Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Content:
5. Forging
6. Casting
7. Fabrication
8. Welding
9. Electro chemical machining
10.Electro discharge machining
11.Composite materials and sandwich casing
12.Special Manufacturing process, laser machining, robotics, Plasma
spray.
13.Cellular Manufacturing.
14.Quality assurance
15.Engine Assembly.
16. Engine Testing and dispatch
1.
The development of the gas turbine engine as an aircraft power plant has been so rapid
that it is difficult to appreciate that prior to the 1950s very few people had heard of this
method of aircraft propulsion.
Development of aircraft engine can not be credited to any individual. Sir whittle of
England, Hanse Van Ohoin and Max muller of Germany and Secondo Campini of Iatly
had got some success in their effort to develop the aircraft engine. In fact in 1930 Whittle
had tried to patent the engine, but did not succeeded in his effort. Finally he had
developed first working jet engine in 1937. The whittle engine formed the basis of the
modern gas turbine engine and from it many engines were developed such as Welland,
Derwent, Nene and Dart.
The Derwent and Nene turbo jet engines had world wide military application. The Dart
turbo propeller engine became world famous as the power plant for Vickers Viscount
aircraft.
Although other aircraft may be fitted with latter engines termed as twin spool, triple
spool, bypass, ducted fan, un ducted fan and profane, these are inevitable development of
Whittle early engine.
1.1
Over the course of the past half a century, jet-powered flight has vastly changed the way
we all live. However, the basic principle of jet propulsion is neither new nor complicated.
Centuries ago in 100 A.D., Hero, a Greek philosopher and mathematician, demonstrated
jet power in a machine called an "aeolipile." A heated, water filled steel ball with nozzles
spun as steam escaped. Why? The principle behind this phenomenon was not fully
understood until 1690 A.D. when Sir Isaac Newton in England formulated the principle
of Hero's jet propulsion "aeolipile" in scientific terms. His Third Law of Motion stated:
"Every action produces a reaction ... equal in force and opposite in direction."
The jet engine of today operates according to this same basic principle. Jet engines
contain three common components: the compressor, the combustor, and the turbine. To
this basic engine, other components may be added, including:
A nozzle to recover and direct the gas energy and possibly divert the thrust for
vertical takeoff and landing as well as changing direction of aircraft.
A thrust reverser, which blocks the gas rushing toward the rear of the engine,
thus forcing the gases forward to provide additional braking of aircraft.
A fan in front of the compressor to increase thrust and reduce fuel consumption.
1.2
Constant demand for the greater efficiency, economy and quieter engines has produced a
numbers of variations of basic jet engines. Some variations of the engine are described
below.
2.0
Gas turbine engine is utilized to power UN manned aircrafts also. A typical engine for
this application and an unmanned aircraft is depicted in below pictures.
Un manned Aircraft
A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using air as a working fluid to provide
thrust. Cross section view of a typical gas turbine engine is shown below.
Compressor
The function of a compressor is to increase the pressure of incoming air so that
the combustion process could be done effectively. There are two methods by which the
compression is effected, basically classified with regards to the direction of flow of air.
The centrifugal compressor consists of an impeller and a diffuser. Air enters the
compressor at the centre of the impeller and is then compressed by the rotational motion
of the impeller. Thus the rotational velocity of air is increased. This increase in velocity is
converted to increase in pressure through the diffuser. In this type of compressor, air flow
takes a full 90 before entering the combustion chamber.
The axial flow compressor consists of a series of rotating rotor blades followed by a
stationary row of stator blades, whose combination is called a stage. An axial compressor
usually has many numbers of such stages to achieve the desired pressure increment.
Basically, the velocity of air is increased through rotor blades and pressure is increased
when the high velocity air pass through the stator blades. This happens subsequently so
that a high outlet pressure from the compressor is achieved. In this type of compressor,
air flows parallel to the axis of the engine. To obtain a higher operational flexibility, the
compressor may consist of two or more rotating assemblies each rotating at its optimum
speeds.
Centrifugal Impeller
Modern high performance engines invariably utilize the axial flow compressor,
and many small engines use the centrifugal flow compressor.
Combustion Chamber
The function of a combustion chamber or combustor is to burn the fuel air
mixture and to direct the products of combustion onto the turbine. Air enters the
combustion chamber at a very high pressure and high velocity. The velocity of air is
slightly slowed down before entering the combustion chamber so that a stable
combustion may take place. Otherwise the flame will be blown away by air. Usually, a
very small proportion air is actually burnt inside the combustion chamber; the remaining
air is used only for cooling purposes. Different types of combustion chamber are
designed. A typical combustion chamber is shown below.
Turbine
The hot gases from the combustion chamber flow through the turbine assembly.
The turbine extracts kinetic energy from these gases and converts into mechanical energy
to drive the compressor. Similar to the construction of an axial flow compressor, the
turbine consists of a series of stationary stator blades and rotating rotor blades. The
number of such stages to be employed depends on the amount of power to be extracted.
The turbines operate in a torturous environment and the materials from which they are
fabricated should be able to withstand high temperatures and severe stresses.
