The development of plasma physics

When blood is cleared of its various corpuscles there remains a

transparent liquid, which was named plasma (after the Greek
word

, which means ``moldable substance'' or ``jelly'') by the

great Czech medical scientist, Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869).

The modern concept of the plasma state is of recent origin, dating back
only to the early 1950s. Its history is interwoven with many disciplines.
Three basic fields of study made unique early contributions to the
development of plasma physics as a discipline: electric discharges,
magnetohydrodynamics (in which a conducting fluid such as mercury is
studied), and kinetic theory.
Interest in electric-discharge phenomena may be traced back to the
beginning of the 18th century, with three English physicistsMichael
Faraday in the 1830s and Joseph John Thomson and John Sealy Edward
Townsend at the turn of the 19th centurylaying the foundations of the
present understanding of the phenomena. Irving Langmuir introduced the
term plasma in 1923 while investigating electric discharges. In 1929 he
and Lewi Tonks, another physicist working in the United States, used the
term to designate those regions of a discharge in which certain periodic
variations of the negatively charged electrons could occur. They called
these oscillations plasma oscillations, their behaviour suggesting that of a
jellylike substance. Not until 1952, however, when two other American
physicists, David Bohm and David Pines, first considered the collective
behaviour of electrons in metals as distinct from that in ionized gases, was
the general applicability of the concept of a plasma fully appreciated.
The collective behaviour of charged particles in magnetic fields and the
concept of a conducting fluid are implicit in magnetohydrodynamic
studies, the foundations of which were laid in the early and middle 1800s
by Faraday and Andr-Marie Ampre of France. Not until the 1930s,
however, when new solar and geophysical phenomena were being
discovered, were many of the basic problems of the mutual interaction
between ionized gases and magnetic fields considered. In 1942 Hannes

Alfvn, a Swedish physicist, introduced the concept of

magnetohydrodynamic waves. This contribution, along with his further
studies of space plasmas, led to Alfvns receipt of the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1970.
These two separate approachesthe study of electric discharges and the
study of the behaviour of conducting fluids in magnetic fieldswere
unified by the introduction of the kinetic theory of the plasma state. This
theory states that plasma, like gas, consists of particles in random motion,
whose interactions can be through long-range electromagnetic forces as
well as via collisions. In 1905 the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
applied the kinetic equation for atoms (the formulation by the Austrian
physicist Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann) to the behaviour of electrons in
metals. Various physicists and mathematicians in the 1930s and 40s
further developed the plasma kinetic theory to a high degree of
sophistication. Since the early 1950s interest has increasingly focused on
the plasma state itself.
The development of high powered lasers in the 1960's opened up the field
of laser plasma physics. When a high powered laser beam strikes a solid
target, material is immediately ablated, and a plasma forms at the
boundary between the beam and the target. Another interesting
application of laser plasma physics is the use of the extremely strong
electric fields generated when a high intensity laser pulse passes through
a plasma to accelerate particles. High-energy physicists hope to use
plasma acceleration techniques to dramatically reduce the size and cost
of particle accelerators.

Space exploration, the development of electronic devices, a growing

awareness of the importance of magnetic fields in astrophysical
phenomena, and the quest for controlled thermonuclear (nuclear fusion)
power reactors all have stimulated such interest.

