DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

2 MARKS QUESTION BANK WITH ANSWER

CODE & NAME: EC2353 ANTENNAS & WAVE PROPAGATION
YEAR / SEM: III-ECE / VI"A" &B
Staff Name : Mr. R. RAMADOSS (AP/ECE)
UNIT 1
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
1) What is magnetic vector potential?
The source for magnetic vector potential is current element. The current having both magnitude
and direction. Hence the potential in the case of magnetic field is magnetic vector potential.
The expressions for magnetic vector potential (A)
A = /4p J/r dV (volts /metre)
2) What is a monopole antenna?
A monopole antenna consists of one half of a dipole (usually a short vertical) antenna mounted
above the earth or group (reflecting plane).
3) What is a quarter wave monopole?
One-quarter wavelength long .it is also called as Marconi antenna.
4) What is a hertz antenna?
Effective length or height of the antenna becomes half of the actual
length.
5) Define electric scalar potential?
The source for producing a electric potential is charge. The charge is having magnitude only.
Hence the potential in the case of electric charge is electric scalar potential.
E= -V
Unit is weber/m
6) Write down the expressions for magnetic vector potential using three
standard current distributions.
i) for volume current
A = /4pI J/r dV (volts /metre)
ii) for line current
A = /4p I/r dl (volts /metre)
iii) for surface
A = /4p K/r dS (volts /metre)
7) What is retarded current?
Since current flowing through a short dipole is assumed to be constant throughout its length, the
effect of this current is not felt instantaneously at a Distant point P, but only after an interval
equal to the time required for the wave to propagate over a distance r. This current is called as
retarded current.
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Expressions for retarded current [I] = Im e jw(t- r/c)

: r/c retardation current.
8) Define hertzian dipole?
Hertzian dipole is defined as a short linear conductor or short electric dipole , whose length is
very short compared to wavelength(l << ), and current is assumed to be constant throughout its
length.
9) Write down the expressions for radiated fields of a half wave dipole
antenna(/2) .
E =60 Im /r [( cos(/2 cos)/sin] H
= Im /2r [( cos(/2 cos)/sin]
10. State reciprocity principle.
If a current I1 at the terminals of antenna no.1 induces an emf E21 at the open
terminals of antenna no.2 and a current I2 at the terminals of antenna no.2 induces an emf E12 at
the open terminals of antenna no.1 then E 12= E21 provided I1= I2.
11. Define antenna .
An antenna is a structure that has been designed to radiate or receive
electromagnetic waves.
12. Define Radiation pattern.
An antenna radiation pattern is defined as a mathematical function or a graphical representation
of the radiation properties of the antennas a function of space coordinates.
The radiation properties include power flux density, radiation intensity, field
strength,directivity, phase or polarization.
13). What are the two types of radiation pattern?
Field pattern
If the radiation from the antenna is expressed in terms of the field strength (either E or H ) then
the radiation pattern is called as field pattern.
Power pattern
If the radiation from the antenna is expressed in terms of power per unit area, then the resultant
pattern is power pattern.
14) Define Induction field(near field)
The field which predominates at the points closer to the current element where r is small is
known as induction field. The near field is inversely proportional tosquare of the distance(1/ r).
15) Write down expression for retarded vector potential.
Retarded vector potential [A] = /4pi v ( Jm e jw(t-r/c)) ) / r.
16) Define Radiation intensity?
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity U (watts
per steradian or per square degree). The radiation intensity is independent of distance.
17) Define an antenna.

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Antenna is a transition device or a transducer between a guided wave and a free space wave or
vice versa. Antenna is also said to be an impedance transforming device.
18) What is meant by radiation pattern?
Radiation pattern is the relative distribution of radiated power as a function of distance in space
.It is a graph which shows the variation in actual field strength of the EM wave at all points
which are at equal distance from the antenna. The energy radiated in a particular direction by an
antenna is measured in terms of field strength. (E Volts/m)
19) What are the different types of aperture?
i) Effective aperture. ii). Scattering aperture .iii) Loss aperture. iv) collecting aperture.
v). Physical aperture.
20). Define different types of aperture?
Effective aperture (Ae). It is the area over which the power is extracted from the incident wave
and delivered to the load is called effective aperture. Scattering aperture(As.) It is the ratio of the
reradiated power to the power density of the incident wave. Loss aperture. (Ae). It is the area of
the antenna which dissipates power as heat. Collecting aperture. (Ae). It is the addition of above
three apertures. Physical aperture. (Ap). This aperture is a measure of the physical size of the
antenna.
21). Define Aperture efficiency?
The ratio of the effective aperture to the physical aperture is the aperture efficiency. i.e Aperture
efficiency = ap = Ae / Ap (dimensionless).
22) What is meant by effective height?
The effective height h of an antenna is the parameter related to the aperture. It may be defined as
the ratio of the induced voltage to the incident field. i.e H= V / E.
23) What is meant by Polarization?
The polarization of the radio wave can be defined by direction in which the electric vector E is
aligned during the passage of at least one full cycle. Also polarization can also be defined the
physical orientation of the radiated electromagnetic waves in space. The polarization are three
types. They are Elliptical polarization , circular polarization and linear polarization.
24) What is meant by front to back ratio?
It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated in desired direction to the power radiated in the
opposite direction. i.e FBR = Power radiated in desired direction / power radiated in the opposite
direction.
25) Define antenna efficiency
The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio of power radiated to the total input power
supplied to the antenna. Antenna efficiency = Power radiated / Total input power
26) What is meant by isotropic radiator?
A isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is defined as a radiator which radiates fields
uniformly in all directions. It is also called as isotropic source or omni directional radiator or
simply unipole.

