Chapter 6

Chem Armstrong
6.2 Gas pressure Force acting on a specific area
Pressure (P) = force/area
Units: 1 atm = 760 mmHg (exact), 760 torr,
14.7 lb/in2, 101325 Pa, 101.325 kPa
Barometer measures pressure exerted by gases
in atmosphere; indicates atmospheric pressure
as height in mmHg
Atmospheric pressure exerted by column of air
from atmosphere Earth; as altitude ;
1 atm at sea level; higher on a rainy day
6.3 Pressure and Volume
Boyles law - pressure of gas is inversely
related to its volume when T and n are
constant; Product P*V is constant when temp
and moles are held constant; V P
* P1V1 = P2V2
Breathing - during inhalation, lungs expand &
P air flows toward the lower P in the lungs
to equalize the pressure
6.4 Temperature and Volume
Charless Law - Kelvin T of a gas directly
related to the V; P and n are constant; T V
*V1/T1 + V2/T2
6.5 Temperature and Pressure
Gay-Lussacs Law P exerted by a gas is
directly related to the Kelvin T; V and n
constant
*P1/T1 = P2/T2
Vapor pressure P that accumulates when
molecules of a liquid collect over surface of a
liquid in a closed container; specific for given
T; VP when T
- when VP = external P, liquid reaches BP
Boiling point higher altitude, need more P
6.6 Combined Gas law
*P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

6.7 Volume and Moles

Avogadros Law V of gas is directly related
to the # of moles (n) of gas; T and P constant
*V1/n1 = V2/n2
Volumes of gases can be compared at STP
Same T - standard temp = 0C or 273 K
Same P - standard pressure = 1 atm
Molar volume - @ STP 1 mole of any gas
occupies 22.4L
6.8 Partial Pressure
P that each gas in a mixture would exert if it
were by itself in the container
Daltons Law of partial pressures
Pressure depends on the total # of gas
molecules (not type of molecules)
Total P exerted by gases in a mixture = sum of
the partial pressures of those gases
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +.
Air is a gas mixture - mostly N2 and O2
Blood Gases
Lungs: O2 blood CO2
Tissues: O2 cells CO2
-----------------------------------------------------Chapter 7 Solutions
Solutions homogeneous/transparent; dont
separate; very small particles/ions/molecules
cant filter/pass through membrane
- Homogeneous mixtures of 2+ substances
- When solute & solvent are miscible/soluble
- (in liquid) miscible [form homogeneous
mixture] molecules attract each other
- solvent larger amount, solute smaller amount
Solute spread evenly throughout; cant be
separated by filtration; can be separated by
evaporation; not visible, but can give color
Water polar bc polar O-H bonds (EN = 1.34)
H+ bonds important in biological compounds

NaCl hydration (separation) when water

molecules surround each ion and pull it into
solution: Na+ + ClLike dissolves like polarity of solute and
solvent must be similar to form a solution
7.2 Electrolytes and nonelectrolytes
Strong electrolyte dissociates in water to
produce + and ions; conducts electric current
NaCl(s) [H2O] Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Weak electrolyte dissociates slightly to produce
few ions + mostly undissociated molecules
HF(aq) H+(aq) + F-(aq)
Nonelectrolyte dissolves as molecules; doesnt
produce ions nor conduct electric current
C12H22O11(s) [H2O] C12H22O11(aq)
Equivalent(eq) is the amount of electrolyte/ion
that provides 1 mole of electrical charge (+or-)
7.3 Solubility
The max amount of solute [temp sensitive] that
dissolves in a specific amount of solvent
* g of solute/100 g water
Unsaturated solutions contain less than the max
amount of solute + can dissolve more
Saturated solutions contain max amount of
solute that can be dissolved + undissolved
solute at the bottom; solute dissolves +
recrystallizes (equilibrium process)
(dissolves)
Solute + solvent saturated solution
(recrystallizes)
Temp & solubility
S: as temp
G: as temp
Henrys Law solubility of g l is directly
related to P of that gas above the liquid; at
higher P, more gas molecules dissolve in liquid
Soluble vs insoluble salts
Mixing certain aqueous solutions produces
insoluble salts ie) BaSO4 (barium sulfate)

