Heart

muscular myocardium →lined with epithelial endocardium & covered by external pericardium (connective & epithelial tissues)

Atria separated from ventricles by atrioventricular valves (these supported by attachments to ventricles: chordate tendinae)
- right side has 3 flaps → tricuspid valve
- left side has 2 flaps → bicuspid valve

systemic
VC
body
A pulmonary
RA
LA
blood flow RV
LV PV
PA lungs
circuit
w/i heart circuit

exits from the ventricles regulated by semi-lunar valves

**GENERAL HEART DIAGRAM, HANDOUT HEART DIAGRAM, VESSELS HANDOUT

Blood Vessels
1. Arteries
carry blood away from heart; several tissue layers to make up an artery:
-Endothelium – inner epithelial layer that lines the inside of the vessel (smooth muscle = smooth continuous blood flow)
-Smooth Muscle – arteries are wrapped by smooth muscle, which can contract to make the vessel narrower
-Outer Connective Tissue Layer – the muscular middle layer of tissue contains elastic connective tissue. This
allows arteries to stretch in order to control the large pressure created by the output of the heart. The smooth muscle
can contract to reduce the size of the vessel due to lower pressures

contraction of muscle → vessel diameter is reduced (constriction)

vasoconstriction

relaxation of muscle → vessel diameter is increased (dilation)

vasodilation

↑ dilation → ↓ blood pressure

Arterioles – small arteries with less muscle that conducts blood from arteries to capillary beds

2. Veins
Return blood to the heart. Walls of the veins not as strong as those of arteries due to middle layer not being as developed.
Blood in veins is at much lower pressure than in arteries so vein walls don’t have to change to compensate for blood pressure
changes. Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
~ ½ blood in body is contained in venous system. During blood loss, muscle surrounding veins contract to force blood
from low pressure venous system over to high pressure arterial system. This is venoconstriction & is under involuntary control.

Venules – small veins that conduct blood from capillary beds to larger veins

3. Capillaries
Small vessels connecting arteries to veins. They are simple, squamous epithelium wrapped into a tube (1 cell layer thick)
called an endothelium. O2 & nutrients (glucose, amino acids, etc) can diffuse from blood, across endothelium, into cells of body
tissues, eg. muscles. CO2 & waste products, eg. ammonia, diffuse from body’s cells into blood. Networks of capillaries (capillary
beds) are found in all tissues of body. Entrance to capillary beds can be regulated by contraction or relaxation of sphincter muscles
(circular smooth muscle) in arterioles that feed blood to capillary beds. This allows us to regulate blood flow to different tissues.
Blood entering capillaries is under high pressure due to force of heart contraction. The pressure forces fluid containing
dissolved O2 & nutrients into serosal tissues (body cells). This fluid mixes with fluid surrounding cells (interstitial fluid) → O2 &
nutrients can diffuse into cells where they are needed. At same time CO2 & waste products diffuse from cells into interstitial fluid.
Some interstitial fluid is drawn back into blood due to osmosis.

↑ # open capillary beds → ↓ blood pressure

pressure = force/area in the case of blood pressure it is the force of a volume

of blood on the walls of the vessel that contains it

blood pressure is a function of 1. the volume of blood

2. the speed it travels
3. the diameter of the blood vessel

Arteriole Venule
blood pressure 50-60 mm Hg 15-20 mm Hg
osmotic pressure 35 mm Hg 35 mm Hg

**BLOOD FLOW DIAGRAM

Osmotic pressure – established b/c of proteins, particularly albumin, which cannot cross capillary walls. They’re too big so they
remain behind & as a result a concentration gradient is established. This leads to osmotic pressure of ~ 35 mm Hg, drawing water
(& dissolved substances) into blood.

b.p. > osmotic pressure fluid flows out of blood

b.p. < osmotic pressure fluid flows into the blood

Blood flows to capillaries b/c contraction of heart forces blood, under high pressure, into arteries. Arteries are elastic, due to very
muscular walls. As stretched arteries shrink back to normal size, blood is pushed forward to lower pressure vessels
Arterial system is high pressure

Blood flows back to heart (from capillaries) in veins. There’s virtually no effect of heart beat on blood flow in veins. Blood in veins is
squeezed forward by contractions of various body muscles. Valves prevent backflow and pooling of blood.
Venous system is low pressure

Control of Heartbeat
Cardiac muscle cells are excitable cells. Changes in internal [K+] and internal [Na+] can affect the potential difference (voltage)
across the cell membrane.

Sinoatrial (SA) node – ‘pacemaker’

Particularly excitable area of the right atrium; located in wall of right atrium near vena cava. These cells spontaneously depolarize,
sending a ‘wave’ of depolarization over the atria. This causes atria to contract, squeezing blood through A-V valves into ventricles.