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27) Define self impedance.

Self impedance of an antenna is defined as its input impedance with all other antennas are
completely removed i.e away from it.
28) Define mutual impedance.
The presence of near by antenna no.2 induces a current in the antenna no.1 indicates that
presence of antenna no.2 changes the impedance of the antenna no.1.This effect is called mutual
coupling and results in mutual impedance.
29) Define retardation time.
It is the time required for the wave to propagate over the distance r. It is
given by r/c where c is 3*10 8 m/s.
30) What is the radiation resistance of a current element whose overall length is /50.
Radiation resistance Rr = 80 p ( L / ) ohms
Given L = /50.
Ans = 0.316 ohms
31) Calculate the physical height of a halfwave dipole (/2) having antenna Q of 30 and
bandwidth of 10 MHz.
f = Q. BW
= c / f ; ans: 0.5 m
31) Calculate the bandwidth of a 50 cm long half wave diploe having a Q of 15.
Bandwidth = f / Q;
Height of a half wave dipole (/2) = 50 cm. f = C/
ans : 20 MHz.

32). What is the Special feature of folded dipole antennas?

Folded dipole has got a versatile quality of providing any desired input impedance by increasing
the number of elements and selecting suitable lengths of dipole.
33). What are the Advantages of folded dipole? AN.U.2003
The radiation pattern of a folded dipole and a conventional half wave is same but the input
impedance of the folded dipole is higher. It has low directivity and
bandwidth than simple dipole.
34). What is Application of folded dipole?
Folded dipole is used as a driven element in yagi-uda antenna. It has built in impedance
transforming properties, which makes it easier to match a transmission line that feeds the
antenna.
35). Compare half wave dipole & folded dipole? AN.U.2005
s.no Half wave dipole vs Folded dipole
1. Directivity is unidirectional Directivity is bi-directional, but because of the distribution of
currents in the parts of folded dipole, the input impendence is
higher.
2 Broadness in bandwidth is less than folded dipole Used as impedance matching
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devices. Broadness in bandwidth .

36). Define radiation efficiency
Radiation efficiency=Max power gain/directivity

UNIT II
WIRE ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA ARRAYS
1. What is a Short Dipole?
A short dipole is one in which the field is oscillating because of the oscillating voltage and
current. It is called so, because the length of the dipole is short and the current is almost constant
throughout the entire length of the dipole. It is also called as Hertzian Dipole, which is a
hypothetical antenna and is defined as a short isolated conductor carrying uniform alternating
current.
2. How radiations are created from a short Dipole?
The dipole has two equal charges of opposite sign oscillating up and down in a harmonic motion.
The charges will move towards each other and electric filed lines were created. When the
charges meet at the midpoint, the field lines cut each other and new field are created. This
process is spontaneous and so more fields are created around the antenna. This is how radiations
are obtained from a short dipole.(See Figure from John. D .Kraus Book)
3. Why a short dipole is also called an elemental dipole?
A short dipole that does have a uniform current will be known as the elemental dipole. Such a
dipole will generally be considerably shorter than the tenth wavelength maximum specified for a
short dipole. Elemental dipole is also called as elementary dipole, elementary doublet and
hertzian dipole.
4. What is a Infinitesimal Dipole?
When the length of the short dipole is vanishing small, then such a dipole is called a infinitesimal
dipole. If dl be the infinitesimally small length and I be the current, then Idl is called as the
current element.
5. Why a short dipole is called a oscillating dipole?
A short dipole is initially in neutral condition and the moment a current starts to flow in one
direction, one half of the dipole require an excess of charge and the other a deficit because a
current is a flow of electrical charge. Then ,there will be a voltage between the two halves of the
dipole. When the current changes its direction this charge unbalance will cause oscillations.
Hence an oscillating current will result in an oscillating voltage. Since, in such dipole, electric
charge oscillates ,it may be called as Oscillating electric dipole.
6. At what distance from the dipole is the induction field equal to the radiation field?
As the distance from the current element or the short dipole increases, both induction and
radiation fields emerge and start decreasing. However, a distance reaches from the conductor at
which both the induction and radiation field becomes equal and the particular distance depends
upon the wavelength. The two fields will thus have equal amplitude at that particular distance.
This distance is given by r = 0.159l
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7. What is a dipole antenna?