7.4 Concentration of a solution

* amount of solute/amount of solution
mass% (m/m)
* [g solute/g solution (solute+solvent)] 100
volume % (v/v)
* [mL solute/mL solution] 100
mass/volume % (m/v)
* [g solute/mL solution] 100
Molarity (moles solute/L solution)
7.5 Dilution of solutions
In initial/diluted solution - moles of solute are
the same; concentrations & volumes related by:
% concentration: (initial)C1V1 = (diluted)C2V2
Molarity: (initial) M1V1 = (diluted) M2V2
7.6 Properties of solutions
Solutions*
Colloids: medium-size solid particles; dont
settle; usually cloudy; cant be filtered but can
be separated by semipermeable membrane
(smaller pore than filters)
Suspensions very large particles; settle out; can
be filtered; must be stirred to stay suspended
(ie. platelets, muddy water, calamine lotion)
Colligative Properties
Depend on # of solute particles in solution
- include freezing point & boiling point
- solute particles disrupt formation of solid
crystals, the freezing point of the solvent
Electrolytes break up into ions, # of particles
- include freezing point & boiling point
- 2 mole of CaCl2 = 3 moles of ions
Osmosis
Water (solvent) flows from lower solute
concentration higher solute concentration
- level of solution w/ higher solute
concentration would ; try to equalize
Osmotic pressure
- solute particles dissolved in solution
- prevent water more concentrated solution
- greater as the # of dissolved particles
- RBC semipermeable membrane
maintains osmotic pressure (change = damage);
must maintain an = flow of water between the
cell and surrounding environment

Isotonic solution
Exerts = osmotic pressure
Hypotonic solution
solute concentration; H2O flows in by osmosis
Hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than)
solute concentration; H2O out crenation
(Dialysis )
-----------------------------------------------------Ch 8 Acids and Bases
Arrhenius Acids
produce H+ ions in H2O, are electrolytes, sour,
litmus red, neutralize bases
HCl(g) [H2O] H+(aq) + ClNaming acids
H + nonmetal = hydroic acid
H + polyatomic ion =
- ate ic acid
- ite ous acid
Arrhenius Bases
Produce OH- ions in H2O, are electrolytes,
bitter/chalky, soapy/slippery, neutralize acids
Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
Acids donate and Bases accept a proton (H+)
NH3 (base) + H2O (acid) NH4 + OHConjugate Acid-Base pairs
acid-base reaction = 2 conjugate acid-base pairs
Each pair is related by the loss/gain of H+ that
occurs in the forward and reverse direction
Conjugate Base pair 1
HA + B A- + BH+
Conjugate base pair 2
HF (acid) donates H+ F- (conjugate base)
H2O (base) accepts H+ H3O (conjugate acid)
There are 2 conjugate acid base pairs
HF(aq) + H2O(l) F-(aq) + H3O(aq)
8.2 Strengths of Acids and Bases
Strong acid completely ionizes (100%)
HCl(g) + H2O H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
A weak acid dissociates only slightly in water
to form a few ions in aqueous solutions

Strong Acids
In water, the dissolved molecules of HA
dissociate into ions 100% + give large
concentrations of H3O+ and the anion(A-)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3)-(aq) + Cl-(aq)
*HI, HBr, HClO4, HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
Weak Acids
Only a few molecules dissociate
Most of the weak acid remains as the
undissociated (molecular) form of the acid
Concentration of H3O+ and anion (A-) are small
H2CO3(aq)+H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+HCO3-(aq)
Make up most acids; strong conjugate bases
*H3O+, HSO4-, H3PO4, HF, HNO2, HC2H3O2,
H2CO3, H2S, H2PO42-, NH4+, HCN, HCO3-, HSH2O
In an HCl csolution, the strong acid Hcl
dissociates 100%
A solution of the weak acid HC2H3O2 contains
mostly molcecules and a few ions
Strong Bases
Formed from metals of groups 1A and 2A;
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Dissociate completely
KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
In water
H+ transferred from 1 H2O molecule to another;
1 molecule acts as an acid while another a base
Pure Water = neutral
ionization of water molecules produces small
but = quantities of H3O+ and OH- ions; molar
concentrations are indicated in brackets as
[H3O+] and [OH-]
[H3O+] = 1.0 * 10-7M
[OH-] = 1.0 * 107M
Adding acid to pure water
[H3O+]; causing it to exceed 1.0 * 10-7M
Adding base to pure water
[OH-]; causing it to exceed 1.0 * 107M