Atrioventricular (AV) node – ‘pacemaker’

Near right A-V valve, deeper in atrial muscle. When AV node depolarizes, impulse is sent down specialized cells: purkinje fibres
(located in septum & ventricular muscle). These fibres take the impulse, quickly, to base of ventricles, allowing wave of
depolarization to move from bottom upwards to top of ventricles. This squeezes blood upwards.

**HEARTBEAT FLOWCHART

Blood Pressure
Hypertension → high blood pressure
-Major cause of heart disorders resulting in death in N. America; easily detected by monitoring blood pressure.
-BP normally varied due to body’s response to various stimuli ex. Nervous excitement due to stress. Excitement causes sympathetic

nervous system to stimulate vasoconstriction of blood vessels.

→results in higher blood pressure
→restricts blood flow to kidneys. Response: kidneys secrete hormone renin. This causes Na retention in blood
→ Na+ retention causes water retention (also leads to ↑ b.p.). High Na diet brings about same effect

Arterosclerosis – arteries losing elasticity → ‘hardening of arteries

Atherosclerosis – fatty deposits clogging arteries causing them to become narrower

Systolic pressure – b.p. caused by output of heart during ventricular contraction

12080 mm Hg
Diastolic pressure –residual b.p. b/w heartbeats, affected by elasticity of arteries

Treatments (for high b.p.)

1. life style – exercise & diet, healthy body mass
2. drugs a) sympathetic blocking agents reduce nervous vasoconstriction
b) diveretics – cause increased salt (Na) excretion → loss of water
c) vasodilators – prevent constriction of blood vessels
d) beta-blockers – reduce cardiac output

Fetal Circulation
-Lungs & liver largely non-functional → unnecessary to pump large vol.’s of blood there
-Large volumes of blood need to be pumped through placenta: site of nutrient/waste exchange between fetal & maternal blood
-Blood returning to fetal heart from placenta by-passes liver by flowing through ductus venosus
-Most of the blood entering right atrium from inferior VC directed through opening in the septum, the foramen ovale, into left atrium.

This is oxygenated blood returning from placenta which will be pumped from left side of heart mostly to the head.
-Blood entering right atrium from superior VC is mostly deoxygenated blood from head. This blood is directed into right ventricle &
on into the pulmonary artery. It’s then routed into the ductus arteriosus that shunts the blood into the descending aorta & on to
the placenta (via umbilical cord)
-After birth lungs inflate causing the resistance to blood flow in lungs to drop significantly. At same time the large volume of blood
that had been flowing to placenta must be taken up by the systemic & pulmonary circuit causing increase in aortic pressure & so an

increase in pressure in left atrium & ventricle

-Foramen ovale closes due to flap on left atrial side which is closed due to increase in left atrial pressure combined with decrease in
right atrial pressure, since pulmonary circuit is open (placenta is closed)
-Shortly after birth the ductus arteriosus closes due to contraction of its muscular walls
-Similarly the ductus venosus also closes & so blood flows into liver
-Occasionally closure of foramen ovale isn’t complete; may necessitate open heart surgery to close opening & allow proper cardiac
blood flow

**FETAL HANDOUT

Lymphatic System
System of vessels associating closely with cardiovascular system. Collects fluids from body tissues & returns it to blood stream.

Cells of body’s tissues are surrounded by fluid (interstitial fluid) & are supplied with water that enters from capillaries. Excess
tissue fluid is taken up by lymph capillaries, fluid now referred to as lymph. Lymph also contains lymphocytes (produced in lymph
nodes, which produce antibodies to attack foreign proteins)

Lymph flows into lymph veins, which are similar in construction to blood veins, including valves. As lymph flows through lymph veins
it will pass through lymph nodes. Here lymphocytes are produced & lymph is filtered of damaged cells

Two major ducts collect lymph fluid

-right lymphatic duct drains upper-right body & empties into c-v system via right subclavian vein
-thoracic duct drains the remainder of the body & empties into c-v system via left subclavian vein

Two other structures of the lymphatic system are the spleen and thymus gland

Overall – Roles of the Lymphatic System

a) transport FA’s from S.I. via lacteals to c-v system
b) return fluids from tissues to c-v system
c) fight infections (lymphocytes) & clean lymph

Blood
Blood – liquid connective tissue
Cellular component – 40-45% by volume
-erythrocyte (red cells)
-leukocytes (white cells)
-platelets
Non-cellular matrix – plasma 55-60% vol.
-composed of water, proteins, & other dissolved substances

