Music Therapy

Music Therapy Improvisation for Groups:
Essential Leadership Competencies

By Susan C. Gardstrom
Copyright 2007by Barcelona Publishers
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form whatsoever, including by photocopying,
on audio- or videotape, by any electronic means,
or in information storage and retrieval systems.
For permission to reproduce, contact
Barcelona Publishers.
ISBN 1-891278-49-5
ISBN 13: 978-1-891278-49-5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Music Therapy
Improvisation for Groups:
I wish to express my gratitude to a few individuals who assisted me
during the production of this book and without whom I would not have
been able to complete it.
2007by Barcelona
Publishers
First, I Copyright
offer my appreciation
to Dr. Kenneth
E. Bruscia for
encouraging me to write, for always finding time to answer my questions
(and pose
his own),
and for No
providing
scholarly
reservoir
from which
All rights
reserved.
part ofthe
this
book may
be reproduced
so many ofinthe
notions
hereinand scores
of other
resources in the field
any
form whatsoever,
including
by photocopying,
of music therapyare
on audio- drawn.
or videotape, by any electronic means,
I also thank
Hiller, my storage
collaborator
the University
of Dayton,
or inJim
information
and at
retrieval
systems.
for teaching me a lot of what I know about clinical music improvisation
and instilling in me a passion for and profound belief in the method.
Finally, I thank my son, Dillon, for his patient support, and my
sister, Karen Gardstrom, for her eager and thorough editorial help with
ISBN
1-891278-49-5
this and many other scholarly
endeavors.
ISBN 13: 978-1-891278-49-5
246897531
246897531
Distributed throughout the world by:
Barcelona Publishers
4 White Brook Road

Gilsum NH 03448
Tel: 603-357-0236 Fax: 603-357-2073
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SAN 298-6299
4 White Brook Road

Gilsum NH 03448
Tel: 603-357-0236 Fax: 603-357-2073
SAN 298-6299
Cover design:
2007 Frank McShane
Cover design:
2007 Frank McShane
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Music Therapy
Improvisation for Groups:
2007by Barcelona
Publishers
First, I Copyright
offer my appreciation
to Dr. Kenneth
E. Bruscia for
(and pose
his own),
and for No
providing
scholarly
reservoir
from which
All rights
reserved.
part ofthe
this
book may
be reproduced
so many ofinthe
notions
hereinand scores
of other
resources in the field
any
form whatsoever,
including
by photocopying,
of music therapyare
on audio- drawn.
or videotape, by any electronic means,
I also thank
Hiller, my storage
collaborator
the University
of Dayton,
or inJim
information
and at
retrieval
systems.
ISBN
1-891278-49-5
this and many other scholarly
endeavors.
ISBN 13: 978-1-891278-49-5

246897531
4 White Brook Road
Gilsum NH 03448
Tel: 603-357-0236 Fax: 603-357-2073
SAN 298-6299
Cover design:
2007 Frank McShane
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I offer my appreciation to Dr. Kenneth E. Bruscia for
(and pose his own), and for providing the scholarly reservoir from which
so many of the notions hereinand scores of other resources in the field
of music therapyare drawn.
I also thank Jim Hiller, my collaborator at the University of Dayton,
this and many other scholarly endeavors.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER TEN: Closing
148
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

Appendix
AEssential
Competencies for
Essential
Competencies
Clinical
Improvisation
Suggestions for Using This Book
1
4
152
9

Essential Competencies
1
4
9
Appendix BExercises
CHAPTER
TWO: Terms and Nomenclature of Improvisation
Foundational Definitions
Appendix
CReferents
for Clinical
Music Improvisation
Methods,
Procedures,
Techniques
Referential and Nonreferential Improvisations
Appendix
GivensDHarmonic Progressions/Vamps
Improvisation Versus a Drum Circle
Appendix EGivens/Parameters
156
12
12
159
15
16
165
19
21
167
CHAPTER TWO: Terms and Nomenclature of Improvisation

Methods, Procedures, Techniques
Givens
12
12
15
16
19
21
CHAPTER THREE: Instruments of Improvisation

Appendix
FIAP Profiles and Scales
Instrumentarium
Mallets
References
Getting to Know Your Instruments
Ambidexterity
Selecting the Instruments
Quality
Number
Types
Client Age
Cautions
Needs and Objectives
The Therapists Instrument
Arranging the Environment
Presenting the Instruments
Sound Vocabulary
25
171
25
25
174
26
27
31
32
32
33
34
36
36
43
44
46
48

Instrumentarium
Mallets
Ambidexterity
Quality
Number
Types
Client Age
Cautions
Sound Vocabulary
25
25
25
26
27
31
32
32
33
34
36
36
43
44
46
48
CHAPTER FOUR: Musical Elements of Improvisation

Rhythmic Elements
Language and Rhythm
Tonal Elements
Textural Elements
Dynamic Elements
Timbral Elements
51
51
54
58
61
65
66

Rhythmic Elements
Language and Rhythm
Tonal Elements
Textural Elements
Dynamic Elements
Timbral Elements
51
51
54
58
61
65
66
CHAPTER FIVE: Structures for Improvisation

Session Structures
Selecting and Presenting Givens and Referents
Selection
Presentation
69
70
77
78
81
CHAPTER SIX: Nonmusical Facilitation Skills

(Verbal & Gestural)
Starting and Stopping
Starting
Stopping
Communicating During Improvisation
Movement
Physical Assistance
84
84
84
86
88
90
91
CHAPTER SEVEN: Musical Facilitation Skills

Techniques of Empathy
Imitating
Synchronizing
Incorporating
Pacing
Reflecting
Structuring Techniques
Rhythmic Grounding
Tonal Centering
Elicitation Techniques
Repeating
Modeling
Making Spaces
Interjecting
Redirection Techniques
Introducing Change
Intensifying
Intimacy Techniques
Sharing Instruments
Bonding
95
98
98
100
101
102
103
104
104
106
107
108
108
108
109
109
110
110
111
111
112
Soliloquizing
CHAPTER
ProceduralFIVE:
Techniques
Structures for Improvisation
Session
Receding
Structures
Referential
SelectingTechniques
and Presenting Givens and Referents
Free
Selection
Associating
Emotional
Presentation
Exploration Techniques
Holding
CHAPTER
Doubling
SIX: Nonmusical Facilitation Skills
(Verbal
Contrasting
& Gestural)
Starting
Splitting
and Stopping
Transferring
Starting
Stopping
CHAPTER
Communicating
EIGHT: Making
DuringSense
Improvisation
of What We Hear:
The IAPs
Movement
Improvisation
Physical Assistance
Assessment Profiles (IAPs)
Intramusical Relationships
CHAPTER
Intermusical
SEVEN:
Relationships
Musical Facilitation Skills
The
Techniques
Profiles of Empathy
Salience
Imitating
Integration
Synchronizing
Variability
Incorporating
Tension
Pacing
Congruence
Reflecting
Structuring
AutonomyTechniques
Summary
Rhythmic
and Caveats
Grounding
Tonal Centering
CHAPTER
Elicitation
NINE:
Techniques
Verbal Skills
To Process
Repeating
or Not to Process
FocalModeling
Point of Verbal Processing
Role Making
of the Therapist
Spaces
Verbal
Interjecting
Techniques
Redirection
Probe
Techniques
Reflection
Introducing
of Feeling
Change
Clarification
Intensifying
Intimacy
Checking
Techniques
Out
Self-Disclosure
Sharing Instruments
Summary
Bonding
112
11269
11370
11377
11378
11481
114
115
11684
11684
11684
86
88
11990
12191
121
12295
12298
12398
126
100
128
101
130
102
131
103
132
104
134
104
106
136
107
136
108
138
108
139
108
140
109
141
109
143
110
144
110
145
111
146
111
146
112
Soliloquizing
CHAPTER
ProceduralFIVE:
Techniques
Structures for Improvisation
Session
Receding
Structures
Referential
SelectingTechniques
and Presenting Givens and Referents
Free
Selection
Associating
Emotional
Presentation
Exploration Techniques
Holding
CHAPTER
Doubling
SIX: Nonmusical Facilitation Skills
(Verbal
Contrasting
& Gestural)
Starting
Splitting
and Stopping
Transferring
Starting
Stopping
CHAPTER
Communicating
EIGHT: Making
DuringSense
Improvisation
of What We Hear:
The IAPs
Movement
Improvisation
Physical Assistance
Assessment Profiles (IAPs)
CHAPTER
Intermusical
SEVEN:
Relationships
Musical Facilitation Skills
The
Techniques
Profiles of Empathy
Salience
Imitating
Integration
Synchronizing
Variability
Incorporating
Tension
Pacing
Congruence
Reflecting
Structuring
AutonomyTechniques
Summary
Rhythmic
and Caveats
Grounding
Tonal Centering
CHAPTER
Elicitation
NINE:
Techniques
Verbal Skills
To Process
Repeating
or Not to Process
FocalModeling
Point of Verbal Processing
Role Making
of the Therapist
Spaces
Verbal
Interjecting
Techniques
Redirection
Probe
Techniques
Reflection
Introducing
of Feeling
Change
Clarification
Intensifying
Intimacy
Checking
Techniques
Out
Self-Disclosure
Sharing Instruments
Summary
Bonding
112
11269
11370
11377
11378
11481
114
115
11684
11684
11684
86
88
11990
12191
121
12295
12298
12398
126
100
128
101
130
102
131
103
132
104
134
104
106
136
107
136
108
138
108
139
108
140
109
141
109
143
110
144
110
145
111
146
111
146
112
Soliloquizing
Procedural Techniques
Receding
Referential Techniques
Free Associating
Emotional Exploration Techniques
Holding
Doubling
Contrasting
Splitting
Transferring
112
112
113
113
113
114
114
115
116
116
116
CHAPTER EIGHT: Making Sense of What We Hear:

The IAPs
Improvisation Assessment Profiles (IAPs)
Intermusical Relationships
The Profiles
Salience
Integration
Variability
Tension
Congruence
Autonomy
Summary and Caveats
119
121
121
122
122
123
126
128
130
131
132
134
CHAPTER NINE: Verbal Skills

To Process or Not to Process
Focal Point of Verbal Processing
Role of the Therapist
Verbal Techniques
Probe
Reflection of Feeling
Clarification
Checking Out
Self-Disclosure
Summary
136
136
138
139
140
141
143
144
145
146
146
148
Appendix AEssential Competencies for

Clinical Improvisation
152
Appendix BExercises
156
Appendix CReferents for Clinical Music Improvisation
159
Appendix DHarmonic Progressions/Vamps
165
167
Appendix FIAP Profiles and Scales
171
References
174
Table of Contents
148

Appendix
AEssential
Competencies for
Essential
Competencies
Clinical
Improvisation
1
4
152
9
Appendix BExercises
CHAPTER
TWO: Terms and Nomenclature of Improvisation
Appendix
CReferents
for Clinical
Music Improvisation
Methods,
Procedures,
Techniques
Appendix
GivensDHarmonic Progressions/Vamps
156
12
12
159
15
16
165
19
21
167

Appendix
FIAP Profiles and Scales
Instrumentarium
Mallets
References
Ambidexterity
Quality
Number
Types
Client Age
Cautions
Sound Vocabulary
25
171
25
25
174
26
27
31
32
32
33
34
36
36
43
44
46
48

Rhythmic Elements
Language and Rhythm
Tonal Elements
Textural Elements
Dynamic Elements
Timbral Elements
51
51
54
58
61
65
66
4 Gardstrom
healthcare insurers and treatment

agencies.
Chapter
One Another reason is that many
clients have treatment goals that are accomplished more readily and
successfully within a group
context. In that the average music therapist
INTRODUCTION
will likely be responsible for planning and facilitating group treatment at
some point in her or his career, it makes sense that pedagogy and
THE EVOLUTION OF THIS BOOK
published resources in one of the four fundamental music therapy
methods would reflect this expectation.
I have been teaching an introductory course in clinical improvisation to
undergraduate music therapy and music education students since 1999
ESSENTIAL COMPETENCIES
and conducting workshops on the method since 2000. In short, when I
began teaching at my university, I inherited an improvisation course that
It seems to me that all music therapists, regardless of the clinical
had been proposed by a predecessor but had never been taught. I had not
populations and ages they serve or the philosophical or theoretical
been trained in how to instruct improvisation, so I knew that I would
orientations within which they work, require a set of essential
have to rely heavily on published resources and help from other
competencies in order to effectively lead group improvisation. These
professionals to develop the specifics of the course. Much to my surprise
competencies are both knowledge-based and skill-based. In other words,
and dismay, I found only two books available on the subject of clinical
therapists must both know certain things and know how to do certain
improvisation at that time, Improvisational Models of Music Therapy
things. It should be evident that the first set of competencies has to do
(Bruscia, 1987) and Healing Heritage (Robbins & Robbins, 1998).
with the acquisition of information and the latter has to do with the
Improvisational Models is a one-of-a-kind, comprehensive reference that
actions that the therapists perform, ideally, as connected to the
systematically and thoroughly describes salient features of over 25
knowledge that they have acquired.
models of clinical improvisation and their accompanying techniques,
The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) and the
dynamics, and processes. It seemed to me that Bruscias book could
Certification Board for Music Therapists (CBMT) each designate
provide important theoretical foundations for instruction. One chapter in
professional competencies related to improvisation. AMTA includes
particular, Sixty-Four Clinical Techniques (pp. 533557) supplied
three broad skills in its document (AMTA, 1999):
helpful clues about specific skills that would be necessary for the
facilitation of improvisation. This was a good start; however, Bruscias
8. Improvisation
book was
not designedSkills
to serve as a formula for specific skill
8.1 Improvise on percussion instruments.
development in undergraduate training and thus could not serve as a
8.2 Compose and develop original melodies, accompaniments, and
primary text for this introductory course.
short pieces extemporaneously in a variety of moods and styles,
I thought that Healing Heritage also could be a valuable resource
vocally, and instrumentally.
for the music therapist in training, in that it chronicles important
8.3 Improvise in small ensembles.
historical information about the life and work of pioneers in the field and
emphasizes the importance of various musical elements and their unique
Unfortunately, none of these competencies relates to clinical music
power in the therapeutic process. Yet, as I reviewed this publication, it
improvisation; there is no mention of clients or therapeutic processes,
became obvious that its value was also as a supplemental rather than
essential ingredients that define clinical music improvisation and
primary text. There were two reasons for this. First, the book clearly
distinguish it from other forms of improvisation, such as jazz. (Detailed
represents one specific paradigm, Nordoff & Robbins Music Therapy
(sometimes referred to as Creative Music Therapy). This approach,
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
book was not designed to serve as a formula for specific skill
2 Gardstrom
perhaps the most thoroughly archived of all models of clinical