Ion product of water, Kw

The ion product constant for water is the
product of the concentrations of the hydronium
and hydroxide ions
Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
In neutral, acidic, or basic solutions, the Kw is
always 1.0 * 10-14
8.4 pH scale
Natural rain is slightly acidic w a pH of 5.6
1) CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
2) H2CO3(aq) + H2OH3O(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
pH of a solution is used to indicate acidity of
a solution; has values that range from 0-14
- acidic = less than 7
- neutral = 7
- basic = greater than 7
Fossil fuels sulfur impurities SO2/SO3
gases react with moisture acid rain
2SO4(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
pH of soil, lakes, streams
- below 4.5-5 fish/plant life die
- trees/forests damaged; break down wax
coating X photosynthesis
Calculating pH of solutions
pH = -log[H3O+]
8.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases
Acids react with metals to produce H gas + salt
of the metal (K, NA, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn)
2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2KCl(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Acids react w carbonates + hydrogen
carbonates to produce CO2(g) + salt + H2O
2HCl(aq) + CaCO2(s) CO2+CaCL2(aq)+H2O
HCl + NaHCO3(s) CO2 + NaCl(aq) + H2O
Neutralization Reactions
acid reacts w base to produce salt + water
HCl + NaOH = salt + water
The salt formed = anion from the acid and
cation of the base
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid- base titration

Titration: lab procedure to determine molarity
of acid; use base (NaOH) to neutralize a
measured volume of an acid; Indicator is added
to acid; causes color change when neutralized
Endpoint: indicator has permanent pink color;
V of base measured; molarity of acid calculated
using neutralization equation for the reaction
*When acid/base H2O = drastic pH change
In buffer solution pH is maintained
Buffer - Resist changes in pH from + acid/base
In the body, absorb H3O+ or OH- from foods
and cellular processes to maintain pH
Important in proper functioning of cells/blood
Maintain a pH close to 7.4 in blood
Buffer solution - combo of acid-base conjugate
pairs. [HA and NaA]; May contain weak acid
(ie acetic acid) + salt of is conjugate base
Typically has = concentrations of weak acid
and the salt of its conjugate base
In the acetic acid/acetate buffer with acetic acid
(HC2H3O2) and sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2)
The salt produces acetate ions and sodium ions
NaC2H3O2 (aq) C2H3O2-(aq) + Na+(aq)
+ Salt to provide concentration of conjugate
base C2H3O2- than weak acid alone does
HC2H3O2(aq)+H2OC2H3O2-(aq)+H3O+(aq)
Weak acid in buffer, function = neutralize base.
Acetate ion produced in the neutralization
reaction adds to the concentration of acetate
already in solution from the salt
Function of acetate ion, C2H3O2-, = neutralize
H3O+ from acids. Acetic acid produced
contributes to available weak acid
Buffers work because weak acids neutralizes
bases and conjugate base neutralizes acids; pH
of solution is maintained (as long as added
amounts of acid/base is small compared to the
concentrations of the buffer components)
------------------------------------------------------

Ch 9 Nuclear Radiation
Radioactive isotope has unstable nucleus
emits radiation to become stable nucleus
changes composition; identified by mass # of
isotope
Nuclear radiation - emitted by unstable atom &
takes the form of alpha particles, neurons, beta
particles, positrons, or gamma rays
Alpha particle = 2 protons + 2 neutrons
Beta particle = high-energy electron
Positron = positive electron (antimatter)
Gamma ray high-energy radiation released
from nucleus when it decays
Radiation protection
Alpha particle = paper + clothing
Beta particle = lab coat/gloves
Gamma ray = lead shield/ thick concrete
* limit distance/time near radioactive source
Balancing nuclear equation
Particles are emitted from the nucleus
mass # + atomic # may change
* sum of mass # and sum of atomic # are = for
reactants and products
251
247
7
98Cf
96Cm + 2He
Alpha decay: Radioactive nucleus emits alpha
particle new nucleus mass # 4 and
atomic # 2
Beta emission: Beta particle electron emitted
from nucleus when neutron breaks down
atomic # 1
Positron emission: Proton converted to a
neutron and a positron; Atomic # 1
1
1
0
1P 0n + +1e
Gamma radiation: Energy is emitted from an
unstable nucleus (excited state), indicated by m
following the mass number; BUT mass # and
atomic # same
Radioactive isotopes produced when a stable
nucleus is converted to a radioactive nucleus by
bombarding it with a small particle in a process
called transmutation