Blood Functions
a) transport
b) clotting
c) fighting infections

Blood Cells – all originate in bone marrow of the skull, ribs, vertebrae, & ends of long bones
1. Erythrocytes (RBC)
-By end of their development they lose their nuclei & are packed with hemoglobin (Hb). Hb is a complex protein consisting

of 4 polypeptides attached to a central heme group (an iron structure). The iron binds the O2 to be transported by blood.
-Need for O2 regulates production of Hb & so RBC
-Low levels of O2 → ↑ RBC production
-Life span of RBC 80-120 days
-Liver & spleen destroy old RBC, with liver breaking down hemoglobin to recover iron. Spleen stores extra RBC (not
blood)
2. Leukocytes
-Much larger than RBC, however much fewer in blood
-Nucleated cells
-2 main types
a. neutrophils – derived directly from bone marrow; destroy foreign cells, like bacteria, by phagocytic actions
b. lymphocytes – develop in lymphoid tissue (spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils); secrete immunoglobins
(antibodies)
which can inactivate foreign cells
3. Platelets – formed in bone marrow; very small cells; involved in clotting mechanism of blood

Blood Functions
-Transport – O2 by RBC, bonded to Hb (also carried by plasma)
-At lungs Hb + O2 → HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin)
-Reverse reaction, ie HbO2 → Hb+O2 happens in body tissues
-CO2 – is transported away from tissues to lungs
-Most CO2 transported dissolved in plasma as CO2, HCO3-, or H2CO3. Some CO2 can combine with hemoglobin Hb+CO2 → HBCO2
(carbamino hemoglobin)

Blood Proteins
-Small molecules (glucose, urea, salts, etc.) can dissolve in plasma. Larger molecules (fats, hormones, vitamins, etc.) must combine

with ‘transport’ proteins so they can move in blood

ex. cholesterol (lipid) must combine with either high-density lipoprotein (HDL) or low-density lipoprotein (LDL). High levels
of LDL are associated with atherosclerosis
-Blood proteins also important in creating an osmotic pressure in blood to maintain blood volume in order to exert pressure (albumin)

Clotting
When an injury occurs to a blood vessel coagulation of blood occurs in order to prevent substantial blood loss
 1. Damage to vessel causes platelets to clump at damaged site. An enzyme called prothrombin activator is released
2. Prothrombin activator (a blood protein) is converted to thrombin (Ca2+ is needed)
3. Thrombin acts as an enzyme to alter the structure of fibrinogen (another blood protein) into strands of fibrin. Fibrin
forms the framework of the clot. (Ca2+ is needed) (it takes place faster in warm blood)
NB – vitamin K is necessary for the making of prothrombin

Fighting Infections
Leukocytes are the ‘soldiers’ of the blood charged with combating invading infections by bacteria & viruses
Neutrophils → by phagocytosis digestion w/I by enzymes contained w/I lyosomes
Lymphocytes → secrete antibodies which are specific to antigens (proteins or polysaccharides) on the invader
Antibody-antigen rxn → inactivation → (phagocytosis by neutrophil)

Blood Types

-3 genes IA,IB = dominant allele

i = recessive allele
Type AB <5%
Type A 35% Type O 60%
Type B

Possessing the IA allele means cells have A antigens on the cell mem. Having IB means B antigens could be present. Type O has no
antigens. Immune system makes antibodies if wrong antigens introduced → clotting (agglutination b/w antibodies with antigens)

Rh Factor
An antigen that could be present on erythrocyte (RBC) membranes.
Rh+ dominant
Rh- recessive (antigen is absent)

Concern: Rh- woman pregnant with an Rh+ baby

Normally an RH- person does not make antibodies against the Rh factor, but will do so if the antigen is encountered. This can
happen if some of baby’s blood mixes with mother’s blood when placenta degenerates prior to birth – this can have dire
consequences for any subsequent Rh+ babies the woman could have. It results in a condition called haemolytic disease of
newborn (HDN). Antibodies can cross placenta from mother’s blood to baby’s blood & attack baby’s Rh+ RBC’s.

Solution: prevent Rh- mother’s immune system from forming antibodies to the Rh factor.
This is achieved by injecting an Rh immunoglobin (a serum containing Rh antibodies) into mother’s blood shortly before
childbirth. These injected antibodies will attack any Rh+ RBC’s encountered, thus preventing mother’s immune system
from responding. Baby’s blood doesn’t need to be known – nothing will happen if baby is Rh-. This procedure is done as
a precaution with all Rh- mothers regardless of the blood type of the father.

**
BLOOD SUMMARY
BLOOD WORKSHEET

CIRC SYSTEM RESPONSES x3

REVIEW WORKSHEETS x2
OVERALL SUMMARY