Section view of a typical gas turbine is shown below.
Typical Stator
Fuel system
The function of the fuel system are to provide the engine with fuel in
a form suitable
for combustion and control the flow to the required quantity necessary for easy
starting, acceleration and stable running at all engine operating conditions. To do this
one or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the fuel spray nozzle, which
injects into the combustion chamber in form of an atomized spray. A view of typical
fuel system is shown below.
Oil System
The lubrication system is required to provide lubrication and cooling for all gears,
bearings and splines. A view of the lube system is shown below.
Exhaust System:
The purpose of a nozzle is to expand the gases to the atmosphere and in
doing so give a final velocity impetus to the gases. The hot gases flowing from the
turbine are straightened in an exhaust pipe. It then expands to the atmosphere through the
nozzle. The nozzle may be shaped like a simple converging cone for low speed aircraft.
Its shape differs to a converging then diverging cone for high speed aircraft. This is done
for the proper expansion of gases. A typical view of exhaust system is shown below.
These are the major components of a gas turbine engine. Gas turbine engines are
comprised of several other important components. Any number of variations in or
arrangements of these components are possible. But the intention is always the same
to achieve the required thrust.
In addition to the many manufacturing methods, chemical and thermal professes are used
on part finished and finished components. These include heat treatment, electro-plating,
chromate sealing, chemical treatments, anodizing to prevent corrosion, chemical
treatments, chemical cleaning and mechanical cleaning, wet and dry abrasive blasting,
polishing, plasma spraying, electrolytic etching and polishing to reveal metallurgical
defects. Also a variety of barreling techniques for removal of burrs and surface
improvement are used for the finishing of the components. Most processes are concerned
with surface changes, some give resistance to corrosion whilst others can be used to
release unwanted stress.
The main structure of an aero gas turbine engine is formed by a number of circular
casings, which are assembled and secured together by flanged joints and couplings
located with dowels and tenons. These engines use curvic and hurth couplings to enable
accurate concentricity of mating assemblies which in turn assist an airline operator when
maintenance is required.
4.0
intake casings, since these are the coolest parts of the engine. Nickel based alloy
steels are used for the turbine and nozzle. For casings subjected to intermediate
temperature i.e., by-pass duct and combustion outer casings, aluminum alloys and
titanium alloys are used.
Major processes used for the manufacturing of the aero engine components are
explained in below paragraphs.
5. Forging:
The engine drive shafts, compressor discs, turbine discs and gear trains are forged
to as near optimum shape as is practicable. Compressor blades with thin airfoil
sections with varying degrees of camber and twist are forged in a variety of alloys.
Nevertheless precision forging of these blades is a recognized practice and enables
one to be produced from a shaped die with the minimum of further work.
The high operating temperatures at which the turbine discs must operate
necessitates the use of nickel base alloys. The compressor discs at the front end are
produced from titanium. The higher strength of Titanium at the moderate operating
temperatures together with its lower weight provides considerable advantage over
steel.
Forging calls for a very close control of the temperature during the various
operations, an exceptionally high standard of furnace control equipment, careful
maintenance and cleanliness of the forging hammers, presses and dies.
Annular combustion rings can be cold forged to exacting tolerances and surfaces
which alleviates the need for further machining before welding together to produce
the combusting casing.
H.P. Compressor casings of the gas turbine engine are forged as rings or half rings
which, when assembled together, form the rigid structure of the engine. They are
produced in various materials, i.e., stainless steel, titanium and nickel alloys.
6. CASTING:
An increased percentage of the gas turbine engine is produced from cast components
using sand casting. Typical example of die and investment casting technique is shown
below.
Investment casting is becoming the most acceptable technique in use because of its
capability to produce components with surface that require no further machining. It is
essential that all the castings are defect free by discipline of cleanliness during
process of casting otherwise they could cause component failure.
All castings are inspected/tested for correct chemical composition and mechanical
properties and are subjected to radiological and microscopic examinations to make
sure that the castings are defects free.
The complexity of configurations together with tight tolerances in size and
surface finish is totally dependent upon close liaison with design, manufacturing,
metallurgist, chemist, die maker, furnace operator and final caster.
In the pursuit of ever increasing performance, turbine blades are produced from
high temperature nickel alloys that are cast by the investment casting or lost wax
technique. Directionally solidified and single crystal turbine blades are cast using this
technique in order to extend their cyclic lives.
Automatic casting is used in the production of equi-axed, directionally solidified
and single crystal turbine blades. The lost wax process is unparallel in its ability to
provide the highest standards of surface finish, repeatable accuracy and surface detail
in a cast component. The increasing demands of the engine have manifested itself in
the need to limit grain boundaries and provide complex internal passages. The moulds
used for directionally solidified and single crystal castings differ from conventional
moulds in that they are open at both ends; the base of a mould forms a socketed
bayonet fitting into which a chill plate is located during casting. Metal is introduced
from the central sprue into the mould cavities via a ceramic filter. These and
orientated seed crystals, if required, are assembled with the patterns prior to
investment. Extensive automation is possible to ensure the wax patterns are coated
with shell material consistently by using robots. The final casting can also have their
rises removed using elastic cut-off wheels driven from robot arms.