improvisation, originally called for therapists to work in teams of two,
with one person improvising at the piano and the other individual
assisting the child in his or her responses to the music and the clinical
intentions of the pianist (Bruscia, 1987; Robbins & Robbins, 1991). The
material in Healing Heritage reflects the primacy of piano in this
approach; the material revolves around tonal (melodic and harmonic)
aspects of music-making. Only in passing do the authors of Healing
Heritage make mention of rhythmic features or textual/lyrical aspects of
improvisation, both of which I believed were essential for students to
incorporate into their practice. Second, the training from which the
transcriptions originated was not designed for undergraduates, but rather
for 15 students who already possessed a degree or diploma in music and
who had demonstrated some level of musical competence. (Most were
pianists, and four had worked as therapists for up to five years.) Essential
aspects of the sequential development of clinical improvisation skills are
missing from this book.
Looking for some guidance, I called friends and colleagues in my
region who were teaching at the undergraduate level. I found that, with
one exception, the individuals I contacted did not teach self-contained
undergraduate courses in improvisation, mostly because they did not feel
equipped to do so, having received little or no training themselves. (A
recent survey by Hiller [2006] has substantiated that board-certified
music therapists report a lack of training in the use of clinical music
improvisation during undergraduate courses and internships.) In most
cases, my colleagues either touched on improvisation in the context of
other skill-based units or courses or relied on instructors within their
departments to initiate students in music improvisation concepts and
applications, often with an orientation toward jazz or Orff-Schulwerk.
No one with whom I spoke taught a course specifically in group
improvisation, which was my intent.
It was at this point that I realized I would have to formulate my own
course content and sequence, relying on the knowledge and skills I had
acquired through workshop training and self-directed study, as well as
assistance from my teaching partner, who was equally enthusiastic about
the course and who had had graduate level training in clinical
improvisation. At this juncture, he and I pooled and reviewed the various
2 Gardstrom
Introduction 3
resources
perhaps we
the had
most
acquired
thoroughly
from our
archived
own training,
of all models
including
of course
clinical
syllabi,
improvisation,
handoutsoriginally
from courses
calledand
forprofessional
therapists toworkshops,
work in teams
and of
notes
two,
that
with
we one
had taken
persononimprovising
readings andatpresentations.
the piano and
We also
the other
began individual
creating
our
assisting
own handouts
the childtoinfill
his or
in her
the responses
gaps andtototheconcretize
music andmeaningful
the clinical
aspects
intentions
of our
ofown
the pianist
previous
(Bruscia,
clinical 1987;
experiences
Robbins
in improvisation.
& Robbins, 1991). The
material
When intheHealing
course Heritage
got off the
reflects
ground,
the primacy
I began of
evaluating
piano inmy
this
decisions
approach;
about
the what
material
content
revolves
to include
aroundand
tonal
in what
(melodic
sequence.
and harmonic)
I relied
dually
aspects
on ofmymusic-making.
own experiences
Only asin the
passing
facilitator
do the(sensory,
authors affective,
of Healing
reflective,
Heritageand
make
intuitive
mention
experiences)
of rhythmicand
features
on student
or textual/lyrical
feedback. The
aspects
latterof
manifested
improvisation,
as both
both of
unsolicited
which I believed
and solicited
were essential
verbal for
andstudents
writtento
evaluations
incorporateduring
into class
their and
practice.
at theSecond,
end of each
the training
semester.from
I alsowhich
soughtthe
informal,
transcriptions
retrospective
originated
feedback
was not
from
designed
alumnifor
who
undergraduates,
have taken thebut
course
rather
and
for were
15 students
practicing
who in
already
the field.
possessed
Suggestions
a degree from
or diploma
individuals
in music
who
and
attended
who hadworkshops
demonstrated
that some
my teaching
level of partner
musical and
competence.
I offered(Most
at state,
were
regional,
pianists,and
andnational
four hadconferences
worked as therapists
served asfor
further
up to data
five years.)
for evaluation
Essential
and
aspects
revision.
of the sequential development of clinical improvisation skills are
missing
As the
from
years
this book.
passed, I continued to teach the course, making
changesLooking
here and
for there.
some Iguidance,
also keptI called
vigil for
friends
a suitable
and colleagues
improvisation
in my
textbook.
region who
In were
2004,teaching
Wigramat published
the undergraduate
Improvisation:
level. I found
Methods
that,and
with
Techniques
one exception,
for Music
the individuals
Therapy I Clinicians,
contacted did
Educators
not teachand
self-contained
Students
(2004).
undergraduate
A few sections
courses in
of improvisation,
this book havemostly
particular
because
relevance
they didfor
notthe
feel
group
equipped
improvisation
to do so,skills
having
thatreceived
were thelittle
focusorofnothetraining
introductory
themselves.
course;(A
however,
recent survey
most ofby
Wigrams
Hiller [2006]
writinghas
revolves
substantiated
around tonal
that constructions
board-certified
onmusic
pianotherapists
and the use
report
of arelatively
lack of training
advancedin techniques
the use of inclinical
individual
music
music
improvisation
therapy. What
during
I was
undergraduate
looking for courses
was a pedagogical
and internships.)
resource
In that
most
could
cases,help
my me
colleagues
(1) determine
either touched
which knowledge-based
on improvisationand
in the
skill-based
context of
competencies
other skill-based
my students
units orneeded
coursesto or
develop
relied in
onorder
instructors
to leadwithin
effective
their
group
departments
improvisation,
to initiate
(2) offer
students
a suggested
in music
sequence
improvisation
for training
concepts
in these
and
competencies,
applications, often
and with
(3) an
provide
orientation
practical
towardexercises
jazz or Orff-Schulwerk.
toward skill
development.
No one with
With
whom
encouragement
I spoke taught
from aothers,
courseI decided
specifically
to write
in group
the
book
improvisation,
I had been searching
which wasfor.
my intent.
My
It was
interest
at this
in point
forming
that aI realized
course (and
I would
eventually
have to formulate
writing a my
book)
own
around
courseskills
content
necessary
and sequence,
for the facilitation
relying on of
thegroup
knowledge
improvisation
and skills
stems
I had
from
acquired
the notion
through
thatworkshop
in this day
training
and and
age, self-directed
most music study,
therapists
as well
whoas
practice
assistance
in this
from
country
my teaching
do not partner,
have thewho
luxury
wasof
equally
conducting
enthusiastic
individual
about
therapy
the course
sessions
and
exclusively.
who hadOne
hadreason
graduate
for this
level
is that
training
group treatment
in clinical
is improvisation.
typically considered
At thismore
juncture,
cost-effective
he and I pooled
than individual
and reviewed
treatment
the various
by
2 Gardstrom
Introduction 3
resources
perhaps we
the had
most
acquired
thoroughly
from our
archived
own training,
of all models
including
of course
clinical
syllabi,
improvisation,
handoutsoriginally
from courses
calledand
forprofessional
therapists toworkshops,
work in teams
and of
notes
two,
that
with
we one
had taken
persononimprovising
readings andatpresentations.
the piano and
We also
the other
began individual
creating
our
assisting
own handouts
the childtoinfill
his or
in her
the responses
gaps andtototheconcretize
music andmeaningful
the clinical
aspects
intentions
of our
ofown
the pianist
previous
(Bruscia,
clinical 1987;
experiences
Robbins
in improvisation.
& Robbins, 1991). The
material
When intheHealing
course Heritage
got off the
reflects
ground,
the primacy
I began of
evaluating
piano inmy
this
decisions
approach;
about
the what
material
content
revolves
to include
aroundand
tonal
in what
(melodic
sequence.
and harmonic)
I relied
dually
aspects
on ofmymusic-making.
own experiences
Only asin the
passing
facilitator
do the(sensory,
authors affective,
of Healing
reflective,
Heritageand
make
intuitive
mention
experiences)
of rhythmicand
features
on student
or textual/lyrical
feedback. The
aspects
latterof
manifested
improvisation,
as both
both of
unsolicited
which I believed
and solicited
were essential
verbal for
andstudents
writtento
evaluations
incorporateduring
into class
their and
practice.
at theSecond,
end of each
the training
semester.from
I alsowhich
soughtthe
informal,
transcriptions
retrospective
originated
feedback
was not
from
designed
alumnifor
who
undergraduates,
have taken thebut
course
rather
and
for were
15 students
practicing
who in
already
the field.
possessed
Suggestions
a degree from
or diploma
individuals
in music
who
and
attended
who hadworkshops
demonstrated
that some
my teaching
level of partner
musical and
competence.
I offered(Most
at state,
were
regional,
pianists,and
andnational
four hadconferences
worked as therapists
served asfor
further
up to data
five years.)
for evaluation
Essential
and
aspects
revision.
of the sequential development of clinical improvisation skills are
missing
As the
from
years
this book.
passed, I continued to teach the course, making
changesLooking
here and
for there.
some Iguidance,
also keptI called
vigil for
friends
a suitable
and colleagues
improvisation
in my
textbook.
region who
In were
2004,teaching
Wigramat published
the undergraduate
Improvisation:
level. I found
Methods
that,and
with
Techniques
one exception,
for Music
the individuals
Therapy I Clinicians,
contacted did
Educators
not teachand
self-contained
Students
(2004).
undergraduate
A few sections
courses in
of improvisation,
this book havemostly
particular
because
relevance
they didfor
notthe
feel
group
equipped
improvisation
to do so,skills
having
thatreceived
were thelittle
focusorofnothetraining
introductory
themselves.
course;(A
however,
recent survey
most ofby
Wigrams
Hiller [2006]
writinghas
revolves
substantiated
around tonal
that constructions
board-certified
onmusic
pianotherapists
and the use
report
of arelatively
lack of training
advancedin techniques
the use of inclinical
individual
music
music
improvisation
therapy. What
during
I was
undergraduate
looking for courses
was a pedagogical
and internships.)
resource
In that
most
could
cases,help
my me
colleagues
(1) determine
either touched
which knowledge-based
on improvisationand
in the
skill-based
context of
competencies
other skill-based
my students
units orneeded
coursesto or
develop
relied in
onorder
instructors
to leadwithin
effective
their
group
departments
improvisation,
to initiate
(2) offer
students
a suggested
in music
sequence
improvisation
for training
concepts
in these
and
competencies,
applications, often
and with
(3) an
provide
orientation
practical
towardexercises
jazz or Orff-Schulwerk.
toward skill
development.
No one with
With
whom
encouragement
I spoke taught
from aothers,
courseI decided
specifically
to write
in group
the
book
improvisation,
I had been searching
which wasfor.
my intent.
My
It was
interest
at this
in point
forming
that aI realized
course (and
I would
eventually
have to formulate
writing a my
book)
own
around
courseskills
content
necessary
and sequence,
for the facilitation
relying on of
thegroup
knowledge
improvisation
and skills
stems
I had
from
acquired
the notion
through
thatworkshop
in this day
training
and and
age, self-directed
most music study,
therapists
as well
whoas
practice
assistance
in this
from
country
my teaching
do not partner,
have thewho
luxury
wasof
equally
conducting
enthusiastic
individual
about
therapy
the course
sessions
and
exclusively.
who hadOne
hadreason
graduate
for this
level
is that
training
group treatment
in clinical
is improvisation.
typically considered
At thismore
juncture,
cost-effective
he and I pooled
than individual
and reviewed
treatment
the various
by
Introduction 3
resources we had acquired from our own training, including course

