, to enable a sustainable
way of handling water resources. An
often quoted definition of IWRM is
given by the Global Water Partnership:

Management (IWRM) is a strategy for

"IWRM is a process which promotes the

pursuing this goal.

co-ordinated
Sustainability

is

the

vision

the

management of natural resources. But

the

worldwide

water

problems

demonstrate that humankind as a whole

is still far away from finding sustainable
ways

to

Despite

manage

water

considerable

resources.

efforts,

development

and

management of water, land and related

resources, in order to maximize the
resultant economic and social welfare in
an

equitable

manner

without

compromising the sustainability of vital

ecosystems." (GWP 2000: 22)

water

scarcity is expected to increase and

A core element of IWRM is the demand

both, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

for

are at risk of further damage, for

multitude of relevant natural processes

example due to changes in agricultural

and compartments in the catchment

practice, demographic structure and

region are to be assessed, while the

climate.

multitude

coordinated

of

management.

human

interests

and

influences

on

the

natural

water

flexible enough so that they can be

resources also have to be considered.

adapted when conditions alter due to

This includes the potential conflicts

global change and so that they can

among economic development, social

allow for the associated uncertainties in

well-being and the conservation of

the future.

ecosystems.

successful

water

While the basic idea underlying the

management

IWRM is well established, there are a

requirements. In this sense, we seek for

number of scientific challenges to be

strategies towards a Sustainable Water

addressed first, before implementing

Resources Management.

specific solutions in a sustainable way.

These include:

must

resources

meet

these

It is hardly possible to meet these

requirements

with

one

all-

Understanding the specific catchment:

encompassing, general concept. Hence

To achieve the required consideration of

we are convinced that a successful,

the multitude of relevant operational

sustainable water resource management

relationships, the individual processes

must address specific problem situations

and

be

associated with a particular resource or

sufficiently well understood. This also

a particular catchment region. Boxes 1

includes an appropriate consideration of

and 2 give examples of typical water

uncertainties

describing

problems,

developing

management

the

catchment

overall

system

when
regions

and

must

potential solutions.

in

which
requires

sustainable
appropriately

dealing with these challenges. These

Problem specific integration: The need

for integration associated with the
IWRM concept raises the challenge to
find ways to consider the multiple and
complex relationships and various usage
conflicts, which exist in a specific
catchment.

typical problems are, amongst others,

addressed in two of the regional
integration catchments.
The Brantas river basin
Since long time ago the Brantas river
basin suffered caused by eruption of
Mt.Kelud, the active volcano located in

Adaptability: To achieve a sustainable

the middle reaches of the basin. Mt.

IWRM,

concepts,

Kelud erupted 11 times in the period of

measures and instruments must be

year 1811-1990. The volume of erupted

management

material amount to 100-300 million m3

floods along the Brantas river almost

was extruded in one eruption. On the

every year.

time of eruption, hot mud flow called

primary lahar, rushed down and

Objective of the development

destroy everything. Some of lahar

In general, objectives of the Brantas

deposited in the mountain slopes, called

river basin development is to raise up

secondary lahar and flowing down

social life prosperity in economy, social

together with rain water to the plain

and culture of the society within the

area.and to the mainstream of the

basin.

Brantas river. Raising up of the Brantas

plan has been formulated in the Brantas

riverbed during 1951 1970 was

river basin to control flood, to increase

around 1,50 m in on average, caused

food

Comprehensive

production,

development

water

supply,

electricity, etc.

Figure 7. Brantas River Basin

Stage of development

Based on the development cycle and

budget availability, development of the

Brantas river was implemented stages,

( 1985 ) priority water supply for

and as long as possible follows of a

drinking water and industry, Master

series of Master Plan as follows :

Plan IV ( 1998) priority water

Master Plan I- (1961 )- priority flood

resources

control, Master Plan II 1973)- priority

comprehensive development plan is

food

shown in the Figure below.

production,

Master

Plan

III

management.