Plasma (from Greek , "anything formed"[1]) is one of the four

fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, andgas).
When air or gas is ionized, plasma forms with similar conductive
properties to that of metals.
All matter is composed of atoms which are 'neutral'. That means they do
not carry any electrical charge. Sometimes a flash of high voltage, or
heating to extreme temperature will cause the 'outermost' electrons to
get knocked off. These electrons will then knock off electrons from
neighbouring atoms. This creates a mass of ionized matter, which is called
plasma. Plasma is considered the 4th state of matter.
The other three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases, all of which
are neutral in normal conditions. The plasma state is similar to the
gaseous state, and yet it is very different. How?
Gases are electrically neutral, but plasmas contain both positive and
negative charges. Gases cannot conduct electricity, plasmas can. Gases
are not influenced by electromagnetic fields; plasmas can be deflected,
focused or diverged by such fields.
Under normal conditions, a gas is uncharged. If you introduce many free
electrons into the gas by establishing an electrical voltage across it, the
situation changes very quickly. The free electrons collide with the atoms,
knocking loose other electrons. With a missing electron, an atom loses its
balance. It has a net positive charge, making it an ion.
In a plasma with an electrical current running through it, negatively
charged particles are rushing toward the positively charged area of the
plasma, and positively charged particles are rushing toward the negatively
charged area.
In this mad rush, particles are constantly bumping into each other. These
collisions excite the gas atoms in the plasma, causing them to
release photons of energy. Xenon and neon atoms, the atoms used in
plasma screens, release light photons when they are excited. Mostly,
these atoms release ultraviolet light photons, which are invisible to
the human eye.

Nearly all the visible matter in the universe exists in the plasma state,
occurring predominantly in this form in the Sun and stars and in
interplanetary and interstellar space. Auroras, lightning, andwelding
arcs are also plasmas; plasmas exist in neon and fluorescent tubes, in the
crystal structure of metallic solids, and in many other phenomena and

objects. The Earth itself is immersed in a tenuous plasma called the solar
wind and is surrounded by a dense plasma called the ionosphere.
A plasma may be produced in the laboratory by heating a gas to an
extremely high temperature, which causes such vigorous collisions
between its atoms and molecules that electrons are ripped free, yielding
the requisite electrons and ions. A similar process occurs inside stars. In
space the dominant plasma formation process is photoionization, wherein
photons from sunlight or starlight are absorbed by an existing gas,
causing electrons to be emitted. Since the Sun and stars shine
continuously, virtually all the matter becomes ionized in such cases, and
the plasma is said to be fully ionized. This need not be the case, however,
for a plasma may be only partially ionized. A completely ionized hydrogen
plasma, consisting solely of electrons and protons (hydrogen nuclei), is the
most elementary plasma.

Thermal vs. non-thermal plasmas[edit]

Based on the relative temperatures of the electrons, ions and neutrals, plasmas are classified as
"thermal" or "non-thermal". Thermal plasmas have electrons and the heavy particles at the same
temperature, i.e., they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Non-thermal plasmas on the
other hand have the ions and neutrals at a much lower temperature (sometimes room
temperature), whereas electrons are much "hotter" (Te >> Tneutrals).
A plasma is sometimes referred to as being "hot" if it is nearly fully ionized, or "cold" if only a
small fraction (for example 1%) of the gas molecules are ionized, but other definitions of the
terms "hot plasma" and "cold plasma" are common. Even in a "cold" plasma, the electron
temperature is still typically several thousand degrees Celsius. Plasmas utilized in "plasma
technology" ("technological plasmas") are usually cold plasmas in the sense that only a small
fraction of the gas molecules are ionized.

Applications
Because plasmas are conductive and respond to electric and magnetic fields and
can be efficient sources of radiation, they are usable in numerous applications where
such control is needed or when special sources of energy or radiation are required.
The topics page provides close to 200 subject areas in plasma science and
technology and nearly 100 applications.
This page introduces the major fields of application listed at the right. For each field,
most or all of the plasma processes listed below are an essential ingredient. Plasma
technology is a very broad category by itself as indicated by the many important
areas listed below right.