syllabi, handouts from courses and professional workshops, and notes
that we had taken on readings and presentations. We also began creating
our own handouts to fill in the gaps and to concretize meaningful
aspects of our own previous clinical experiences in improvisation.
When the course got off the ground, I began evaluating my
decisions about what content to include and in what sequence. I relied
dually on my own experiences as the facilitator (sensory, affective,
reflective, and intuitive experiences) and on student feedback. The latter
manifested as both unsolicited and solicited verbal and written
evaluations during class and at the end of each semester. I also sought
informal, retrospective feedback from alumni who have taken the course
and were practicing in the field. Suggestions from individuals who
attended workshops that my teaching partner and I offered at state,
regional, and national conferences served as further data for evaluation
and revision.
As the years passed, I continued to teach the course, making
changes here and there. I also kept vigil for a suitable improvisation
textbook. In 2004, Wigram published Improvisation: Methods and
Techniques for Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators and Students
(2004). A few sections of this book have particular relevance for the
group improvisation skills that were the focus of the introductory course;
however, most of Wigrams writing revolves around tonal constructions
on piano and the use of relatively advanced techniques in individual
music therapy. What I was looking for was a pedagogical resource that
could help me (1) determine which knowledge-based and skill-based
competencies my students needed to develop in order to lead effective
group improvisation, (2) offer a suggested sequence for training in these
competencies, and (3) provide practical exercises toward skill
development. With encouragement from others, I decided to write the
book I had been searching for.
My interest in forming a course (and eventually writing a book)
around skills necessary for the facilitation of group improvisation stems
from the notion that in this day and age, most music therapists who
practice in this country do not have the luxury of conducting individual
therapy sessions exclusively. One reason for this is that group treatment
is typically considered more cost-effective than individual treatment by
4 Gardstrom
4 Gardstrom
healthcare insurers and treatment agencies. Another reason is that many

successfully within a group context. In that the average music therapist
8. Improvisation Skills
healthcare insurers and treatment

agencies.
Chapter
One Another reason is that many
successfully within a group
context. In that the average music therapist
INTRODUCTION
8. Improvisation
book was
not designedSkills
to serve as a formula for specific skill
8 Gardstrom
Introduction 5
definitions
heavily upon
of clinical
severalmusic
of the
improvisation
facilitation and
techniques
music improvisation
that appear in
appear
Bruscias
in Chapter
Sixty-Four
Two.) Clinical Techniques in Improvisational Models of
Music
TheTherapy
CBMT (1987,
Scope pp.
of 533557).
Practice (2005)
Those that
offers
I have
twochosen
items to
forinclude
our
consideration,
verbatim from
thethis
firstcomprehensive
under the heading
list Music
are music-based
Theory, Perception,
techniquesand
that
Skills
my in
students
Clinicaland
Situations:
I have found most pertinent to undergraduate preclinical and clinical training.
B.Altogether,
Music Skills
the and
competencies
Perception pinpointed in this book fall into three
categories:
4. Improvise
Preparatory
music
Skills,
(e.g.,Facilitative
vocal, instrumental)
Skills, and Verbal Processing
Skills. Preparatory Skills (PR) refer to those decisions and actions of the
Although
therapistthe
that,
heading
in someindicates
cases, precede
that this
thecompetency
arrival of the
applies
players
to and,
clinical
in all
circumstances,
cases, precedethere
the actual
is, again,
music improvisation.
no mention ofInclients
the before,
or therapeutic
during, and
processes.
after ofThe
improvisation,
second has greater
Preparatory
relevance
Skillsbutareis just
employed
as broad
before
as thethe
others:
experience. They revolve around the ability of the therapist to
comprehend terms and nomenclature germane to the method (Chapter
Two),
A. Treatment
to manipulate
Implementation
the tools and settings used for improvisation,
including
3. Use
musical
methods
instruments
to achieve
(Chapter
therapeutic
Three)
goals
and elements (Chapter
Four), andh.toimprovise
determine
music
suitable
to facilitate
structures
therapeutic
for improvisation
processes (Chapter
Five).
It Facilitative
is my opinion
Skills
that students
revolve and
around
novice
thetherapists
ability ofneed
themore
therapist
clear-to
cutemploy
guidance
techniques
as they prepare
that willtoelicit
leadaclinical
response
improvisation
from the players
experiences.
or shape
Among
their immediate
the skill-based
experience
competencies,
(Bruscia, therapists
1987). In need
the before,
both nonmusical
during, and
and
after
musical
of improvisation,
skills in orderFacilitation
to become Skills
effective
are leaders.
employed
Simply
during
put,the
nonmusical
experience.competencies
These skills include
include verbal
the ability
skillsto and
use gestural
nonmusical
actions
(NM)
(movements
(Chapter Six)
performed
and musical
to communicate
(MU) techniques
feeling
(Chapter
or intention),
Seven) in order
whileto
musical
engage skills
your involve
clients, and
the musical
being able
actions
to listen
that (LI),
therapists
comprehend,
perform. and
I
believe
describe
that
what
these
is heard
two (Chapter
skill sets,
Eight).
nonmusical and musical, function
together
Verbal
towardProcessing
competent Skills
facilitation
(VP)ofrefer
clinical
to improvisation.
those skills required to
effectively
Whensort
I refer
out and
to the
verbally
musicalprocess
skills that
the improvisation
therapists needexperience.
in order toIn
lead
the clinical
before, improvisation,
during, and after
I am
of improvisation,
talking about Verbal
clinicalProcessing
music skills.
Skills
Implicit
(Chapterhere
Nine)
is are
thatemployed
the therapists
after the
have
experience.
already These
developed
skills certain
help the
necessary
therapist foundational
to recognize music
and discuss
skillstechnique,
significant aspects
expression,
of therepertoire,
experience
etc.,
withonclients
a primary
and may
instrument
assist herand
or several
his communication
additional instruments.
with co-therapists,
The
assumption
and/or supervisors.
is that therapists can learn to tailor these skills to the
therapeutic
Specific
setting
Preparatory,
in orderFacilitative,
to establishandand
Processing
maintaincompetencies
a meaningfulare
relationship
displayed in
with
Appendix
their clients
A andand
at the
helptop
these
of certain
clients sections
progresswithin
towardthe
established
chapters that
goals
follow,
and as
objectives.
relevant. Foundational
(Note: Appendix
music
A can
skills
be are,
used for
as a
example,
competency
whatchecklist
enable to
therapists
track ongoing
to (1)progress.)
maintain a steady pulse, (2)
Introduction 5
definitions of clinical music improvisation and music improvisation