9.3 Radiation measurement

Geiger counter detects beta and gamma
radiation; uses ions produced by radiation to
create an electrical current
Measuring radiations
Curie measures activity as the # of atoms that
decay in 1 second
Rad(radiation absorbed dose) measures
radiation absorbed by the tissues of the body
Rem(radiation equivalent) measures the
biological damage caused by different types of
radiation
*often, measurement for an equivalent dose is
in millirems (mrem). SI unit is Sievert (Sv) =
100 rem
Radiation exposure occurs from naturally
occurring radioisotopes; medical/dental
procedures; air travel, radon, smoking
cigarettes; cosmic rays (mostly protons)
Radiation sickness LD50 amount of radiation
(to the whole body) that is the lethal dose for
of population; varies for diff life-forms
9.4 Half-life of a radioisotope
Time for radiation level to (decay) to of
original value
9.5 medical applications using radioactivity
Use radioisotopes w short lives bc 1) they
have the same chemistry in the body as the
nonradioactive atoms 2) in organs, they give off
radiation that exposes photographic plate
(plate) giving image of organ
Radioisotope radiologist determines level/
location of radioactivity emitted; scanner
moves over organs where radioisotope is
absorbed; gamma rays emitted can be used to
expose photographic plate scan of organ
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Positron emitters w short lives used to study
brain function, metabolism, blood flow. Ie)
carbon-11, oxygen-15, nitrogen-13, fluorine-18

*positrons combine with electrons (matter +

antimatter) after emission gamma rays
detected by computer 3D image
Computed Tomography (CT)
Computer monitors absorption of 30,000 X-ray
beams directed at the brain in successive layers
- differences in absorption based on tissue
densities + fluids provide images of the brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Imaging technique that does not involve x-ray
radiation; least invasive imaging method
available; based on absorption of energy when
protons in H atoms are excited by a strong
magnetic field; works because energy absorbed
is converted to color images of the body
9.6 nuclear fission and fusion
Nuclear fission
Large nucleus bombarded with small particle
nucleus splits into smaller nuclei + several
neutrons * large amounts of energy released
Neutron bombards 235U 236U nucleus
unstable fission release energy + smaller
nuclei Kr-91 + Ba-142
Chain reaction fission of each U-235 releases
3 more neutrons that bombards U-235 chain
reaction of nuclear fission
1
235
236
91
142
1
0n + 92 U 92 U 36 Kr + 56 Ba +3 0n + energy
*total mass of products in reaction is slightly
less than the mass of the starting materials BC
missing mass converted into energy
E=mc2 : E=energy released m=mass lost
c=speed of light (3*108m/s)
Nuclear power plants fission energy
Control rods in reactor absorb neutrons to
slow/control chain reactions of fission.
Nuclear Fusion
Occurs at extremely high temp
(100,000,000C); small nuclei + larger nuclei;
releases large amounts of energy (sun/stars)
3
1
2
1
1 H + 2H 4 H + 0n + energy

Ch 10 Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry
Compound made from one or more C atoms
(makes 4 bonds); has many H atoms; may also
contain O, S, N, halogens (F, Cl, Br)
Typically: have covalent bonds, low melting/
boiling points, flammable, soluble in nonpolar
solvents, not soluble in water (vegetable oil)
Propane (C3H8) organic compound used as fuel
NaCl (salt) inorganic compound Na+ + ClOrganic compounds
C has 4 valence e- and H has 1 C achieves an
octet by forming 4 bonds; each line = 2 electron
VESPR theory
*tetrahedron; ball&stick model; space filling
model; expanded structural formula
CH4 (methane): 4 covalent bonds = tetrahedral
C2H6 (ethane): Cs bond covalently with each
other + 3 H atoms; C retains tetrahedral shape
C4H10 (butane): 4 single bonds = tetrahedral
Intro to Organic Chem: Alkanes
Alkanes
Organic molecules containing primarily C-C
single bonds (commonly used as fuels for
heaters and cooktops); typically end in -ane
Condensed structural formula
Each C and attached H written as a group;
subscript = #of H bonded to each C
Butane: CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
Structural Formula
C atoms in a chain tetrahedral (zig-zag)
- molecular formula; ball-stick, expanded
structural formula; condensed structural
formula; skeletal formula
Cycloalkanes have 2 less H
10.3 Alkanes + Substituents
Isomer
Same molecular formula w different atomic
arrangements (usually branched)
Substituents
Atoms/groups of atoms attached to C chain
Alkyl group: C branches Carbon chains (-yl)
Halo substituents: halogens Carbon chain
(fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo)