Major Categories of Plasma Processes

Plasma equilibria, dynamic and static
Naturally-occurring plasmas
Plasma sources
Plasma-based devices
Plasma sheath phenomena
Wave and beam interactions in plasmas
Numerical plasmas and simulations
Plasma theory
Plasma diagnostics
Industrial plasmas

Plasma medicine is an innovative and emerging field combining plasma physics, life
sciences and clinical medicine to use physical plasma for therapeutic applications. Initial
experiments confirm that plasma can be effective in in vivo antiseptics without affecting
surrounding tissue and, moreover, stimulating tissue regeneration. Based on
sophisticated basic research on plasma-tissue interaction, first therapeutic applications
in wound healing, dermatology and dentistry will be opened.
Plasma, described as the fourth state of matter, comprises charged species, active
molecules and atoms and is also a source of UV-photons. These plasma-generated

active species are useful for several bio-medical applications such as sterilization
of implants and surgical instruments as well as modifying biomaterial surface properties.
Sensitive applications of plasma, like subjecting human body or internal organs to
plasma treatment for medical purposes, are also possible. This possibility is
profoundly[clarification needed]being investigated by research groups worldwide under the
highly-interdisciplinary research field called 'plasma medicine'.

Plasma: the fourth state of matter

Like fish in the ocean, we humans too, live in a giant ocean. We
spend all our lives in a gigantic ocean of plasma, but we're barely
aware what it is! Physicist Max Babi explains all about plasma the fourth state of matter.

Just what is plasma?

'Plasma' is a Greek word meaning 'that which is diffuse' i.e. unclear, or semitransparent. It is also defined by physicists as 'ionized matter'. This is the plasma
of physics. Don't confuse it with 'biological plasma' which is a colourless jellylike
liquid in our blood.
All matter is composed of atoms which are 'neutral'. That means they do not
carry any electrical charge. Sometimes a flash of high voltage, or heating to
extreme temperature will cause the 'outermost' electrons to get knocked off.
These electrons will then knock off electrons from neighbouring atoms. This
creates a mass of ionized matter, which is called plasma. Plasma is considered
the 4th state of matter.
The other three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases, all of which are
neutral in normal conditions. The plasma state is similar to the gaseous state,
and yet it is very different. How?
Gases are electrically neutral, but plasmas contain both positive and negative
charges. Gases cannot conduct electricity, plasmas can. Gases are not influenced
by electromagnetic fields; plasmas can be deflected, focused or diverged by such
fields.

How does a gas become plasma?

Even solids and liquids can be ionized but they would most often become
vaporized whilst becoming plasmas. This is because it requires extreme
temperatures to create plasma. The figure below illustrates a few different kinds
of plasmas:

Plasmas are not always hot they can be cold too, as long as matter is ionized.
A tubelight, a CFL, are comparatively cool to touch, so is the plasma TV screen.
The outer space beyond our solar system is all plasma! More than 99% of the
universe exists in plasma state.
When a heat source is used to excite a gas into its plasma state, it is called a
thermal plasma and it gives off more heat, light, radiation and noise or vibration.
Many devices have been designed to make to use of these energies efficiently.

The uses of plasmas

Micro-plasma welding is a method used to join paper thin sheets of metals. The
joint becomes invisible after polishing. Stainless steel water storage tanks and
other kitchen implements are made this way.
Plasma spray process is a most magical use of thermal plasmas it is the only
coating process that can apply any material on to any material.
1. Metal on to metal: Titanium on to mild steel, to prevent corrosion of steel.
2. Non-metal on to metal: alumina on to stainless steel. Alumina reduces the
wear and tear on the stainless steel vessel due to industrial processes.

3. Metal on to non-metal: copper on to porcelain used in capacitors. Plasmaspraying copper onto the porcelain makes it 'solderable', so that electric
wires can be attached to it.
4. Non-metal on to non-metal: Teflon on to magnesia (ceramic). Some
chemicals like hydrofluoric acid can corrode the ceramic vessels they are
kept in; coating them with Teflon prevents corrosion.
This is a Plasma Torch in action:

In addition, there are 'cold' plasmas generated in vacuum or in atmospheric

conditions. These plasmas utilize the electronic properties of materials in plasma
state, not heat nor light. Today, cold plasmas are used in hand-washers,
sterilizers for biomedical tools, making plastics attract or repel liquids for ease in
printing and further protection, and hundreds of more magical uses.