appear in Chapter Two.)
The CBMT Scope of Practice (2005) offers two items for our
consideration, the first under the heading Music Theory, Perception, and
Skills in Clinical Situations:
B. Music Skills and Perception
4. Improvise music (e.g., vocal, instrumental)
Although the heading indicates that this competency applies to clinical
circumstances, there is, again, no mention of clients or therapeutic
processes. The second has greater relevance but is just as broad as the
others:
A. Treatment Implementation
3. Use methods to achieve therapeutic goals
h. improvise music to facilitate therapeutic processes
It is my opinion that students and novice therapists need more clearcut guidance as they prepare to lead clinical improvisation experiences.
Among the skill-based competencies, therapists need both nonmusical
and musical skills in order to become effective leaders. Simply put,
nonmusical competencies include verbal skills and gestural actions
(movements performed to communicate feeling or intention), while
musical skills involve the musical actions that therapists perform. I
believe that these two skill sets, nonmusical and musical, function
together toward competent facilitation of clinical improvisation.
When I refer to the musical skills that therapists need in order to
lead clinical improvisation, I am talking about clinical music skills.
Implicit here is that the therapists have already developed certain
necessary foundational music skillstechnique, expression, repertoire,
etc., on a primary instrument and several additional instruments. The
assumption is that therapists can learn to tailor these skills to the
therapeutic setting in order to establish and maintain a meaningful
relationship with their clients and help these clients progress toward
established goals and objectives. Foundational music skills are, for
example, what enable therapists to (1) maintain a steady pulse, (2)
6 Gardstrom
generate varied rhythmic patterns, (3) modify dynamics, and (4) play an
unmetered tremolo, none of which, at face value, have any particular
clinical purpose or require any kind of relationship with another player.
Clinical music skills, on the other hand, are employed when those same
therapists (1) maintain a steady pulse as a way to provide needed
constancy for the other players, (2) generate varied rhythmic patterns to
discourage unhealthy rigidity and entice novel musical dialogue, (3)
modify dynamics in order to model freedom of expression of various
feeling states, and (4) play an unmetered tremolo in order to suspend the
improvisation while the players switch instruments, reflect on what they
have just played, or decide what to play next. In other words, music
therapists who have developed clinical music skills are able to create
music in an authentic, communicative, flexible, and intentional manner.
In this context, authentic means with genuineness of expression,
communicative means with a desire and ability to make meaningful
contact with the other players, flexible means in a responsive and
adaptable manner, and intentional means with a clear clinical purpose in
mind. It is, perhaps, a combination of these four dimensions that
therapists ultimately ought to strive to achieve in their improvisational
work.
Darnley-Smith and Patey (2003) write about discerning some of
these clinical music abilities in the potential music therapy candidate:
In addition to playing prepared music, can the player improvise
in response to another player? Do they listen to what another
might play and respond in the moment? Can they use their voice
to sing expressively, even if they might never have had formal
training? Of prime importance, music therapists need to feel at
home in playing music. It needs to be an integral part of them,
both in terms of what they do in their lives and as a natural
means of self-expression. This is a relationship which formal
training with a certificate can suggest but never guarantee. (p. 57)
It is obvious from my experiences as an educator that some of the most
technically or expressively talented students (those who possess solid
foundational skills) have great difficulty moving past printed notes on the
page in order to reach this kind of personal connection to their authentic
6 Gardstrom
Introduction 7
inner
generate
music
varied
andrhythmic
its outward
patterns,
communicative
(3) modifypower
dynamics,
with and
clients.
(4) play
Doesan
this
unmetered
mean thattremolo,
these individuals
none of which,
have nothing
at facetovalue,
offer the
havefield
anyofparticular
music
therapy?
clinicalCertainly
purpose or
not!
require
It means
anythat
kindthey
of relationship
need to workwith
extraanother
hard toplayer.
find
and
Clinical
createmusic
opportunities
skills, on for
the meaningful
other hand, are
connections
employed with
whentheir
thoseown
same
music-making
therapists (1)and
maintain
a chance
a steady
to sharepulse
theseasexperiences
a way to with
provide
others.
needed
I
have
constancy
createdfor
some
the of
other
the players,
exercises(2)
in generate
this bookvaried
to assist
rhythmic
in this patterns
process,to
butdiscourage
this is only
unhealthy
the beginning.
rigidityThere
and entice
is always
novel
more
musical
work to
dialogue,
be done.(3)
And,
modify
whiledynamics
I firmly embrace
in order the
to model
value of
freedom
improvisation
of expression
as a therapeutic
of various
method,
feelingwhen
states,alland
is said
(4) play
and an
done,
unmetered
I also recognize
tremolo in
that
order
improvisation
to suspend isthe
notimprovisation
a good fit for
while
every
themusic
players
therapist.
switch instruments, reflect on what they
have
In preparing
just played,
thisorbook,
decide
it iswhat
my assumption
to play next.
thatInmost
other
undergraduate
words, music
students
therapists
(some
who percussion
have developed
majorsclinical
excepted)
musichave
skills
notarehad
able
sufficient
to create
foundational
music in antraining
authentic,
on communicative,
percussion instruments,
flexible, even
and intentional
though these
manner.
are
used
In more
this context,
often by authentic
certified music
meanstherapists
with genuineness
than other instruments
of expression,
in
group-based
communicative
improvisation
means with
(Hiller,
a desire
2006).
andInability
my experience,
to make meaningful
although
students
contact may
withhave
the taken
other aplayers,
course or
flexible
two inmeans
percussion
in a responsive
techniques or
and
percussion
adaptable pedagogy,
manner, and
unless
intentional
these means
courseswith
are ataught
clear clinical
or informed
purpose
byin
music
mind.therapy
It is, perhaps,
faculty, the
a combination
focus is almost
of these
always
fourondimensions
the playing,
that
teaching,
therapists
andultimately
maintenance
ought
of to
symphonic
strive to instruments.
achieve in their
I sense
improvisational
that this is
gradually
work. changing, with the increasing popularity of and media attention
to ethnic
Darnley-Smith
instruments and
and their
Pateyuse(2003)
in a wide
writevariety
about of
discerning
musical genres.
some of
Atthese
present,
clinical
however,
music abilities
most of in
thethestudents
potential
whom
musicI therapy
encounter
candidate:
have had
little or no prior training on the percussion instruments common to music
therapy improvisationdjembes,
In addition to playing prepared
congas, music,
bongos,
canbodhrans,
the playerhand-held
improvise
rhythm instruments,
in responseetc.
to For
another
this player?
reason, IDo
have
they
included
listen torhythm-based
what another
foundational
might
music
play and
skillrespond
exercises
in the
in moment?
this text,Can
interspersed
they use their
among
voice
exercises that
to sing
focus
expressively,
upon the use
even
of these
if theyskills
might
toward
neverspecific
have had
clinical
formal
aims.
Likewise,
homealthough
in playing
most
music.
musicians
It needs
have
to be
hadanadequate
integral part
training
of them,
in
identifyingboth
andin playing
terms of conventional
what they do Western
in their lives
scalesandand
as amodes
natural
(chromatic,
means
major,ofand
self-expression.
minor) and the
This
harmonies
is a relationship
based upon
which
them,formal
the
modalitiestraining
and harmonies
with a certificate
used in can
clinical
suggest
improvisation
but never guarantee.
reach beyond
(p. 57)
these to include unconventional tonal constructions. Thus, I have
included
It is obvious
some tonal-based
from my experiences
foundational
as music
an educator
skill exercises.
that some of the most
technically
The knowledge-based
or expressivelyand
talented
skill-based
students
competencies
(those whoinpossess
the book
solid
have
foundational
been created
skills)
primarily
have great
from
difficulty
my own
moving
work past
in the
printed
classroom
notes on
andthe
clinic
pagewith
in order
undergraduate
to reach this
students.
kind of As
personal
noted connection
above, I have
to their
alsoauthentic
relied
6 Gardstrom
Introduction 7
inner
generate
music
varied
andrhythmic
its outward
patterns,
communicative
(3) modifypower
dynamics,
with and
clients.
(4) play
Doesan
this
unmetered
mean thattremolo,
these individuals
none of which,
have nothing
at facetovalue,
offer the
havefield
anyofparticular
music
therapy?
clinicalCertainly
purpose or
not!
require
It means
anythat
kindthey
of relationship
need to workwith
extraanother
hard toplayer.
find
and
Clinical
createmusic
opportunities
skills, on for
the meaningful
other hand, are
connections
employed with
whentheir
thoseown
same
music-making
therapists (1)and
maintain
a chance
a steady
to sharepulse
theseasexperiences
a way to with
provide
others.
needed
I
have
constancy
createdfor
some
the of
other
the players,
exercises(2)
in generate
this bookvaried
to assist
rhythmic
in this patterns
process,to
butdiscourage
this is only
unhealthy
the beginning.
rigidityThere
and entice
is always
novel
more
musical
work to
dialogue,
be done.(3)
And,
modify
whiledynamics
I firmly embrace
in order the
to model
value of
freedom
improvisation
of expression
as a therapeutic
of various
method,
feelingwhen
states,alland
is said
(4) play
and an
done,
unmetered
I also recognize
tremolo in
that
order
improvisation
to suspend isthe
notimprovisation
a good fit for
while
every
themusic
players
therapist.
switch instruments, reflect on what they
have
In preparing
just played,
thisorbook,
decide
it iswhat
my assumption
to play next.
thatInmost
other
undergraduate
words, music
students
therapists
(some
who percussion
have developed
majorsclinical
excepted)
musichave
skills
notarehad
able
sufficient
to create
foundational
music in antraining
authentic,
on communicative,
percussion instruments,
flexible, even
and intentional
though these
manner.
are
used
In more
this context,
often by authentic
certified music
meanstherapists
with genuineness
than other instruments
of expression,
in
group-based
communicative
improvisation
means with
(Hiller,
a desire
2006).
andInability
my experience,
to make meaningful
although
students
contact may
withhave
the taken
other aplayers,
course or
flexible
two inmeans
percussion
in a responsive
techniques or
and
percussion
adaptable pedagogy,
manner, and
unless
intentional
these means
courseswith
are ataught
clear clinical
or informed
purpose
byin
music
mind.therapy
It is, perhaps,
faculty, the
a combination
focus is almost
of these
always
fourondimensions
the playing,
that
teaching,
therapists
andultimately
maintenance
ought
of to
symphonic
strive to instruments.
achieve in their
I sense
improvisational
that this is
gradually
work. changing, with the increasing popularity of and media attention
to ethnic
Darnley-Smith
instruments and
and their
Pateyuse(2003)
in a wide
writevariety
about of
discerning
musical genres.
some of
Atthese
present,
clinical
however,
music abilities
most of in
thethestudents
potential
whom
musicI therapy
encounter
candidate:
have had
therapy improvisationdjembes,
In addition to playing prepared
congas, music,
bongos,
canbodhrans,
the playerhand-held
improvise
rhythm instruments,
in responseetc.
to For
another
this player?
reason, IDo
have
they
included
listen torhythm-based
what another
foundational
might
music
play and
skillrespond
exercises
in the
in moment?
this text,Can
interspersed
they use their
among
voice
exercises that
to sing
focus
expressively,
upon the use
even
of these
if theyskills
might
toward
neverspecific
have had
clinical
formal
aims.
Likewise,
homealthough
in playing
most
music.
musicians
It needs
have
to be
hadanadequate
integral part
training
of them,
in
identifyingboth
andin playing
terms of conventional
what they do Western
in their lives
scalesandand
as amodes
natural
(chromatic,
means
major,ofand
self-expression.
minor) and the
This
harmonies
is a relationship
based upon
which
them,formal
the
modalitiestraining
and harmonies
with a certificate
used in can
clinical
suggest
improvisation
but never guarantee.
reach beyond
(p. 57)
included
It is obvious
some tonal-based
from my experiences
foundational
as music
an educator
skill exercises.
that some of the most
technically
The knowledge-based
or expressivelyand
talented
skill-based
students
competencies
(those whoinpossess
the book
solid
have
foundational
been created
skills)
primarily
have great
from
difficulty
my own
moving
work past
in the
printed
classroom
notes on
andthe
clinic
pagewith
in order
undergraduate
to reach this
students.
kind of As
personal
noted connection
above, I have
to their
alsoauthentic
relied
Introduction 7
inner music and its outward communicative power with clients. Does
this mean that these individuals have nothing to offer the field of music
therapy? Certainly not! It means that they need to work extra hard to find
and create opportunities for meaningful connections with their own
music-making and a chance to share these experiences with others. I
have created some of the exercises in this book to assist in this process,
but this is only the beginning. There is always more work to be done.
And, while I firmly embrace the value of improvisation as a therapeutic
method, when all is said and done, I also recognize that improvisation is
not a good fit for every music therapist.
In preparing this book, it is my assumption that most undergraduate
students (some percussion majors excepted) have not had sufficient
foundational training on percussion instruments, even though these are
used more often by certified music therapists than other instruments in
group-based improvisation (Hiller, 2006). In my experience, although
students may have taken a course or two in percussion techniques or
percussion pedagogy, unless these courses are taught or informed by
music therapy faculty, the focus is almost always on the playing,
teaching, and maintenance of symphonic instruments. I sense that this is
gradually changing, with the increasing popularity of and media attention
to ethnic instruments and their use in a wide variety of musical genres.
At present, however, most of the students whom I encounter have had
therapy improvisationdjembes, congas, bongos, bodhrans, hand-held
rhythm instruments, etc. For this reason, I have included rhythm-based
foundational music skill exercises in this text, interspersed among
exercises that focus upon the use of these skills toward specific clinical
aims.
Likewise, although most musicians have had adequate training in
identifying and playing conventional Western scales and modes
(chromatic, major, and minor) and the harmonies based upon them, the
modalities and harmonies used in clinical improvisation reach beyond
included some tonal-based foundational music skill exercises.
The knowledge-based and skill-based competencies in the book
have been created primarily from my own work in the classroom and
clinic with undergraduate students. As noted above, I have also relied
8 Gardstrom
heavily upon several of the facilitation techniques that appear in