Methyl CH3
Ethyl CH3-CH2
Propyl CH3-CH2-CH2
Isopropyl CH3-CH-CH3
F-, Cl-, Br-, I10.4 Properties of Alkanes
- Nonpolar; insoluble in water; less dense than
water; flammable in air; strong C-C bonds
Combustion: Alkanes react w O2 to make CO2
+ H2O & release energy when bonds are broken
1-4 C gases at room temp; widely used as
heating fuels: methane, ethane, propane, butane
5-8 C highly volatile liquids; useful in fuels ie
gasoline: pentane, hexane, heptane, octane
9-17 C liquids w higher boiling points: motor
oil, mineral oil, kerosene diesel, jet fuel
18+ C molar mass; waxy solid; coat fruit/veg
10.5 Functional Groups
H (1A) 1 covalent bond
C (4A) 4 covalent bonds
N (5A) 3 + 1 lone pair
O,S (6A) 2 + 2 lone pairs
F,Cl,Br,I (7A) 1 + 3 lp
Functional Group
Characteristic feature of organic molecules
behave in a predictable way; composed of
atom/group of atoms that replace a H atom in
corresponding alkane; way to classify families
-pof organic compounds
Alkene: C=C
Alkyne: -CCAromatic:
Alcohol: -OH
Ether: -OThiol: -SH
Aldehyde: O=C-H
Ketone: O=C
Carboxylic Acid: O=C-OH
Ester: O=C-OAmine: -NAmide: O=C-N------------------------------------------------------

Ch 11 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
11.1 Alkenes + Alkynes
Saturated hydrocarbons have max # of H atoms
attached to each C atom; alkanes/cycloalkanes
w single C-C bonds: CH3-CH2-CH3
Unsaturated hydrocarbons have fewer H atoms
attached to the C chain than alkanes
alkenes w double bonds 120 angles; flat bc
atoms all lie in the same plane
alkynes w triple bonds 180 angles
Ethene(Ethylene): [C2H4] flat C and H atoms
in same plane; H2C=CH2; plant hormone accelerate ripening of fruit
Fragrant alkenes: odors due to volatile
compounds synthesized by plants
Ethyne(Acetylene): [C2H4] fuel used in welding
Cis/Trans Isomers: (alkene) double bond is
rigid, holds attached groups in fixed positions
(no rotation) relative to each other
Cis attached on the same side
Trans attached on opposite sides
* not cis/trans if C atom is attached to identical
groups
Addition reactions
Double/triple bonds easily broken (reactive)
provide e- to form new bonds
- reactants are added to the C atoms in
Hydrogenation: H atoms added to C atoms of
double/triple bond; catalyst (Pt, Ni) used to
speed up reaction
H H
H2C=CH2 + H2 H2C-CH2
(Pt) H H
HCCH + 2H2 HC-CH
(Ni) H H
Hydrogenation of oils: adding H2 to double
bonds in vegetable oils compounds w higher
melting points + solids @ room temp
ie) margarine, soft margarine, shortening
Trans fat: convert double bonds in unsaturated
fats in vegetable oils to saturated fats like
margarine; adjusting amount of added H
produces partially hydrogenated fats (soft/solid
margarine and shortening)

Halogenation: halogen atoms (Cl,Br) added

across a double bond dihaloalkane product
(reaction occurs w/o catalyst)
Hydration: acid H+ catalyst; water adds to a
double bond; H/C in double bond; OH bonds to
other C; alkene converted to alcohol; balance +

Polymer: large, long-chain molecule; found in

nature (cellulose, starch, protein, DNA);
synthetic
Reaction Enzyme: