Brain of An Army (German General Staff) PDF

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THE
BRAIN OF AN
ARMY
A POPULAR ACCOUNT
OF THE
GERMAN GENERAL STAFF
BY
SPENSER WILKINSON
NEW EDITION
WITH LETTERS FROM
COUNT MOLTKE AND LORD ROBERTS
LO:<IDON
CONSTABLE & COAIPANY Ltd

1913
Originally
New
Edition
Reprinted
issued
i8gi
1895
1913
PREFACE TO THE SECOND

EDITION
Six years ago a Royal Commission, under
presidency of Lord Hartington, was
known
the
to be
inquiring into the administration of the national
There was much
defence.
about the Prussian

advocates of
few of those
seemed
I
to
thought
newspapers
and many were the
staff,
Very
imitation in this country.
its
who took
know what
it
talk in the
part in
the
discussions
the Prussian staff was, and
might be useful to the Royal Com-
mission and to the public to have a true account

of that institution, written
that
in
any one could understand
published on the
nth
plain
it.
English, so
The
essay was
of February, 1890, the
day
on which the Report of Lord Hartington's Commission was signed.
The
essential
system consists
of which
it
feature
of
the
Prussian
in the classification of duties
has arisen.
Every general
in
staff
out
the
Preface to the Second Edition
field
requires a
forming
his
The
himself.
farious that
among
on
classes,
are so multi-
In
of
officers
Prussia
large
general's
according as
it
work
is
to administration
upon one
all
for or
domain
Prussia
the
with
in
this
called
directly
with
the
and
group
"general
All that
discipline
put
is
and upon the

the
prepara-
of the fighting
falls
within
The
tactics.
personal
latter
his
that
all
ad-
the direction
affects
management
of strategy
entrusted
general
that
language,
technical
and
side of a dividing line,
other side
tion
practical
operations against the enemy.
belongs
is
subdivided into
concerned
is
is
distribution
this
ministration and discipline or with
of the
staff
thoroughly rational and
The
principle.
command
consistent distribution of func-
the
indispensable.
based
and
secretaries,
where he cannot be
places
at
duties of
some
him of matters of
confidential
as his
him
to represent
assistants, collectively
to relieve
staff,
detail, to act
tions
number of
of
of
are
staff."
the
officers
assistance
duties
in
They
the
in
are
specially trained in the art of conducting opera-
tions
against an
enemy, that
is
in
the specific
army
Prussian
assistants
classes for the
thus
In the British
other.
a general
of
has
are
performance of
army
specific
and follows no
principle.
It
is
into
acci-
has arisen
by chance, and been stereotyped by usage.

officers of
the
functions
But the grouping of duties
in his relief
atten-
grouped
also
the
in
more systematic
received
any
tion than in
dental,
which
of generalship,
function
The
a staff belong to the adjutant-general's
branch or to the quartermaster-general's branch,

but no rational criterion exists by which to discover whether a particular function
That
branch or to the other.

evident, because
no
it
is
evil
been
has long
made
two branches
in
to
an
one
evil
is
felt,
remedy
group of duties which
with one another.
affinity
been
to
falls
is
manifest that there can be
scientific training for a
have no inherent
this
it
for
attempt
the
The
has
by amalgamating the
order to sever them again upon
a rational plane of cleavage.
But while the essence of the Prussian general

staff
tion
lies
deeply
of the
general
embedded
Prussian
public
in
the
organiza-
army, the interest of the
has been
attracted
by the
fact
that
the great
1866 and
of
commander
the
mander-in-chief.
system
Prussian
suitable
is
The Germans them-
regard
evidently
selves
well be doubted whether
elsewhere.
imitation
for
may
of the
feature
this
It
com-
a royal
staff of
general
chief of the
the
merely
army, but
Prussian
the
of
the victories
was not
ascribed
are
1870
whom
to
strategist
it
rather
accidental
as
than essential, for in organizing their navy they

have,
much experiment and
after
They have appointed
adopted a different plan.
chosen admiral to be, not chief of the
their
an
to
deliberation,
Emperor who
in
war, as
he takes
staff
the
with the army, cannot undertake the com-
field
mand
"
of the navy, but to be
the
commanding
admiral."
I
refrained
the
in
first
from drawing from the German

it
describes
British
moral
to
this
essay
institution
which
edition
be
of
applied
to
the
army, and was content with a warning
against overhasty imitation.
nature of the relation
King was
language,
still
to
At
time the
between Moltke and the
some extent
and nothing
that
so
far
veiled
as
in official
am aware

had been published which allowed the
upon well authenticated,
rest
from
9
to
facts
evidence as
direct
then
the
posthumous publication of Moltke's private
cor-
distinguished
respondence,^ and
of the
first
upon the whole
fortune
As soon
I
be
to
with a request
which
to
is
had the good

clue.
essay was ready for the
press
that
proof to Count Moltke,
me
he would allow
name with
couple his
good enough to reply

following
an
with
work had been the
his
earlier
send
to
dedication
subject.
furnished
my
as
ventured
instalment of his
has thrown a flood of
military correspondence,^
light
Since
inference.
in
a translation
studies
a
of
He was
subject.
letter of
in
which the
Beki.W, /anuary
20, 1890.
Dear Sir,
I
have read your essay on the German general
staff with
great interest.
See
in particular the
passage
Sfhri/ien, V. 298-9, which

entitled "
*
It
The Brain
in
Moltke, Gesammelte
have translated
in
an essay
of the Navy," p. 28.
seems incredible that so important and so interesting
a work as Moltke's military correspondence
in relation to the
Danish war of 1864 should hitherto have been ignored by

English military writers.
lo
am
glad that on
63 you dispose of the ever-recurring
p.
legend according to which before every important decision a

council of war
and
in
assembled.
is
can assure you that
1870-71 a council of war was
If the
commander
?it'7'er
in
1866
called.
after consultation with his authorized
adviser feels the need of asking others what he ought to do,
command
the
If
is
weak hands.
in
King William
buted to him on
ever really used the expression
I.
p. 58,
he did himself a great
injustice.
attri-
The
king judged the perpetually changing military situation with
an uncommonly clear eye.

great strategist."
He
was much more than "a
was he who took upon himself an im-
It
measurable responsibility, and
for the
conduct of an army
character weighs more than knowledge and science.
your excellent work would lose nothing
think
if
that passage were
relation
between the com-
omitted.
You touch on
mander and the
for himself in
p.
112
upon the
Neither of the two can set up
statesman.
advance a goal
plan of campaign modifies

with the enemy.
to
be certainly reached.
itself after
Success or failure
operations originally not intended.

final
the
in
On
first
The
great collision
a battle occasions
the other
hand the
claims of the statesman will be very different according
as he has to reckon with defeats or with a series of un-
interrupted victories.
In the course of the
balance between the military
will
campaign the
and the considerations of
diplomacy can be held only by the supreme authority.

*
The
first
reference
edition,
is
to a
passage
in
the last chapter of the
which has been rewritten.

It
has not escaped your penetration that a general
cannot be improvised on the outbreak of war, that
be prepared long beforehand

activity
and
that
not enough.
is
be
is
in
the advantage
is
known by them.
its
position
his general staff
staft
must
But even
be
is
the head of the State
if
He knows
leader in war.
to
communication with
gain his confidence, without which
Great
is
it
in practical
with the troops.
must know who
It
must
and be
in peace,
in close intercourse
commander,
and
ii
and
its
future
him and
untenable.
is
also the
his troops,
In such armies there are no pro-
nunciamentoes.
The
constitution, however, does not in every country admit
of placing the head of the State at the head of the army.

the
Government
and can
will
If
advance the most
select in
qualified general for the post, that officer
must also be given
during peace the authority to influence the troops and their

leaders
and
to create
his general staff.
minister of war,
at
home, where
an understanding between himself and
This chosen general
who during
all
will
the whole war
the threads
of
is
seldom be the
indispensable
administration
come
together.
You have expressed
the kind intention of dedicating your
interesting essay to me, but
suggest that you should con-
sider whether without such a dedication
it
would not
still
better preserve the character of perfectly independent judg-
ment.
With best thanks

I
for
your kind communication,
am, dear
sir,
yours very
truly,
COUNT MOLTKE,
Field Marshal.
12
was hardly possible
It
was by
more
own high
his
for
Moltke, bound as he
have expressed
position, to
reform
plainly his opinion of the kind of
needed
in
by
illustrated than
of his
army, nor to have better
the British
own
that opinion the precise nature
work.^
With Moltke's view
that the peculiar position
which he held was not necessarily the model best
army
suited for the circumstances of the British

interesting
is
it
pressed
who
quite
Lord
independently by
kindly allows
letter
compare the judgment ex-
to
me
Roberts,
the following
to publish
:
Simla,
Dear Mr. Wilkinson,

I
am much obliged to you
Brain of an Army and the
nth
for so kindly
edition,
from
his letter.
its
chapter has in
made
In this edition
this
make
arise
it
is
was erased
printed as
it
the letter intelligible.
One
from the
which Count Moltke marked
in
me The
in the
by words borrowed
edition been condensed,
simpler and clearer.
in expression
disliked
place being supplied
written, in order to
sending
other military works which
The passage which Moltke
first
September, 1891.
was
The
and
first
last
hope
or two other slight changes
reconsideration of
reading the proof.
phrases

me
reached
had seen
heard
of,
and meant
had often
study whenever sufficient leisure was
to
is
but seldom.
have now
with great interest.
it
One
point
me
strikes
that
is
the
strong inclination
German system
evinced at present to assume that the

apportioning the duties of
command and
of
deserving
staff is
adoption because under exceptional circum-
of universal
stances,
and with
head of the
wars
of the books
Army
and The Brain of an
vouclisafcd to me, which, alas
read
Some
two or three mails ago.
before,
13
quite
Staff,
between
it
man
an exceptional
to
act as
proved eminently successful
in the
Prussia
and
and
Austria
and
Prussia
France.
The
idea of a Chief of the Staff
who
is
to regulate the
preparations for and the operations during a campaign, and
who
a predominant influence
to possess
is
the military policy of a nation,
of
some
Tactics,
Edition
1882
general
or
and
doubt whether any really
Commander-in-Chief would
Von
of the
German
Moltke was the
virtual
movements they were
called
re-
entails.
Commander-in-Chief
forces during the wars in question,
commanders had
con-
command and
which the German procedure necessarily
That
clearly
sum-
strategists, as
tentedly acquiesce in the dissociation of
the nominal
determining
pages 17 and 18 of Home's Precis of Modern
at
sponsibility
in
quite opposed to the views
commanders and
of the ablest
marized
competent
is
really very
little
and
that
to say to the
upon to execute, seems
to
be
proved by the third volume of the Field Marshal's
writings, reviewed in
Von Mollke was a
The 7'imes of the
21st
August
last.
soldier of extraordinary ability, he acted
14
in the
Emperor's name, the orders he
plicitly
obeyed, and the military machine worked smoothly.
initiated
were im-
But had the orders not been uniformly judicious, had a

check or reverse been experienced, and had one or more of
commanders possessed greater capacity
the
subordinate
and
resolution than the Chief of the
have been very
Stafif,
the result might
different.
In military nations a Chief of the Staff of the
may perhaps be
type
essential,
Germany, the Emperor
he
in the first place,

in
may
and
in the
The reasons
who has
second place, even
qualities, there are so
many
which
may be
lead the
Army
in
he does possess those
own
country,
and with
its
too fully occupied to admit of
that exclusive
attention
desires to have an efficient
Army.
then becomes essential
is
he
to
military matters
a Commander-in-Chief,
so necessary in
is
to
if
towards other countries, that the time of
a King or Emperor
his devoting
its
for this are that,
other matters connected with
the civil administration of his

political relations
Army and
not possess the qualities required
a Commander-in-Chief
war
German
especially when, as in
the head of the
is
Commander-in-Chief.
titular
more
if
he
Chief of the Staff
indeed the Commander-in
Chief.
In a small
in-Chief
is
army
like ours,
that a Chief of the Staff
Germany.
he
is in
in
chapter
head
of
however, where the Commander-
a soldier by profession,
iv.
the
every one in
of
With
is
am
inclined to think
not required in the
us, the
man
The Brain of an
same way as
of the stamp sketched
Army
should be the
Army the Commander-in-Chief to whom

the Army looks up, and whom every one on

The note
service trusts implicitly.
book expresses
little
my meaning
at
page
exactly.
15
12 [61] of your
Blucher required
a Scharnhorst or a Gneisenau " to keep him straight," but
would
" to
not have been better, as suggested in your note,
it
command "
I
and
have given Scharnhorst
think, too, that
man
likely than a
an Emperor or King would be more

of inferior social standing to take the
advice of a Chief of the
immeasurably above
afford to
listen
to
mentioned
Staff,
in the
much
The former would be
Staff.
those about him
all
advice
as
undoubtedly did to that of
of about
Gneisenau the actual
the
same standing
and possibly not much the
would be apt
interference
of
so
he could
Germany
the occasion
But the Commander
[64].
socially as his Chief of the

latter's
senior in the
Army,
what he mig'ht consider uncalled-for
to resent
and
Emperor
Von Moltke on
note at page 14
the
that
this
would be specially the case
were of a narrow-minded, obstinate disposition.
he
if
Indeed,
think that such a feeling would be almost sure to arise,

unless the
Commander-in-Chief were one of those easy-
going, soft natures which ought never to be placed in such
a high position.
My
personal experience
of course, very slight, but
with a Chief of the Staff, and
is,
have been a
Commander
have been
a very small way) the Chief of the Staff to a
(in
Commander, with whom

It
was not a pleasant
like to
fill
a second time.
late Sir Charles
was sent "to keep him
position,
In
Macgregor)
and one which
my own
I
straight."
should not
Chief of the Staff (the
was particularly fortunate
he was of the greatest possible assistance to
me
but
without thinking myself narrow-minded and obstinate,
should have objected
if
he had acted as
he were "at the
if
head of the Army."

I
have been referring hitherto more
but even in peace time
German type
is
doubt
if
to
war than peace,
a Chief of the Staff of the
suitable to our organization,
easily lead to disaster.
The
less capacity
nominal Commander-in-Chief the

obstinacy, and the
and
In war time
comparative smallness of our army.
to
the
might
it
possessed by the
greater might
more capacity he possessed
be his
more he
the
would resent anything which might savour of interference.

Altogether
think that the office of Chief of the Staff, as
understood
in
Germany, might
easily
under the conditions of our service.
Army Head-Quarters
same work as the Grand General
We
have
and
Staff of the
no need
is
only to
Mobilization Departments
with,
opinion
is
that the
Staff are capable of doing exactly the
perform, and that there

system.
be made impossible
My
bring
more
German Army
to upset
the
our present
Intelligence
closely into
into subordination to, the Adjutant-General
Quarter- Master-General, as
is
and
communication
now being done
and
in India with
the best results.
You
will
understand that the foregoing remarks are based
on the assumption that
in the British Service the office of
Commander-in-Chief
held by the soldier who, from his
abilities
and experience, has commended himself
Government
war, and
is
if
as being best qualified to organize the
requisite to take
ever, for reasons of State
proximate our system to the
command
it
is
in the field.
to the
Army for
If,
how-
thought desirable to ap-
German system
in the selection

ot
the head of the
Army,
17
might become necessary to
it
appoint a Chief of the Staff of the
German
type to act as the
responsible military adviser of the Commander-in-Chief and
But
the Cabinet.
in
this
case the responsibility of the
Officer in question should be fully recognised
and
clearly
defined.
Believe me,
Yours very
truly,
FRED ROBERTS.
To Spenser Wilkinson,
The Report
of
which appeared
Esq.
Lord Hartington's Commission,

in
the
spring
of
seemed
1890,
to justify the apprehension which had caused

to write, for
the
name
bearing
in
fronted
of a
little
professed
was
it
to
general
staff,
creation,
me
under
of a department
resemblance to the model which

copy.
a most
in
recommended the
it
The Commission, however,
awkward dilemma.
regard to the
It
command
was con-
of the
army
with two problems, one of which was administrative,
the other
constitutional.
anxious to have an army

of fighting
The
public
efficient for its
the enemies of Great
was
purpose
Britain.
The
statesmen on the Commission were intent upon
having
an
army obedient
to the
Government,
The
that
tradition
being
otherwise
Crown was not
tinct.
It
in practice altogether
right
principle that the
wishing to establish
in
army
administered
is
in
the
certain
to
be
a branch of the public
No
the theory into
susceptibilities
respected,
attached
and
the
is
possible
But the attempt
the
which
more importance
same
precisely the
in
other theory
England of our day.
make
to
office.
the
and governed under the
authority of the Cabinet

the post
ex-
Com-
can hardly be doubted that the
mission was
way as
be exercised
than through the constituted advisers
of the
service,
army
of the
could
prerogative
royal
command
the
practice
it
was
touched
felt
ought
Commission perhaps
to
this
kind of con-
sideration than to the necessity of preparing the
war
office for war.
It
was no doubt of the
first
importance
to
guard against the recurrence of a state of things

in
which
all
harmony with
attempts to bring
State.
army
into
the needs of the time and of the
nation were frustrated

tirely
the
by an authority not
amenable to the control of the Secretary
Not
less
enof
important, however, was the re-

quirement that any change by which
in
itself
at the
so desirable, might
same time contribute
recent times
In the
become so
He
issued in the
in Prussia,
is
in
seen
by which the whole army
has no authority
name
examined
is
a chief of the staff
the orders
When,
870-1, the
as
is
are
that
is
was the case
in
of the commander,
of the king.
1866 and in
Britain has in
acute.
war of which a part
drafting the orders
should
supreme end
to the
rivalry with Great
the following pages
guided.
be attained
result,
with any of the Great
of readiness for conflict
Powers whose
this
19
king shows his entire
confidence in the chief of the staff by invariably
accepting his drafts, the direction of the army,

the generalship
of
the
work of the chief of the
campaign,
staff,
is
really
though that
the
officer
has never had a command, and has been sheltered
throughout under the authority of another.
The
generalship or strategy of the campaigns of 1866
and
870-1 was Moltke's, and Moltke's alone, and
no one has borne more explicit testimony to

fact
than the king.
At
the
this
same time no one
has more emphasized the other
fact,
that he
was
20
covered by the king's responsibility, than Moltke

himself.
The work
of generalship can rarely be given to
When
any one but the commander of an army.
commander owes
the
his position to
military considerations, as
where the king

as
he
is
born to be commander-in-chief
born to be king, he
is
other than
the case in Prussia,
is
is
wise to select a
good professional general to do the work.

where a government
mander, that
himself,
and
will
should
assistant
is
officer will
free to
choose
wish to do his
prompt and
time to abolish the
that
is,
guide him.
" chief
at
the
The
same
of tae
staffi"
This
was to advise the Secretary of State
the
Government
upon
He
portant military questions.

strength and
rangements
and
for defence,
according to his
many
plan.
all
the most im-
was to discuss the
distribution of the
defence of the Empire
perform
an
commander-in-chief,
office of
and to create that of a

officer
com-
own work
resent the suggestion that
Hartington Commission proposed
new
its
But
army, and the
to plan the general ar-
In
to shape the estimates
word, he
was
to
of the most important duties of a
But he was to be the adviser
commander-in-chief.
or assistant, not of a military commander, but of

a civilian governor-general of the army.
An army
manded
cannot be directed
war nor com-
in
peace under the immediate authority
in
There must be
of a civilian.
a military com-
mander, the obedient servant of the Government,

supported by the Government in the exercise of
and direct the army,
powers to discipline
his
and
sheltered
Government
by the
against
all
such criticism as would weaken his authority or

diminish
own
its
The scheme
responsibility.
pro-
pounded by the Hartington Commission evaded

the cardinal question
that of the military
War
which has to be settled
command
cannot be carried on unless
divided authority
is
army
of the
full
in war.
and un-
given to the general entrusted
by the Government with the conduct of the

tary
operations.
be
liable
all
that
is
That
account
to
done,
officer
to
the
will
necessarily
Government
for
and
its
the design
for
mili-
for
execution.
The Report
of the
Commission made no pro-
vision whatever for the
command
of the
army
in
22
The proposed
war.
"
chief of the staff
was to
"
be entrusted during peace with the duty of the

design
of
Had
operations.
Commission's
the
scheme been adopted, the Government would, upon

the near approach of war,
its
The
commander.
have had to
still
selection
upon the
"
person.
But no general worth
chief of the staff" or
must
select
either
fall
upon some other

his
salt
will
found to stake his own reputation and the
be
fate of
the nation upon the execution of designs supplied

to
him
No man
at second-hand.
with a particle
of self-respect would undertake the defence of his
country upon the condition that he should conduct

it
upon a plan
as to
which he had never been
consulted, and which, at the time of his appoint-
ment,
it
was too
late
to
modify.
Accordingly,
if
the scheme of the Commission had been adopted,
it
would have been necessary
mand
in
war to the
been chief of the

peace out of
all
officer
staff.
Hartington
its
com-
who during peace had
But
this officer
being
personal relation with the
could not have the moral

dispensable for
to entrust the
authority which
command.
The scheme
in
army
is
in-
of the
Commission could therefore not be
23
adopted, except at the risk of disaster in the event

of war.
While
am
revising the proof of this preface
come the announcements,

ley
is
to succeed the
Duke
secondly, that though the
Chief
is
that
first,
of
title
Cambridge, and,
of Commander-in-
to be retained, the duties
the office
Lord Wolse-
are to be modified and
attaching to
its
authority
diminished.
The proposed changes

Commander-in-Chief
Government
is
in
show
the status of the

that
the
present
suffering from the pressure of an
anxiety exactly like that which paralysed Lord

Hartington's Commission, while from the speeches
which the new scheme
in
the idea of war
is
has
been explained
altogether absent.
The Govern-
ment contemplates depriving the Commander-inChief of his authority over the Adjutant-General
and
the Quartermaster-General,
the heads of
some other
as well
as over
military departments.
The Adjutant-General's department embraces
among
the
other
discipline,
army
matters
all
training,
that directly concerns
and
education
of
the
while such business as the quartering and
24
movements
of
the
are
to
of troops
passes
become the
not of
made
of
the
army
be the
to
is
nominal Commander-in-Chief,
the
the
of the
other words, the staff
In
who
Secretary of State,
but of the
be
office
officers
subordinates
direct
the headquarters
staff,
These
Quartermaster-General.
Secretary of State.
at
through the
thus to
is
Commander-in-Chief of the
real
army.
This
is
momentous
evidently a
to be lightly or rashly approved
The
duty
first
to
is
discover,
proposing
Mr.
it.
possible,
if
House of Commons on the
the
actuated
is
speaking
Balfour,
not
or condemned.
Government
motives by which the

in
change,
in
the
31st of August, ex-
plained the view of the Government.