Bruscias Sixty-Four Clinical Techniques in Improvisational Models of
Music Therapy (1987, pp. 533557). Those that I have chosen to include
verbatim from this comprehensive list are music-based techniques that
my students and I have found most pertinent to undergraduate preclinical and clinical training.
Altogether, the competencies pinpointed in this book fall into three
categories: Preparatory Skills, Facilitative Skills, and Verbal Processing
therapist that, in some cases, precede the arrival of the players and, in all
cases, precede the actual music improvisation. In the before, during, and
after of improvisation, Preparatory Skills are employed before the
Two), to manipulate the tools and settings used for improvisation,
including musical instruments (Chapter Three) and elements (Chapter
Four), and to determine suitable structures for improvisation (Chapter
Five).
Facilitative Skills revolve around the ability of the therapist to
employ techniques that will elicit a response from the players or shape
their immediate experience (Bruscia, 1987). In the before, during, and
after of improvisation, Facilitation Skills are employed during the
experience. These skills include the ability to use nonmusical (NM)
(Chapter Six) and musical (MU) techniques (Chapter Seven) in order to
engage your clients, and being able to listen (LI), comprehend, and
describe what is heard (Chapter Eight).
Verbal Processing Skills (VP) refer to those skills required to
effectively sort out and verbally process the improvisation experience. In
the before, during, and after of improvisation, Verbal Processing Skills
(Chapter Nine) are employed after the experience. These skills help the
therapist to recognize and discuss significant aspects of the experience
with clients and may assist her or his communication with co-therapists,
and/or supervisors.
Specific Preparatory, Facilitative, and Processing competencies are
displayed in Appendix A and at the top of certain sections within the
chapters that follow, as relevant. (Note: Appendix A can be used as a
competency checklist to track ongoing progress.)
8 Gardstrom
Introduction 5
definitions
heavily upon
of clinical
severalmusic
of the
improvisation
facilitation and
techniques
music improvisation
that appear in
appear
Bruscias
in Chapter
Sixty-Four
Two.) Clinical Techniques in Improvisational Models of
Music
TheTherapy
CBMT (1987,
Scope pp.
of 533557).
Practice (2005)
Those that
offers
I have
twochosen
items to
forinclude
our
consideration,
verbatim from
thethis
firstcomprehensive
under the heading
list Music
are music-based
Theory, Perception,
techniquesand
that
Skills
my in
students
Clinicaland
Situations:
I have found most pertinent to undergraduate preclinical and clinical training.
B.Altogether,
Music Skills
the and
competencies
Perception pinpointed in this book fall into three
categories:
4. Improvise
Preparatory
music
Skills,
(e.g.,Facilitative
vocal, instrumental)
Skills, and Verbal Processing
Although
therapistthe
that,
heading
in someindicates
cases, precede
that this
thecompetency
arrival of the
applies
players
to and,
clinical
in all
circumstances,
cases, precedethere
the actual
is, again,
no mention ofInclients
the before,
or therapeutic
during, and
processes.
after ofThe
improvisation,
second has greater
Preparatory
relevance
Skillsbutareis just
employed
as broad
before
as thethe
others:
Two),
A. Treatment
to manipulate
Implementation
the tools and settings used for improvisation,
including
3. Use
musical
methods
instruments
to achieve
(Chapter
therapeutic
Three)
goals
and elements (Chapter
Four), andh.toimprovise
determine
music
suitable
to facilitate
structures
therapeutic
for improvisation
processes (Chapter
Five).
It Facilitative
is my opinion
Skills
that students
revolve and
around
novice
thetherapists
ability ofneed
themore
therapist
clear-to
cutemploy
guidance
techniques
as they prepare
that willtoelicit
leadaclinical
response
improvisation
from the players
experiences.
or shape
Among
their immediate
the skill-based
experience
competencies,
(Bruscia, therapists
1987). In need
the before,
both nonmusical
during, and
and
after
musical
of improvisation,
skills in orderFacilitation
to become Skills
effective
are leaders.
employed
Simply
during
put,the
nonmusical
experience.competencies
These skills include
include verbal
the ability
skillsto and
use gestural
nonmusical
actions
(NM)
(movements
(Chapter Six)
performed
and musical
to communicate
(MU) techniques
feeling
(Chapter
or intention),
Seven) in order
whileto
musical
engage skills
your involve
clients, and
the musical
being able
actions
to listen
that (LI),
therapists
comprehend,
perform. and
I
believe
describe
that
what
these
is heard
two (Chapter
skill sets,
Eight).
nonmusical and musical, function
together
Verbal
towardProcessing
competent Skills
facilitation
(VP)ofrefer
clinical
to improvisation.
those skills required to
effectively
Whensort
I refer
out and
to the
verbally
musicalprocess
skills that
the improvisation
therapists needexperience.
in order toIn
lead
the clinical
before, improvisation,
during, and after
I am
of improvisation,
talking about Verbal
clinicalProcessing
music skills.
Skills
Implicit
(Chapterhere
Nine)
is are
thatemployed
the therapists
after the
have
experience.
already These
developed
skills certain
help the
necessary
therapist foundational
to recognize music
and discuss
skillstechnique,
significant aspects
expression,
of therepertoire,
experience
etc.,
withonclients
a primary
and may
instrument
assist herand
or several
his communication
additional instruments.
with co-therapists,
The
assumption
and/or supervisors.
is that therapists can learn to tailor these skills to the
therapeutic
Specific
setting
Preparatory,
in orderFacilitative,
to establishandand
Processing
maintaincompetencies
a meaningfulare
relationship
displayed in
with
Appendix
their clients
A andand
at the
helptop
these
of certain
clients sections
progresswithin
towardthe
established
chapters that
goals
follow,
and as
objectives.
relevant. Foundational
(Note: Appendix
music
A can
skills
be are,
used for
as a
example,
competency
whatchecklist
enable to
therapists
track ongoing
to (1)progress.)
maintain a steady pulse, (2)
Introduction 9
Introduction 9
Chapter Two
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THIS BOOK
TERMS AND NOMENCLATURE OF
This book contains 80 exercises designed to reinforce competency in the