A dipole antenna may be defined as a symmetrical antenna in which the two ends are at equal
potential relative to the midpoint.
8. What is a half wave dipole?
A half wave antenna is the fundamental radio antenna of metal rod or tubing or thin wire which
has a physical length of half wavelength in free space at the frequency of operation.
9. What is the radiation resistance of a half wave dipole
The radiation resistance of a half wave dipole is given by Rr=73 ohm
10. What is a loop antenna?
A loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross-section of one or more turns carrying
radio frequency current. It may assume any shape (e.g. rectangular, square, triangular and
hexagonal)
10. What are Electrically Small loop antennas?
Electrically Small loop antennas is one in which the overall length of the loop is less than onetenth of the wavelength. Electrically Small loop antennas have small radiation resistances that
are usually smaller than their loop resistances. They are very poor radiators and seldom
employed for transmission in radio communication.
11. What are Electrically large loop antennas?
Electrically Large loop antennas is one in which the overall length of the loop approaches the
wavelength.
12. What is capacitance hat?
The capacitance hat is circular in shape with mast at the center of the circle. There are number of
horizontal conducting wires with their ends joined together by means of a ring. The capacitance
hat is used to increase the electrical length of low frequency antennas.
13. Define top loading
Top loading is a method to increase the effective capacitance at the top of the antenna. This is
accomplished by mounting one or more horizontal conductors at the top of the antenna.
14) What is a Loop antenna? AN.U.2003
The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross section of one or more turns,
carrying radio frequency current. It may assume any shape likes rectangular, square, triangular,
hexagonal and circular loop, most popular out of these are square and circle.
15).What are the Applications of loop antenna?
1.They are seldom employed for transmission in radio communicating they
are used in such application; it is usually in receiving mode where antenna
efficiency is not important
2.They also use it for finding the direction.
16. What is meant by Broadband antenna?

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Antenna which maintain certain required characteristics like gain, front to back ratio, SWR,
polarization, input impedance and radiation pattern over wide range of frequencies are called
wide band or broad band antenna. EG: Logperiodic
17.What is the Special feature of folded dipole antennas?
Folded dipole has got a versatile quality of providing any desired input impedance by increasing
the number of elements and selecting suitable lengths of dipole.
18) What are the Advantages of folded dipole? AN.U.2003
The radiation pattern of a folded dipole and a conventional half wave is same but the input
impedance of the folded dipole is higher. It has low directivity and bandwidth than simple
dipole.
19.. What is Application of folded dipole?
Folded dipole is used as a driven element in yagi-uda antenna. It has built in impedance
transforming properties, which makes it easier to match a transmission line that feeds the
antenna.
20. What is meant by array.?
An antenna is a system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity in a
desired direction.
21. What is meant by uniform linear array.?
An array is linear when the elements of the array are spaced equally along the straight line. If the
elements are fed with currents of equal magnitude and having a uniform progressive phase shift
along the line, then it is called uniform linear array .
22. What is Broad side array?
Broad side array is defined as an arrangement in which the principal direction of radiation is
perpendicular to the array axis and also the plane containing the array element. For Broad side
array the phase difference adjacent element is d = 0.
23. What is the principle of pattern multiplication?
In case of isotropic antenna arrays the total field of the antenna array is simply the vector sum
of those of individual radiating sources. In case of non isotropic, but similar sources I s the
multiplication of the individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point
sources, each located at the phase centre of individual sources and having relative amplitude and
phase. Whereas the total phase pattern is the addition of the phase patterns of the individual
sources and tat of the array of isotropic point sources
23. What is an array factor?
It is apparent that the total field of an array is equal to equal field of a single element positioned
at the origin multiplied by a factor which is widely referred as array factor.
24. What are the disadvantages of binomial arrays?
1. As HPBW increases and hence directivity decreases.
2. For design of a large array, larger amp ratio of sources is required.
25. What is the disadvantage of a binomial array?

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A major practical disadvantage of binomial array is the wide variations between the amplitudes
of the different elements of an array, especially for an array with a large no of elements. This
leads to very low efficiencies, and makes this method not very desirable in practice.
26. What is a binomial array?
The coefficients of binomial expansion represent relative amplitudes of the elements. Since the
coefficients are determined from the binomial series,expansion the array is known as binomial
array.
27. What are the types of antenna arrays?
1.Broad side array
2.End fire array
3.Collinear array
4.Parasitic array
28. Define the length of an array .
The length of an array is the length measured along the axis of the array from the first element to
the last element.
29. What is array factor or space factor?
The factor by which the antenna array increases the field strength over that of a single element
radiating the same total power is called array factor or space factor.
30. Define antenna array. AN.U.2003
Antenna array is an arrangement of several individual antennas so spaced and phased that their
individual electric field contributions combine in one preferred direction and cancel in all other
directions to get greater directivity.
31. How to convert broad side array radiation pattern into unidirectional?
AN.U.2004
Bidirectional pattern of a broad side array can be converted into unidirectional by installing an
indentical array behind this array at a distance /4 and exciting it by current leading in phase by
90*.
32. What are the applications of arrays? AN.U.2005
Because of their physical size, their use is generally limited to HF bands and higher but they are
used in LF bands for point to point communications. They are also used in overseas broadcasting
stations in MF and HF bands for repeated broad casting to some distant area.
33.Give the formula for beam width between first nulls(BWFN) of a broad side array.
BWFN=115/(L/)
L=length of array =wavelength
34.Give the formula for BWFN of an end-fire array.
BWFN=115/v(L/)
35.Give the formula for half power beam width of a broad side array.
BWFN=51/(L/)
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L=length of array =wavelength.