" What,"
criticisms
he
said, "
the
War
this
country for
the substance
is
by the
passed
Office system,
many
Hartington
and essence of the

Commission upon
which has now been
years
The
in
force
essence of the
in
criti-
cisms of the Commissioners was that by having a single
Commander-in-Chief, through whom, and through
army
would come
alone,
opinion,
army
matters,
to the Secretary of State for
in the first place,
whom
and army advice
War, you were,
throwing upon the Commander-in-Chief
a burden which no single individual could possibly sup-
l)ort
25
and, secondly, you were practically destroying
the
nominally
the head of the
is
the Secretary of
with
Secretary
of the
responsibility
State for
State
of
department.
War
in direct
Commander-in-Chief alone,
the
War
If
you
put
communication
do not see how
can
War, who
for
be
anything
else
than the administrative puppet of the great soldier
who
Secretary of
the
is
at the
State
is
He may come down
head of the army.
House and express

he
for
it
is
absolutely
if
from the Commander-in-Chief
to take official advice
alone
to the
the views of that great officer, but
impossible that the
State should be really responsible,
and
Secretary of
House the
in this
Secretary of State will be no more than the mouthpiece

of the Commander-in-Chief."
Mr.
Balfour's
point
first
is
that
the
burden
thrown upon a single Commander-in-Chief

great for one
man
too
is
Marlborough, Wel-
to bear.
lington or Napoleon would, perhaps, hardly have
accepted this view.
But supposing
the
remedy proposed
the
disease.
In
is
infinitely
1887 the
Royal
were
it
worse
true,
than
Commission,
over which the late Sir James Stephen presided,
examined with
judicial
impartiality
of the Secretary of State for War.
mission
"
The
in
first
its
the
That Com-
report wrote as follows
part of the system to
Secretary of State.
be considered
On him we have
to
duties
is
the
observe, first,
26
that the scope of
duties
his
immense
is
secondly,
charged with
which would be
man
^^
separate great
five
functions,
that
He
he performs them under extreme disadvantages.
is
any one of
occupy the whole time of a
sufficient to
of first-rate industry, ability, and knowledge.
he
First,
is
member
Mem-
of the Cabinet, and a
ber of Parliament, in which capacity he has to give his

attention, not only to the matters of his
but to
all
has to take part

sion,
own department,
He
the leading political questions of the day.
debates on the great topics of discus-
in
and on many occasions
speak upon them
to
in his
place in Parliament.
^Secondly, he
of
served,
the
is
the
head,
may have
to
the whole
conduct of a war
consider,
has been already ob-
as
He
department of the army.
political
and
that
;
the
at
all
shortest
notice,
the important points
connected with an expedition to any part of the globe

political
questions like the abolition of purchase

the Discipline Act, and
lative questions like
of the
same
" Thirdly,
he
is
the
all
head
of
the
others
Ordnance Depart-
all
the
upon the management of four great

of
many
the questions relating to cannon,
small arms, and ammunition, and
the care
legis-
kind.
ment, which includes
arise
questions
that
factories,
and
an enormous mass of stores of every de-
scription.
" Fourthly, he has
to deal with
all
the questions
con-
nected with fortifications and the commissariat.

" Fifthly,
he
is
responsible
Estimates, which override
all
for
framing
the
Military
the other departments,
and
regulate the expenditure of from ;^ 16,000,000 to ^18,000,000
of public money.

"
It
man
is
27
morally and physically impossible that any one
should discharge
No
manner.
one
these functions in a satisfactory
all
man
could possess either the time or the
strength or the knowledge which would be indispensable
purpose
for that
but even
if
such a physical and
would
duty under disadvantages which
his
intel-
prodigy were to be found, he would have to do
lectual
reduce him
practically to impotence."
then, the
If,
dened,
at
is
it
Commander-in-Chief
least certain
him cannot possibly
to relieve
the
that
overbur-
is
right
way
consist in adding
to the functions of the Secretary of State.
The
point of Mr.
real
the case
is
in
what
Balfour's statement
follows.
If
of
you have a single
Commander-in-Chief through whom, and through
whom
army
alone,
advice
army
opinion,
army
matters,
would come to the Secretary of
State, then, according to Mr. Balfour,
cally
and
you
practi-
destroy the responsibility of the Secretary
of State.
It
is
the word
word
ous,
in
mark of the
hastiness of debate that
responsibility
has crept
the
political
because none
speaking,
person
vocabulary
is
is
ambiguous.
so
is
in
said
to
be
here.
so
No
dangerProperly
responsible
28
when he
his
liable
is
acts,
to
liability
be called
which
account for
to
that he
implies
one way or another.
These two
free to
act
aspects
of the term, the liability and the
dom
in
of choice implied, lead
opposite senses.
that a
Sometimes
man must answer
often
When
as
he pleases with-
as
own
synonym
Moltke speaks of the
sponsibility "
means
not
of the
that the
King of
"
The word
for
advisers,
to
as his
moment which
and that by so
doing he covered them as against the

the world
re-
Prussia, he really
acts decisions of the gravest

his
is
authority.
immeasurable
King took upon himself
were prompted by
means
what he does, and
out being controlled by any one.

as
free-
use in two
its
responsibility
for
may do
sometimes that he
to
is
rest
of
he did not mean that the King had
account for his conduct except to his
conscience and at the bar of history.

tary of State for
War,
in
his relations
own
Secre-
with the
army, wields the whole authority of the Government.
The only
thing which he cannot do
is
to
act in opposition to the wishes of his colleagues,

for if
he did he would immediately cease to be

Secretary of State.
As long
with him he
master of the army.
his
liability
the
lose its majority in
the
Cabinet of which he
That
resign.
apart
from
is
reasons
is
it
the
therefore,
it
the
and
the
to
more
will
other
Whenever
impending.
phrase "the
"
actions
his
about unless for
it
already
Secretary of State
tute for
should
belongs
an event always possible quite
a rule not bring
as
is
member may have
conduct,
his
infinitely
is
House of Commons
a
is
But
happen to him
that can
party to which he
the
if
as they are agreed
to be called to account
The worst
small.
that
is
29
responsibility of
occurs,
we ought
precise
words
"
the
to substi-
the power
of the Cabinet to decide any matter as
it
subject to the chance of
majority."
What
mander-in-Chief, and
real
its
it
is
of the
is
its
a single Com-
important to grasp the
nature of his objection.
ness
losing
Mr. Balfour deprecates
pleases,
whole busi-
If the
army be conceived
to
be a single
department of which the Commander-in-Chief
is
the head, so that the authority of the Secretary
of State extends to no other matters than those
which
lie
within
the jurisdiction
of
the
Com-
30
mander-in-Chief, then undoubtedly the Secretary
and the Commander-in-Chief are each
of State
of them in a
false position, for
The Secretary
unnecessary.
simply
confirm
cisions,
in
authority
the
the
which
one of them
Commander-in-Chiefs
case
position
his
is
of State must either
as
de-
superior
a mere form, or he must enter into
is
reasons
for
and against and decide
afresh,
which case the Commander-in-Chief becomes
in
superfluous.
It
bad organization to have two
is
men, one over the other, both to do the same

business.
Mr. Balfour's objection to this arrangement

however, not that
it
good organization, but that

the Secretary of State.
of questions
which
and the army

outside
the
the
in
Cabinet.
upon
practice
Government business
its
leaves
the
which
of that
by
is
members.
which
decision
War
the
way
In this
Cabinet,
solidarity
or other of
It
arise within
upon the
the
practically abolishes
it
the hands of a person
power of the
is,
sins against the principles of
it
Office
who
is
diminishes
rests
partly
body, and
partly
every branch of
under the control of one
me
Both these objections appear to

false
premises.
show presently
shall
do
which
matters
upon
that the
must necessarily
duties of the Secretary of State
include
to rest
31
not
come
properly
within the scope of a Commander-in-Chief, and
cannot see
manage
how
the
by a War
the authority of the Cabinet to
army
would be impaired
rationally
Office with a military head, the sub-
ordinate of the Secretary of State.
But
valid,
both
objections,
abolishing the
der-in-Chief as a
that
of Secretary
be
is,
by
of
State for
his duties to the
Comman-
office
War, and entrusting
member
Why,
of the Cabinet.
does not the Government adopt this plan,
which at
is
to
would be overcome by making the Com-
mander-in-Chief Secretary of State
then,
them
supposing
first
sight
peers and
appears so simple
The Cabinet
a good reason.
is
members of Parliament
leader of a party from
bond between
its
among
members
is
by the
selected
his followers.
The
a party bond, and
their necessary
main purpose
majority in the
House of Commons.
Commander-in-Chief means an
There
a committee of
is
to
retain
their
military
officer selected as
32
the representative, not of a party, but of a subject.
He
and
embodiment of
the
is
secure that
to
judgment
of government
in
the purpose of his
is
To make him
tence.
knowledge
strategical
due attention
receive
wisdom,
strategical
the
and
councils
official exis-
a member of the Cabinet
would be to disturb the harmony of that body by

introducing into
it
a principle other than that of
party allegiance, and the

restored except either
to party,
harmony could not be
by subordinating strategy
which would be a
Commander-in-Chief, or by
to
strategy,
the
subordinating party
a sacrifice which
party will not
of
perversion
the
make except under
of a
leaders
the supreme
pressure of actual or visibly impending war.
The
been
the
in
for
the other party
power would
same conclusion
certainly
is
that no
if
it
come
have
be
had
to
military officer,
either within or without the Cabinet,

in his
may
preliminary decision, then, which
taken as settled
is
to have
hands the whole management of the army
the absolute power of the Cabinet must be preserved,
have
and therefore no military
more
than
departmental
officer
authority
is
to
the
33
threads are not to be united in any hands other
This de-
than those of the Secretary of State.

termination appears to
my
to
me most unfortunate,
for
eye the time seems big with great events
requiring a British
importance to
Government
preparation
than to
conflict
for
more
attach
to
Be
the rigorous assertion of Cabinet supremacy.

that as
may, the practical question
it
whether
is
the proposed sub-division of the business of the
War
Office into departments
one.
no
think
principle
a good or a bad
is
incurably bad, because
it
of
follows
it
inherent
classification
in
the
nature of the work to be done.
To
find the natural
must look not
and necessary
classification
management of an army we
of duties in the
at
the
War
but at war.
Office
Suppose the country to be engaged
in
a serious
war, in which the army, or a large portion of

is
employed against an enemy, who
hoped
will
island.
between
not have succeeded in
In that
two
case
we can
functions.
the
field
general
may
be
invading this
distinguish clearly
There
authority directing against the

in
it
it
must
enemy
with
be
an
the troops
full
powers,
34
implicitly
obeyed by
accompanying
his
administrative
the officers and officials
army.
There must also be an

home, whose
at
officer
field
all
that
it
requires
clothing and pay, fresh

replace
casualties.
This
food,
men and
fresh horses to
at
officer
the two duties

places
different
at
home cannot
functions, moreover,
arts or
ship,
skilled
in
two
The two
time.
correspond to two different
The com-
art.
in the field requires to excel in general-
or the art of
supply
same
branches of the military
mander
the field
in
must be carried on
the
in
ammunition,
be the same person as the general

for
function
be to procure and convey to the army
will
the
all
command
department at
military
home
the head
requires
administrator in
of a wielder of discipline
or
the
of the
to
sense
trainer
be a
not
of troops,
but of a clever buyer, a producer and distributor
on a large
scale.
Neither of these officers can
be identical with the Secretary of State, whose

principal
duty
the political
in
war
intentions
is
to
of the
mediate
Government and
the military action conducted by the

in
the
field.
between
commander
This duty makes him the superior

of the
commander
while
the
35
charged
officer
with military supply, though he need not be the

formal subordinate of the commander, must yet
conform
the
to the needs of the
efforts
his
army
in
field.
There are many important matters which cannot
be
confined either
command
head
or
the terms
fall
of supply.
that
to
of service for
conditions of recruiting, the
of
Under
this
soldiers,
the
regulations
promotion of
and
appointment
department
the
to
for the
These
officers.
are properly the subjects of deliberation in which
not only military, but
must be
represented
of State
Secretary
opinions and interests
civil
;
their
for
will
do
definition
well
to refer
the
to a
general council of his assistants, and the ultimate
settlement
will
require
the
judgment
of
the
Cabinet, and sometimes also the sanction of Parliament.
quickly
the
In time of war
large
part
generally necessary
and
of the
to drain
into
of the
resources
Such measures must be thought out
and arranged
greatest
is
levy extra men,
to
army a
country.
it
care
in
is
advance during peace,

required
in
all
decisions
for
the
which
36
by the State of more
involve the appropriation
than the usual share of the
and the money of

this
kind
its
Regulations
citizens.
are the rational
There
is
ment of
and training of the
peace and
the
movements
and
war,
and
that
all
domain
proper
of
is
supply, which procures for

materials out of which
between
the
them
is
Government,
secured
regulates
national
policy
amount
to be spent
in
the
to
form
matters
the department
the
his
wielded
who
State,
the
and kept
belongs
in
Commander-in-Chief.
Side by side with them
put together
troops, their
distribution
These
of generalship.
functions
business.
combatant bodies, the arrange-
as
their
mili-
command, embracing
the department of
the discipline
organization
army
of
sub-divisions
of
These, then,
officers of experience.
civil
of
seldom be framed except as the
can
result of the deliberations of a council
tary and
time
energies, the
of
commander
fighting
condition.
the
machine
is
Harmony
by the authority of
by the Secretary of
according to the state of
and of the exchequer
the
by each department, and who
presides over the great council which lays
down

the conditions under which the services
money,
citizens in
in property,
by the State
to be claimed
The examination,
and the
war,
appHcation,
of
distribution
then,
head of that
could
properly
Chief,
is
of the
be
not and
minister
The
diffi-
internal affairs
department, while
it
a Commander-in
personifies
The
with
policy
effect.
it
render
cannot be identical with that
who
chiefly
the national
giving
must
solution of the
by
filled
relation to the army.
concerned
war
are indeed one department, but the
of
position
of
during peace, of the
necessary, lead to the true
army
the conditions
of
culty raised by Mr. Balfour.
of the
of the
person are
for its defence.
which
duties
or in
2>7
The
the
the
Cabinet in
minister ought to be
connexion
between
and the military means of

intention to
make
the Sec-
retary of State head of the military department
me
seems to
to prove that the
no account of what should be
takes
duties.
policy
The
is
is
thus about to
not
really
his higher
lack of the conception of a national
management
It
Government
embarrass the military
of the army.
my
object here to consider in detail
^8
how
the
principles
should
be applied to
subject
has
been
Dilke and myself

perial
except
cerned to
show
organization
not at any point
be
Charles
Sir
or
German
quoted
con-
practice
can-
in
support
of the proposals
either
Com-
now announced by
the Government, which to any one
them from the point of view of the

is
Im-
am
But
of the recommendations of the Hartington

mission
"
which has not been
with approval.
that the
That
chapter of our
in the last
chapter
by
war
for
army.
the British
fully treated
Defence," a
criticised
of
who
regards
nation, that
of the defence of the Empire, must appear to
be at once unnecessary, rash and inopportune.
3,
Madeira Road,
Streatham, S.W.
September yd,
1895.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

In May, 1887, a Select Committee was appointed
examine
to
On
Army
into the
and Navy Estimates.
the 8th of July Major-General
Brackenbury,
General)
nation
by
in
course of exami-
the
Committee,
the
(now Lieut-
made
series
of
comparisons between the English and the German

systems
army
of
particularly
the
to
He
management.
great
general
referred
system of German
organization
efficiency
of
the
the
cause of
German army
the
as " the key-
stone of the whole

.
of
staff
German army, which he described
military
great
the
.
acting
as the powerful brain of the military body, to the
designs of which brain the whole body
work."
" I
cannot but
feel,"
want of any such great
ment
is
he
central
made
to
thinking depart-
due that want of economy and efficiency
which to a certain extent exists

If at
is
said, " that to the
in
our army."
any time a statesman should be found

89
to
Preface to the First Edition
40
undertake the work of an English Minister of
War,
his first
wish would be to grasp the nature
German system,
of this keystone of the

tinguish in
it
to perceive
which of
temporary,
and
personal
Equipped
would be able
rise
what
and
in virtue
with
local,
the
are
of which
it
has
knowledge, he
this
reform without destroying, to
to
above that
are
peculiarities
its
unchangeable principles
prospered.
to dis-
between essentials and accessories,
servile
which copies
imitation
defects as well as excellences, and, without sacrificing
its
national
features,
to
infuse
into
the
English system the merits of the German.
For such a statesman, and
for the public
whose support he must depend

been written.
German
It is
general
book has
an endeavour to describe the
staff
and
its
military institutions from which
To
this
upon
relation
it is
illustrate the general staff at
to
the
inseparable.
work
in war,
the campaign of 1866, rather than that of 1870,
has
been chosen, because
some of the
relations
December^ 1889.
it
better
exemplifies
between strategy and
policy.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART
THE GENERAL STAFF IN THE MANAGEMENT OF

A CAMPAIGN
CHAPTER
THE EVE OF KONIGGRATZ

Political
tion
and military
of
district
on
situation
tlie
Prussian armies
the
Supposed
position
the Austrian
quent fresh orders

decisive victory
Posi-
Topography
of the
and consequent arrangements

position of
2nd of July
for
of
the
Austrian army,
July 3rd
army discovered
True
Conse-
.......
for
July 3rd
PAGES
Which
result in
49
CHAPTER n
BEHIND THE SCENES
The
secret of
King William's
tion of a single adviser,

his proposals
History
military success
His
selec-
and resolute adherence
to
of the office of chief of the
general staff Proceedings at Gitschin the night before the battle
58

Table of Contents
42
chapter
iii
FIVE SHORT ORDERS

PAGES
Prussian system of division of labour and orgrcnization ot
responsibility Simplicity of
working
its
from the fewness and brevity of the orders
CHAPTER
illustrated
issued.
65
IV
PRELIMINARIES OF A CAMPAIGN
a campaign Mobilization
Concentration Influence of considerations of policy
King William 1866 anxious to avoid war
Nature of the preparations
for
in
Problems solved by the Prussian

for the
campaign
distribution
Its
in
1866 inevitable
selected
the theatre of
;
war
Choice
of
formation of two armies
Movement of troops to the
points
transport by rail and subsequent marches
Position on
poned
preparation
staff in
calculation of the force required
concentration
points of
in
June 6th
political
for
Opening of campaign post Delay leads to better
reasons
knowledge of Austrian movements, and corresponding
modification
William
Prussian
of
finally decides for
Position
war
arrangements
Invasion of
King
Saxony
Sum-
......,,
mary
of Prussian armies on June 22nd
72
CHAPTER V
THE CRITICS
Difficulties
which beset the judgment of the conduct of a
campaign
of the
Insufficiency of the
motives which
attainable
guided
the
knowledge
commanilers
Reserve therefore incumbent on the military
Illustration of hasty
sists
judgment
Impartiality
only in the attempt to understand
critic
con-
...
go
Table of Contents
PART
43
II
THE GENERAL STAFF AND THE ARMY

CHAPTER
THE
SPIRIT OF PRUSSIAN MILITARY INSTITUTIONS
Spirit of the Prussian officers
The
PAGES
officer the
teacher and
men System of promotion Selection

commands Superiors responsible for
leader of his
....
for the higher
the efficiency of their subordinates
CHAPTER
97
II
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY

The army
corps and
squadron,
and
subdivisions
its
and leaves
prescribes the object,
the choice of
means
in
company,
The
superior
to his subordinate
Graduation
Resulting
responsibility
The
commanders
battery
of authority and
freedom
of
superiors
from the burden of detail
102
CHAPTER HI
THE SYSTEM OF TRAINING
Peace training determined solely by the requirements of
war
It
culminates
complete the
and
test the
training
in
the
manceuvres
capacity of the generals
CHAPTER
Which
And
develop
....
of the troops
IV
THE ARMY CORPS

Review
of the
ling
means adopted
Vastness
to secure
its
of the administrative
proper hand-
tasks involved
108

Table of Contents
44
in
management
its
Sketch
of a mobilized Prussian
army corps on the march and

nature of
to
him Administrative
relieve
Dual
System devised
in quarters
commander's anxieties
its
those
tions
partly
routine
The latter
of
direction,
dealt with
organized
services
under two or three responsible heads
Military
func-
of
those
partly
by the adjutancy
CHAPTER V
THE GENERAL STAFF
The bureau which assists
tion
Enumeration
peace
The
corps
Summary
THE ARMY CORPS
IN
the general in the military direc-
of
its
functions in
war
And
in
.......
army
chief of the general staff of the
CHAPTER
127
VI
COMPOSITION OF THE GENERAL STAFF AND
ITS
DISTRIBUTION
THROUGH THE ARMY

Forms a corps by
itself,
but not a close corporation
Alternation between service on the general staff and

the troops
service writh
staff
ment
No
career merely on the
except for scientific work, involving abandonof prospect of
tribution
of general
great general
staff,
ent part of the
command
staff
and on general
staff recruited
officers
staff of
and
service
dis-
on
a constitu-
army Influence on the work of the

Members of the |general
experience thus acquired

staff dispersed
Numbers
Alternative
throughout
the
army
The
general
from the pick of the young combatant

132

Table of Contents
PART
45
III
THE GREAT GENERAL STAFF

CHAPTER
AN INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT
PAGES
Direct preparation for war consists in determining before-
hand the
distriljution of tlie forces, their concentration
and transport
to the frontier
these arrangements
staff
Information
Its subdivision for
the purpose
on which
by general
are based collected
Thoroughness
The Registrande Merely a preliminary

groundwork Explains
Prussian knowledge of
enemy's resources
1866 and 1870 Similar organization in other
armies Railway arrangements
of the
work
in
Production of maps
139
CHAPTER
II
A MILITARY UNIVERSITY
Regeneration
school
of
Prussia
founded
assisted
work
horst's earlier educational
academy
since
by
by Scharnhorst
in
education
1810
War
Scharn-
History of the war

The
18 10 The present regulations
Object
academy Con Entrance examination

Practical lessons compulsory The order of teaching
Standard by which to judge Course of study
order of service
stitution
of the war
and management
it
at
the
Military
Method of instruction Tactics

history History Staff duties and tour
academy
Comparison with the university
ideal.
147
Table of Contents
46
chapter
iii
THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING

PAGES
Exemplified in
practice of general staff Military history School
of Clausewitz The critical method Historical works
of the Prussian general staff Campaign of 1859
The " applicatory method" Campaigns of 1866
Relation between teaching and research
and
of
tion
1870-71
Historical
monographs
Prussia the
work of
individuals
Moltke's
military doctrine
Prussian staff
in
paper
His
Contributions
on the influence of new firearms upon

views justified by the events of 1S66
to
Connec-
between military history and theory Theory
tactics
by individual members of the
Moral
influence
lead taken by the general staff
CHAPTER
of
the intellectual
.
173
IV
THE CHIEF OF THE GENERAL STAFF

Character needed for a strategist
Relation
between a
commander-in-chief and the chief of his
ment of permanent value

Classification of duties
staff
in the Prussian
Ele-
system-
General summary
192
SKETCH MAPS
I.
II.
III.
The Neighbourhood of Koniggratz
Prussia in 1866
To face p.
54
,,
So
88
The Opening Movements of the Campaign OF 1866
PART
THE GENERAL STAFF

IN THE
MANAGEMENT OF A CAMPAIGN
THE
BRAIN OF AN ARMY
CHAPTER
THE EVE OF KONIGGRATZ
On
the afternoon of
1866,
Monday, the 2nd of
King William of Prussia with
drove into the
little
town of Gitschin,
his
July,
retinue
in the hilly
region of Northern Bohemia, on the southern side
of
Giant Mountains.
the
scarcely
years,
showed
nor did
the
his
His upright bearing
burden
of
his
frank expression
sixty-nine
reveal
the
weight of care that pressed upon him.
After
months of weary diplomacy, the
crisis
political
had been brought to a head by a resolution of the

Diet of the Germanic Confederation to the effect
that Prussia had violated " the peace of the Con49
jn,
The Brain
50
federation,"
Army
of an
[part
and that the armies of the confeder-
ated States were to be called out.
This resolution,
not three weeks old, meant that Prussia was at
war with Saxony, Hanover, Hesse, Bavaria and
Wurtemberg,
and
with
Empire.
Austrian
the
long array of enemies there
Besides this
friends of various degrees of
good and
ill
were
will to
Russia was a benevolent onlooker
be considered.
Italy an active ally, not indeed very formidable in
the
field,
Austrian
but able to occupy a portion of the
was
France
forces.
ambiguous
the
busybody, waiting to take a side according to

the
prospect
of
ambassador was on
respects
to the
and
advantage,
his
way
Prussian
to
pay
king.
there were grave difficulties.
The
French
the
his
unwelcome
Even
at
home
Prussian Parlia-
ment, representing at that time a liberal electorate,
was
directly
the war
join the
opposed to the whole policy of which
was a
part.
The king had
left
Berlin to
army only on Saturday morning,
after a
fortnight of constant anxiety over the complicated
operations which had resulted in the capture of
CHAP
The Eve
I]
the Hanoverian
fighting of the
of Koniggratz
army and
51
the occupation without
kingdom of Saxony.
two
separate
armies had been ordered on June 22nd.
Each of
The
of
invasion
by
Bohemia
these armies had passed the mountain wall that
Bohemia on the
shelters
now only
scattered
day's
and they were
north,
march
quartered
apart
in
villages a few hours' drive to the east
of Gitschin.
The
week's hard
work.
were fatigued
troops
The Crown
from Silesia with 115,000

portions of his
and as many
men had
army fought
at
Koniginhof,
Gitschin.^
twenty-one
Prince
with various
His force lay on
bank of the Elbe around
left
coming
three severe battles
serious skirmishes.
the
Prince
with a
his headquarters
miles
due
east
of
Frederick Charles, the king's
nephew, commanded the other army of 140,000
men, which had met with
though the troops
little
serious resistance,
were tired with the needless
marching caused by ill-considered arrangements.