aforementioned areas (seeIMPROVISATION
Appendix B). The exercises represent three
types of learning that have emerged as invariable aspects of the
FOUNDATIONAL
DEFINITIONS
introductory course
that I teach. I term
these Didactic Learning,
Experiential Learning, and Independent Skill Development. Didactic
Before we
make to
music,
let us spendtheoretical,
some time and/or
learning practical
about the
Learning
relates
philosophical,
vocabularythat
of isclinical
The comprehension
of a
information
communicated
via lecture, discussion,
and modeling.
specific
improvisation
vocabulary
is
a
desirable
knowledge-based
Experiential Learning refers to the students first-hand experiences in the
preparatory competency,
one that permeates
all didactic
aspects of
the work In
that
learning/therapy
group process
accompanies
instruction.
you
willof
do.learning, students have opportunities to observe, participate
this
form
in, co-lead, lead, and verbally process improvisation experiences. In
Competencies
addressed
in this section
include
to: students
Independent
Skill
Development,
the third
styletheofability
learning,
engage in skill-building experiences independently and with partners,
PR 1 of Define
clinicalsetting.
outside
the classroom
PRThe
2 Define
and
accurately
use Learning
terms relevant
to clinical Skill
music
exercises for Experiential
and Independent
improvisation
(e.g.,
procedure,
technique,
Development
are meant to
servemethod,
as a jumping
off point
in thereferential,
maturity
nonreferential,
etc.)As such, the reader should feel free to
of specific
competencies.
abbreviate, simplify, amplify, or modify the exercises as needed.
An adapted
version isofrecommended
Hillers (2006)
definition
Repetition
of exercises
if time
permits. of clinical music
improvisation
is used
in thisseveral,
book: diverse clinical vignettes designed
The book also
contains
to serve as models or challenge the reader to grapple with clinical
Clinicalto the
Music
Improvisation
decisions related
use of
improvisation.is the process whereby the
together for course,
purposes
If thistherapist
book is and
usedclient(s)
as a textimprovise
for an undergraduate
it isof
assessment,
treatment,
and/or evaluation.
In clinical
suggested therapeutic
that students
complete reading
assignments
prior to classroom
improvisation,
client and
therapist
relatetotopresent
one another
through
sessions and
that the instructor
allow
ample time
the material
thequestions
music, and
themay
improvisation
results
in a musical
that
and answer
that
arise before
proceeding
to theproduct
practical
varies
in
aesthetic,
expressive,
and
interpersonal
significance.
exercises. It is further recommended that the instructor assume a variety
of roles during the group exercises, including observer, facilitator, and
For ease ofThe
writing,
clinical music
improvisation
is sometimes
participant.
instructors
decision
of which part
to play, referred
like theto
herein asdecision
improvisation.
It isimprovisation,
understood that
this
does not
refer
therapists
in clinical
will
beterm
dependent
upon
theto
music
which
be defined
as follows:
goal
of improvisation,
the exercise and
thecan
particular
needs,
strengths, deficits, and
dynamics of the group. Each of these three roles has distinct advantages:
Improvisation
is the is
process
individuals
Acting asMusic
an observer,
the instructor
able towhereby
perceivethethe
whole
extemporaneously
create
music
while
singing
or
playing.
The
picture or attend to details that she or he may otherwise miss while

aforementioned areas (see Appendix B). The exercises represent three
introductory course that I teach. I term these Didactic Learning,
Learning relates to philosophical, theoretical, and/or practical
information that is communicated via lecture, discussion, and modeling.
learning/therapy group process that accompanies didactic instruction. In
this form of learning, students have opportunities to observe, participate
Independent Skill Development, the third style of learning, students
outside of the classroom setting.
The exercises for Experiential Learning and Independent Skill
Development are meant to serve as a jumping off point in the maturity
of specific competencies. As such, the reader should feel free to
Repetition of exercises is recommended if time permits.
The book also contains several, diverse clinical vignettes designed
decisions related to the use of improvisation.
If this book is used as a text for an undergraduate course, it is
suggested that students complete reading assignments prior to classroom
sessions and that the instructor allow ample time to present the material
and answer questions that may arise before proceeding to the practical
participant. The instructors decision of which part to play, like the
therapists decision in clinical improvisation, will be dependent upon the
goal of the exercise and the particular needs, strengths, deficits, and
Acting as an observer, the instructor is able to perceive the whole
10 Gardstrom
engaged in music-making. This role also affords the group an

opportunity to work through certain challenges without relying on the
certainty of being rescued by the leader. Acting as a facilitator, the
instructor can direct, model, and provide immediate feedback. Acting as
a participant with no leadership responsibilities, the instructor can share
in the experience of authentic expression and relate to the other players
with more equanimity and intimacy.
I strongly recommend periodic lengthening of appropriate exercises
in order to allow for sustained engagement in improvisation. Sustained
engagement (defined here as improvising in a continuous fashion for
more than five minutes) has several distinct benefits. First, players need
to build stamina in preparation for leading lengthy group improvisations.
Second, the improvisers usually develop confidence and become more
expressive as they become increasingly familiar with and trusting of their
instruments and the group process. Third, novel musical challenges
undoubtedly emerge as time passes, giving the players a chance to
employ coping and problem-solving skills. Finally, authentic
relationships among the players in a group usually need ample time to
emerge and mature.
At the end of each chapter, I have placed a vocabulary list of terms
that are considered to be important for review. The instructor and
students may use this list as a way to summarize the chapter, to review at
the start of each new class session, or to evaluate comprehension and
retention on a periodic basis. I have found that repeating a brief group
exercise from the previous session and asking students to demonstrate
what they have accomplished in their independent skill practice are
effective means of starting each new class session. At times, I have asked
individual students to begin the session by leading the group in an
original exercise that targets a specific competency.
If there are students in the classroom who have advanced musical
skills, they may be able to assume a greater leadership role than their
peers. For instance, they may take responsibility for starting or stopping
the improvisation experiences, providing individual assistance for the
players who are having difficulty with certain manipulative skills,
creating or adapting group exercises, and/or observing the improvisation
experiences and providing verbal feedback. I also have relied on the
10 Gardstrom
Introduction 11
advanced
engaged percussionists
in music-making.
to help This
me keep
role the
also
instruments
affords the
tunedgroup
and inan
good
opportunity
working condition.
to work through certain challenges without relying on the
instructor can
model,
Vocabulary
fordirect,
Chapter
One and provide immediate feedback. Acting as
in 1.the experience
expression
and(Creative
relate to Music
the other
players
Nordoff of
& authentic
Robbins Music
Therapy
Therapy)
with
more
equanimity
and
intimacy.
2.
Gestural
recommend
periodic
3. I strongly
Foundational
Music
Skills lengthening of appropriate exercises
in 4.order toClinical
allow for
sustained
Music
Skills engagement in improvisation. Sustained
engagement
(defined here as improvising in a continuous fashion for
5.
Authentic
more
five minutes) has several distinct benefits. First, players need
6. thanCommunicative
to 7.
build stamina
in preparation for leading lengthy group improvisations.
Flexible
Second,
the
improvisers
usually develop confidence and become more
8.
Intentional
expressive
as
they
become
increasingly familiar with and trusting of their
9.
Preparatory Skills
instruments
and the group
process.
10.
Nonmusical
Facilitative
SkillsThird, novel musical challenges
undoubtedly
emerge
as time Skills
passes, giving the players a chance to
11.
Musical
Facilitative
employ
coping
and problem-solving
skills. Finally, authentic
12.
Verbal Processing
Skills
relationships
amongLearning
the players in a group usually need ample time to
13.
Didactic
emerge
mature. Learning
14. and
Experiential
At
the
end
of eachSkill
chapter,
I have placed a vocabulary list of terms
15.
Independent
Development
that
to be important for review. The instructor and
16.are considered
Sustained Engagement
10 Gardstrom
Introduction 11
advanced
engaged percussionists
in music-making.
to help This
me keep
role the
also
instruments
affords the
tunedgroup
and inan
good
opportunity
working condition.
to work through certain challenges without relying on the
instructor can
model,
Vocabulary
fordirect,
Chapter
One and provide immediate feedback. Acting as
in 1.the experience
expression
and(Creative
relate to Music
the other
players
Nordoff of
& authentic
Robbins Music
Therapy
Therapy)
with
more
equanimity
and
intimacy.
2.
Gestural
recommend
periodic
3. I strongly
Foundational
Music
Skills lengthening of appropriate exercises
in 4.order toClinical
allow for
sustained
Music
Skills engagement in improvisation. Sustained
engagement
(defined here as improvising in a continuous fashion for
5.
Authentic
more
five minutes) has several distinct benefits. First, players need
6. thanCommunicative
to 7.
build stamina
in preparation for leading lengthy group improvisations.
Flexible
Second,
the
improvisers
usually develop confidence and become more
8.
Intentional
expressive
as
they
become
increasingly familiar with and trusting of their
9.
Preparatory Skills
instruments
and the group
process.
10.
Nonmusical
Facilitative
SkillsThird, novel musical challenges
undoubtedly
emerge
as time Skills
passes, giving the players a chance to
11.
Musical
Facilitative
employ
coping
and problem-solving
skills. Finally, authentic
12.
Verbal Processing
Skills
relationships
amongLearning
the players in a group usually need ample time to
13.
Didactic
emerge
mature. Learning
14. and
Experiential
At
the
end
of eachSkill
chapter,
I have placed a vocabulary list of terms
15.
Independent
Development
that
to be important for review. The instructor and
16.are considered
Introduction 11
advanced percussionists to help me keep the instruments tuned and in

good working condition.
Vocabulary for Chapter One

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Nordoff & Robbins Music Therapy (Creative Music Therapy)

Gestural
Foundational Music Skills
Clinical Music Skills
Authentic
Communicative
Flexible
Intentional
Preparatory Skills
Nonmusical Facilitative Skills
Musical Facilitative Skills
Verbal Processing Skills
Didactic Learning
Experiential Learning
Independent Skill Development
Introduction 9
Chapter Two
Chapter Two

IMPROVISATION
FOUNDATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Before we make music, let us spend some time learning about the
vocabulary of clinical music improvisation. The comprehension of a
specific improvisation vocabulary is a desirable knowledge-based
preparatory competency, one that permeates all aspects of the work that
you will do.
Competencies addressed in this section include the ability to:
PR 1
PR 2
Define clinical music improvisation.