36.Give the formula for HPBW of an end-fire array.
HPBW=52/v(L/)
37..Give the formula for calculating directive gain of broad side array.
Directive gain=2L/(when the elements along with axis parallel to array axis)
Directive gain=4L/(when the elements at right angles to array axis)
38.What is the formula for directive gain when the elements right angels to array axis?
Directive gain=4L/
39.. What is a collinear array? AN.U.2004
In this array the antennas are arranged co-axially and the elements are fed with equal inphase
currents. The radiation pattern of a collinear array has circularly symmetry with its main lobe
every where perpendicular to the principle axis.
40. When will be the gain of the collinear array be maximum?
When the spacing between elements is of the order of 0.3 to 0.5.
41. What is broadside array?
The simplest array consist of a number of dipoles of equal size,equally spaced along a straight
line with the dipole fed in the same phase from the same sources. Such an arrangement is called
broad side array.
42.What is an end-fire array?
In the end-fire array each element is fed with same magnitude but different phase and this phase
is progressive from left to right.

43.What is the direction of maximum radiation is maximum only in one direction that is in
the direction of array axis.
(180 & 360 (or) 0 degree)
44 .What are the characteristics of an end-fire array and broad side array?
1.linear 2.Resonant 3.Narrow bandwidth
45.What is a collinear array? AN.U.2004
In this array the antennas are arranged co-axially and the elements are fed with equal inphase
currents. The radiation pattern of a collinear array has circularly symmetry with its main lobe
every where perpendicular to the principle axis.
46. When will be the gain of the collinear array be maximum?
When the spacing between elements is of the order of 0.3 to 0.5.
47. What are stacked arrays?

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When a number of BSAs of linear types, are arranged (stacked) one above the other, a
rectangular stack is formed. The directivity is given by
4phl 12.56* area of aperture
48. Define HPBW.
HPBW is the angular width measured on the major lobe of radiation pattern between points
where the radiated power has fallen to half on its maximum value. It is otherwise called as 3 db
beamwidth.

UNIT-3
APERTURE ANTENNAS
1). What are the Application of paraboloidal or parabolic reflector?
Parabolic reflector is used mainly for point to point microwave communication
system.
2). What are the Various types of feeds used for parabolic reflector.
1.end fire array feed.
2.horn antenna as feed
3.cassegrain feed
3). What are the types of horn antenna?
1 .E-plane antenna
2.H-plane antenna
3.Pyramidal antenna.
4.Sectoral horn.
5.Conical horn.
6.Biconical horn.
4). What are the Advantages & disadvantages of cassegrain feed?
Adv:Reduction in spill over & minor lobe radiation
Ability to place the feed in a convenient lacation.
Capability for scanning or broadening of the beam by moving one of the
reflecting surface.
Disadv: 1.Some of the reflected wave is obstructed problematic Especially with small dimension.
2.Dimension of the secondary reflector depends on the distancee beween the horn feed & sub
reflector, mouth of the horn inturn on frequency. This can be avoided by using an offset
reflector.
5). What is primary & secondary radiator?
The antenna placed at the focus of a paraboloid is called feed radiator or feed or primary radiator
& its radiation is called primary pattern..The paraboloid reflector is known as secondary radiator
& pattern as secondary pattern or antenna pattern.

6). What are the cassegrain feed mechanism?