This
prince
come
had
^
to
See sketch
report
map
i.
in
person to
The Brain
52
of an
Army
[part
Gitschin from his headquarters at Kamenitz, six

or seven miles to the east.
The exact whereabouts

was unknown.
itself
in
It
position
army
of the Austrian
was supposed to have placed

behind
Elbe, which
the
being about the size of the
Isis
here
above Oxford,
runs from north to south with a gentle curve to the

east.
line,
and
From Koniginhof
to
Koniggratz the straight
five-and-twenty miles long, runs due north

south.
If this line
be taken as a bowstring,
the Elbe corresponds to the bow, of which the
handle
is
Koniggratz,
the fortress of Josephstadt.
the southern point of the bow,
is
in
a straight line
twenty-seven miles from Gitschin, and the high

road roughly coincides with this
Monday
afternoon at
that the Austrian
army was on
bank of the Elbe, with

fortresses
Gitschin
its
it
On
line.
was believed
the
left
(eastern)
flanks covered
by the
of Koniggratz and Josephstadt.
was an awkward position

been decided to
let
to attack,
and
both Prussian armies
day, while officers should
the
This
it
rest
had
next
be sent to study the
CHAP
The Eve
I]
of KoniggrAtz
53
approaches and make arrangements for a turning

manoeuvre.
Prince Frederick Charles on
returning to his
headquarters at Kamenitz learned that the whole

supposition
was
Some
wrong.
of
his
officers
reconnoitring towards Koniggratz had found large
bodies of
sides
Austrian troops in bivouac
of the high road
Bistritz brook,
on both
along the valley of the

parallel with the
which runs nearly
Elbe about seven miles to the west of that
river.
comparison of reports showed that there must
be at
least four
Bistritz, so
Austrian army corps behind the
Frederick Charles, interpreting this as
indicating the intention to attack

ing,
him next morn-
determined to be beforehand with the enemy
and himself to attack
At 9
p.m. he
movement, and
at 9.45
at daybreak.
issued his orders for this
sent off to Koniginhof a letter asking the
Crown
Prince to send one or more corps towards Josephstadt to occupy the

chief of his staff
enemy
in that
quarter.
was sent to Gitschin
the king, and arrived there at
1 1
p.m.
The
to report to

The Brain
54
The king
"
at
front of the
in
it
by
Elbe with
army
whether
or only a large portion

.
command
Majesty's
his forces,
all
should be found there.
his
[part
once decided to attack the enemy
the whole Austrian

of
Army
of an
the
Accordingly
following com-
munication to the second army [that of the Crown

Prince] was at once prepared
"
According to the information received by the
"
first
army
the
enemy
in
corps, which, however,
advanced beyond
has
Bistritz at
first
the strength of about three
may be
the
further reinforced,
line
formed
by the
Sadowa, where an encounter with the
army
is
to
be expected very early
in
the
morning.
"
will
According to the orders
issued, the first
army
stand to-morrow morning, July 3rd, at 2 a.m.,
with two divisions at Horsitz with one at Milowitz,
one
at Cerekwitz, with
two
at
Pschanek and Briskan,
the cavalry corps at Gutwasser.

*
Der Feldzug von
1866 in Deiitschland.
Redigirt von
der Kriegsgeschichtlichen Abtheilung des groszen Generalstabes, p. 249.
English Miles
Konig^inhof
aCerehwit:
^^Josephstadt
Koniggrata
THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF KONIGGRATZ.
[To
faCC
p.
$4.
CHAP
The Eve
I]
of KoniggrAtz
"Your Royal Highness
will
at once
55
make
the
arrangements necessary to be able to move with

all
your forces
in
support of the
first
army
against
the right flank of the enemy's expected advance,
and to come into action as soon as
possible.
The
orders sent from here this afternoon under other
conditions are no longer valid.

"
V.
MOLTKE."
This note, with a shorter note to the commander

of one of the corps lying between Gitschin and
Koniginhof (the only part of the second army at

this
time west of the Elbe), telling him to be ready
for the
Crown
Prince's orders,
was despatched
at
midnight.
The whole Austro-Saxon army

was
in fact
Bistritz,
(eight
corps)
concentrated between the Elbe and the
not indeed for attack but for the defence
of a strong position on the left bank of the brook,

facing
westwards.
Had
the
arrangements
of
Prince Frederick Charles not been supplemented,

the 3rd of July might have been an unfortunate
The Brain
56
day
The
for Prussia.
of an
Army
[part
army would have been
first
engaged against an enemy strongly posted and

counting nearly double
its
numbers.
The
detach-
ment by the second army of one corps towards

Josephstadt
cisive
could hardly have produced
and the
effect,
would have been too

time.
rest
far
army
of the second
away
de-
to co-operate in
But the order sent from Gitschin entirely
met the
Without
situation.
army
entire second
its
action
with
interfering
Prince Frederick Charles's attack
where
it
brought the
to his help in the
direction
would produce the greatest
effect
on the enemy's flank.

When
army
as
the morning came, the attack of the

it
first
developed, disclosed the great strength
of the Austrian position and the numbers by which

it
was defended.
unable to do
engaged
Prince Frederick Charles was
much more than keep
until the
attack of the
second army came up.
Crown
decided the day.
the Austrians
Prince's
With
leading
their capture
The
divisions
and main-
tenance of Chlum, the key of the position, the

CHAP
The Eve
I]
and the
whole
of KoniggrAtz
issue not only
campaign
was
57
army became
Austrian
of the
situation
critical,
of the fight but of the

practically
resolution formed between eleven
settled.
The
and twelve at
night on July 2nd, in the Lion Inn at Gitschin,
had secured the victory of Koniggratz, perhaps

the greatest battle of
modern
exception the most decisive in

^
There
Belgian
its results.
at Leipsic or at Koniggratz.
Precis
{Bibliotheqiie
militaire) the figures are
At Leipsic
300,000
180,000
Total
480,000
215,000
220,000
435,000
At Koniggratz: Austrians
Prussians
Total
According
to Riistow
{Feldherrnkimit des
numbers engaged were
At Leipsic (Oct. 18th)
total of
xcjten
Jahrhun-
French.
130,000
Allies
290,000
420,000
Total
At Koniggratz,
to the
iPHisioire
Allies
According
Inteniatiotiale
French
derts) the
and without
a doubt whether the number of combatants
is
was greater
times, ^
both sides
450,000
CHAPTER
II
BEHIND THE SCENES
The King
of Prussia
modest man and

faculties.
to have
He was
reputed to have been a
is
known
the limits of his
not a great strategist.
He
once
said to his brother (the father of Prince Frederick

Charles), " If
I
had not been born a HohenzoUern
How
should have been a sergeant-major."
did
he make the swift decision
resulting
then
in
success that would have done credit to the genius
of Frederick the Great or Napoleon

is
The answer
supplied by the Prussian historian of the Italian
campaign of
writer, "
1859.
"
There are generals," says
who need no
resolve in their
counsel,
own minds,
who
deliberate
stars
of
the
68
and
those about them hav-
ing only to carry out their intentions.
generals are
this
first
But such
magnitude who
CHAP
Behind the Scenes
II]
scarcely appear once in a century.
59
In the great
majority of cases the leader of an
army
willing to dispense with advice.
The
made may very

tions
will
not be
suggestions
well be the result of the delibera-
of a smaller or greater
specially qualified
by
training and experience to
form a correct judgment.

only one opinion
number of men
ought
But even among them

to
assert
The
itself.
organization of the military hierarchy should pro-
mote subordination even

opinion
only should
in
be submitted for the con-
sideration of the commander-in-chief
person to
Him
let
whom
This one
thought.
by the one
this particular service is assigned.
the general choose, not according to rank
own
per-
the advice given
may
or seniority, but in accordance with his
sonal confidence.
Though
not always be unconditionally the best, yet,

action taken
if
the
be consistent and the leading idea
once adopted be steadfastly followed, the
affair
may
issue.
always be brought to a satisfactory
The commander-in-chief
adviser
the
infinitely
retains
weightier
as
against
merit
his
of taking
The Brain
6o
upon himself
the
Army
of an
responsibility
[part
that
is
"But surround a commander with a number
of
for
all
done.
men
independent
the
more numerous, the more

and the worse
distinguished, the abler they are

will
be
him hear the advice now of one now
let
of another
it
let
him carry out up
a measure judicious
more judicious but
in
itself,
to a certain point
then adopt a
different plan,
still
and then be con-
vinced by the thoroughly sound objections of a

third adviser
fourth,
it
is
and the remedial suggestions of a

a hundred to one that though for
each of his measures excellent reasons
can be
given, he will lose the campaign."
The one
authorised adviser here described was
by the Prussian system provided
for the
king
in
the person of the chief of the general staff of the
army.
This
office
had
risen to
importance during
the wars of liberation, though at that epoch the
general staff was in the peace organization a sub-
ordinate
branch of the Ministry of War.
The
Prussians fighting Napoleon, had had no Napoleon
CHAP
Behind the Scenes
II]
The
to pit against him.
best they could
command
to put Bliicher in
6i
do was
with Scharnhorst, and
after Scharnhorst's
death with Gneisenau to keep
him
the
In
straight.^
that followed the
period
peace of 1815 the position of the general staff

received strict definition.
appointed
its
chief,
In
and
it
1821
was
Muffling was
settled
that he
should not be subordinate to the Minister of
but directly responsible to the king.

stitution
of the office on a
new
in
want of a
fresh organ to perform functions
the Ministry of
War was
to direct the
make such
'
It
horst
special
in war,
in 1813 laid the

staff.
not
business of
and
and during peace
preparations as
might perhaps have been better
system of the general
an
business of the staff
to
might be
have given Scharn-
and Gneisenau the actual command.
arrangement adopted
man
army
The
to raise, maintain
The
administer the army.
to
War was
of labour implying the
the division
before satisfactorily exercised.
was
This con-
basis outside of
and independent of the Ministry of

advance
War
In any case the
foundation of the Ger-
The Brain
62
of an
necessary to this end.
devote
all
its
fighting in the
Army
[part
order to be
In
able to
energies to the conduct of armies

field,
unhampered by the
daily administration, the general staff
on an independent footing.
details of
was placed
In 1829 Miiffiing was
succeeded by Lieut.-Gen. von Krauseneck, whose

successor
(in
Reyher died
were
office
Lieut-Gen. von Reyher.
1848) was
in
when the
1857,
intrusted
Major
to
duties
-
of the
General
von
Moltke.
The
division of labour
between the royal com-
mander-in-chief and the chief of the staff

illustrated
When
Koniggratz.
Rhetz
(the
chief
Charles' staff) reached
the king,
who was
of
General von
Prince
Frederick
Gitschin and reported to
just going to bed, the king sent

" If
General Moltke thinks
him
to
this
information involves a fresh decision he
come
be
by the proceedings of the evening before
the battle of
Voigts
may
Moltke saying,
for orders
is
to
whatever be the time of night."
Voigts-Rhetz went to Moltke's quarters and made

his report.
Moltke made up
his
mind what ought
CHAP
Behind the Scenes
II]
to be done,
found
and then went to the king,

and explained
in bed,
army
the whole Austrian

at
Sadowa
63
his
whom
he
view that whether
or only a part of
the sound course was to
it
was
move forward
both Prussian armies, so as to take the Austrians

in front
and
sides at
once must
An
flank.
in
attack like this from two
any case give the Prussians
the best chance of victory they could hope for, and

the result would be the
more
the portion of the Austrian
The king
decisive the larger
army
to be engaged.
at once gave his assent.
Moltke then
wrote the two notes, which were sent off immediately.

It
was
schin.
1 1
The
when Voigts-Rhetz reached
p.m.
were despatched
letters
In that hour
fall
the king and
Git-
at midnight.
the reports of Voigts-Rhetz to
to
and determination
Moltke
;
Moltke's deliberation
his visit to the king's quarters
and the writing and despatching of the
notes.
It
ippears from these data that there was no discussion,
and that even
their first great
at this period, the
opening of
campaign, the king's confidence
in
The Brain of an Army
64
[part
Moltke was as thoroughly established as we know

it
to have been four years later.^
In the Crown Prince's diary of the Franco-German War

we read under the date January 15th, "Werder asks whether
he would not do better now to abandon Belfort as he thinks
'
he can
still
defend Alsace
Moltke read
added, with unshakeable icy calmness,
this
out and
Your Majesty
will
no doubt approve of General Werder being informed in

reply that he has simply to stay where he is and beat the
enemy where he finds him.' Moltke appeared to me admirable
beyond
whole
affair."
all praise.
In one second he had settled the
Deutsche Rundschau^ October, 1888,
p.
25.
CHAPTER
III
FIVE SHORT ORDERS
In one sense there
is
nothing remarkable
same
the
Given two armies
decision of the 2nd of July.

fighting on the
in
and within a day's march
side
of each other, and a hostile
march of both of them,
it
what the two armies should
army
is
not
do.
within a day's
difficult to see
Nothing
than to solve problems of this sort
is
easier
in the study.
Even with the imperfect knowledge of the
facts
which the Prussians possessed, the arrangements
made
at Gitschin
tions of military
were no more than the sugges-
common
situation seems, nothing
such a solution
common-place
which
is
in
in
sense.
is
But simple as the
so difficult as to secure
the practice of war.
that kind
It
is
of military criticism
wise after the event that Benedek might

6i
i:.
The Brain
66
have avoided disaster
if
of an
Army
[part
he had only acted on any
reasonable plan and stuck to
The
it.
merit of the
Prussians lay in the system which gave military
common
as to
sense
make
wanted.
It
its
due place
sure that
it
in the organization, so
would be applied when
was a matter of the judicious
division
of labour.
At
the headquarters of an
hundred
army
there are
In peace there
different anxieties.
recruiting, training, clothing, feeding,
of the troops
the distribution of
maintenance of
discipline.
the
and arming
commands
the
In war most of these
matters continue to require attention
must be kept
is
subordinates
to their appointed tasks
above
all
the field of politics must be watched from day to
day, sometimes
even from hour to hour.
The
Prussian system gave to the chief of the general

staff the sole
duty of attending to the movements
of the armies, and, regarding each
new
situation
as a problem in strategy, of explaining the solution
which presented
the best.
itself to his
trained
judgment as
Free from the pressure of other cares
CHAP
and
Five Short Orders
III]
67
responsibilities an officer in this position
would
be more likely to see clearly and judge coolly than
one overloaded with work and distracted with the

thousand worries of command.
This
is
the division
of labour according to kind, which gives each sort

of work to a
man
ance.
supplemented by an organization of
It
is
responsibility
specially trained for
which
relieves a
its
man from
perform-
detail in
proportion to the extent and grasp of his super-
The army was broken up
vision.
each with
its
into
minor armies
own commander and
his chief of
so that the chief of the general staff him-
the
staff,
self
had to consider only the large problems of the
campaign, the general nature of the movements to
be effected by the two or three pieces on his board.
The head
of each
army
is
told the general inten-
tion
and the share of work assigned to
He
in turn
as so
many
regards his
units,
In 1866 the
combined
into
by aimy corps.
first
army
army corps
his force.
or divisions
and besides a statement of the
army was composed of divisions not

The second army was worked
corps.

The Brain
68
object to be
aimed
gives
at
as the corps or
directions
Army
of an
movements
division
It is
to
is left
in the
commanders and
only such general
division
cannot arrange for themselves.

the
[part
commanders
All the detail of
hands of the corps or
their special staffs.
worth while showing by a convincing proof
what simplicity the system here described

supreme command.
duces the business of
June 21 a Prussian parlementaire handed
re-
On
in to the
Austrian outposts a notification of the commence-
ment of
hostilities.
At
that time the
first
was concentrated opposite the Austrian

the
across
Silesia
Neisse.
only
border that
Saxony from
separates
army was concentrated near
From
day
five
June
armies
frontier
the second
that
short
(at
22.
until the decisive battle
orders from
quarters are on record

(i)
army
and
head-
king's
Telegram
Gorlitz
the
from
Neisse)
Berlin
:
orders both armies to advance into
"
to
both
His Majesty
Bohemia and
to seek to unite in the direction of Gitschin."
letter of the
same date contained a
slightly
CHAP
Five Short Orders
III]
fuller
69
explanation, and added, to Prince Frederick
Charles, that as the second
army had
the difficult
task of issuing from the mountains the
must shorten the
June
(2)
29.
crisis
Telegram
Frederick Charles
first
by pushing on
"
is
rapidly.
His Majesty expects that the
army which,
victorious actions,
army
from Berlin to Prince
army by a quickened advance
the second
first
time being
for the
still
disengage
of a series of
spite
in
will
in
difficult situation."
(A
had been losing time by
his timid
movements, of his original

(3)
June
way from
30.
Telegram
Berlin to the
instructing the second
the Elbe and the
first
wards Koniggratz.
(A
of the plan of No.

(4)
July
2.
and methodical
instructions.)
from Kohlfurt (on the
army)
army
to
both armies
to maintain itself
army
to
push forward
on
to-
modification, to suit events,
i.)
Gitschin.
armies to rest on July

front
who
repetition to Prince Frederick Charles,
3,
Order arranging
for
both
while the country to the
and the Austrian supposed position should

The Brain
70
be reconnoitred.
Army
of an
Cancelled
[part
same evening
the
by
Moltke's note (quoted
(5)
p.
54) to the
Crown
Prince.
The
brevity and simplicity of these instructions
find a counterpart in
army commanders.
the orders
Crown
at four
by the
Moltke's note sent off from
Gitschin at midnight on
the
issued
Prince's
Monday was
delivered at
headquarters at Koniginhof
At
on Tuesday morning.
five
General von
Blumenthal, the chief of the general staff of the
second army,
twenty
lines
sent out an
army order of some
"According to information received here

expected that the enemy
first
army which
Cerekwitz.
"The
at
first
is
to-day attack the
Horsitz,
The second army
support as follows
(i)
is
will
it
Milowitz,
and
will
advance to
will
march
its
army corps
in
two
columns by Zabres and Gr. Trotin to Gr. Burglitz."
And
...
so on for the other corps.
In this
way an
CHAP
III]
Five Shout Orders
army of 115,000 men
(four
71
army corps and a
cavalry division) was directed by five sentences of
two
This was
lines each.
were arranged
for
commander with
sufficient.
The
details
each army corps by the corps
the assistance of his staff officers.
CHAPTER
IV
PRELIMINARIES OF A CAMPAIGN
The movements
after
ever,
the
first
of an
serious
be settled
army during
a campaign
engagements can
in detail
rarely,
before the war.
if
They
must needs depend largely on those of the enemy,

But be-
which cannot be accurately foreseen.

fore
war
is
declared, before
while the troops are

a well-conducted
still
the fighting begins,
in their
own
territory,
government can make
parations without hindrance.
its
pre-
The army can be
placed on a war footing, and assembled at whatever point or points are judged most advantageous.
These preparations
Prussia
in
fall
in
different
degrees within the domain of the general
The changes by which

a war footing,
known
the
army
is
staff.
placed on
collectively as mobilization,
73
CHAP
Preliminaries of a Campaign
IV]
include the calling
and horses
out of the
their distribution
corps and their equipment
completion
of the
of
services
supply.
Prussia the general staff had
and regulated down
of
the
different
proceedings
these
All
the various
and the creation and
and
staffs
men
of
reserves
among
y^
in
perfectly arranged
to the minutest detail, so that
the order needed only to be issued, and the whole
operation
would take place as
of mobilization
The
details of
secret, but the
is
same what-
the operation of mobiHzation are kept
peace strength of 120
may be
men and
to
the
war strength
announcement of the decree
explained in
company
Suppose a
to
have a
pass each year forty
into the reserve, receiving instead
recruits,
process
elementary principles have everywhere been
an imaginary example.
of
The
the
in essentials
copied from the Prussian system and
men
by clockwork
a given number of days.^
within
'
if
being
the
for mobilization
duty of each of the 120 reservists to
same number
The
240.
public
makes
the
it
proceed directly to
the headquarters of the company, where they
will arrive,
according to the distance from their homes, say on the

first,
second, or
has a nominal
store under his
kit for
third
day of mobilization.
ot
the whole company,
list
own
responsibility the
each of the 240 men.
As they
The
captain
and keeps
in
complete new war

arrive the
men
pass
The Brain
74
Army
of an
ever be the
frontier
on which the war
fought.
places
the
It
leaves
its
in perfect readiness
field.
frontier
and
is
the
first
it
stage
of the
be
army
actual
game
of
importance that
of the greatest
is
the points selected should

for the
their
headquarters except
operations, resembling the opening of a

chess,
to be
Prussia no regiment
the other hand, the collection of the
on the
in
to take the
On
is
ready at
troops
ordinary headquarters, and
trART
those
best suited
beginning of the particular campaign in
prospect.
The
its
placing of an
army on a war
transport to a frontier are political acts of the
gravest moment.
They
the doctor, receive their

in the
kits,
company.
completed
principal share
occupying every
in
man from
told off to their posts
framed
to
(this
the care with

is
the
the general
staff's
labour,
to the bugler
and
which he can best do, and
none more than he can do

ease,
and are
the work) so as to divide the
giving to each that work
rapidity,
are therefore usually con-
According
which the rules have been
the
footing and
in the
time allowed,
will
to
be
and certainty with which the whole
mobilization will be effected.
CHAP
IV]
trolled almost as
and
considerations,
appreciate
is
them without taking
however
statesman
neither case
may
an army
is
may
may
to a
urge
by gradual
to
mobilization,
mechanical proits
postponement
In
instalments.
though the amount of
be increased.
friction in-
But the assembling of
the immediate preliminary to attack
or defence, and
attack
to
the essential nature of the opera-
is
tion changed,
volved
rightly
upon the two processes
be compared
execution
its
military
into account the
In regard
different.
may
cess, the
or
by
impossible
is
it
influence of politics
which
political as
circumstances by which they are affected.
political
The
much by
75
the statesman's unwillingness to
affect
the choice of time and
place
for the collection of the force available.
The King
avoid
not
to
of Prussia was sincerely anxious to
war, and until June 14 was determined
take
the
initiative
nor to agree to any
measure which might savour of attack.
He
was
with difficulty induced to consent to the successive

stages of preparation.
Not
until
the
beginning
"^6
The Brain
of May,
when
Austrian
the
[part
mobilization
advanced and the transport to the
far
were
impending,
mobilization
the
orders
May
divided
reserve corps at
the
German
12.
The
army
corps,^
from
confederation.
The
the disposition of these
for
May
between
be
but
withdrawn
garrisons
12
and June 22 form the

and may perhaps
basis of the subsequent success,
best
Prussian
corps collected at Wetzlar
Prussian
arrangements made
forces
frontiers
of 326,000
total
nine
into
the
of the
fortresses
May
and
was
once,
at
Berlin,- the corps of occupation
Holstein, and
from
formed a
forces thus called out
combatants,
the
for
and that not
issued,
piecemeal between
in
Army
of an
described
the
in
form
of a
series
ot
problems and their solutions.