History[edit]
Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879
(he called it "radiant matter").[56] The nature of the Crookes tube "cathode ray" matter was

subsequently identified by British physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897.[57] The term "plasma" was
coined by Irving Langmuir in 1928,[58] perhaps because the glowing discharge molds itself to the
shape of the Crooks tube (Gr. a thing moulded or formed).[59] Langmuir described his
observations as:
Except near the electrodes, where there are sheaths containing very few electrons, the ionized
gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is
very small. We shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of
ions and electrons.[58]

When satellites discovered the radiation belt and began exploring

the magnetosphere, afourth direction opened, space plasma
physics. From fusion research, space scientists borrowed the
theory of plasma trapping by a magnetic field, and from
ionospheric physics, the theory of plasma waves. Astrophysics
provided, among other things, notions of magnetic processes for
energy release and particle acceleration. Today space plasma
physics is an active field, contributing to the understanding of not
just observations in space but also of plasmas in general.

Brief History of Plasma Physics

When blood is cleared of its various corpuscles there remains a
transparent liquid, which was named plasma (after the Greek
word
, which means ``moldable substance'' or ``jelly'') by
the great Czech medical scientist, Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869).
The Nobel prize winning American chemist Irving Langmuir first
used this term to describe an ionized gas in 1927--Langmuir was
reminded of the way blood plasma carries red and white
corpuscles by the way an electrified fluid carries electrons and
ions. Langmuir, along with his colleague Lewi Tonks, was
investigating the physics and chemistry of tungsten-filament
light-bulbs, with a view to finding a way to greatly extend the
lifetime of the filament (a goal which he eventually achieved). In
the process, he developed the theory of plasma sheaths--the
boundary layers which form between ionized plasmas and solid
surfaces. He also discovered that certain regions of a plasma
discharge tube exhibit periodic variations of the electron density,
which we nowadays term Langmuir waves. This was the genesis
of Plasma Physics. Interestingly enough, Langmuir's research
nowadays forms the theoretical basis of most plasma
processing techniques for fabricating integrated circuits.

After Langmuir, plasma research gradually spread in other directions, of

which five are particularly significant.
Firstly, the development of radio broadcasting led to the discovery of the
Earth's ionosphere, a layer of partially ionized gas in the upper atmosphere which

reflects radio waves, and is responsible for the fact that radio signals can be
received when the transmitter is over the horizon. Unfortunately, the ionosphere
also occasionally absorbs and distorts radio waves. For instance, the Earth's
magnetic field causes waves with different polarizations (relative to the orientation
of the magnetic field) to propagate at different velocities, an effect which can give
rise to ``ghost signals'' (i.e., signals which arrive a little before, or a little after, the
main signal). In order to understand, and possibly correct, some of the deficiencies
in radio communication, various scientists, such as E.V. Appleton and
K.G. Budden, systematically developed the theory of electromagnetic wave
propagation through non-uniform magnetized plasmas.
Secondly, astrophysicists quickly recognized that much of the Universe consists of
plasma, and, thus, that a better understanding of astrophysical phenomena requires
a better grasp of plasma physics. The pioneer in this field was Hannes Alfvn, who
around 1940 developed the theory of magnetohydrodyamics, or MHD, in which
plasma is treated essentially as a conducting fluid. This theory has been both
widely and successfully employed to investigate sunspots, solar flares, the solar
wind, star formation, and a host of other topics in astrophysics. Two topics of
particular interest in MHD theory are magnetic reconnection and dynamo theory.
Magnetic reconnection is a process by which magnetic field-lines suddenly change
their topology: it can give rise to the sudden conversion of a great deal of magnetic
energy into thermal energy, as well as the acceleration of some charged particles to
extremely high energies, and is generally thought to be the basic mechanism
behind solar flares. Dynamo theory studies how the motion of an MHD fluid can
give rise to the generation of a macroscopic magnetic field. This process is
important because both the terrestrial and solar magnetic fields would decay away
comparatively rapidly (in astrophysical terms) were they not maintained by
dynamo action. The Earth's magnetic field is maintained by the motion of its
molten core, which can be treated as an MHD fluid to a reasonable approximation.
Thirdly, the creation of the hydrogen bomb in 1952 generated a great deal of
interest in controlled thermonuclear fusion as a possible power source for the
future. At first, this research was carried out secretly, and independently, by the
United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain. However, in 1958
thermonuclear fusion research was declassified, leading to the publication of a
number of immensely important and influential papers in the late 1950's and the
early 1960's. Broadly speaking, theoretical plasma physics first emerged as a
mathematically rigorous discipline in these years. Not surprisingly, Fusion
physicists are mostly concerned with understanding how a thermonuclear plasma
can be trapped--in most cases by a magnetic field--and investigating the many
plasma instabilities which may allow it to escape.
Fourthly, James A. Van Allen's discovery in 1958 of the Van Allen radiation belts
surrounding the Earth, using data transmitted by the U.S. Explorer satellite, marked
the start of the systematic exploration of the Earth's magnetosphere via satellite,