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In this feed system, primary radiator is put at the opening of vertex of paraboloid reflector B. the
secondary feed of the cssegrain system is a hyperboloid reflector whose focus F coincides with
focus of the paraboiloid reflector .
7) State Huygen's Principle?
Huygen's principle states that each point on a primary wave front can be considered to be a new
source of a secondary spherical wave that a secondary wave front can be constructed as the
envelope of these secondary waves.
8). What is Slot Antenna?
The slot antenna is an opening cut in a sheet of a conductor, which is energized through a coaxial
cable or wave guide.
9) Which antenna is complementary to the slot dipole?
The dipole antenna is the complementary to the slot antenna. The metal and air regions of the
slot are interchanged for the dipole.
10) Define lens antenna?
An antenna, which collimates the incident divergent energy to prevent it from spreading in
undesired directions, is called as lens antenna.
11) What is a dielectric lens antenna?
Dielectric lens antennas are the antennas in which the traveling wave fronts are delayed by lens
media.
12) What is biconical antenna?
The biconical antenna is a double cone antenna which is driven by potential , charge or an
alternating magnetic field at the vertex. In this antenna both the cones face in the opposite
direction.
13). What are the advantages of lens antenna?
i. the lens antenna, feed and feed support do not block the aperture as the rays are transmitted
away from the feed ii. It has greater design tolerance iii. It can be used to feed the optical axis
and hence useful in applications where a beam is required to be moved angularly with respect to
the axis.
14). How spherical waves are generated?
When a voltage V is supplied at the input terminals of a biconical antenna, it will produce
outgoing spherical waves. The biconical antenna acts as a guide for spherical waves.
15) What do you meant by pyramidal horn?
If flaring is done along both the walls( E & H), then it is called as a pyramidal horn.
16). What is back lobe radiation?
Some radiation from the primary radiator occurs in the forward direction in addition to the
desired parallel beam. This is known as back lobe radiation.
17). Define refractive index of lens antenna?
Refractive index, m = (Velocity of wave in air)/(velocity of wave in lens medium)
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18). What are secondary antennas? Give examples?

Antennas that are not radiators by themselves are called secondary antennas. For example
Cassergrain, Hyperbolic antennas.

UNIT-1V
SPECIAL ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS

1).What is a normal mode of helix antenna?

Used as impedance matching devices. Broadness in bandwidth Radiation field is maximum in
the direction normal to the helix axis & wave is nearly or exactly circularly polarized wave .
Mode is said to be normal if the dimensions of helix is small compared with the wavelength.
2). What is a axial mode of helix antenna?
Radiation field is maximum in the end fire direction.(ie) along the helix axis & polarization is
circular or nearly circular.
3). How bandwidth & efficiency is increased? AN.U.2005
Efficiency is increased by increasing the dimension & current feed in phase with helix axis.
Bandwidth is increased by providing phase shifter at regular intervals.
4).How the axial mode is improved?
When the helix circumference D & spacing S of order of one wavelegth. Axial mode of radiation
is produced by raising helix circunference (c/) of order of one wavelength & spacing is
approximately of /a.
5).Define radiation efficiency
Radiation efficiency=Max power gain/directivity
6).What is the error introduced in direction finding of loop antenna?
Antenna or Vertical effect
Night effect or Aeroplane effect or polarization error.
7). What is the radiation resistance of multi turn loop antenna? & how it
change the o/p power?
Rr = 31,200 (NA/ 2 )2
N= number of turns , = wavelength, A=effective area.
8). What is the general effect of earth on antennas?
Effect of earth modifies the following:
1.Currents flowing in reflecting surface.
2.Radiation pattern.
9. What is Adcock antenna? & how it eliminates the effects of loop antenna?
AN.U.2003
It consists of 2 spaced vertical antenna.In vertical polarization the action is same as loop
antenna. The horizontally polarized down coming sky waves have no effect on this antenna due
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to its circuit arrangement. If the horizontal wires are placed inside a metal tube shielded from the
radio waves, this antenna system becomes insensitive to horizontally polarize down coming sky
waves & thus it is free from polarization effect.
10). What is biconical antenna?
The biconical antenna is a double cone antenna which is driven by potential,charge or an
alternating magnetic field at the vertex. In this antenna , both the cones face in opposite direction
11). What is backlobe radiation?
Some radiation from the primary radiator occur in the forward direction in addition to the desired
parallel beam. This is known as backlobe radiation.
12). Define spill over.
Some of the desired rays are not captured by the reflector antenna and this
constitute spill over.
13). How spherical waves are generated?
When a voltage V is applied at the input terminals of a biconical antenna. It will produce
outgoing spherical waves . the biconical antenna acts as a guide for the spherical waves.
14). What is the difference between slot antenna and its complementry
dipole antenna?
1) Polarization are different ie., the electric fields associated with the slot antenna are identical
with the magnetic field of the complementary dipole antenna.
2) The electric field be vertically polarized for the slot and horizontally polarized for the dipole.
3) Radiation from the back side of the conducting plane of the slot antenna has the opposite
polarity from that of the complementary antenna.
15). State hygenes principle.
Hygenes principle states that each point ona primary wave front can be considered to be a new
source of asecondary spherical wave and tbat a secondary wave front can be constructed as the
envelop this secondary waves.
16). What is yagi uda antenna?
It is an array of a driven element, a reflector and one or more directors.
17). What do u meant by parasitic elements?
The passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission line but are
electrically coupled are called as parasitic elements.
18). What do you meant by driven elements?
Driven element is an active element where the power from the transmitter is fed or which feeds
the received power to the receiver.
19). What is the purpose of using more directors in yagi uda antenna?
The purpose of using more directors in yagi uda antenna is to increase the gain.
20). Why folded dipole antenna is used in yagi uda antenna?

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The folded dipole has high input impedance.If the distance between the driven and the parasitic
element is decreased, it will load the driven element , so input
impedance of driven element reduces.But this will be compensated i.e., raised by the folded
dipole.
21). What is beam antenna?
If three elements array i.e., one reflector,one driven element and one director are used, then such
type of yagi uda antenna is referred to as beam antenna.
22). Write short notes on horn antenna.
A wave guide is capable of radiating radiation into open space provided the same is excited at
one end and opened at the other end.This type of antenna is called flared out or opened out
waveguide.
23). What are the uses of horn antenna?
a) They are used at microwave frequencies. b) Power gain is high.
24). What is aperture?
In parabolic reflectors,the open mouth of the parabola is known as the aperture.
25). What is a Loop antenna? AN.U.2003
The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross section of one or more turns,
carrying radio frequency current. It may assume any shape likes rectangular, square, triangular,
hexagonal and circular loop, most popular out of these are square and circle.
26). What are the Applications of loop antenna?
1.They are seldom employed for transmission in radio communicating they are used in such
application; it is usually in receiving mode where antenna efficiency is not important
2.They also use it for finding the direction.
27). What is meant by Broadband antenna?
Antenna which maintain certain required characteristics like gain,front to back ratio, SWR,
polarization, input impedance and radiation pattern over wide range of frequencies are called
wide band or broad band antenna. EG:Log-periodic
28). What are the disadvantages of loop antenna?
Only suitable for LF & MF except for a very small distance. Transmission efficiency is poor
& hence cannot be used for UHF unless design is changed.
Spurious induced voltages are produced, if nearby loop, wires &conductors are present.
It is subjected to antenna effect & night effect, which are minimized by balancing & using
Adcock antenna for direction finding.
29). What is a normal mode of helix antenna?
Radiation field is maximum in the direction normal to the helix axis & wave is nearly or exactly
circularly polarized wave . Mode is said to be normal if the
dimensions of helix is small compared with the wavelength.
30). What is a axial mode of helix antenna?

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Radiation field is maximum in the end fire direction.(ie) along the helix axis & polarization is
circular or nearly circular.
31). How bandwidth & efficiency is increased? AN.U.2005
Efficiency is increased by increasing the dimension & current feed in phase with helix axis.
Bandwidth is increased by providing phase shifter at regular intervals.
32). How the axial mode is improved?
When the helix circumference D & spacing S of order of one wavelegth. Axial mode of
radiation is produced by raising helix circunference (c/) of order of one wavelength & spacing
is approximately of /a.
33). What are the Advantages &disadvantages of rhombic antenna?
Adv:
1. An end to end receiving array of a number of rhombics can be designed to form a multi unit
steer able antenna (MUSA) system which is used for long distance short-wave reception of
horizontal polarized down coming waves
2. The input impedance & radiation pattern do not change over a considerable frequencies range
as compared to resonant dipole.
3. Highly directional
4. Vertical angle of radiation is low & hence these are suitable for long distance ionosphere
propagation (F layer).
Disadv: large space for installation. Half the power is wasted in the terminal resistors.
Transmission efficiency is poor. (Lager number of Minor lobes) It is
overcome by using one or more rhombics antenna
34). What are the types of horn antenna?
1.E-plane antenna
2.H-plane antenna
3.Pyramidal antenna.
35). What are the Applications of rhombic antenna?
1.HF transmission
2.HF reception
3.Point to point communication
36). What are the Disadvantages of limiting factor of traveling wave antenna?
The limiting factor of traveling wave antenna is the misalignment of the lobes that takes place as
the frequency is changed.
37) What are the Advantages of traveling wave antenna?
Traveling wave antennas input impedance is mostly resistive and relatively
independent of frequency. Thus these antennas can operate over fairly broad frequency band.
38). What are the Type of long wire antenna?
1.Horizontal V 2.Horizontal rhombic 3.Vertical V 4.Vertical rhombic
5.Vertical inverted V 6.Half rhombic 7.Single horizontal wire
39). What are the Applications of log-periodic antenna ?
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1.used mainly in HF communications

2.used for television reception where only one log-periodic design will suffice for all the
channels even upto UHF band.
40). What is the Applications of yagi-uda antenna?
1. High frequency communications
2. Television reception
41). What is an Log-periodic antenna?
Log-periodic antenna is a broadband antenna. It has a number of dipoles of different lengths.
The performance of the system is periodic as a function of
frequency that results the name. It is also known as frequency independent
antenna.
42). What is meant by Frequency independent antennas?
A frequency independent antenna is defined as the antenna for which the
impedance pattern and directivity remains constant as function of frequency.