I.
I.
The
first
The guard
with
its
to VIII. quartered
in the
main
to
of
step
the
preparation for a war
peace quarters at Berhn, and corps

peace
in
eight
in
districts
provinces
Brandenburg, Prussian Saxony, Posen,
Rhenish Prussia.
*
Called out on
See sketch
May
is
19th.
map
2.
corresponding
Prussia, Pomerania,
Silesia,
Westphaha,
CHAP
IV]
own
case of our
the
of
the calculation
small wars
it
the
In
required.^
force
-j-j
self-evident that
is
such a calculation
is
necessary, and the campaign
of 1882 in Egypt
is
an instance
worked out
to a nicety.
It
a matter of course that
the beginning that
its
when two Continental
work out
this
army a war
France and
forces
of
Milan
attacked
the whole
out
assume from
will
calculation.
little
against
Sardinia
Bulgarians
the
of the
Servian
in
mainly through
lost
undertook with
the Austrians
their
will
whole available force
which campaigns have been
half
was
it
Yet instances are numerous
be employed.
neglect to
which
might seem equally
go to war each of them
states
in
the
in
In
1859
more than
combined
1885
King
without calling
army.
In
both
cases defeat was largely due to this initial error.
"
What
sitteth not
first,
with ten thousand
to
with twenty thousand

great
way
make war against another king,

and consulteth whether he be able
meet him that cometh against him
king, going to
down
off,
Or
else,
while the other
is
yet
he sendeth an ambassage and desireth con-
ditions of peace."

The Brain
78
The
basis
Army
of an
of the calculation
had
staff
enemy.
of the
disposal
to
of the
the preliminary difficulty that
face
German
favourable
estimated
100,000,
that
and
making a
no
Austrian
the hostile
in
36,000,
Prussian
the
'
to
The next
The numbers
be
The
side.
forces
in
that
Prussia
it
was
in
Germany
264,000,
There could
employ the
forces.
question
forces
must
least
would be
South
400,000 men.^
whole of her available

2.
8 which
Saxony and Austria
total of
doubt
May
made, and
was
assumption
Germany
North
be
the
late as
would be on the Prussian
states
which on
and
be at the
1866 the Prussian
In
was uncertain even as
it
will
by
furnished
is
an estimate of the force which
[part
was how
acjainst
these
to
distribute
three
sets
of
actually called out against Prussia proved
North Germans
25,000
South Germans
94,000
271,000
390,000
Austrians and Saxons
Total
CHAP
IV]
enemies.
79
proportionate division based on the
would have resulted
estimate just given
in
the
employment of 215,000 men against Austria and

Saxony, of 30,000 against North Germany, and
of 80,000 against
German
however, expected that the South
would not be ready
until
war, and might in the
Hanover
halves
and
of
first
Hesse
a late stage
staff,
forces
of
the
instance be neglected.
between
lying
and
Prussia
The
Germany.
South
the
two
Westphalia
separating
and Rhenish Prussia from the main body of the

kingdom,^ were more serious
necessary
before
to
their
But the
fate
hard
strike
would
If
in
successful
she
any
in
were
case
this
of
issue
beaten
struggle,
the
possible,
completed.
Germany
the
be undone
would be
if
be
could
of Prussia and of
depended upon the

Austria.
them,
at
preparations
It
foes.
conflict
if
with
Prussia
here,
;
really
she
minor
were
states,
even though not themselves beaten, must needs

fall
under her sway.

'
It
was decided to employ
See sketch
map
3.
The Brain
8o
Army
of an
[part
almost the whole army (eight and a half corps
and
reserve
the
and
Austria
of
corps,
men)
278,000
Saxony, and
meet
to
German enemies with a
the
(48,000)
made up
and
the troops
of
at
Wetzlar.
all
to
of
half
the
assembled
This force
against
the
rest
scratch
army
seventh
corps
Holstein
in
was destined
and
of
first
Hesse and Hanover (capitulation
disarm
of Langensalza June 29), and then to attack and

defeat the South
German
The next problem
3.
point or
points
assembled
for
ship
the
in
is
the
purpose
the
is
the
campaign, and
if
possible, to
the divided
his
thought
first
place,
or
parts
may
The
forces
at
is
least
generalis
Every general
whole force
his
enemy, and therefore
to assemble his
to
the
mistake here
meet with
of the
be
to
is
of
act
usually the prelude of misfortune.

wishes,
the
beginning
of
first
of
choice
which the army
at
This
operations.
contingents.
collect
it
army
so
that
at
all
one
its
unite for battle.
Prussian
army,
if
assembled
in
Upper
Prussian Territory
before 1866
States of the Germai
Confederation
PRUSSIA IN 1866.
[To face p. 80.
CHAP
IV]
Silesia,
would be
to the
Austrian capital
litz/
at the point of Prussia
would
it
and
Breslau
between
interpose
army
Austrian
an
These were,
from Bohemia.
favourable points of
unless
lose
were intended, as
it
approaching
course in the middle of
second
inadmissible.
quite
much
of
soon
as
May
There
value
the
army
and
movement could not be
To march
however,
argument
many
weeks, and
against
late.
not be overcome by the
To move
a whole
^
The
to either district from the
the concentration
the risk of being too
carried out in a reason-
would have been an
distant provinces
this
was, to the king's
was,
unanswerable
posi-
its
assembling the whole army at either place.
able time.
most
But the
should be ready, to march on Vienna
mind,
or
assembly, the one for at-
would
Silesia
in
Berlin
therefore, the
tack and the other for defence.

tion
nearest
assembled at Gor-
if
8i
The
use
map
of
would run
difficulty could
of
the railways.
army corps by a
See sketch
affair
single rail-
3.
The Brain
82
way
required,
line,
irrespective
only one, and
two, through railways
transport to
that
for
the
from nine to
distance,
the
for
[part
nature of
the
to
the
But
twelve days.
Silesia
according
of
Army
of an
to
Upper
Gorlitz
only
were available, so that a
very long time would be required to move the
whole army by
rail
to
neither of the districts in

as
question
As
than a few days.

not to
fight,
if
might become necessary

ing for some weeks after
would be to starve
Thus
fired.
it
it
one army, either
for
for
more
avoided,
it
keep the army wait-
its
concentration.
before a
defence
all
offence
armies had to be
of
so fertile
shot
This
had been
v/as impracticable in the political
circumstances to collect
tions
be
could
to
is
was determined
the king
fighting
Moreover,
army
be able to feed a large
to
rate
point
either
to
the nine corps into

or defence.
formed, and
prevail.
The
Sepa-
consideraprincipal
centres of concentration were fixed in the neigh-
bourhood of Gorlitz and of Schweidnitz, points

on the
lines
of
an
Austrian
advance towards
CHAP
Pl.'lJLIMINARIES
IV]
Berlin
and
time
this
at
middle
(the
May) the Austrian army was
83
Northern
respectively from
Breslau
Bohemia, where
OF A CAMPAIGN
believed
of
be
to
assembling.
Upon
4.
the basis of this decision the move-
ment of the troops
The
to the frontier
was arranged.
railway system, as has been
seen, did not
admit of moving the corps directly and speedily

to
Gorlitz
all
were
and
Five
Schweidnitz.
leading
available,
railways
on
points
to
Prussian frontier facing the kingdom of
They ended
and the Austrian Empire.

Halle,
Hertzberg, Gorlitz, and
long.
The
quickest
at
once,
Saxony
at Zeitz,
some 250
way
practicable
assembling the army was to use
ways
the
Schweidnitz (or
Neisse), places scattered along a curve
miles
in
and when the
these
all
troops
of
rail-
had thus
been deposited on the frontier to continue the

concentration by marches.
march
the
to
radii
assemble
the
leading to the
but this was in the
The
shortest lines of
whole army would be

centre
enemy's
of
the
territory,
curve
so
that
The Brain
84
these
lines,
if
be adopted before war had
The
been declared.
alternative
was to concen-
by marches along the circumference, and
trate
as
[part
they had been for other reasons
desirable, could not
this
Army
of an
Each
was the plan adopted.
its
corps, as soon
debarkation from the train was complete,
was marched along the arc towards the point of

concentration selected for it
The
corps from Posen and Silesia, collected at
and
Schweidnitz
army under
the second
(grouped
Neisse
the
Crown
moved
to their right
burg.^
Those of Westphalia
were
Rhenish Prussia
Halle, and
Prince),
as
were
Landshut and Walden(half a corps)
detrained
marched round the
at
Zeitz
frontier of
and
and
Saxony
where the Elbe emerges from that
to the point
kingdom.
to
together
These troops, with the reserve corps
from Berlin, formed the Elbe army, destined to

continue
of
its
eastward movement by the invasion
Saxony.
denburg, and
The
corps
Prussian
*
from
Pomerania, Bran-
Saxony, were combined
See sketch
map
3.
CHAP
IV]
the
into
first
under
army,
They were
Charles.
Torgad and
between
marched along
and then
Cottbus,
Frederick
Prince
assembled
first
85
the frontier towards Gorlitz, reaching the western
corner of Silesia (neighbourhood of Hoyerswerda)
about the end of the
week
The
staff
united
on
important
when
the
also completed.
was now anxious to begin the
The
campaign.
June,
in
movements described were
other
5.
first
three
Prussian
soil
armies
could
without
not
leaving
be
some
unprotected, nor await where
district
they were the Austrian attack without the risk

that one of
the
to
risk
them
blows of
only would
by
meet
in
point of
isolation
superior
be incurred
concentric
Austrian
might be exposed
force.
in
it
towards
preparations.
But the
some
would increase
with every additional day allowed

trian
same
the attempt to
advance
territory
This
king
for the
still
Aus-
thought
a settlement possible, and would not permit hostilities
6.
to
On
commence.
June
11,
the
Prussian
staff
learned
The Brain
86
of an
Army
army corps
that of seven Austrian
[part
destined
to
operate against Prussia six were in Moravia, not

in
Bohemia, as
ference
was,
had
that
been
in-
contemplated
Austrians
the
The
supposed.
advancing upon Breslau by way of Neisse,
for
which movement the data obtained showed that

they would be able to cross the Silesian border
with
five or
To meet
six
this
army corps by about June
invasion,
if
army was moved
the second
should take
it
place
to the river Neisse,
and was reinforced by the guard
facing south,
corps from Berlin, and by the

originally
corps,
first
from East Prussia by
rail
moved
to Gorlitz
and now by marching transferred from the
army
At
to the second.
army continued
Gorlitz,
where
it
its
same time the
the
eastward
march
really invade Silesia, or, if not
Saxony
effected
could
or
be
moved
Bohemia.
by June
as
first
first
far
as
would be near enough to reach
Breslau as soon as the Austrians,
direction,
19.
19.
if
required
readily
These
they should
into
in that
either
movements were
CHAP
IV]
The Elbe army was

the
to join
east,
venient
were
tile
resolution
the
king to
course
the
in
also
situation
political
Torgau
make up
army
of execution,
his
on the
to
the
from
flank.
and on the
Frederick
first
confines
Charles.
army
the
hos-
June 15
On
the i6th
19th, connection
first
of
the
army,
now
command
This prince con-
to the south of Gorlitz,
Saxony and
close
Silesia,
Bohemian border, while the Elbe army
Dresden
The
rapidly closed
intention
one
army
into
with
left
wing
skirting
the
Mountains,
to
up
to
right
his
was that both should ad-
vance as
Giant
The
On
mind.
about Gorlitz, was placed under
centrated the
lay
on June 14 enabled
having been established with the
Prince
Gorlitz
crossed the border; on the i8th
occupied Dresden
of
most con-
had changed.
of the diet
to the
changes just de-
war was declared against Saxony.

the Elbe
moved
its
to
While the
through Dresden.
scribed
army, but
first
from
route
also to be
87
meet
Bohemia, and
the
the
foot
second
move,
of
the
army.
The Brain
88
of an
Army
[part
There had been no sign of an Austrian attack

on
to prepare for a
meet
to
his
was ordered
Prince
march westward
On
cousin.
send one corps
keeping the
Crown
the
so
Silesia,
19th he was
advance to
in
rest
the
of
Landshut,
on
force
his
two more of
later
on
ing
taken
the
Neisse
day or
only remain-
corps
much
and
whole army was
about to march towards Moravia.

of both
position
when
the
effect their
It
of
tion
of
and
preparations
as
been
22,
them
try to
to
union about Gitschin,
large
followed
one
object,
a force
purpose of defeating
had
frontier
be observed that from the
will
the
Bohemian
was
on June
the telegram already quoted ordered
cross
to
and
This was the
armies
Prussian
the belief
there
still
being
trouble
deceive the Austrians into
to
the
that
Neisse,
still
were withdrawn
his corps
mountains, a single
to the
to
the
ready to face either south or west.
two
Bohemia
into
the
as
the concentra-
possible
for
Austro-Saxon
by the
stage
first
chief
of
the
the
forces,
staff.
THE OPENING MOVEMENTS OF THE CAMPAIGN OF
866.
[To face
p.
CHAP
IV]
His
were
arrangements
at
was
the circumstances
the formation
at
by
controlled
first
the
considerations,
political
89
which
of
effect
in
render impracticable
to
the outset of
army.
single
Afterwards, before war had been finally decided
upon,
were
armies
the
moved
changed situation created by the

rangements
at
Saxony was a
that
The
the
Austrians
question
22
were
towards the second
Austrian
was
position
the
shortest
The
abundantly
become
invading
not
march of the
line
safe course
known
of
Bohemia, with the attendant

army.
had
of
conclear
Silesia.
was, whether to continue through
Prussian territory the
both
it
ar-
invasion
further stage in the general
By June
centration.
the
Austrian
The
known.
length
meet
to
or
first
now
that the
to
take for
meeting,
risk
army
that
into
to the second
bolder course was adopted, and was

justified
by
success.
CHAPTER V
THE
Except
is
the conduct of military operations there
nothing so
CRITICS
difficult as to
appreciate them truly.
multitude of considerations affect the leading of
armies and
many
the historian.
of them evade the research of
The
critic therefore
can rarely be
sure that he has placed himself in the exact position of the general
for
whose
acts he
is
studying.
If,
example, he supposes a commander to have
been without information which

sessed,
his
judgment
may
picture completely distorted.
in fact
he pos-
be founded
upon a
Such mistakes are
the most careful historians.
The
Prussian staff history of the campaign of
1866
made even by
alleges
that
the
Austrian
commanders were
unaware of the Crown Prince's march westwards

90
CHAP
The
V]
from
the
Critics
91
The Austrian
Neisse.
history
staff
shows that very good information on the subject
had reached the Austrian headquarters as early

as
June
25, before
Crown
any of the
Where
corps had crossed the border.

to avoid error
difficult
But
it
may be
the value of
strategy of Moltke
pers
of
Morris,
23,
attempted, in his
seem
this
to
cam-
example, in
1889, wrote:
invasion of
within
foe, as
"The
Mr. O'Connor Morris
but
he
never
France, to unite
striking
distance
he did at Gitschin, under
the very beard of Benedek." ^
If
for
boasted,
armies,
of a concentrated
so
not perfection, as worship-
have
success
widely divided
is
that
concerning
traditional
Academy of March
the
is
permissible to raise a doubt as to
Mr. O'Connor
paign.
it
rash to be dogmatic.
it is
some of the judgments
have become
Prince's
will
similar criticism,
mark on a map
the posi-
and Prussian armies on June 22nd, the

date of the order " to unite widely divided armies," etc., he
tions of the Austrian
will discover that the
an area not
less
Prussian armies.
Austrian forces were distributed over
extended than that which included both
The Brain
92
without the sneer,
may
of an
Army
[part
be found in the Belgian
But neither writer has explained where
Precis.
Even the Austrian
the mistake lay.
historian
declares that, given the Prussian positions on the
Neisse and in Lusatia, the only sound course was
Was
the advance to meet at Gitschin.
in the original dispersion of the forces
the error
along the
the critics should explain what
frontier?
If
alternative
was practicable
so,
in
view of the
political
conditions and of the geography of the theatre of

war.
Would
parations
influence
for
it
not be safer to say that the pre-
the campaign
upon
strategy of
political situation
of
1866 show the
a very complicated
The opening
of the campaign
of 1870 presented in comparison a simple problem.
There was a single enemy to be faced
was no motive
the
German
staff could
men
and there
Moreover,
for hesitation or delay.
campaign on the
330,000
count upon beginning the
least favourable hypothesis
against 250,000.^
with
Possibly in 1866
the strategists' task would have been easier, and

*
German Staff History^
1870-71,
vol.
i.
p. 74.
cHAr
The
v]
Critics
93
posterity
would have thought no worse of Prussian
policy
the king had realized early in
if
mobilization
But
make twenty
easy to
The
event.
the general
is
years after
opinion at the time condemned
the
the
Moreover, Prussia had then no
important success on
Waterloo.
at
this again
was between Germans, and
conflict
Prussian policy.
stroke
that
meant war, and had given Moltkc
from that time a free hand.

criticism
May
king's hesitation
record
In
since
these
the decisive
conditions
the
was natural enough, and even
the anxiety to cover every part of Prussian territory
quite
is
intelligible.
remain obscure, for
Much must
may be
it
years before the
personal history of the principal

period
given
is
function
of
to
the world.
criticism
is
to
seek
understand the events with which

It is
of
little
needs
actors
at
this
Meanwhile, the
first
it
of
all
to
deals.
purpose to read a summary of the
movements of the troops during a campaign, and

to be given a
list
of the mistakes
generals on each side.
made by
the
Such a system leads the
The Brain
94
of an
Army
[part
reader to suppose that generals as a rule have
been remarkably
entirely conceals from
always beset
weak, and ignorant, and
careless,
him the
the conduct
where a measure adopted
by the
result to
by
or followed
why
was
it
operations.
But
the field
in
disaster, the
employed
it
which
is
shown
have been attended with
offers
risks
attempt to ascertain
invariably
upon the nature of war

study, though
of
difficulties
and
little
throws
this
light
method
satisfaction to
of
the
vanity that likes to take a side and to distribute

praise or blame, rewards,
sight
and
which
it
forming
requires.
the
by quickening the
judgment,
the
in-
labour
PART
II
THE GENERAL STAFF AND THE ARMY
CHAPTER
THE
SPIRIT OF PRUSSIAN MILITARY
INSTITUTIONS
The
"
general
The metaphor
brain of an army."
apt, for
the
like
staff,
been described
has
staff
the
human
is
the
as
peculiarly
brain,
not
is
independent but a part of an organic whole.

can perform
its
functions only in connection with
a body adapted to
Prussian
the
then
is
the
impulses
centre
its
control,
and united with
army adapted
conveyed
from
its
to
it
How
ramifications of a nervous system.
by the
It
receive
intellectual
An army
the Prussian
seriously.
is
what
army
It
its
officers
make
it,
and
in
the officers take their profession
may
be doubted whether there

97
is
The Brain
g8
world any body of
in the
minded
poor.
made
men
English
to
Their pay
small,
is
ridiculously
and they have never
the acquaintance of luxury.
army
"
wrote,
The more
address to
official
general the spread of
luxury and comfort, the more solemnly

officer
his
officer,
damage
life
and
in society
Not only does an enervating
by material wealth.
of
in the state
and cannot be maintained
has not been gained
an
the
is
confronted by the duty never to forget that
honourable position
mode
Most of them
notions,
In 1874 the emperor in an

the
[part
so entirely single-
in their devotion to duty.
according
are,
Army
of an
the combatant qualities of
but the pursuit of gain and comfort
would dangerously undermine the very ground
upon which the

These words
officer's
fairly
position
express the
whom
they were addressed, and
takes
a pride
in
his
built up."^
is
spirit
of those to
many an
poverty, and
starves
cheerfulness and even with merriment.

^
Verordnung
iibet
Preussischen Heere^
die
May
Ehrengerichte der
2nd, 1874.
officer
with
Some
Offiziere
of
im
CHAP
I]
Prussian JNIilitary Institutions
99
example
by
have
the superior officers
the
^et
abandoning the dearly-loved
and a Prussian
cigar,
mess has decidedly no attractions
officer's
for the
gourmet.
"
Teacher and leader
in
every department
is
the
officer.
This implies that he
men
knowledge, experience, and strength of
in
Without fearing
character.
officer in all
is
superior to his
is
responsibility, every
circumstances however extraordinary
to stake his
whole personality
for the fulfilment
of his mission, even without waiting for orders."^
This
is
the foundation stone of Prussian discipline,
the secret by which
ascendency of the
"
secured
is
officers,
the
legitimate
the justified confidence
of the soldiers, the daily interchange of mutual

devotion, the conviction
to
and that the
all
set
The
chiefs are the
The attainment
all."^
up
is
facilitated
principle
of
that each one
is
useful
most useful of
of the ideal thus officially
by the system of promotion.

seniority,
without
FehhUcnstordmt7ig, 1887,
Taine, L'Ancien Regime,
6.
p. 108.
which
no
The Brain
lOO
Army
of an
[part
public service can be a profession or offer a career,

is
allowed
legitimate place, being modified only
its
by the retirement of the

the general
selection for
that
the higher
only
by
abilities
ing
incapable,
such
and by
" It
staff.
distinguished
unite
as
qualities
all
the
field-officers
duty of
all
battalions,
the district of
in
army-corps, retain their posts
needed
notices in this respect
change to the detriment of

duty, for which
he
will
He must
inform me.
'
ser-
and the knowledge and capacity
The
for their several particular callings.
moment he
his
only so long as
they have the bodily activity necessary for

vice in the field,
the
commanders
of divisions, brigades, regiments, and

the
bodily
that
see
to
fortresses,
with
the special
is
commanding
commandants of
and
character
of
Moreover, "it
the general
all
attained
and military education with correspond-
activity."^
and
necessary
is
commands should be
officers
special
my
service,
slightest
it
is
his
be held responsible, to
also send
Cabinet order of
the
May
me
8th, 1849.
the
names
CHAP
of
fit
I]
all
officers
who
distinguish themselves or are
for a higher post."
The
the
is
Prussian Military Institutions ioi
first
feature, then, of the
method by which
it
is
Prussian system
attempted,
considerable success, always to put the right

in the right place,
and having done
with
man
so, to see that
he keeps up to the mark.