and opened up the field of space plasma physics. Space scientists borrowed the
theory of plasma trapping by a magnetic field from fusion research, the theory of
plasma waves from ionospheric physics, and the notion of magnetic reconnection
as a mechanism for energy release and particle acceleration from astrophysics.
Finally, the development of high powered lasers in the 1960's opened up the field
of laser plasma physics. When a high powered laser beam strikes a solid target,
material is immediately ablated, and a plasma forms at the boundary between the
beam and the target. Laser plasmas tend to have fairly extreme properties (e.g.,
densities characteristic of solids) not found in more conventional plasmas. A major
application of laser plasma physics is the approach to fusion energy known
as inertial confinement fusion. In this approach, tightly focused laser beams are
used to implode a small solid target until the densities and temperatures
characteristic of nuclear fusion (i.e., the centre of a hydrogen bomb) are achieved.
Another interesting application of laser plasma physics is the use of the extremely
strong electric fields generated when a high intensity laser pulse passes through a
plasma to accelerate particles. High-energy physicists hope to use plasma
acceleration techniques to dramatically reduce the size and cost of particle
accelerators.

Plasmas underlie numerous important technological applications and devices as

well as our understanding of much of the universe around us.
They provide the foundation and underpinnings for present applications such as
plasma processing of semiconductors, sterilization of some medical products,
lamps, lasers, diamond coated films, high power microwave sources, and pulsed
power switches. They also provide the foundation for important potential
applications such as the generation of electrical energy from fusion and pollution
control and removal of hazardous chemicals.
Plasma science encompasses a variety of science disciplines ranging from plasma
physics to aspects of chemistry, atomic and molecular physics, and material
science. Its broad, interdisciplinary nature also characterizes its plasma physics
component, which includes ionized gases that range from weakly ionized to highly
ionized, from collisional to collisionless, and from cold to hot. These terms
characterize various plasmas ranging from relatively high-pressure gases with a
small fraction of the atoms ionized and relatively low charged-particle
temperatures -- for example, plasmas used in computer-chip processing and light
sources -- to those in very low density gases with a large fraction of the gas atoms
ionized and very high-temperature charged particles -- for example, fusion
plasmas.
Different types of plasmas underlie different applications and different natural
phenomena. However, many fundamental considerations span the broad parameter
ranges that characterize the many natural and man-made plasmas that are important
in our lives.
The diversity of what is included in "plasma science" makes the subject difficult to
characterize. However, it is that same diversity that makes it such an important
contributor to a wide range of applications and technological developments