43). What are the three different regions in log periodic antenna and how they are
differenciated?
1) In active region-L < (/2)
2) Active region -L = (/2)
3) In active reflective region L > (/2)
44). What are the Advantages of V antenna?
1.Its directivity is high
2.Side lobe level is small
45). What are the Advantages of traveling wave antenna?
Traveling wave antennas input impedance is mostly resistive and relatively independent of
frequency. Thus these antennas can operate over fairly broad frequency band.
46). What are the Disadvantages of limiting factor of traveling wave antenna?
The limiting factor of traveling wave antenna is the misalignment of the lobes that takes place as
the frequency is changed.
47). What are the Applications of rhombic antenna
1.HF transmission
2.HF reception
48). What do you meant by antenna measurements?
The process of analyzing and calculating all the charecteristics of the antenna.
49. What are the classifications of antenna measurements?
1.Impedance measurement
2.Pattern measurement

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50. Define Impedance measurement.

Impedance measurements are done only for the signals whose radio
frequencies are below 30 MHZ & above 1000 MHZ.
51). What is Phase measurement?
The phase of an antenna is a relative quantity & is periodically defined in multiples of 360
degree.The phase for the shortest distance can be easily determined.
52). What is antenna efficiency measurement?
Antenna efficiency measurement is defined as the ratio of directivity(D) to the aperture area(A)
& they are named as antenna radiation efficiency or antenna aperture efficiency.
53). What is polarization ratio?
The ratio of maximum to minimum field intensity is called as polarization ratio or ellipticity.
54) What are the types of fields in antenna measurements?
1.Near Field.
2.Far Field.
55). Define Near Field.
When the antenna is placed in a particular location then the field gets
radiated due to the input power received from the transmitter antenna within the
limit then it is called as near field.
56.Define directivity Measurement.
The ratio of maximum radiation intensity to the particular radiation intensity.
57. Define Far Field.
When the antenna is placed in a particular location then the field gets radiated due to the input
power received from the transmitter antenna beyond the limit then it is called as FAR field.
58. Define Polarization measurement.
The polarization of electromagnetic field may be measured at one frequency as tha function of
the space angles i.e. polarangle & azimuth angle angle at one angular position as a function of
frequency. Measurement of polarization characteristics are specially desired where the dominant
radiation is circularly or elliptically polarized.

UNIT-V
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
1. Define ground wave and its properties.
The ground wave or surface wave or Nortons surface wave is the wave that is guided along the
surface of the earth. It is of importance at the broadcast of lower frequencies. Surface wave
permits the propagation around the curvature of the earth.
2. What are the conditions for the existence of ground wave propagation?
Ground wave propagation exist when the transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the
surface of earth and are supported at its lower edge by the presence of
earth.
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3. How the ground waves are produced?

Vertical antennas usually produce the ground waves and it is vertically polarised. Any
horizontal component of electric field in contact with the earth is
short circuited by the earth. The ground wave propagation along the surface of the wave, induce
charges in the earth, which travel with the wave and hence constitute a current. While carrying
this current, the earth behaves just like a leaky capacitor and therefore the earth can be
represented as a shunt resistance with a capacitor.
4. What are the reasons for ground attenuation?
1.Diffraction
2.Tlit in the wave front.
5. What are sky waves?
Sky waves are those that reach the receiving point after reflection from the ionised region in the
upper region known as ionosphere-situated between 50Km to 400Km above the earths surface.
Sky wave propagation is practically important at medium and higher frequencies.
6. Define space wave propagation.
In this mode of propagation, the electro magnetic waves from the transmitting antenna reach
the receiving point either directly or after reflections from ground in the earths troposphere
region. Troposphere is that region of the atmosphere, which extends up to 16Km from the earths
surface. Space waves consist of 2 components, the direct and the reflected one.
7. What are the various layers of ionosphere?
1.D layer (vanishes during night)
2.E layer.
3.F1 and F2
(these layers combine together as a single layer, F during night)
8. Describe D region of ionosphere.
It is the lower most region and is located in the height range of 50-90 Km.
This layer is present only during daytime and vanishes during night.
It is ionised by photo- ionisation NO (Nitrogen oxide), which prevails in that
height.
Ionisation density is maximum at noon and its electron density is ranging from 10 14 to 1016 per
cubic centimetre.
Its critical frequency is about 100KHz.
It is also known as absorbing layer for short wave signals.
9. Why the D region vanishes during night?
D region vanishes during night because at night, the recombination rate is highest. This is due to
the fact that the degree of ionisation depends on the altitude of the sun and on sunset the
recombination increases resulting in vanishing of the region all together.
10. What is sporadic E-region?
Sporadic E layer is an anomalous ionisation layer, whose presence is unpredictable .It may
appear anywhere in the height range of 90Km to 130Km with normal E layer. Occurrence of
this layer increases with geomagnetic latitude.
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11. Define virtual height.