*
Cabinet order,
13th, 1816.
i.e.
King's order in Cabinet of
March
CHAPTER
II
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY

Organization
implies that every man's
answer
for,
is
knows exactly what he must
that he
defined
work
and that
his authority
is
co-extensive
with his responsibility.
A
army
modern army
corps
the
fights
by army
Prussian
army
peace as well as
army corps
no one
*
'
The
The
Each province
it
is
in
an
belong
and are under the command of the
who
has
authority, being
War and
war.
and by
managed,
All the troops in
district.^
to the corps^
general,
in
is
corps,
in
military
matters absolute
independent of the Ministry of
responsible directly to the king and to
else.
civil
Every question that comes up

and
in the
military boundaries are not quite identical,
garrisons of fortresses are exceptions.

102
CHAP
Organization of the Army
II]
corps can be finally settled by
the
king's
Ministry of War.
of detail
come
His corps
as
it
would be
panies
make
ment,
two
But comparatively few questions
as high as the
is
which require
an arrangement with the
or
assent,
commanding
its
general, except a very few matters
103
commanding
general.
at all times organized very
much
In the infantry four com-
in war.
a battalion, three battalions a regi-
regiments
brigade,
two
infantry
brigades with their due proportion of cavalry and

artillery
form an infantry division.
In the cavalry
four or five squadrons form the regiment,
three
regiments the brigade, and
brigades the division.

three
form a
batteries
officially translated
In
the
two or
two or three
artillery
two
or
group {Abt/ietlung, now
brigade division), two or three
groups a regiment, and two regiments a brigade.
The
corps
cavalry
is
made up
brigade
or
of infantry
division/
and
divisions,
an
artillery
brigade.
In recent years the cavalry division has been
independent of the army corps.
made
The Brain
I04
and
Responsibility
Army
[part n
authority begin
with the
of an
smallest units, the company, squadron, or battery.
The
captain, the
lowest officer
In his hands
commander of such
who
a unit,
the
is
has the power of punishment.
peace the training, and
lies in
in
war
the leading of the company, squadron, or battery.
The
lieutenants
commissioned
and
in
officers
under his responsibility.
a lower sphere the non-
are
assistants
his
In the company, to take
the infantry as the type, the captain
The methods
time,
acting
is
supreme.
of instruction, the distribution
and the order
to be followed in the process
are matters which he settles according to his
judgment.
His superiors abstain from any
They
ference.
of
own
inter-
are concerned only with the result,
of which they satisfy themselves by inspection at

the end of the period assigned to
ing.
any of the
If
instructed, or
if
soldiers
the
The
is
company
likely to lose his
battalion
train-
have not been properly
place in the battalion, that
and he
company
is
is
not
fit
to take
its
the captain's fault,
chance of promotion.
commander
receives his trained
CHAP
companies and practises them

His business
vres.
composed of
parade ground
" If
its
four
is
105
manoeu-
in battalion
with the battalion as a body

not with
units,
companies.
of the
affairs
Army
Organization of the
II]
this rule
is
In
the
internal
as
battle
on the
For example:
observed.
a battalion receives the order to attack a farm
commander must
panies
the
part
the
prescribe
which
points
com-
assign to the several
each
to
is
of attack,
must
play,
and
least in
at
He
general terms the directions of their advance.
must
also arrange the time of their
action
so
that
each company
to
it,
in
is
they
may
similar details he will
them."
In
co-operate.
into
But how
to accomplish the task assigned
what formation
his captains
coming
do
to fight
is
it
well, if
have the necessary
these
and
he knows that
insight, to leave to
this
graduated
way
authority
throughout
commander above
the
and responsibility are
army
corps.
the rank of captain deals with
a body composed of units with the interior
Every
Blume, Strategic,
p. 136.
affairs
The Brain
io6
Army
of an
[part
of none of which he meddles, except in the case of

failure
on the part of the
sible.
The higher
the
officer directly
commander and
respon-
the greater
more general becomes the super-
his authority, the
of detail.
The
superior prescribes the object to be attained.
The
and the
vision
subordinate
less
is left
the burden
free to
choose the means, and
is
interfered with only in exceptional circumstances.
Thus every
own sphere
officer in his
to the exercise of authority
cation of his
By
this
and to the
free appli-
system the labour and responsibility of
colonels
The
corps are reduced to practic-
Regimental
able dimensions.
generals.
accustomed
own judgment.
commanding an army
by the
is
are
settled
brigade affairs by the
major-
divisions
affairs
commanded by lieutenant-
generals are completely organized bodies capable,

in case
ing
The
of need, of independent action and requir-
little
supervision from the corps
general
commanding
deal directly with only
commanders
the
commander.
army corps has
a few subordinates,
to
the
of his infantry divisions, of his cavalry
CHAP
Organization of the Army
II]
107
brigade or division, and of his artillery brigade,
and with the heads of the corps organizations
for
such purposes as supply and medical service.
He
inspects and tests the condition of

units,
but he does not attempt to do the work of
He
his subordinates.
is
thus at liberty to keep
mind concentrated upon those
his
the various
all
which properly require

in war,
whether he
he
move
will
fight or to
will
essential matters
his decision, for
advance or
to the right or to the
what
engage and where he
whether
retire,
whether to
left,
postpone an engagement
tribute his force
example,
how
to dis-
portion he will at once
will place his reserve.
When
he receives an order from the army headquarters
he
is
able
to deliberate
upon the best way of
realizing the intention conveyed, for
possible
can
he
unhampered by the worry of
make up
his
cess, seeing that
to carry out
mind
he
is
as far as
detail.
He
coolly, a very necessary pro-
will stake life
and reputation
what he has once decided.
CHAPTER
III
THE SYSTEM OF TRAINING

"
The demands
which war makes upon the troops
must determine
The
their
training
tasks of the soldier in
must always be able
He
weapon.
moral
and
can
to
war are
march and
qualities
has
military training
Moreover, his performance

only when
is
it
The
voting
here
ideal
will
guided by the
and regulated by
discipline."
the
*
He
use his
to
as
his
and
his
far
been
effective.
fully useful
will of the leader
is
realized
by de-
attention to training and
teaching each individual recruit.

of
simple.
suffice
be
formulated
much time and
exercise
peace.
do both only so
intellectual
bodily and
in
company,
also
Felddtensiordnung,
108
Next comes the

as
i, 2.
thorough as
CHAP
The Svstem
III]
of Training
109
These two stages of schooling occupy
possible.
the greater part of the military year.
Then when
the companies are perfect they take their places

in
the battalion, and the battalions
in
the regiment and in the brigade.
of the whole training

in
is
in
due time
The crown
formed by the manoeuvres,
which divisions and occasionally army corps
are assembled for practice, resembling as

as
may
nearly
be the operations of actual war.
Several objects are served by these manoeuvres.

In the
first
preceding
place, the separate exercise of brigades
the
manoeuvres
proper completes the
formal training of the troops, and gives practice

in
the evolutions of large
of each of
divisions
three
homogeneous masses
The manoeuvres
the three arms.
of
and army corps serve to accustom the
arms to act
the great friction
in concert,
which at
the
movements of such
All
the various
and
first
large
to
overcome
always impedes
composite bodies.
manoeuvres, moreover, give the
superior officers the opportunity of inspecting the
work of
their
inferiors,
that
is,
of ascertaining
no
how
far
The Brain
of an
Army
[part
the
of
the
troops
has been
training
thorough, and with what degree of
they are
skill
handled.
Not
the
manoeuvres
least
is
purpose
important
two
into
parties supposed
be enemies at some stage of an
The commander
of each
nature
together
cerning the
enemy
as
such
the
into their actual
information
con-
war he might be
in real
He
presumed to have obtained.

according to his
from
supposed operations
his forces
with
to
imaginary war.
learns
side
of the
which have brought

situation,
The
the training of commanders.
troops are divided
umpire the
the
of
has then to act
own judgment.
way
In this
the
generals are practised and tested in the power of

rapidly and
occur
in
surely grasping
war and of acting upon the
thus gained.
The arrangements
to afford practice like this to as

possible
such
situations
of
generals, the
all
ranks,
though
commanders of
and army corps who
profit
are so
many
it
is
as
insight
made
as
officers as
chiefly
the
brigades, divisions,
by them.
CHAP
III]
Thus
The System
an
any
on the one hand an army corps
instrument
ph'ablc
to
its
commander's
it
can be surely and easily handled
situation,
and on the other hand a general
touch, so that
in
the Prussian system of training produces
as the net result
as
of Training
skilled in the manipulation of
complicated instrument.
this powerful
and
CHAPTER
IV
THE ARMY CORPS
The
army
Prussian
corps.
army
The
in
1866
consisted of nine
German army to-day has
twenty, and in case of war the
number would be
Large forces Hke these are rendered
increased.
manageable by grouping them

four or five corps,
units.
It
is
armies
into
of
and dealing with the armies as
evident
the
that
working of the
armies and therefore of the whole depends upon

the ease and certainty with which the several corps
are directed.
end have been
this
the
Some
means taken
already touched
to secure
upon.
In
component
parts of the
must be perfectly trained and
disciplined.
first
corps
of the
place each of the
Secondly, the corps
must have had
practice in working together
as
so
much
a whole that
it
CHAP
IV]
The Army Corps
113
"
scratch team."
has none of the weaknesses of a
be a real commander,
Thirdly, the general must
coolly,
a battle-field, to judge a situation
read
able to
and
These
to decide promptly.
are secured partly
by the
selection
qualities
exercised in
appointment of generals, partly by the
the
quent
opportunities
afforded
But
tactical
practice
for
and
fre-
testing
by the manoeuvres.
is
it
not enough
and
He must
strategical
be
to
secure a general
and
ability
protected
against
of
experience.
the
danger of
being absorbed by the worries of administration.
men can be assembled
Before a body of 30,000
on the ground selected

field
be
of battle, a vast
transacted,
all
for
performance
its
another sort than those needed
handle and lead
men must
manoeuvres or on the
amount of business must
requiring
abilities of quite
to
for
the
troops
and
be clothed
The thoroughness
of this
in
action.
equipped.
selection
has
The
They
increased in
recent years, inasmuch as most of the generals appointed
have enjoyed the special training of the

of any rank
is
staff.
An
incapable
ruthlessly retired.
The Brain
114
Army
of an
must be properly and regularly

of supplying
an
remaining
new
site
in
men
30,000
who
be a number of sick
thousands of wounded
protected,
and
that a special
to
apply and
army
is
require attention.
be
to
the
may
there
If
be
tended, removed,
Order must be maintained,
fed.
so
to
is
always
there will
enemy
the corps should meet the
provisions
distant from
ten or fifteen miles
Among
old one.
task
moves every day
place,
its
town which, instead
like that of feeding a small
of
The
fed.
army corps with
[part
of functionaries
set
enforce
regulated.
the
is
needed
by which the
laws
The numbers
of the corps
can be maintained only by a constant stream of

fresh
men, trained soldiers not before employed
in the war, arriving
Every one
attention, or
from
its
peace quarters.
matters
of these
the whole
needs
constant
machine would get out
of gear and cease to work.
The
friction
that inevitably arises
complicated necessities
is
from these
diminished and to some
extent overcome by the organization of responsi-
CHAP
among
bility
army
The Army Corps
IV]
the
115
bodies composing the
several
But the anxieties of the commanding
corps.
general can never be removed.
In order to realize
the magnitude and variety of his cares, the attempt
may
be made to draw a rough picture of the
army corps
The
at
corps
work during a campaign.
moving westward along one of
is
the great Continental high-roads.
spreading on each side for
many
vast forest
miles confines
the troops to the actual roadway.
The
cavalry division
enemy
in
the
open
is
looking out
country
advance to the west of the

hussars
every
in
road,
lane,
twenty
forest.
and
the
for
miles
in
Parties
of
bypath
are
watching the country as they move on across

front
of eight or
nine
miles,
three miles behind on the
of
the
division,
dragoons,
head
of this
is
column
horse
is
the
artillery.
rest
long
At
or
of
the
lieutenant-general
the cavalry division, with
ten o'clock in
two
main road by the
column two miles
uhlans, and
commanding
It
followed
the morning, and
his
staff.
under the
The Brain
ii6
hot
Army
of an
July sun a cloud
[part
of dust envelops
the leading squadron as horse and guns
Now
at a steady trot.
carries
for a
The pace
horsemen
then a
but
move on
fitful
breeze
towards the south and reveals
the dust
moment
and
all
the long cavalcade.
has just slackened to a walk as two
towards
gallop
They
north-west.
young
are a
from
road
the
officer
the
of hussars
and a private whose bandaged arm shows that

he has
dust,
and
move on
his suite
right to
The
the road the general
to a pasture field
story briefly.
to the
few questions are asked
The column
is
a note which
note
is
is
written
handed
and during
halted,
the short rest which ensues the
at
extreme
lieutenant respectfully salutes and
and answered.
The
of
signs
meet them, the column continuing along
the road.
tells his
show
horses
their
As they approach
fatigue.
and
Both are covered with
wounded.
been
general
by one of
to an uhlan,
his
who
once along the road towards the
minutes later the signal to mount
officers.
gallops off
rear.
is
dictates
given,
few
and
The Army Corps
CHAP
IV]
the
whole
117
and
mass of horsemen
guns
in
succession of parallel columns leaves the road and
over the
trots
appearing
a fold of the ground.
in
The uhlan
the north-west, soon dis-
fields to
sent back with the letter approaches
gallop
after
lying
by the roadside, with
five-mile
One
near in the grass.
and
springs
rider
are
and
bridled,
group of
their horses tethered
of the horses
as the
the
off
along
the
few sentences
rider,
who
towards
road
in
the
the
rider,
western
whose
station
The
five miles
edge of the forest region,
tinually meeting troops

first
was
on the march.
turn
rear.
Three times the note thus changes hands.

fourth
its
new-comer, dismounting,
hands the note to the fresh

gallops
saddled
is
messenger comes up
into the saddle.
exchanged as
comrades
is
He
from
con-
passes
a few squadrons of cuirassiers, then a mile
or two further infantry, guns,
more
infantry,
and
then a string of waggons a mile long, laden with

cartridges,
pliances for
shell,
the
and
ap-
comfort of wounded men.
All
bridging
material,
The Brain
ii8
this
Army
of an
[part
merely the advanced guard of the army
is
corps.
As
the
finds a mile of
general
is
draws nearer to the wood he
rider
commanding
and then meets the
road,
clear
whom
the corps to
his note
addressed.
The
and
hussar lieutenant had started before dawn,
after riding
many
miles to the front, evading
the enemy's scouting parties, had watched a hostile
cavalry division
break up from
had been able
to
ascertain
cavalry
that
it
identify the
He
bivouac.
its
division
and to
was unusually strong both
in
On
he
and horse
artillery.
had been seen by an enemy's
his return
patrol,
and had
escaped capture only by running the gauntlet.
The
information thus obtained
is
of great im-
portance, not only to the cavalry division, whose
commander has promptly

the
army corps and
part.
The
general
therefore sends an
further
note
from
to the
acted
it,
army of which
commanding
officer
upon
with
himself
to
the
but to
it
is
army corps
the report and a

the
army head-
CHAP
The Army Corps
IV]
119
This
quarters in rear, on the east of the forest.
having to follow the high-road, meets and
officer
rides past the
main body of the army corps on
the march.
The
leading brigade of infantry, with a
and ammunition waggons, covers
of guns
road
number
for
mile and
another mile
three-quarters
and a half
the
then
for
the corps' artillery,
is
then the whole second division of infantry (with

its
cavalry regiment and
length
four and
for
artillery) trailing its
its
Then
a half miles.
after
having the road to himself for a quarter of an

hour,
he
as
emerges
from
the
forest
on
its
eastern side, the rider passes the heavy baggage,
a line of military carts and waggons conveying

those requisites which the troops need every night
for comfort,
knapsacks.
and which cannot be carried
These waggons stretch
and a half along the road.
them the
rider takes a cross-road
north, just as he
of the
Soon
is
army corps
for
in
the
a mile
after passing
leading to the
meeting the foremost portion

trains,
which
in
their
turn
The Brain
I20
would cover the road
Army
of an
waggons
oats
and waggons
hospital
the
for
the
small
horses of
arms
pro-
men
cavalry,
pontoon
corps
ammuni-
four days for 30,cxxD
vision stores for
and
guns and
for
hay
artillery,
train
the
and a multitude of country
carts,
pressed into the
for eleven or twelve miles
with their long succession of vehicles

tion
[part
service
to
enable
of provisions to be taken on, and
carts
extra stores
to relieve the
military waggons.
Thus from the general
to
the
rear
the
of
proper would be nearly twelve miles,
baggage
baggage
from the rear of the

the trains,
if all
to
were on the march
the
rear
at the
of
same
time, another twelve miles, while the general himself
was found nearly
five miles
behind the front
of the advanced guard of the corps.
When
the
officer,
late
in
the afternoon, rides
back from the army headquarters with a

for
the
scene.
corps
At
the leading
commander, he
a village
in
finds
letter
different
the middle of the forest
waggons of the
train
are
beginning
CHAP
The Army Corps
IV]
up north and south of the
to form
an
here
is
121
extensive
open space, which before

Farther on
night will be packed with waggons.

the road
among
persed
seeking
The heavy baggage has
clear.
is
the
the cross-roads, each set of

quarters
western edge of
the
of
so
radius
within
in
waggons
the
troops of
the
of
the
possession
on the road and
that
the
forest
dis-
At
regiment.
its
army corps have taken

villages
There
road.
all
the neighbourhood,
of
miles
six
from
where the road enters the open country every

farm or cluster of buildings
company
west
contain
them
and
or battery.
still
sentries
tenanted by
its
villages farthest to the
advanced guard, and beyond
the
the
The
is
outposts
in all
have
placed
the roads and
picquets
lanes leading
to the west.
The
village
Inn.
general's
quarters
are
in
straggling
on the main road, at the White Cross

In front of the house an officer
farmer
is
the provisions produced
to
an
b}'
the villagers are satisfactory, that
old
that
explaining
no further
The Brain
122
and bacon,
oats, cheese,
morning, payment
small
Army
be made, but that
requisition will
supply of
of an
if
be made
will
two
parlour of the inn
[part n
for a further
delivered next
In
in cash.
busy
officers are
examining the contents of half a dozen mail bags

collected from post-offices in the district.
Upstairs
the
general,
from the outposts,
is
intendant proposes
at
and
the
to
send
just
come
The
hearing reports.
the
trains
back the requisitioned
Another
carts
opened as
far as
same
the
next
to the
announces that the
officer
graph from army headquarters

be
corps
parked,
are
morning to the railway terminus assigned

corps.
in
form a temporary depot
to
where
village
who has
tele-
by evening
will
village, a
that 150 horses are unserviceable, and that
third
it
will
be two days before fresh horses from home
will
reach the depot.
number
diarrhoea,
of
men who
fourth
are disabled
and sunstroke.
the letter from
brings a
At
this
list
of the
by sore
feet,
moment comes
army headquarters, which
instructs
the general to be ready at short notice to march
CHAP
The Army Corps
IV]
towards
whole corps
his
forest,
trains
north, along
the
the
This involves the movement
front of the forest.
of the
123
along
through
cross-road
the
and arrangements must be made to ensure

which
this road,
hindrances
made
and
one, being cleared
a bad
is
heavy
the
bear
to
fit
of
traffic.
The examination
fresh
information
officers
about
enemy.
the
All
confidential secretary,
study the new
situation
proceeding to
is
when a
thus revealed
messenger gallops up to the house with a
note to the effect
that
the neighbouring corps
the advanced
ten
miles
to
guard of
the
attacked by a superior force of the
is
and
that
move
its
commander begs
the
This picture
The
is
enemy,
to
be able
noon next day.
a mere shadow of the reality.^
details of organization
those of the
south
general
his corps to its assistance, so as to
to join in the action before
'
the
but one are dismissed, and the general,
with his
fresh
of the mail bags has yielded
German army
on which
in the period
it
is
based are
between 1875 ^^^
The Brain
124
It
may
of an
Army
help however to illustrate the dual nature
of the cares by which a general
He
[part
distracted.
is
has at the same time to perform the military
functions
of
command and
involves
the
His duty as a com-
business of management.
mander
to superintend
continuous
the
to
attention
enemy's movements and to the instructions of his
own
He must
chief
army commander
conform to them
requires
his energies
whom
in his
he
is
subordinate and
own movements
against
But the mere management of
the enemy.
corps
to
study the intentions of the
an
effort
his
which tends to absorb
and make him forget both
his
com-
mander and the enemy.
A
the
good system must as
far as possible relieve
general from these cares of management, so
that he can keep his
The
1885.
army corps
mind
study his
free to
materials for a similar account of the Prussian

of 1866 are not accessible.
The
imagine the confusion which would follow a

ally a
best
in-
reader
may
battle, especi-
defeat which might compel the corps to retreat as

it
could through the forest, with
entangled in the cross-road leading north.
its
trains perhaps
CHAP
The Army Corps
IV]
structions
by
and watch
his
125
Accordingly side
foe.
side with that distribution of authority
among
the combatant units which facilitates the exercise
command
of the general
The
of the
principles
similar
is
an organization upon
administrative services.
supervision of each branch
of an
executive officer in
is
the hands
in
the entourage of
the
general.
The
intendant
corps
responsible
is
supplies of provisions, stores,

their
The
transport.
for
and money, and
hospitals
and
business
conducted and prepared
is
general's decision
by an
officer
for
ambulance
work are controlled by the surgeon-general.

legal
the
called
The
for the
the corps
auditeur.
The
fall
military
strictly
functions
command
naturally into two classes, according as they
are concerned
with the direction of the troops
as pieces in the
game played
against the enemy,
or with their internal management.
day
of
life
of
soldier
matter of routine.
is
to
The
a great
every-
extent
In every regiment there
are
The Brain
126
at
all
of an
times guards and
of the day
Army
sentries
[part n
and an
officer
there are patrols and fatigue parties.
These duties are undertaken by
in
all
turn,
and
they therefore need to be equitably distributed
from day to day.

therefore
officers
ternal
by the
regiment
the
The working
and men.
mechanism
is
in
of
is
for all the

all
this in-
every regiment arranged
adjutant, under the authority and super-
commanding
the division, and the
in
of
made every day accounting
vision of the
in like
roll
officer.
army corps
The
brigade,
are each of
them
manner provided with an adjutancy, which
the case of an
bureau of four
army corps
officers.
is
formed by a
CHAPTER V
THE GENERAL STAFF
There
the
remain as the general's special province
communication with the army headquarters
and
direction
the
bodies
the
combats
of
regulation
of marches,
fighting
halts,
the collection
news about the enemy
of reports
for
higher commanders and
army
as
and
the reconnaissance of the country with
sifting of
pilation
troops
the
a view to these operations
and the com-
information
the
the
for
and
of the
records of the
corps.
The bureau
general
the
THE ARMY CORPS
IN
in
army
or department
these
corps.
matters
which
assists
the
is
the general staff of
It consists
of a colonel or lieu-
tenant-colonel as chief, one field officer, and
two

The Brain
128
captains.^
The
a division
or
Army
of an
functions of the
general staff of
army corps during war may be
summarised under the following heads
:^
Elaboration in accordance with the situa-
(i)
from time to time of
tion
[part
all
arrangements con-
cerning the fighting, marching, repose, and safety
of the troops.
(2)
Communication of these arrangements
in
the form of orders.

(3) Collection,
sifting,
and appreciation of
all
information about the enemy.

(4)
Maintenance of the
sion or
army corps and
ledge of
(5)
its
efficiency of the divi-
of an uninterrupted
know-
condition in every respect.
Keeping record of
operations.
all
(6) Reconnaissances.
In
peace
there
is
usually only one
lieutenant-general
commanding a
ance of a single
officer
captain or a major.
staff
Bronsart von Schellendorf,
siabes^ vol.
i.,
p. 4.
The
staff,
usually
In the smaller units, comprising only
a single arm, the general

*
general
of the
captain.
division has the assist-
is
not represented.
Der Dienst
des
General-
CHAP
The General Staff
V]
The peace
129
duties of the bureau are a prepara-
tion for those of war.
They embrace
the elabo-
ration of the arrangements for mobilization,
require
all
arrangements
for
revision,
marching and quarterings,
the selection of a site and

for the
continuous
almost
periodical,
which
other preparations
all
autumn manoeuvres, and the superintend-
ence of the railway and telegraph service of the
army
corps.
The
corps
chief
of the
general
staff of
authorized to represent
is
his absence
and to
issue in his
army
the
the general
name such
orders
Accordingly he has a
as will admit of no delay.
general supervision over the whole staff and

control
not
merely
in
his direct
may
subordinates, but
the adjutants, the intendant, and the auditeur.

It
is
attend
one of the duties of the general
staff to
to the material well-being of the
troops,
so as to secure their being at

tion
to
march or
to
fight.
all
times in condi-
The heads
of the
several departments specially concerned with this
care can
work
efficiently
only
in
so far as they
I
The Brain
130
Army
of an
[part
They
are kept in touch of the mihtary situation.
must know,
retreat
is
so
to
as
For
example, when an advance
contemplated, or a battle
make
is in
arrangements accordingly.
their
army corps
or
prospect,
purpose the chief of the general
this
of the
for
is
staff
organ of communica-
the
tion
between them and the commanding general.
All
the orders for the
and
for their distribution in quarters pass
his hands,
lecting
and
enemy.
too
is
and he
three
assistants
absorption
a sort of
thus
in
spondence
knows the
therefore
and
serving
with
familiar with the
relieve
as
him from
detail.
secretary
confidential
general's views
see
through
concerning the
mechanical
preparing for him
general,
the troops
also responsible for the col-
is
sifting of information
His
much
movement of
to
He
the
important corre-
all
an
alter
He
ego.
and intentions and can
the general's
eyes.
He
is
methods and ideas of the army
headquarters, for he has been trained in the great
general staff at Berlin under the personal influence

of
its
chief.
He
is
familiar
with the working
CHAP
of
The General Staff
V]
army
the
corps,
he
for
has
131
held
his
post
during years of peace before the war, and has
been responsible
Thus
manoeuvres.
peculiarly qualify
hand man,
detailed
at
arrangement of the corps
for the
him
and experience
training
his
to be the general's right-
to translate the general's wishes into
and
orders,
to submit
for his approval
any time such suggestions as
will
meet the
situation.
The system
here described provides as effec-
may
be for the judicious employment
tively as
Each branch of administra-
of the
army
tion
so organized as to centre in a competent
is
special
corps.
manager whose
though
decisions,
must be submitted to the general,

require to be revised or reversed.
while in this
in
and
way
in
for his corps,
touch with
all
will
they
seldom
The
general,
that
is
done
can give his main attention
to the military operations.
These
also are pre-
pared for him and the details elaborated by a
group of
officers
in this particular
specially trained
branch
and practised
the art of
command.
CHAPTER
VI
COMPOSITION OF THE GENERAL STAFF AND ITS

DISTRIBUTION THROUGH THE ARMY
The
Prussian general staff forms a corps
self.
The
officers
belonging to
uniform, and their names do
regimental
lists.
The
it
not appear in any
proposals for their
army,^ and advancement in

in
The
close
the
army
its
pro-
staff of the
ranks
is
quicker
generally.
corps thus constituted

corporation.
it-
wear a special
motion are made by the chief of the
than
by
By
is,
however, not a
the rule that regimental
service
must alternate with employment on the
general
staff,
the connection
between
the
army
In the case of regimental officers these proposals are
made by
order of
the commander
March 22, 1864.
of the regiment
of.
Cabinet
CHAP
Composition of Staff
VI]
and the
staff
maintained, and
is
competence of the
first
appointment to the
return to
is
later
he
and the subsequent
staff
transferred to a regiment.
selection,
may
year or two
be again selected for the staff as
After a further term he will receive the
major.
command
staff,
of a battalion, then return to work on
and afterwards be promoted to the com-
From
of a regiment.
again be chosen to the
staff,
as a major-general to the
Those
instance,
who
officers
as
the
command
to
command
general
in the
given
field.
such,
embraced a
They
for
topographical
special
up the prospect
auxiliary establishment or side
As
of a brigade.
staff,
geographical and
have
may
returning eventually
surveys, are considered to have
career and
post he
this
are selected for the purely
work of the
scientific
staff.
The
secured.
is
dependent upon
alike
practical
captain on the staff after four or five years'
work
mand
are
it
the
other words, upon special merit.
or, in
the
staff officers
133
of
are placed on an
list
of the general
a rule they are students rather than
The Brain of an Army
134
[part
fighting men, or officers of distinguished scientific
attainments
who have
not the bodily activity re-
quired for service in the
They remain on
field.
the auxiliary establishment, and do not revert to
the wider
among
of active service
field
the com-
batants.
The
Prussian general staff numbers altogether
about 200
among
officers,
the
or
whom
form
establishment,
army corps
diligence
and
staff career,
staff,
ability
of
whilst
corps,^
general
great
staff
with employment
so that the officer
at
have opened
for
it,
on
whose
him the
and whose performance secures
periodical return to
stages
army
distributed
the staff office of a division
alternates
the great general
are
belong to the auxiliary
the
Service in
Berlin.
and
divisions
about 100, half of
whom
90 of
his
passes through the various
regimental service, of
service
on the
general staff of the great constituent units of the
Four of the German army corps
those
Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria (two corps)

the Prussian army.
do
of Saxony,
not belong to
CHAP
Composition of Staff
VI]
army, and of employment
agency of
Thus
in
central
not merely the intel-
is
the impulse
spring which gives
whole army, but
it
by which
culation
the great
direction.
the general staff
lectual
135
to
the
of
cir-
kept
in
forms also a
medium
the
are
all
parts
At
uninterrupted communication with the centre.

the great general
command
the art of
staff
studied with special reference to the
of
German army
the
as
employment
weapon
is
against
France, Russia, or any other probable adversary,
and
conjunction with the Austrian, Italian, or
in
any other
acquired
allied
are
units
several
applied
of
The wide views
army.
to
handling
the
which the army
while the central office in
all
its
is
of
thus
the
composed,
general studies
has the benefit of the practical experience obtained in the
management of the company, the
squadron, and the battery, as well as of every

unit
up
The
to the
to the division
and the army
influence of the general staff
work of the 200
officers
is
corps.
not limited
who comprise
it
The Brain
136
at
any given
Many
time.
Army
of an
of the
[part
commanders of
regiments and battalions have been members of

the general
tice
staff,
and are taking
with the troops.
Nearly
their turn of prac-
all
the higher com-
manders have passed through the various stages of

duty
is
The
in the general staff.
great general staff
Some
perpetually training fresh generations.
sixty junior officers are temporarily attached to

it
without being incorporated, that
They
ceasing to belong to their regiments.

the pick of the
leave the
Berlin.
general
100 lieutenants
without
is,
who every year
Kriegsakademie, or Staff College,
They work
staff office,
for
are
at
a year at the central
under the personal
supervi-
sion of the chief of the general staff of the army,
who
thus acquires an intimate knowledge of their
ability
and character.
they rejoin their
At
the end of their year
regiments.
After
a term
of
regimental work the best of them will be chosen

as captains to the general staff to
caused by promotions.
staff
keeps up
its
tion of the fittest
In this
fill
way
up vacancies
the
general
numbers by the continual
selec-
PART
III
THE GREAT GENERAL STAFF
IS?
CHAPTER
AN INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT
The
chief
general
the
organ,
special
in
which
and
Berlin,
of
staff
by the great general
assisted
abode
of
staff,
has
is
his
permanent
occupied during peace with
is
The work undertaken with
it
which
its
preparations for the conduct of the
itself
the army,
army
object
this
in war.
divides
naturally into three branches, according as
arrangements
consists in actual
wars
regarded as
probable,
officers to the art of
in
command,
for
particular
the training
of
or in the scientific
study of war as a means of forming and exercising the faculty of generalship.
The
sists
the
direct preparation
in
arranging,
various
in
possible
for probable
anticipation
of
complications,
wars coneach
the
of
most
suitable distribution of the forces available, their
concentration on the frontier, and their transport
The Brain
140
Army
of an
from the peace quarters to the

for
their
forming
countries
the armies of
the
require
knowledge
theatre
war
of
for
the
of
and
of
the probable combatants.
all
general
great
districts selected
matters
thorough
decision
The
These
purpose.^
this
[part
staff
in
time of peace
is
constantly engaged in the collection and digestion
such
of
For
information.
this
purpose
is
it
organized into three divisions,^ to each of which
Europe
of
portion
Sweden,
division
deals
with
Turkey,
and
Austria
many,
third
Denmark,
with
Italy,
Of
and with America.

which
formed
index,^
work
the
by an
See Part
The
I.
many
Ger;
of
the
years
(i
the
Europe
thoroughness
some idea
examination
for
with
of
states
first
Russia,
Switzerland
the
done
is
which was
'
and
western
the
Norway,
second
the
The
assigned.
is
with
may
be
reference
869-1 883)
Chap. IV.
details of this organization
have been modified
in
recent years.
^
Registrande der Geographisch-Statistischen Abtheilung
des Grossen Generalstabes.
Berlin, 1869-83.
CHAP
An
i]
annually
Intelligence Department
who opens one
of
Empire
"
will
reader
else accessible.
there a mass
find
ordered information such as
where
The
published.
of these volumes at the chapter
" British
headed
and
printed
141
hardly any-
is
begins with a detailed
It
account of the progress of the Ordnance survey
during
the
and Ireland, and with the Ad-
land, Scotland,
Then under
miralty surveys.
and people, comes a
Registrar-General's
works that
constitution,
intellectual
and
trade.
the
out
with
pub-
and
marine
and
finance,
mining, agricul-
economy,
industry
Communications are subdivided
pages
catalogue
of any
minuteness,
great
emigration,
railways, post, telegraphs,
the year,
land
Succeeding
subjects.
administration,
culture,
forestry,
Several
statistical
and a note
reports,
illustrate
worked
headings,
ture,
new
of
list
the heading
an abstract of the census and of the
lications,
are:
Eng-
separately with
dealing
year,
of
are
every
into
and inland navigation.
devoted
to
publication
an
exhaustive
issued
during
English or foreign, bearing upon the
The Brain
142
army,
British
newspaper
it
and
there
lastly,
is
Great
histories,
maps and
British colonies
The minute
devoted
especially
Britain,
is
The
plans.
more
far
mere military
is
new
maps
relating
county
guides,
progress of the
study which
resources
of
every
country gives a basis for judging of
power
all
followed in the same fashion.
systematic
the
to
of
in
devoted
is
a review of
guide-books, books of travel, and

to
treated
is
space
less
and
magazine
The navy
articles.
[part
publications,
official
and
manner, though
similar
to
including
pamphlets,
controversial
Army
of an
thus
European
its
fighting
than the collection of
certain
statistics.
is
For the reference index
only a groundwork upon which the military
study of
countries
the
not the product of

the geographical
belongs to the
this
way
it
can be founded.
the three
and
divisions,
statistical
auxiliary
section,
establishment,
It
is
but of
which
and
in
prepares the materials upon which
the three divisions are to work.
The index
is
no longer given to the world
CHAP
An
I]
143
but the volumes already published are a monu-
ment of systematic
research,
and reveal the depth
and breadth of the foundation upon which the

great
general
accuracy and
disposal
of
operations.
prise
that
builds,
staff
its
chief
It
is
staff
position
and
other
words, the
knowledge
the
at
the
when he frames a plan of
therefore not a matter of sur-
1S66
in
general
of
fulness
in
the
chief
the
of
Prussian
was well informed concerning the

condition
of
every
part
of
the
Austrian army up to the time when the special

preparations
for
gauge very
fairly
quired
for
its
the
war began
time
the
mobilization
knew perhaps
as
the difficulties
in
well
as
was able to
would be
that
and
transport,
any one
in
re-
and
Austria
which that empire would be
placed
by
more complete knowledge of the adver-
still
sary's
an
effort
to
continue
military and other resources
by the German general
the
struggle.
was revealed
staff at the
opening of
the campaign of 1870.
The German
staff has
now no
longer a mono-
The Brain
144
poly of these studies, as
fortnightly (since
1872)
French general
vision
may
[part
iti
be seen by a glance
Revue Militaire de I'Etranger, published
at the
the
Army
of an
The
staff.
own War
of our
by the second bureau of

intelligence
Office performs
what similar duties of geographical and
di-
some-
statistical
research.
The
their
transport of the portions of the
peace quarters to the places of assembly
selected
the
for
commencement of
has been referred to
paign of
1866.
It
in the
that campaign the
was then
essay upon
its
will
the general
'
lessons,
study of
the serious
railways
veteran
effected partly
critic
by the
after
Jomini, in
an
urged the importance of

the
modifications
at the
late
which
time onwards in
Royal United Service
Major-General, then Major
C. B. Brackenbury, R.A., entitled
Home
by
of the operations of war,
See a lecture delivered
Institution in 1875
of the Staff at
Immediately
cause from this
direction
operations
account of the cam-
marching, partly by railway.
"
army from
"The
and Abroad,"
in
Intelligence Duties
reading which, how-
ever, the date of its production should be
remembered.
CHAP
An
I]
study
as
"
the
gap
present
at
The
theory of the art of war."^
had been pretty well
think,
145
and spoke of the want of
strategy,"
in
i.e.
existing
this
the
in
gap, one would
up already by
filled
moved
a staff
which
197,000
men, 55,000 horses, and 5,300 military
in
had
twenty-one days
vehicles over distances varying from 120 to 360
without
miles
any
serious
accident,
single
departure
from
and
without
pre-arranged
the
time-tables.
The
great general staff has a special division
devoted to the manipulation of railways in war,
and the attempt
made
is
to
give
every
officer
of the general staff the benefit of a period
of
service in this particular branch.
The production
of
maps
closely connected with the
probable theatres
cannot
tutions.
safely
In
be
of
for
war that the
the
army
so
to
two duties
different
principal
insti-
government
Jomini, Troisihne Appendice au Precis de
Guerre,
is
study of the various
entrusted
Germany
the
VArt de
Paris, 1866.
la
The Brain
146
geographical
establishment
great general
being
on
arranged
the
staff,
the
the
the
in
service
cartographic,
supervision
Survey,
ordinate of
chief
the army.
This
list.
the
of the National
the
employed
it
is
departments, the trigonometric,
topographic, and
which are under
[part
a branch of
is
the officers
auxiliary
in three
Army
of an
who
of
the
is
of
all
the
of
chief
himself a sub-
general
staff
of
CHAPTER
II
A MILITARY UNIVERSITY
The
distinctive
feature
of the regeneration
which modern Prussia was raised up,
after
by
the
Prussia of Frederick the Great had been shattered
with Napoleon, was the effort
in the first conflict
to lay a solid foundation in healthy institutions
and especially
in
which was done
and
a sound
The work
for Prussian institutions
for liberal education
for the
education.
by Stein
by Humboldt, was done
army by Scharnhorst,
to
whom
military
education was the corner-stone of
army
The
its
University of
October
15th,
opened the
^
vol.
1810,
War
Berlin
began
reform.
work on
and on the same day
School for
officers,
the
great
Schwartz, Leben dcs Generals Carl von Clausewiiz,

i.
p. 151.
XVI
was
etc.,
The Brain
148
military high
as
school
Scharnhorst,
As
is
more
nowhere
in his educational
work.
he had ever seen
early as 1792, before
he had published a Soldier s Pocket-book,
battle,
in
was the creation of
It
whose greatness
conspicuous than
Ipart
Germany, now known
of
War Academy.
the
Army
of an
which the principles and
details of field service
were explained and illustrated by examples from

then recent wars.
campaigns
last years
in
in
The
experiences of his
first
1793 and 1794 led him during his

the Hanoverian service to draw u"p
a series of memoirs in which military education

occupies a prominent place, and when in 1801
he joined the Prussian
service,
one of
his
first
appointments was that of lecturer to the classes

of
young
Frederick
held.
officers
the
which had been instituted by
Great and
still
continued
to
be
Scharnhorst rearranged and extended the
courses of instruction, and himself as

of the
Academy
"
Director
taught to the higher class the
and strategy.
The
which he gave between 1801 and
1805
important subjects of
lectures
"
tactics
CHAP
II]
Military University
have been preserved
show
operations
them with the

arts
of
details
the
on the conduct of the

merely busying
of
war, instead
of
concentrate
to
first
pupils
of his
attention
a fragmentary state, and
in
was the
he
that
149
the
several
technical
The
and sciences which subserve that end.
regulations
for
Academy which he
the
drafted
in
1805 contain the outlines of the system which
in
a more developed
of
the
highest
Scharnhorst's best
form
is
Prussian
pupil
von Clausewitz, who
still
education.
military
this
at
time was Carl
after years
in
characteristic
attributed to
these early lessons the intellectual impulse which
produced
method
Lectures
his
in
masterly essays, and the historical
which
and
his
all
classes
theory has
its
roots.
by
were abruptly ended
the mobilization of 1805, which was followed

1
in
806 by the great catastrophe.
The War School

training
of
of 18 10 aimed at the higher
selected
promise of a career
was
distinct
officers
in
the
whose
ability
superior
gave
ranks.
It
from the lower schools intended to
The Brain
150
give a
professional
paring to become
training to
officers,
nected with the general

at this time
young men
pre-
and was closely conwhich Scharnhorst,
staff, in
younger members.
professors appointed
The wars
[part
paid great attention to the
its chief,
instruction of the
first
Army
of an
One
of the
was Clausewitz.
of liberation practically dissolved the
War
School, which, however, after the peace of
181 5
was re-established without substantial modithough
fication,
it
was placed
not of the chief of the

general
staff,
in the
but of the inspector-
of military education.
During the sub-
sequent long period of peace, the

the services of
181 8 to
many
department,
Academy had
distinguished
1830 Clausewitz was
its
From
men.
director.
The
great geographer Karl Ritter was from 1820 to
1859 one of
its
professors.
War Academy was
In 1859 the
definitely
title
adopted, and
of
in
1872 the institution was again placed under the

superintendence of the chief of the general
The
recent
staff.
regulations at present in force, though of

date,
are
little
more than a
codification
CHAP n]
Military University
151
of the system which has been gradually developed
on the foundations
by Scharnhorst, and
laid
their
value and the authority which attaches to them

are
in
measure due to the long and un-
great
broken tradition which they represent.
They
embodied
are
in
respectively " Order of
Teaching
of
the
two short codes

Service,"
the
of Service
reign
brief
of
is
best explain the
German
object of the
fashion
one of the few
the
Frederick, whose signature

true
concise
this institution.
The Order
of
will
Order of
War Academy."
account of these documents
workings of
"
and
entitled
it
with
War Academy
lamented
Emperor
bears.
begins in
a
is
results
It
definition
"
The
to initiate into the
higher branches of the military sciences a
number
of officers of the necessary capacity belonging to

the various arms, and thus to enlarge and extend
their military
their military
"
knowledge and
to clear
and quicken
judgment.
Side by side with this direct training for their
profession, they are to endeavour, in proportion to
The Brain
152
Army
of an
[part
the requirements of the army, to penetrate deeper

into certain departments of formal science,
and to
acquire mastery in speaking and writing one or
two modern foreign languages,"
The Academy
institution for teaching
chief of the
working
in its scientific
general
and study
staff
is
as
under the
army,
of the
an
who
is
responsible for the appointment of the teachers,

for the selection of officers as students (" the call
to the
Academy"),
for their dismissal in case of
need, and for the permission to attend a particular
course occasionally granted to officers not "called."
For the
discipline
demy, the
is
assisted
director,
and management of the Acaa general,
is
responsible.
He
by one or two deputies and by a Board
of Studies, over
whose nomination the chief of
The
the staff has a controlling influence.
of the board are to approve of the

the several
professors'
courses,
The complete
programmes of
and to conduct
the examinations at the beginning
of the course.
duties
and
at the
end
course lasts three
years, with a long vacation of three
months each
CHAP
II]
Military University
The appointment
summer.
or " call " of students
is in
each case only for a year,
ing
upon
diligence
officer of five years'
and
its
good
service
153
renewal depend-
Any
conduct.
not yet within four
years from his turn of promotion to captain
may
apply for admission to the Academy, which
is
regulated by examination.
"The
object of the
entrance examination
is
to ascertain whether the candidate possesses the
degree of general education and the knowledge

requisite
for
to
profitable
Academy.
of the
lectures
also
attendance
the
at
The examination
is
determine whether the candidates have
the power of judgment, without which there could
be
no
hope
questions
of
their
are
set
to
further
be
such
progress."
as
The
cannot
be
answered merely from knowledge stored up

the memory,
and should
clear, collected,
test
the capacity for
and consistent expression.
military subjects required are tactics, formal

applied, the nature
fortification
and construction of
and surveying.
The
in
The
and
firearms,
general subjects

The Brain
154
Army
of an
in
appHed
possible.
It
must
tion,
so
as
to
and
decision
tactics
must be as simple as
consist of a problem for solu-
the candidate
oblige
give
reasons
his
for
to
make
months beforehand.
This
particularly intended
is
power of judgment and the degree of
to test his
education he has attained.
general
German
either in
home
announced some
of subjects
list
Each
it.
candidate must send in an essay written at
on one of a
and French.
are history, geography, mathematics,
The paper
[part
whose work
is
or French.
"
Of
It
may
be
those officers
judged the best (by the Board of
Studies) the director
may
submit to the chief of
the general staff of the army, with a view to their
being called to the Academy, the names of any
The
number not exceeding a hundred.

the
staff
generals
officers
communicates
his
commanding army
decisions
corps,
chief of
to
who inform
the
the
concerned."
The Order of
Service
instruction given at the
lays
down
Academy
that
in
the
certain practical
applications shall never be omitted
CHAP
II]
"As
the
a continuous
students,
are
fessors,
technical
instruction
"
The
to
visit
Spandau,
railway
lectures,
under the guidance of their pro-
They
Spandau.
155
commentary on the
institutions,
and
Berlin
the
Military University
workshops,
military
the
and exercising grounds at
and
the fortifications
are to attend
and
regiment,
the
exercises
of
of
make journeys of
on the military railway.
lessons in tactics, fortification,
port are to be supplemented
by
and trans-
practical exercises.
Moreover, during a portion of the holidays after

the
first
and the second
year,
each
officer
is
attached for instruction to a regiment of one of

the two
arms to which he does not
belong.
Lastly, the third year's course
properly
is
always
to conclude with a three weeks' tour, for practical

instruction in staff duties."
The Order of
with
the
scope
decrees that
Service concerns itself no further
and
these
method of
shall
teaching, but
be determined by the
order of teaching to be issued by the chief of the

general staff of the army.
The Brain
156
The Order of Teaching
[part
War Academy
at
Army
of an
of the
present in force was issued by Count Moltke at

the close of his career at the head of the Prussian
staff.
be made clear only by a
value can
Its
reproduction of
But a true
principal clauses.
its
judgment of an educational
institution
must be
based upon the existence of a standard of com-
may
parison, an ideal which
the
as
type
be readily accepted
measure of perfection.
may
be sought
in
Such a normal
the best University train-
may
ing of the present day, of which the spirit
perhaps be expressed
system
of
in a
instruction,
children but for men, which
make good
addresses
the
itself
disciplined,
all intelligent
is
at
defects
to
cannot
In
be
is
intended
for
not an attempt to
already
regulated
trained
and
mechanically.
education the order of teaching

rational.
The
subjects
dated August 12th, 1888; Count Moltke's resigna-
tion as chief of the general staff of the
Gazette,
not
of early education, but
minds
once natural and
It is
few sentences.
August
loth, 1888
army
is
dated
in
the
CHAP
II]
Military University
end
in
and the necessity of each new advance
is
group themselves by
view,
their relation to the
evident to the student as soon as he

for
it.
157
Such a course of study has a
a completeness, which
is
prepared
is
and
unity,
of great significance in
The
view of the formation of a type of character.
highest education, however, has features peculiarly
own.
its
It
is
science, not as a
" the proper
the facts in
founded
in
conception
the
of
department of knowledge, but as
method of knowing and apprehending

any department whatever,"
method flow
From
practical consequences.
this
idea of
The
student, as soon as maturity
is
approached,
abandons the general realm of knowledge, and

concentrates himself upon a single province,^ in
which, however, he becomes not merely a follower,
but an independent worker, seeing and judging

for himself
and co-operating with
his teacher in
advancing the bounds of knowledge.
Mark
tion,
*
Pattison's Suggestions on
all,
Academical Organisa-
with Especial Reference to Oxford^
Cp. Pattison's Suggestions,
Above
p. 262.
p. 307,

I58
"
it is
The Brain
Army
of an
not the substance of what
[part
communicated,
is
but the act of communication between the older and

the younger mind, which
From
is
the important matter."^
this educational standpoint,
Count Moltke's
Order of Teaching deserves a close examination.

Its
opening paragraphs must be given
in full
"THE COURSE OF STUDY.

"In accordance with the objects
Military
Academy
must aim
at a
must not
is
for
which the
instituted, its course of
study
thorough professional education
lose itself in
the wide
field
it
of general
scientific studies.
"
sound formal education
of a thorough military professional
pre-requisite
education.
the indispensable
is
The deepening
of the general
intelligence
of the formal training,
and judgment, must
therefore never be lost sight of during,
by
side with,
the
professional
ingly the course will be based
studies.
and side
Accord-
upon the knowledge
gained in the cadet corps, the military schools, the

'
Cp. Pattison's Snggcslions,
p. 165.
CHAP n]
Military University
159
school for artillery and engineers, and, as regards
knowledge,
general
in
the
gymnasia.
But
simple repetition of things already known, by

of refreshing the
As
memory, cannot be
way
sufficient.
the whole course aims at a higher culture,
must proceed
independently, entirely free
it
from
the constraint of a school.

"
The
during
practical abilities of the officers, acquired
five years' service, offer in
many
respects a
foundation upon which the teachers can build,
"METHOD OF INSTRUCTION.
"The
instruction
at
the
Academy
Military
begins with the elements of the various subjects,

the object being, in the
first
instance, to strengthen
and enlarge the grasp of what has already been

learned.
more
It
matters,
aiming,
its
ultimate
thorough preparation of the
officer for
difficult
goal, at the
the
proceeds, as the subjects develop, to
modern requirements of
in the formal sciences
ceed
in
must
war.
as
The
for this
instruction
purpose pro-
a different manner from that adopted in
The Brain
i6o
of an
The
the military subjects.
Army
scientific
[part
teaching
may
take the form of lectures, which appeal merely to
memory
the comprehension and the
of the hearer,
while in the military subjects, everything depends
upon the pupil learning
to apply
and to make the
most of the knowledge which he acquires.

moreover,
essential
bring
to
about
an
It
is,
active
process of mental give and take between teacher
and
pupils, so
as
stimulate
to
the
pupils
The awakening
become fellow-workers.
to
effects
of co-operation like this will never be seen where

the one only expounds, and the other only listens.
But
it
will
produced by the com-
naturally be
bination of clear exposition, with practice in the

application
to
knowledge gained.
in
cases
of
the
(The so-called 'applicatory
method' of teaching.
"Accordingly,
concrete
specific
Cp.
the lectures are, as far as
details are explained
187, note.)
purely military subjects
the
spersed with practical
p.
possible, to be inter-
examples,
in
upon the map.
in this department, there
v/ill
which
the
Moreover,
be opportunities of
CHAP
II]
Military University
encouraging the
addresses,
original
deliver
from
pupils
time
the
i6i
time to
to
preparation
of
which should lead to the formation of independent
The
opinions.
subjects of these addresses are to
be military, and never merely

" If
the teacher succeeds
word and
powers of
forward
person
his
pupils
his
to
in
the
scientific.
by the
of his
force
developing the mental
so that they eagerly look
next
year's
course
and
arc
thoroughly roused to work for themselves, he has
For the Academy
accomplished his task.
to give fragments of disconnected

its
knowledge
must
rest
in
new
course of teaching the necessity of every
subject
not
is
upon truths which the pupils
have already perceived and made their own."
The
general framework being thus erected, the
Order of Teaching proceeds to review the several

subjects^
taught
in
each case the reason

to be taken up,
the
why
Academy,
indicating
the particular subject
and the manner
in
which
it
is
in
is
to
be treated.
'
List
of
the
subjects
taught
in
the
Academy, with
The Brain
62
to
each
Army
[part
following paragraphs, which deal with the
The
number
of an
of hours
:
per week in each year's course devoted

CHAP
II]
Military University
of
subjects
principal
four
sufficient insight into the
"
"The
above
163
instruction,
system
give
TACTICS.
object of the tactical instruction, to which,
pre-eminent
all,
attached,
(i)
is
to
knowledge of the
must
importance
be
the officers a thorough
give
tactical regulations in force in
our army and those of our great neighbours, and

(2)
by teaching and by setting problems to make
them
familiar with
conditions of
"
The
lines
the
organization
modern
diversity of the
battle.
year's course comprises {a) the out-
first
of
the endless
growth
historical
and of our
drill-books, order
of
tactical
field
of
our
forms
army
{b)
our
and musketry
service
instruction, so far as they are important for the
use
of
the
troops
in
the
field
{c)
thorough
explanation of the forms of battle of the great
European armies of to-day.

"
Hand
German
in
hand with
this formal instruction, the
regulations dealing with march, combat.
The Brain
164
and
a
rest
must be
illustrated
detachment
small
[part
by problems involving
of
problems the principal
Army
of an
arms.
all
stress
is
In
these
to be laid
on the
co-operation and mutual support of the various
arms.
"In the second and
third
During the second
applied tactics will be taught.
year the
duties
of
the
years' course only
infantry
and
cavalry
division, with special regard to the issue of orders
and the conduct of
The
studied.
battle,
must be thoroughly
year's
course embraces the
army corps
acting as a portion of
third
functions of an
an army.
"The
make
teacher must
throughout endeavour to
his instruction suggestive
by exercises on the map and

this
he
will
be
successful
by examples and
in
the open
in
proportion
air.
In
as he
makes use of the experiences of modern and of

recent wars.
"MILITARY HISTORY.
"The
most
lectures
effective
upon military history
means
of
offer the
teaching war
during
ciiAr
11]
peace, and of
study of
Military University
awakening a genuine
165
interest in the
These
important campaigns.
lectures
should bring into relief the unchangeable funda-
mental conditions of good generalship

relation to changeable tactical forms,
place
in
in
their
and should
a true light the influence of eminent
characters
upon
the course
of
events
and the
weight of moral forces in contrast to that of mere

material instruments.
These
"
lectures
must not degenerate
into
mere succession of unconnected descriptions of

military occurrences.
They must regard
their causal connections,
events in
must concern themselves
with the leadership, and must at the same time

bring out the ideas of war peculiar to each age.
They
will
acquire a
high value
if
the teacher
succeeds in bringing into exercise the judgment

of his pupils.
"
This judgment, however, must never degenerate
into
in
mere negative
the
criticism, but
must clothe
itself
form of distinct suggestions as to what
ought to have been done and decided.
The Brain
66
"
The
lectures in the
of one or
Great
the
of an
first
Army
[part
year's course will treat
more of the campaigns of Frederick the
in the
second year's course, campaigns of
Revolution or of Napoleon
third year's course,
I.
and
in the
campaigns of the period since
Napoleon, especially those of the time of the
Emperor William
I.
"
"
HISTORY.
thorough historical knowledge
is
a necessary
part of general scientific education, and
manifold
officer.
value
in
the
professional
is
also of
of
life
an
Accordingly, the lectures which are to
lay the foundations for
it
are continued through-
out the three years' course.
Their object
is
to
show consecutively the general development of the
human
race in the successive stages of religious
conceptions, of political and social forms, and in
the results
these
of science,
phases
of
art,
and philosophy.
human
progress
are
to
All
be
illustrated in the history of representative nations
and
individuals.
Growing
forms
are
to
be

CHAP
II]
explained
and
Military University
connection with previous conditions,
in
finally the exposition
time, the
167
must reach the present
ground upon which the
officer's
work
is
founded, and of which therefore he must understand the gradual historical growth.
"GENERAL STAFF DUTIES AND PRACTICE TOUR.

"
This course
general
is
to deal with the functions of the
and with the service of the general
staff,
peace and war.
staff officer in
order preferred
any
It includes, in
by the teacher
"
The
"
The corresponding arrangements
historical
development of our general
staff.
of the other
Great Powers.
"
The
subdivision of our
army
as based
upon
the Imperial Constitution, the military laws, and

the conventions.^
"
its
The
office
general
work of the general
outlines
the
staff officer in
preparations
for
the
1
The conventions are the agreements with Prussia by
which the armies of Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg are
regulated.
The Brain
68
and
manoeuvres
Army
of an
mobilization
for
various
the
[part
constituent parts of the mobile army.

"
Railways and transport.
"
The
duties of the general staff officer in the
especially
field,
principles
in
command.
relation to the general
"The
and functions
position
his
the supply of armies
of
in
peace and war, the resources and means available

for the purpose,
"
The war
and the methods employed.
and
strength
composition
of
the
armies of our great neighbours.

"
The
practice
tour
with which the
course
terminates offers the opportunity of testing the

capacity,
officer
knowledge,
of
and
endurance
what he can
finding
basis of simple general
and
do.
each
of
Upon
the
special ideas, usually
framed by the teacher who conducts the exercise,

^
The
for the
{Uebungsreise)
sham campaign, carried out
practice tour
rather a
purpose by
officers
is
sham
fight,
in the district
without men.
The
or
chosen
troops are
imaginary, but the officers taking part in the exercise are
assigned to the several posts of command, and upon the

basis
of the
imaginary situation,
umpire, work out
all
communicated by the
and dispositions.
the necessary orders
CHAP
II]
MlIJTARV UnIVERSITV
the decisions of the general
general
staff
adopted
will
will
be
illustrated.
be useful to form two
should,
as
For
strength
a war
on
imaginary infantry division
The
purpose
this
the
it
which
an
of
footing.
exercise should be so arranged as to occa-
sion in turn practice in formal
promote
facility
the
in
of
discussions
upon the spot of
the
analyses of the
positions given,
of orders
Each
upon the troops of
lastly,
of
oflficer
these
dis-
comprehensive examina-
who
by the campaign
joins the tour should
have the opportunity of grappling with as

possible
and
situations,
tactical
tions of the situation presented
or battle.
may
as
arrangements of our army,
effects
and
work such
issue
knowledge
as
the
measures
the
in
sides, neither of
exceed
rule,
commanding and
share
officer's
69
kinds
various
many
of
dififi-
culties."
The advocates
of original research as the true
instrument of higher education

sight
recognise their ideal in
Teaching.
They may
may
not at
first
Moltke's Order of
smile at an
academy where
The Brain
170
natural science and
of an
Army
[fart
are taught in lectures
histor)'-
appealing only to the intelligence and the memory.
But the school

is
at Berlin has a practical aim.
a school of war, and in
the
German
staff
all
that relates to vrat

to
apply that
the true
method of
learns
officer
It
science which
consists
apprehending.
Moreover, the Order of Teachitig,
other
like
all
not
fully
executed
German
military regulations, does
thoroughness of the work
the
reveal
in
in
obedience to
course
is
time of William
I.''
of 1S66 or of 1S70.
pletely to
the
students
selected
The
a/r/t/j- of the
the
campaigns
study of one of these
might seem com-
But
in
Academy work
campaign on a
probationar}' year
would be
letter
the requirements.
at
that the third
"campaigns of the
in the official histor)*
fulfil
In military
This phrase would be met
by a perusal of
campaigns
down
to deal with
by very superncial work.

fulfilled
precepts.
lays
historv', for instance, it
year's
its
still
wider
which follows
out
basis.
the
practice
the
In the
Academy
course they are allowed access to the materials
CHAP
II]
Military University
from which the
staff histories
campaign from the study of the

This
were written, and
own judgment on
are expected to form their
themselves.
171
original
the
documents
the very ideal of the ideal
is
professor of history.
There
which
no doubt another point of view from
is
War Academy may
the
judged.
University,
strictly
be
differently
speaking,
is
school of free thought, and should give to those
who have
lived
its
and breathed
life
spirit
its
view of the world, of nature and of humanity, of
which the characteristic

independence.
had a
liberal
freedom, spontaneity,
is
The man who
may
education
progressive in his sympathies,
in this sense
be reactionary
may
his
own way.
self,
and
his
He
will
thought
its
work he
any case
will
aim.
Its
will
freedom the
business
is
if
choose
take his bearings for him-
be conditioned by no
ordinances and limited by no authority.

intellectual
oi-
be democratic
or authoritative in his leanings, but in
the University has done
has
War Academy
At
this
does not
not with the progress of
The
172
Br/vin of an
Army
[part
humanity, but with the training of good servants

for the
object
King of
is
Prussia.
Whether
this
a means to the higher end
for the historian in
some
is
future century.
immediate
a question
CHAPTER
III
THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING
The
is
condition of success in the higher education
that the teacher should be himself a student.
He
should have in his subject that vital interest
which
comes
mastery and
of
the endeavour to extend
widen
to
branch the existing bounds of

achievement.
his
subject
in
particular
knowledge and
teacher does
true
not study
order to be able to teach, but
because he
teaches
The
The
own
his
in
his
is
possessed by his subject.
benefits of teaching in the higher stages are
therefore never one-sided.

different
while
pupil returns in a
form the help which he
the
elucidation
peculiar freshness
active
The
of
receives.
principles
and force
in
pioneer of knowledge,
For
acquires
the hands of an
the
necessities
of

The Brain
174
Army
of an
[part
exposition compel the investigator to keep his
body of
researches in contact with the system or
doctrine which he expounds.

relation
in the
between teaching and research
has
its
staff.
is
and
his
sifts
great
plan
begun, the general
staff,
information upon
the
for
campaign, and how, when
fications,
the
the organ by which during peace
chief collects
which he bases
how
shown
been
already
general staff
realized
is
War Academy and
connection between the
the great general

It
This fundamental
the opening of a
the operations
through
its
have
several rami-
keeps him supplied with the data con-
cerning his
own army and
that of the
which he requires from time to time
in
enemy
order to
shape his further decisions.

All this
The
staff,
is
but preliminary or preparatory work.
decisive act
is
that
by which the
from the information he has thus acquired,
constructs a problem and designs
puts to himself the question.
done
chief of the
and answers
it.
Thus
What
its
is
solution
now
to
be
in the last analysis
CHAP
Advancement of Learning
III]
175
the soul of the organism resides in the chief of
the
staff,
and
manifested in the exercise of his
is
peculiar faculties.
It
and
to investigate the nature

ties in virtue
becomes necessary
therefore
of which he
The Onier of Teaching
is
origin of the quali-
War Academy-
of the
explains the method by which,
post
for his
fitted
an elementary
in
stage, the intellectual faculties requisite for
mand
are developed
and
its
The mental
trained.
outfit of the ideal general is
com-
there analyzed into
constituent parts, which are classified according
to their importance.
The
highest place
to military history as " the
most
of teaching war during peace."
is
assigned
means
effective
Accordingly the
study of military history, to which so large a space
War Academy,
is
assigned in the course of the
is
pursued on a higher plane by the great general
staff,
which has a special department
vation.
^
Cf.
article
for its culti-
In this historical work, and in the

Colonel Maurice
"War,"
has existed
p.
in
the Eiicyclopadia Brtlnnnica
345: "There does not
...
an
method
'art of
exist,
and never
war' which was something
other than the methodic study of military history."
The Brain
76
on which
it is
Army
of an
conducted,
[part
the secret of Prussian
lies
generalship.
The
leading ideas of the school must be sought
in the writings of Clausewitz,^ the great
exponent
of the lessons learned in Prussia from the wars

against
Napoleon.
mere narration of
Clausewitz distinguishes the

events,
which gives at most the
superficial relations of cause

critical
examination.
and
from their
effect,
In the critical
method ap-
plied to military history he defines^ three stages
or operations.
cess
There
proper, which has
far
military
as this
Upon
with the existing materials.

the
object the ascer-
for its
tainment of the facts so
furnished
the historical pro-
first
is
is
possible
the basis thus
student will
proceed
to
seek to understand the events in their relations

*
It is
interesting to
the
War Academy
was
its
director.
note that
from
The
1823 to
director,
Moltke was a pupil

1826, while
however,
and Clausewitz did not publish any of
is
at
Clausewitz
not a teacher,
his principal
works
during his lifetime, so that the evidence does not prove a

personal influence of Clausewitz upon Moltke.
^
See
Vom
Kriege,
Hinterlassenes
IVerk des Getterals
Carl von Clausewits, Zweites Buch, Fiinftes Capitel.
CHAP
III]
cause and
as
historical
and then when
effect,
connection
177
their
has thus been determined
undertake to form a judgment as to the
will
real
fitness
of the means employed for the ends which
was
it
sought to attain.
It
in this
is
process that the educational
last
value of military history
is
to
The
be sought.
Prussian School aims not only at developing the
power of comprehension, but

Accordingly
character.^
should
student
not
also at forming the
it
merely
requires
make
the
that
himself
ac-
quainted with the facts of a campaign, and with

the general
He
is
bearings of theory upon
expected
in
its
events.
every case to form a definite
conclusion as to what ought to have been done.
He must
'
clearly
Clausewitz
is
this critical study
make up
fully
his
aware of the
mind what course

difficulty with
whirh
has to contend, that the real causes, the
motives which led to the adoption of a particular measure,

are in
^
It
many cases unknown.

may be interesting to compare
Foster's
with what follows
Essay on Decision of Character, Letter
VI., in
which the value of a " conclusive manner of thinking

discussed.
"
is
The Brain
178
he would
operations he
The
[part
confronted
is
the
whose
general
studying.
upon
influence of the ideas of Clausewitz
the historical studies of the general staff
marked.
the year
of
1859,
is clearly-
"The
Italian
compiled
by the
1862 was published
In
Campaign
Department of the General Staff of the
Historical
Royal Prussian Army."

this
himself have adopted in the circum-
which
stances
Army
of an
an open secret that
It is
work was written by Moltke himself; and
therefore
worth noting that the preface de-
is
it
scribes the object of the
of Clausewitz
possible
the
" to
book almost
ascertain
nature of
the
as
events
in the
accurately
in
their causes
as
Northern
Italy during those few eventful weeks, to
them from
words
deduce
in short, to exercise that
objective criticism without which the facts themselves
own
paign
do not
benefit."
is
afford effective instruction
The
history of the
for
Italian
cam-
a model of this positive criticism.
every stage the writer places himself in turn

the position of the
commander
our
At
in
of each side, and
CHAP
III]
79
sketches clearly and concisely the measures which
moment
at that
would, in his opinion, have been
the most appropriate.
This
true
method of teaching the
best
exercise
undoubtedly the
acquired
mastery.
its
"The Campaign
In 1867 appeared
of 1866 in
Germany, compiled by the Department

History of the Great General
tary
work
the
is
described in
reports
official
intended in the
and the
general's art,
peace that can be devised for
in
who have
those
is
its
first
This
Staff."
"
preface as
of the
for Mili-
Prussian
drawn from
troops,
instance for their use.
and
The
" is
one-
sided, because hitherto our late antagonists
have
description," the writer goes
not
made
on to say,
such as would
disclosures
explain the motives of their action."
may
qualification
the
to
to
similar
the account of
Franco-German war published by the great
general
limits
staff.
laid
kind of
to
be applied
suffice
But both works supply, within the
down by
their
history which
the military student.
is
authors, precisely the
of the
greatest
The utmost
value
pains have
The Brain
i8o
Army
of an
[part
been taken to secure a true statement of
and a
facts,
on
clear exposition of the guiding motives
the Prussian or
German
Accordingly these
side.
works, and the account published more recently

of the campaign of
of
storehouses
1864
Denmark, form
in
material
criticism " in the exercise of
pal
means of maturing the
The
publish
which
great
series
of
object
the
chosen
general
which
the
command,
in
particular
to
monographs,
of
the
mode
to,
subjects
throw
light
of
of employing,
the several arms
minor warfare
fortifica-
the composition and preservation of armies."
Those of the essays which take

from
of
" to
relating to the art
and the performance possible

the service of security
1883
in
case
from recent campaigns,
upon important questions
tion
began
historical
in
the princi-
lies
military judgment.
staff
is,
" objective
that
for
rich
earlier
subjects
their
campaigns are intended
" to
our insight into the nature of war, and to

possible a profounder and
more
correct
enrich
make
judgment
of events, and of the persons concerned in them."
CHAP
III]
The Order of Teaching

describes
purpose
the
They
military history.
of the
of
all
i8i
War Academy
these
are to lead
studies
to a
in
know-
ledge of " the unchanging conditions upon which
good
generalship
depends, in
their
with changing tactical forms."
connection
Before there can
be good practice there must be a true theory, and

a true theory can be acquired only from histori-
study pursued according to a sound method.
cal
Moreover, the theory can
pendent existence
it
never have an
must
always
inde-
derive
its
sustenance from fresh contact with the historical

reality of
which
it
is
the abstract.
giant Antaeus, whose strength

is
lifted
On
up from the touch of
the other hand,
historical
It is like
fails
his
the
whenever he
mother Earth.
study which did
not yield a theory would be barren and useless.
This connection
finds
expression in
service.
in
The
between history and
theory
the tradition of the Prussian
general staff has been no less active
the production
of theoretical
that of historical studies.
But
works than
in the
in
department
The Brain
82
is
biHty of
There
author.
no
is
only the theories of individual
account of
the
principal
way emanated from
body of
accepted
due to
entirely
theory
official
officers.
works which
^
;
short
this
in
the general staff during the
King William
of
reign
[part
published on the responsi-
of theory each work

its
Army
of an
I.
show
will
military
doctrine
that
is
the
almost
one source.
this
In 1865 appeared as a supplement to a mili-
anonymous memorandum of
tary newspaper an
eight pages, headed "
of the
Improved Firearms upon
short essay, of which
an
The
Remarks on
drill-books
official
they should.
Battle."
This
the authorship was
after-
and regulations
and
theory,
it
the Influence
is,
for field service
embody
of course, indispensable that
But these books are not prepared under the
responsibility of the general
staff.
The
usual practice
is
to
appoint a committee composed of a number of combatant
of all ranks, a general commanding an army

commanders of divisions, brigades, regiments, and
battalions.
They will, as a rule, have had the general staff
training, but it is as experienced commanders that their
judgment is asked. They prepare a draft code of regulaofficers
corps,
tions,
which
is first
after full criticism
issued experimentally, and only adopted
and
revision.
CHAP
III]
183
wards acknowledged by Moltke, gave a searching
upon exact
analysis, based
modifications
battlefield to
rifled
handling of troops on the
the
in
historical data, of the
be looked for from the adoption of
cannon and breechloading
drew with a master's hand
in
modern
arms.
The
battlefield, as
rifled
out changing
its
and psychology
results of the
gun can change

position.
Its
accuracy, where the distance
its
target with-
long range and

is
known and
The
ploying large columns within a mile.