Plasma Astrophysics
Estimates of the filling fraction for ionized particles in the interstellar and
intergalactic medium range from a few percent to 100 percent. As shown by
Earth's ionosphere where the ionization fraction can be less than one
percent, plasma processes can be important even for very low filling
fraction. Plasmas are a combination of neutrals, ions, electrons and fields
that have conductive and collective effects and where interparticle
dynamics is not dominated simply by binary collisions. This condition
applies for most astrophysical systems. Even though space plasmas
usually maintain quasi-neutrality to within less than about 1 part per million,
there can still be substantial currents, convection, plasma flows, plasma
waves and shocks and other plasma effects that interconnect plasmas over
vast expanse as demonstrated by direct measurements of solar system
space plasmas. Radio jets, interstellar shocks, stellar systems (especially
neutron stars), and many astrophysical phenomena now appear to involve
important plasma effects. Plasma astrophysics is the cutting edge of 21st
century astrophysics and cosmology studies.

Applications of plasmas
The most important practical applications of plasmas lie in the future, largely in the field of power
production. The major method of generating electric power has been to use heat sources to
convert water to steam, which drives turbogenerators. Such heat sources depend on the
combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, and fission processes in nuclear
reactors. A potential source of heat might be supplied by a fusion reactor, with a basic element of
deuterium-tritium plasma; nuclear fusion collisions between those isotopes of hydrogen would
release large amounts of energy to the kinetic energy of the reaction products (the neutrons and
the nuclei of hydrogen and helium atoms). By absorbing those products in a surrounding
medium, a powerful heat source could be created. To realize a net power output from such a
generating stationallowing for plasma radiation and particle losses and for the somewhat
inefficient conversion of heat to electricityplasma temperatures of about 100,000,000 K and a
product of particle density times containment time of about 1020 seconds per cubic metre are
necessary. For example, at a density of 1020 particles per metre cubed, the containment time
must be one second. Such figures are yet to be reached, although there has been much
progress.

Plasma display
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV
displays 30 inches (76 cm) or larger. They are called "plasma" displays because the
technology utilizes small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are
in essence chambers more commonly known as fluorescent lamps.

The central element in a fluorescent light is a plasma.

The xenon and neon gas in a plasma television is contained in hundreds of thousands of
tiny cellspositioned between two plates of glass. To ionize the gas in a particular cell, the
plasma display's computer charges the electrodes that intersect at that cell. It does this
thousands of times in a small fraction of a second, charging each cell in turn.
When the intersecting electrodes are charged (with a voltagedifference between them), an
electric current flows through the gas in the cell. The current creates a rapid flow of charged
particles, which stimulates the gas atoms to release ultraviolet photons.
The released ultraviolet photons interact with phosphor materialcoated on the inside wall of
the cell. Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to other light.
When an ultraviolet photon hits a phosphor atom in the cell, one of the phosphor's electrons
jumps to a higher energy level and the atom heats up. When the electron falls back to its
normal level, it releases energy in the form of a visible light photon.
The main advantage of plasma display technology is that you can produce a very wide
screen using extremely thin materials. And because each pixel is lit individually, the image is
very bright and looks good from almost every angle.

thermionic power converter

thermionic power converter, also called thermionic generator, thermionic power
generator, or thermoelectric engine, any of a class of devices that convert heat directly

into electricity using thermionic emission rather than first changing it to some other form
of energy.
A thermionic power converter has two electrodes. One of these is raised to a sufficiently
high temperature to become a thermionic electron emitter, or hot plate. The
other electrode, called a collector because it receives the emitted electrons, is operated

at a significantly lower temperature. The space between the electrodes is sometimes a

vacuum but is normally filled with a vapour or gas at low pressure. The thermal energy
may be supplied by chemical, solar, or nuclear sources. Thermionic converters aresolidstate devices with no moving parts. They can be designed for high reliability and long
service life. Thus, thermionic converters have been used in many spacecraft.