Figure 8. The Brantas River Basins Master Plans

The

Figure 8. Development of Brantas Basin

River Basin Management on Brantas

project was 50 years. The project was

Basin (nowadays)

designed to irrigate 10,000 ha of

In Indonesia, the problems after project

had been completed were lack of
institution responsible in managing
finished structures , lack of qualified
staffs and lack of budget to manage the
structures Budget allocation from the
Government was very limited and less
than

standard

requirement,

caused

decresae of function of the structures

irrigation area. In fact after about 5

years completion, because of lack of
management, capacity of the project
decreased to 5,000 ha. Looking from
economic view point, when the project
was re-evaluated, probably the benefits
will less than the costs. It means the
project can be said the suffer loss
project and the objectives of the
development can not be achieved. On

For example, there was an irrigation

the other hand, the borrower ( all the

project.. The cost of the project was

people in the country ) has an obligation

supported by donor agencies through

to pay back the loan. As a result the

soft loan. Economic life time of the

poor country ( poor people ) will

become more poor. This illustration was

year is about 1 % of construction cost ,

not rare occurred in many projects.

(3) Periodical evaluation ( every 5 years

International

) of finished structures has to be done to

understanding

and

cooperation is important to overcome

these problems.

overcome the problems, if any.

In the case of the Brantas river basin, a

The alternatives solution proposed by

state own company ( Jasa Tirta Public

the author are : (1) Establising of state

Corporation) had been established in

own company to manage the finished

1990. The Corporation has an obligation

structures. The cost of preparation is

to manage the Brantas river basin and

included in the project cost, (2) The cost

has an authority to collect money from

to manage the finished structures is

beneficiaries ( industry, drinking water

supported by donor agencies (fore

company

instance up to 5 years after project

company ). Farmers are free from

completion). Amount of O&M cost per

obligation to pay contribution.

and

electricity

Figure 9. Institutional Frameworks for Brantas Basin Management

power

Integrated Water Resources

was, therefore, that a more balanced

Management (IWRM) in the Brantas

approach to the development of river

River Basin

basins should be adopted for the future.

Integrated water resources management

This attention to social equity relates to

is taken to mean the process of

another point on which agreement was

formulating and implementing a course

reached,

of action involving management of

problems of river-basin development

water and related resources for the

and water resources management cannot

purposes

optimum

be found solely from a technical

allocation of water resources within a

standpoint, but must be reached through

catchment area. With the Ministry of

close attention to social and economic

Settlement and Regional Development

factors affecting use of natural and

as the lead agency in this effort, this

human resources. Technical answers to

optimisation of water utilisation is

most of the problems faced in the case

meant to contribute to increase human

study basins are already known. This

welfare from improved agricultural,

technical knowledge can be made

domestic and industrial use of water.

useful, however, only if it is combined

of

achieving

It is important to understand the need to

intensify development efforts in upland
areas. This is in response to a clear
understanding, from experience with
flooding,

siltation

and

other

downstream consequences of upstream

activities, that a complex of interrelationships links upland and lowland
social and ecological systems. There is
clear sense that the past focus on the
lowlands has been at the expense of
upland areas, in terms of policy and
programme attention. The consensus

namely,

that

answers

to

with knowledge of social and economic

systems to develop viable solutions to
problems such as upland soil erosion,
low incomes of many rural inhabitants,
inefficiency in irrigation and other water
applications, and so forth. It was agreed
that

such

social

and

economic

knowledge could only be obtained

through active participation of local
residents in activities of river-basin
development

and

water

resources

management. Table 1 shows these

activities, which are explained below.

Table 1. Integrated Water Resources Management (Scope of Wrok)

TAKE HOME TEST

Water Management

Daru Nurisma Pramukti

146060112111002

Manistry of Education and Culture

Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering-Magister Program
Brawijaya University
Malang
2015