loading
rifle
shoot.
But sharpshooting
its
the
breech-
requires soldiers carefully taught to
must be the excep-
Decisive results on a large scale must be
sought by reserving the

at
new
must prevent the enemy from em-
target visible,
tion.
writer
a few strokes the
characteristics of the physiology
of the
The
rifles.
which errors
immaterial.
officers
in
fire
for those short
ranges
estimating the distance
strict
control
of the
fire
are
by the
must prevent the waste of ammunition.
The formation
for firing will
be the
line
two deep
that for manoeuvring in the range of the enemy's
The Brain
184
guns
rifled
will
Army
of an
[part
be a line of small columns, which
can rapidly deploy, are easily handled, and admit

of the
full
use of the ground for protection and
concealment when
produce their
The new
firearms
only on open
ground.
in motion.
effect
full
Accordingly the defender
will seek positions
such
formed by a gentle slope of the ground
as are
offering a
free
and extensive
field
of
fire.
The
attacker will seek for his advance the protection
by broken
afforded
Though
villages.
ground
or
by woods
in the abstract the
and
new weapons
favourable to the defence, so that a general
are
on the defensive
will
try to
force the
enemy
to
attack him in a good position, the breechloading

rifle,
if it
can be brought within effective range
of the defender, will quickly bring about a decision.
The
defenders will not be able to sustain
the hail of bullets, and
if
they attempt to charge
with the bayonet will be effectually stopped by

the rapid
'
The
fire
of the needle-gun.^
precis gi\en in the
text
needs only the alteration
CHAP
III]
The views
of
here expressed were put into prac-
and proved to be sound, on the
tice,
The
1866.
Crown
prevent
its
handled
resist
in
The
essay.
Prussian
columns, which
small
by steady and rapid
fire
the advance of the Austrian
critical
Crown Prince
of these
of two words
and
to
bring
is
it
it
position
were
troops
at
to
ranges
short
masses.
Lieutenant-General
history
the
deployed
war, a younger officer of the general
afterwards
which
long slope, up which the
The
Austrians attacked.
the
debouching, illustrated
of a
crest
which the
Austrian corps
the
leading ideas of Moltke's
was on the
in
battlefields
column, emerging from
Prince's left
to
of Nachod,
battle
mountains, defeated
tried
185
After the
staff.
Major,
Kiihne, published
early battles
of
the
worth noting that he
up
perfectly
to date.
For "a
mile" substitute "two miles," and for a "line two deep"

substitute
" line in
For a recent and
single rank
interesting
tactical questions the reader
"
but
" line
of skirmishers."
heterodox discussion of
may be
referred to
Ein
mernachtstraiim {Midsu)iuner Nighfs Dream), which
a well-known
officer,
long a
member
of the general
Sojnis
by
staff.
The Brain
86
Army
of an
[part
found the chief cause of success on the actual

battlefields to
have
lain in the
thoroughness with
which the men had been taught to handle the

needle-gun, and in the judgment with which the
officers applied
and
the small column
deployed
the
Koniggratz
formations
was
itself
the attack would find
for
illustrated
its
for
firing.
the
advantage
manoeuvre
in
At
view that
broken or
covered ground, for the decisive blow was pre-
pared essentially by Fransecky's

the
in
wood
hard
fighting
of Maslowed.
After the war of 1870, the Prussian staff was

for
many
years engaged upon
was not complete
until 1881.
its
history,
During
this
which
period
the main business of military criticism was the

sifting of
that war, with a view to the improve-
ment of
theory,
management
thought
have
selves.
in
of future wars.
remarkable
been
other
that
undertaken
The bulk
by the general
in
It
this
has always been

criticism
should
by the Germans them-
of this
staff,
words to the better
work
also
was done
the shape of unofficial
CHAP
in]
1870 and
appeared the studies of Verdy
1875
du Vernois
Between
by members of that body.
publications
187
Art of Command, works which
in TJie
have exercised the profoundest influence on the

military literature of our time,
and which
recall
the efforts of Scharnhorst to teach, not a series

of disconnected
sciences, but a doctrine
conduct
on
work
his
staff,
war.
of
Verdy's
in the
studies
historical
of the
were based
department of the
where he was engaged on the records of
both the great campaigns.
In 1882 appeared the
essay on Strategy of Blume,
who had prepared
by a
it
strategical history, published
in
for
1872, of
the campaign of 1870 from the battle of Sedan
onwards.
1883
In
popular work of
Arms,
also
was published the
Von
der Goltz, The Nation in
the outcome
Verdy's practice
is
brilliant
of extensive historical
to use the history of a
campaign
real
or imaginary as a series of problems set to the student.
This
its
is
called in
introduction
is
Germany
" the applicatory
was Director of Military Education

to 1872.
method," and
ascribed to General von Peucker,

in
who
Prussia from 1854
The Brain
88
these
All
studies.*
the Prussian general
The
by
the
writers
not on the
and
Army
[part
were
members of
which
immediately
staff.
war were conducted
in
main
the
whose experience had been gained,

staff,
May
the French or
command
but in the actual
Boguslawski,
fighting units.
bach,
writers
discussions
tactical
followed
of an
of
Laymann, Tellen-
had been company leaders on
Bohemian
But even
battlefields.
here the influence of the staff was considerable.
Bronsart von Schellendorf,

to
May's Tactical Retrospect^ Von
essays on
the
at
who wrote
the reply
whose
Scherff,
formal tactics were very widely read
time
of
their
publication
Meckel, whose treatise on tactics
(1873),
and
1881
con-
in
densed into a systematic shape the substantial

results
officers
too
'
of
of the
much
Von
in 1882.
the ten
to
years'
were
controversy,
general
staff.
say that
for
Thus
more
it
is
than
all
hardly
twenty
der Goltz's papers on Rossbach and Jena appeared
CHAP
III]
years
Prussian
the
general
189
done
has
staff
great part of the military thinking of Europe.
The
school
through which a Prussian
officer
must pass before he can become a general has
now been
After
features.
he
described, at least in
has
ideals
the
work
of
obedience.
most striking
five years' service as
mastered
assimilated
its
elementary
the
of
spirit
and
his
a lieutenant
with
class,
but
intelligent
and
duties,
its
absolute
War Academy
In three years at the
he has learned the nature of war, and acquired
At
an insight into the conduct of the armies.

the
same time he has been taught
way with
a practical
practical
He
forming a decision.
full
maturity
in
and
spends
racter,
manhood
general
ties
of
in
staff,
the
frame,
the
instructive
and
more
years
of
active
studies
the executive
functions
arrived
intelligence,
higher
command, and
the effort
now
has
and
the
the
in
questions, never
from
allowing himself to shrink
deal
to
of
the
practical
at
chaof
great
activi-
comprehensive
general
of
staff
and
of
The Brain
iQO
the
division
years and
in
or
forth
advancement can
work
to
occupations
his
extent,
for
their
full
by valuable
only be secured
By
each successive sphere.
in
[part
During these
corps.
varied
these
all
are put
energies
army
the
Army
of an
time
the
he attains to general rank he has acquired a vast
and varied experience
and
rapid
and
in
glance
penetrating
the
miraculous
a practised
and
sureness
judgment which decides without

nine-tenths
stant
of
not
is
described
is
contended
an
in
of
in-
which
arise
is
the
that
system
here
Every system
perfect.
and there
failures,
fail
questions
the
swiftness
command.
in the exercise of
It
march
the
seems to the layman almost
field
and
on
whose
eye,
no
possibility of
has
its
entirely
excluding the influences of favour or prejudice.
But
the
in
is
it
may
high
the
due
be asserted
average
superior
in
of
with
practical
officers
of
the
confidence
ability
that
secured
Prussian
army
the main to the practice of selection,
the careful inspection
by the superiors
at every
CHAP
III]
and to the mature wisdom by which the
stage,
higher education of the general staff
The
army
The
culty.
which
foundations of
appear
constantly
of
military
obedience
of
lectual
by
and
itself
staff
decay from
is
mental
to
liable
is
which
without
has
under-
moral
impossible.
is
escaped
independence
from
and
intel-
The
Prussian
this
dilemma
taking the lead in scientific progress,
organizing
concerns
the
to
and the habit of unconditional
progress
general
principles
Every army
obedience too often destroys the

of judgment
diffi-
institu-
opposed
intelligence.
Free criticism
discipline,
all
directly
danger
in
stagnation.
mine
and
be
to
movement
officers
confronted by a peculiar
authority
are
tions
is
directed.
is
advancement of the
intellectual
of every
free
191
the
an institution
itself,
in
regard
business
of
national
for the
advancement
to
all
that
defence,
of learning-.
as
CHAPTER
IV
THE CHIEF OF THE GENERAL STAFF

In the best work the man
An
ordinary
man
more than the
is
school.
no more than has
gives out
been put into him.
All
be explained by his
antecedents.
his
performances can
But the best
workers contribute from themselves an element
which
Newton
no analysis
or
worth, has
can adequately explain.
Columbus, a Stanley or a Whit-
some
unseen
spring
of
force
and
insight.
A man
of this stamp
is
of an army, and above
all
required at the head

at the
head of the
organization entrusted with the design of operations.
The eve
of a war
a great outburst of
is
always accompanied by
feeling,
192
which
in ninety-nine
CHAP
The
lyj
men
out
of
hundred
excitement, a
action of the
when
time
193
as an
itself
the
with
interfering
judgment and distorting the view

But
events.
provisional
this
the
is
plan
very-
must
decisions
weightiest
the
The
taken.
manifests
disturbance,
persons and
of
the Staff
Ceiief of
be
concentration,
of
the result of careful preparation in quieter times,
has to
reconsidered
be
the
to
relation
in
cir-
cumstances of the moment, and definitely settled
and
The judgment
adopted.
must therefore
be
perfectly
of
the
clear,
strategist
uninfluenced
by the emotions which he shares with the
rest
of his countrymen.
When
the
and
while
the
first
quick
prises,
concentration
even
prepared
to
the
The
headquarters.
as
He must
by the
throbs
prepare the
way
another
brings
informed
best
brium must be disturbed as

events
one
following
Every day
succession.
for
its
and
strategist's
little
of
ordered,
movement, come
the armies are in

collisions,
been
has
in
sur-
best
equili-
by unexpected
national
emotion.
a decisive battle
The Brain
194
No
one knows better than he the
of the
which
sacrifices
stakes which are

lives of
will
Army
of an
mishap
may
be
will
lead
its
and the
The
issue.
many thousands
lost;
mistake, miscalculation, or
terrible nature
involve,
will
upon
risked
thousands
be wounded
it
[part
with far-reaching,
defeat,
to
perhaps disastrous, consequences to his country.
But under the weight of

the strategist's judgment
and
greater
retains
part of
awe of great
mould.
its
even
mankind
events,
current,
balance,
are
when
the
stunned with the
who remains
is
whose
true to himself
away by what seems an
not cast in the
common
Ordinary men shrink into insignificance
beside him.
officer
a storm, with no
insight remains clear,
while others are carried

irresistible
in
smoothly
delicate equipoise.
its
The man whose

judgment
work
must
compass
easily, like the
derangement of
this vast responsibility
He
is
separated from the average
by a gulf which no system of training
can bridge.
The
occurrences,
nor danger, nor
inner calm which neither great

responsibility
can
CHAP
The Chief
IV]
of the Staff
method can
disturb cannot be imparted, and no
be prescribed for
The
its
acquisition.
natural place
the supreme
195
for
Where
command.
men
a leader of
is
in
a general of this
head of an army he
will himself
superintend the work of strategical
preparation
type
at the
is
such as
carried
is
general staff at
be
will
function
on
in
His chief of the
Berlin.
confidential
will
the office of the great
whose
assistant,
staff
main
be to lighten for him the burden
of detail, and
men
the two
will
stand to one
another in the same relation as that which subsists
between the general commanding an army
corps and the chief of the general staff of the

corps.
In Prussia the king
is
the head of the army,
and there are good reasons why he should take

the
field in
person
weakened by
king
his
work out
of the
which have not been
becoming also German Emperor.
who keeps
direction
reasons
in his
own hands
Government
for himself
the general
cannot
the problems
very well
involved
in
The Brain
196
of an
Army
preparation of a campaign.
the strategical
becomes
chief of the staff
alike during peace

tion of far greater
and war, and occupies a
the
field,
His
posi-
importance than the assistant
two great wars
in the
I.,
his strategical adviser,
to a professional commander-in-chief
liam
[part
in
King Wil-
which he took
reposed entire confidence in his chosen
chief of the staff; and to the fine character which
could do this without loss of dignity, as well as

the genius of Moltke, must be attributed the
to
success with which in these wars the armies were
Moltke always attributed to the king the
directed.
responsibility for the strategical decisions,
quite correctly
and that
but the king equally correctly
regarded Moltke as their source, and attributed

the success of the
army
the operations."
The
1870, were
*
22, 1871
tionen."
of
Prussia
in
Prussian guidance
due to the perfect understanding
See the king's
" Ihrer
victories
Germany under
1866, and of
in
to Moltke's " conduct of
letters
to
Moltke of Oct.
28,
1870:
weisen Fiihrung der Operationen," and of March
"Die
uniibertreffliche Leitung
Moltke, Cesammelte Schriften,
der
i.,
Kriegsopera-
268, 9.
CHAP
The Chief
IV]
of the Staff
197
between the king and Moltke, a relation equally

creditable to
ten,
both.
must not be
It
forgot-
moreover, that the king exercised the supreme

as well as the
political
and that
in
them
in
supreme military authority,
the political department, too, he had
Bismarck a trusted
adviser, the
counterpart of
Thus was secured the harmony between
Moltke.
which
the political and the military direction

essential
to
exceptional
great success
in
From
war.
is
the
characters of the king, of Bismarck,
and of Moltke, and from the equally exceptional

relation
between them,
would be rash to deduce
it
a system, which in any case could be applicable
only to the case of a king wielding the entire

executive power.
The
and
relation
between the Commander-in-Chief
must thus be regarded
his chief of the staff
as a personal one, which will vary in
cording to the characters and

If the
commander has
in
gifts
its
nature ac-
of the two men.
himself the necessary
intellectual power, the chief of the staff should
of subordinate mould
if
the
commander
be
requires
The Brain
198
help
conception
the
in
must be able
assistant
required.
It is
subordinate
the part of
is
Army
of an
of
to
the
[part
operations,
supply the
his
initiative
evident that the case in which the
the source of inspiration implies on
the
commander
from common, and
magnanimity
arrange-
that, therefore, this
ment must be considered
far
to be rather
the ex-
ception than the rule.
The
element
system
Prussian
permanent
of
the classification
is
according to which
The whole
labour.
is
concentrated
the head
in
it
authority of the
into
over,
and
officer,
ity.
The
is
it
is
done
is
leave
for him.
divided
nothing
is
an
exercises the king's author-
king's supervision does not appear
consist in his doing over again the

officers.
who
head of each compartment
within
of
Government
army
compartments, so as to
who
duties
The king does nothing
of the business of the
at the
of
the person of the king
himself; every part of the work
up
the
in
regulates the division
of the army.
The whole
value
They submit
to
to
work of these
him any important new
CHAP
The Chief
IV]
of the Staff
199
which they propose, for they are
decisions
But
re-
the king
is
unable
to agree with the course proposed, there
is
reason
it
retires,
sponsible to him.
in case
to believe that the officer
king
way
In this
the authority of the
maintained without impairing the
is
command
actual
of the troops
hands of the generals commanding
and of the governors of

directly to the king,
fortresses
and
all
The
or through them.
matters, such
promotion of
general
that
is
own
its
questions
armament, and
try of war.
general
staff,
The
is
third
army corps
they account
departments.
three
king's
and
rewards, and
military
cabinet,
Administrative
organization,
fortification,
the
concerns of the
retirements,
chief
of
in
as the appointment
go to the
decorations
which has
officers,
is
their subordinates to
army pass through one of

Personal
initia-
chosen and authorized assistants.
tive of his
The
suggests
by a successor who shares
his place being filled
the king's view.
who
affairs,
equipment,
belong to the minis-
department, that of the
principally
occupied
with the
The Brain
200
strategical
and
administrative
various
one
Army
of an
than
rather
tactical
with
the
departments communicate directly with
another,
a process which
them upon
any given point has the power
to decide.
appears
institution
thus
the
that
by
facilitated
is
regulations leaving no doubt which of
It
These
army.
the
of
direction
[part
of
general staff as one of the organs of the manage-
ment of an army
is
applying equally to
all
based upon a true analysis

to
ordered warfare.
primarily the
Military success requires
enemy
gent direction against the
employed.
such
is
The
general
instrument
auxiliary
in
and
armies,
civilized
all
found, at
every army.
of
least
zation
distinction
was
in
direction,
suited
it
to
forces
as the
and
as
rudimentary form,
In Prussia alone
peculiarly
of the
staff originated
this
ance was understood, and
intelli-
its
full
import-
received an organiits
purpose.
The
steadily kept in view between the
all-important conduct
of the
operations against
an enemy and the subordinate though necessary
The Chief
cHAi' !v]
business
of
army
enemy was
the
or of
to the general
which thus became an enlargement of the
formance of
most
his
To
difficult duty.
the
of a
nomous
bodies,
his per-
facilitate
characteristic
into
and
most
thus strengthened
pliable partly
subdivision
suitable
to
command
army was rendered
tion
function
principal parts
its
assigned
commander's mind, serving
the
201
upon the conception or design
of the action of the
staff,
Every
administration.*
directly bearing
against
of the Staff
by means
permanent auto-
and partly through the organiza-
of the administrative side by side with the
military services.
The army
affairs
its
'
corps
having
intendancy
The
its
to
managing
adjutancy,
supply
its
its
its
own
internal
auditoriat,
needs
function of the military administrator
with
is
and
the
to trans-
form into military force so much of the resources of the

State as the
Government thinks proper.
The process
is
continuous, and goes on during war as well as during peace.

In
Prussia
it
is
conducted by the ministry of war, the
channel or instrument by which the resources of the country

are rendered available for
Cp.
p. 61.
employment against the enemy.
The Brain
202
assistance of
war
of
is
strategical
and
in
[part
connection with the ministry
body
direction
Army
of an
easily
amenable
from a
proceeding
the
to
general
Thus
the growth of the organ of strate-
gical direction
was necessarily accompanied by a
centre.
corresponding development of other military

stitutions
by
in-
which the perfect adaptability of
the organism to the directing agency was attained
and preserved.
The importance
of the
general staff of the
by
selection.
The
chief implied that
the
means of
army
office
led
to
of chief of the
its
with the training,
filled
confidence reposed in a chosen
he should be unhampered
fulfilling his duties.
fore entrusted with
being
He was
in
there-
the selection, and eventually
of
the officers
for
his
own
department.
The design
of military
operation involves the
most complete knowledge of the military
sciences,
and the most perfect mastery of the military

Accordingly the great general
staff
art.
has become
a school of generalship, from which have emanated
CHAP
The Chief
IV]
of the Staff
203
a series of masterpieces of military history and

criticism, while
historical
its
individual
members
have produced valuable works dealing with the

various branches of the theory of the art of war.
The attachment
general staff for which

the
means of
War Academy
of the
it
raising
the training school
is
the highest
to
to the
is
the
level
standard of military education.
The common devotion

all
branches
its
activity
that
to
portion
faculties
intellectual
will, finds
its
as
all
the selection
consequence of
is
well as
upon
the branches of the army.
by which the
composed, and of the requirement of
practical
familiarity
ship and
with the
is
military
expression in the unity of the
general staff through
corps
of
which makes the most exacting demands
upon the
the
of the general staff in
with the duties

life
and
the constant passage
spirit
employment
of the general staff
itself.
in
leader-
of the troops,
and
fro
staff service,
and
of officers to
between regimental and general

their alternate
of
the various branches
The Brain
204
The
general
staff,
Army
of an
in
short,
is
the
[part
brain,
and
something more than the brain, of the army.

" Its chief
hand
and
200
his
for all probable
officers
campaigns
prepare before-
they follow the
progress of the armies of their neighbours at the
same time that they study the

of war
war
several
theatres
they work out together the methods of
they familiarize themselves with the ma-
chinery of the army, bringing their influence to
bear upon
all
questions of organization and train-
they form an organism whose arteries spread
ing
all
through the army, gathering practical experi-
ence and carrying
wherever they go the same
continuous stream of principles and of doctrines."
Revue
militaire de PEiranger, vol. xxxii. p. 261.
THE END.
Cutler
&
Tnnner.
The
Selwji.ri Printiii).'
Works. Fiome. and
t-oiidim.
University of British Columbia Library
DUE DATE
girD_
nuv9
NOV 2
^070
tat
HOT 3
FORM
310
C 46S90
UNIVERSITY OF
B.C.
LIBRARY
3 9424 02459 0363

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GERMAN GENERAL STAFF

COUNT MOLTKE AND LORD ROBERTS

CONSTABLE & COAIPANY Ltd

PREFACE TO THE SECOND

inquiring into the administration of the national

There was much

about the Prussian

and many were the

imitation in this country.

the Prussian staff was, and

might be useful to the Royal Com-

mission and to the public to have a true account

any one could understand

of February, 1890, the

on which the Report of Lord Hartington's Commission was signed.

in the classification of duties

Preface to the Second Edition

and upon the

side of a dividing line,

operations against the enemy.

ministration and discipline or with

thoroughly rational and

consistent distribution of func-

specially trained in the art of conducting opera-

Preface to the Second Edition

classes for the

by chance, and been stereotyped by usage.

But the grouping of duties

a staff belong to the adjutant-general's

branch or to the quartermaster-general's branch,

branch or to the other.

group of duties which

with one another.

manifest that there can be

scientific training for a

order to sever them again upon

a rational plane of cleavage.

But while the essence of the Prussian general

army, the interest of the

Preface to the Second Edition

The Germans them-

well be doubted whether

than essential, for in organizing their navy they

much experiment and

They have appointed

adopted a different plan.

chosen admiral to be, not chief of the

with the army, cannot undertake the com-

of the navy, but to be

from drawing from the German

army, and was content with a warning

against overhasty imitation.

nature of the relation

between Moltke and the

Preface to the Second Edition

upon well authenticated,

posthumous publication of Moltke's private

upon the whole

had the good

essay was ready for the