Investment casting
7. Fabrication
Major components of the gas turbine engine i.e, bearing housings, combustion
and turbine casings, exhaust units, jet pipes, by-pass mixer units and low pressure
compressor casings can be produced as fabricated assemblies using sheet materials
such as stainless steel, titanium and varying types of nickel alloys.
Other fabrication techniques for the manufacture of the low pressure compressor
wide chord fan blade dies, hot twisted in a furnace and finally hot creep formed to
achieve the necessary configuration. Chemical milling is used to recess the centre of
each panel which sandwiches a honeycomb are finally joined together using
automated furnaces where an activated diffusion bonding process takes place.
8. Welding
Welding processes are used extensively in the fabrication of gas turbine engine
components i.e., resistance welding by spot and seam, tungsten inert gas and electron
beam are amongst the most widely used ones today. Care has to be taken to limit the
distortion and shrinkage associated with these techniques.
Tungsten inert gas (T.I.G) welding
The most common form of tungsten inert gas welding in use is the direct current
straight polarity i.e. electrode negative pole. This is widely used and the most
economical method of producing high quality welds for the range of high
strength/high temperature materials used in gas turbine engines. For this class of
work, high purity argon shielding gas is fed to both sides of the weld and the welding
torch nozzle is fitted with a gas lens to ensure maximum efficiency for shielding gas
coverage. A consumable four percent throated tungsten electrode, together with a
suitable non-contact method of arc starting is used and the weld current is reduced in
a controlled manner at the end of each weld to prevent the formation of finishing
cracks. All welds are visually and penetrates inspected and in addition, welds
associate with rotating parts i.e. compressor and/or turbine are radio logically
For example, the H.P turbine stub shafts requiring a stable bearing steel welded to a
material which can expand with the mating turbine disc. Automation has been
enhanced by the application of computer numerical control to the work handling and
manipulation. Seam tracking ensures that the joint is accurately followed and close
loop under bead control guarantees that the full depth of material thickness is welded.
Automation has also been added to the process of electro-chemical machining with the
introduction of 360 degree E.C machining of small compressor blades. For some blades
of shorter length airfoil, this technique is cost effective than the forged finished shaped
airfoil. Blades produced by E.C.M employ integrated vertical broaching machines for
broaching the blade root feature, such as a fir-tree, and then by using this as the location,
electro chemical machining from both sides is done to produce the thin airfoil section in
one operation.
High power to weight ratio and low component costs are very important considerations in
the design of any aircraft gas turbine engine, but when the function of such an engine is
to support a vertical take-off aircraft during transition, or as an auxiliary power unit, then
the power to weight ratio becomes extremely critical.
In such engines, the advantage of composite materials allows the designer to produce
structures in which directional strengths can be varied by directional lay-up of fibers
according to the applied loads.
Composite materials have and will continue to replace casings which in previous
generation of engines, would have been produced in steel or titanium. By-pass duct
assemblies comprising of three casings are currently being produced up to 4ft-7in in
diameter and 2ft-0in in length using pr-cured composite materials for the casing fabric.
Flanges and mounting bosses are added during the manufacturing process, which are then
drilled for both location and machined for peripheral feature attachment on C.N.C
machining centers. Conventional cast and fabricated casings and cowlings are also being
replaced by casings of sandwich construction which provide strength allied with lightness
and also act as noise suppression medium. Sandwiched construction casings comprise
honeycomb structure of Aluminium or stainless steel interposed between layers of
dissimilar material. The materials employed depend upon the environment in which they
are used.
Balancin
g machine
Typical Specification of
Cnc 7 Axes Nozzle Guide Vane Grinding Machine
Control system: - sinumeric 840 d with 611 digital servo drives.
Type: - mgc 130.65.65
X- axis stroke
1300 mm (longitudinal)
Y- axis stroke
650 mm (cross)
Z- axis stroke
650 mm (vertical)
: --- 127 mm
160 mm
167 mm
Bore diameter
52mm
including fuel and low pressure air for engine starting. When the engine adapter is
offered to the test bed, all 200 to 250 connections can be made simultaneously.
With advancements in test bed design with neutral test cell configurations,
maintenance and overhaul units of aero engines can utilize the facility to the maximum
extent. The engines can be accurately and quickly tested in an advanced facility after
maintenance or overhaul and inducted into service with more confidence.
Development engines are required to be type tested for certification. These tests need not
be done for the certified production engine. Test results of these tests may be used for
improvement in design. Typical vibration test for the certification is shown below.
Mechanical simulation comprises supplying the engine inlet with and accurately
controlled mass flow; reduce the noise level transmission, fuel supply and loading of the
engine is done at test bed
Arrangement is made for the engine mounting and dismounting in the test cell by
providing the crane in the test cell. Engine is normally prepared in the preparation stand
for the test prior to mounting in the test cell.
The picture below shows a test cell view of high by pass engine test facility.