Virtual height is defined as the height that would be reached by a short pulse of energy showing
the same delay, as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer but travelling with the velocity
of light. Since the interchange of energy takes place between the wave and the electrons of the
ionosphere, the velocity of propagation is reduced. Hence the virtual height is always less than
the true height of reflection
12. What are the factors that determine the absorption of energy by electrons from radio
waves in ionosphere?
1.Gec pressure.
2.Velocity of the electrons.
3.Number of electrons.
13. Define skip distance.
The skip distance is defined as the minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky
wave of given frequency will be returned to earth by the ionosphere.
14. Define MUF.
MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency) is the frequency, which makes a given receiving point
correspond to a distance from a transmitter equal to the skip distance for that frequency. The
maximum possible frequency for which reflection takes place for a given distance of propagation
is known as MUF.
MUF= f / Cos
where, is the angle of incidence.
15. What are the types of fading in ionosphere?
1.Interference fading.
2.Selective fading.
3.Absorption fading.
4.Skip fading.
5.Polarisation fading.
16. Define gyro-frequency.
The average velocity of electrons is inversely proportional to frequency, hence at higher
frequencies, the electrons vibrate in paths that are narrow ellipses but as the frequency is lowered
the amplitude of vibration increases and the minor axis of the ellipse becomes larger. This
continues until a frequency is lowered to a point where the cyclotron resonance occurs and he
electrons follow a spiral path and the velocity increases. This cyclotron resonance occurs at a
frequency known as gyro frequency,1400 KHz (approx).
17. What are the disadvantages of diversity reception system?
1.The audio output will have a slight phase difference when compared to
systems.
2.The diversity reception is restricted in voice communication.

other receiving

18.. Define OTF or OWF (Optimum Working Frequency)

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OTF-Optimum traffic frequency is the frequency used for ionospheric transmission .It is chosen
about 1.5% less than MUF.
19. What is duct propagation?
When the frequency is high, the region where the variation of dielectric constant or
refractive index is usually high, traps the energy and causes it to travel along the earths surface
as happens in a wave guide. This happens near the ground often within the 50 m of the
troposphere. The higher frequencies or microwaves are thus continually refracted in the duct and
reflected by the ground so that they propagate around the curvature for beyond the line of sight,
even up to 1000Km.This special refraction of EM waves is called super refraction and the
process is known as duct propagation.
20.What is fading?
Intensity variation with time is defined as fading. The space wave signals received at a
considerable distance from a transmitter will often fade. This is due to changing tropospheric
conditions.
21. Name some ionospheric abnormalities.
1.Ionospheric storms.
2.Sun spot cycle.
3.Tides and waves in ionosphere.
4.Fadings.
5.Sudden ionospheric disturbances(SID)
22. Calculate the basic transmission loss in free space for d=10 km =20000.
Ls= (4d)/ = 39.44
23. A pulse of a given frequency transmitted upward is received back after a
period of 5ms. Find the virtual height of the reflecting layer.
h=CT/2= 750km
24. Define Tropospheric wave.
Waves that arrive at the receiver after reflection from the troposphere region is called
Tropospheric wave.(ie 10 Km from Earth surface).
25. Define Ground wave.
Waves propagated over other paths near the earth surface is called ground wave propagation
26. What is meant by Space Wave?
It is made up of direct wave and ground reflected wave. Also includes the portion of energy
received as a result of diffraction around the earth surface and the reflection from the upper
atmosphere.
26. What is meant by Surface Wave?
Wave that is guided along the earth' s surface like an EM wave is guided by a transmission is
called surface wave. Attenuation of this wave is directly affected by the constant of earth along
which it travels.
27. What is meant by fading?
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Variation of signal strength occur on line of sight paths as a result of the atmospheric conditions
and it is called .It can not be predicted properly.
28. Define LUHF.
The lowest useful HF for a given distance and transmitter power is defined as the lowest
frequency that will give satisfactory reception for that distance and power. It depends on i. The
effective radiated power ii. Absorption character of ionosphere for the paths between transmitter
and receiver. iii. The required field strength which in turn depends upon the radio noise at the
receiving location and type of service involved .
29. Define gyro frequency.
Frequency whose period is equal to the period of an electron in its orbit under the influence of
the earths magnetic flux density B.
30. Define Space diversity Reception.
This method exploits the fact that signals received at different locations do not fade together. It
requires antenna spaced at least 100 l apart are referred and the antenna which high signal
strength at the moment dominates.
31. Define frequency diversity Reception.
This method takes advantage of the fact that signals of slightly different frequencies do not fade
synchronously. This fact is utilized to minimize fading in radio telegraph circuits.
32. Define polarization diversity reception.
It is used in normally in microwave links, and it is found that signal transmitted over the same
path in two polarizations have independent fading patterns. In broad band dish antenna system,
Polarization diversity combined with frequency diversity reception achieve excellent results.
33. What is meant by Faraday s rotation?
Due to the earth' s magnetic fields, the ionosphere medium becomes anisotropic and the incident
plane wave entering the ionosphere will split into ordinary and extra ordinary waves/modes.
When these modes re-emerge from the ionosphere they recombine into a single plane wave
again. Finally the plane of polarization will usually have changed, this phenomenon is known as
Faraday s rotation.

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