Define and accurately use terms relevant to clinical music
improvisation (e.g., method, procedure, technique, referential,
nonreferential, etc.)
An adapted version of Hillers (2006) definition of clinical music

improvisation is used in this book:
Clinical Music Improvisation is the process whereby the
therapist and client(s) improvise together for purposes of
therapeutic assessment, treatment, and/or evaluation. In clinical
improvisation, client and therapist relate to one another through
the music, and the improvisation results in a musical product that
varies in aesthetic, expressive, and interpersonal significance.
For ease of writing, clinical music improvisation is sometimes referred to
herein as improvisation. It is understood that this term does not refer to
music improvisation, which can be defined as follows:
Music Improvisation is the process whereby the individuals
extemporaneously create music while singing or playing. The

aforementioned areas (seeIMPROVISATION
Appendix B). The exercises represent three
FOUNDATIONAL
DEFINITIONS
introductory course
that I teach. I term
these Didactic Learning,
Before we
make to
music,
let us spendtheoretical,
some time and/or
learning practical
about the
Learning
relates
philosophical,
vocabularythat
of isclinical
The comprehension
of a
information
communicated
via lecture, discussion,
and modeling.
specific
improvisation
vocabulary
is
a
desirable
knowledge-based
preparatory competency,
one that permeates
all didactic
aspects of
the work In
that
learning/therapy
group process
accompanies
instruction.
you
willof
do.learning, students have opportunities to observe, participate
this
form
Competencies
addressed
in this section
include
to: students
Independent
Skill
Development,
the third
styletheofability
learning,
PR 1 of Define
clinicalsetting.
outside
the classroom
PRThe
2 Define
and
accurately
use Learning
terms relevant
to clinical Skill
music
exercises for Experiential
and Independent
improvisation
(e.g.,
procedure,
technique,
Development
are meant to
servemethod,
as a jumping
off point
in thereferential,
maturity
nonreferential,
etc.)As such, the reader should feel free to
of specific
competencies.
An adapted
version isofrecommended
Hillers (2006)
definition
Repetition
of exercises
if time
permits. of clinical music
improvisation
is used
in thisseveral,
book: diverse clinical vignettes designed
The book also
contains
Clinicalto the
Music
Improvisation
decisions related
use of
improvisation.is the process whereby the
together for course,
purposes
If thistherapist
book is and
usedclient(s)
as a textimprovise
for an undergraduate
it isof
assessment,
treatment,
and/or evaluation.
In clinical
suggested therapeutic
that students
complete reading
assignments
prior to classroom
improvisation,
client and
therapist
relatetotopresent
one another
through
sessions and
that the instructor
allow
ample time
the material
thequestions
music, and
themay
improvisation
results
in a musical
that
and answer
that
arise before
proceeding
to theproduct
practical
varies
in
aesthetic,
expressive,
and
interpersonal
significance.
For ease ofThe
writing,
clinical music
improvisation
is sometimes
participant.
instructors
decision
of which part
to play, referred
like theto
herein asdecision
improvisation.
It isimprovisation,
understood that
this
does not
refer
therapists
in clinical
will
beterm
dependent
upon
theto
music
which
be defined
as follows:
goal
of improvisation,
the exercise and
thecan
particular
needs,
strengths, deficits, and
Improvisation
is the is
process
individuals
Acting asMusic
an observer,
the instructor
able towhereby
perceivethethe
whole
extemporaneously
create
music
while
singing
or
playing.
The
16 Gardstrom
Terms and Nomenclature 13
improvisation,
intent is most
(4) determine
often to produce
whether athe
musical
improvisation
product of
will
aesthetic
be solo
(clientvalue.
only),
In music
dyadicimprovisation,
(client andthe therapist),
individuals accompanied,
do not relate toor
unaccompanied,
one another(5)within
improvise,
a client-therapist
and (6) discuss
relationship,
the improvisation.
and neither the
The
process
final nor
term
theinoutcome
this section
is intended
is technique.
to be therapeutic
This word in
refers
any way
to the
in-the-moment
(Hiller, 2006).
actions of the therapist used to shape the immediate
experience of the client(s). More specifically, these are the verbal,
gestural,
Improvisations
and musical
may be
actions
solo, dyadic,
performed
or group.
by theSolo
therapist
improvisations
while the
involve
experience
one player
is occurring.
(client or For
therapist),
example,
dyadicin involve
group two
instrumental
players
(client
improvisation,
and therapist,
imitating
client one
and clients
client, therapist
rhythmicand
patterns
co-therapist),
is a musical
and
group
facilitation
involvetechnique
more thanthat
twothe
players
therapist
(clients
may
or employ
clients and
for therapists).
any numberInof
group
reasons,
improvisation,
such as to then,
encourage
it is possible
or validate
to that
employ
client
solo,
within
dyadic,
the larger
and
group
group.improvisations.
Chapters Six The
and primary
Seven refer
focusto of
Nonmusical
this bookand
is Musical
group
improvisation,
Facilitation Techniques,
in which more
respectively.
than two players are actively engaged in
spontaneous music-making at the same time.
The labelsand
therapist,
facilitator,
and leader are used synonymously
Referential
Nonreferential
Improvisations
in this text. The terms clients, improvisers, and players are also used
synonymously.
Although
the therapist
typically
improvises with
herterms
or
Let us move on
to the terms
referential
and nonreferential.
These
hisare
clients
and nor
thusare
may
beunique
considered
an improviser
or player, find
therethem
is
not new,
they
to clinical
improvisationwe
here
a
clear
distinction
between
the
person
who
is
primarily
responsible
in earlier writings about music, visual arts, and other aesthetic pursuits
for(Meyer,
planning1956)but
and facilitating
experience
the players
who are as
thean
whenthe
used
in this and
context,
they function
primary
focus
or areofintended
to receive
therapeutic (both
benefits
the
important
system
classification.
An the
improvisation
its of
process
improvisation
and product)experience.
is either referential or nonreferential.
Throughout
this improvisation
book, you will
terms in
effective
andto
A referential
is encounter
one that isthecreated
reference
effectively.
canmusic
mean itself
manyfor
things
in many
contexts;
in story,
this
somethingThese
otherwords
than the
example,
an image,
title,
text,
theseordescriptors
are During
employed
to referimprovisation,
to outcomes meaning
that are is
feeling,
work of art.
referential
successful
(toward
a
particular
clinical
aim)
and
to
client
experiences
thatby
formed from and revolves around the referent, which is preselected
arethe
meaningful
in some 2001).
way. Referential improvisations
therapist and/or
or the satisfying
clients (Bruscia,
refersorto programmatic.
improvisation that
created
canThe
alsoterm
be percussion-based
termed theme-based
The isexpression
with
percussive
on or by
the that
bodyattempts
and ontovarious
program
music sounds
has beengenerated
used to describe
music
suggest,
drums
instruments.
To clarify
further,
percussion
ratherand
thanhandheld
imitate, rhythm
sounds in
nature (birdsong,
water,
etc.) or
narratives
instruments
those
that are
meant to
be beaten
withtothe
hands
and
(poetry). I are
prefer
the term
referential
because
it seems
imply
a broader
struck
together
or
with
a
mallet
(strikers),
shaken
(shakers),
or
scraped
range of possible subject matter. It also allows for attempts at direct
(scrapers).
term
refers to improvisation
that ismusic
createdbut
imitation, The
which
is tonal-based
considered undesirable
in programmatic
with
melodies
and/or
harmonies
on tonal
instruments.
Tonal instruments
which
could be,
at times,
a desirable
outcome
in improvisation.
are those
that haveto the
capability
to produce
pitches
to formwe
In contrast
music
organized
around adistinct
referent,
sometimes
melodies
and harmonies.
Examples include
piano,
guitar,
voice,
andof
create nonreferential
improvisations
with our
clients.
These
types
barred instruments, such as glockenspiels, xylophones, metallophones,
and tone bars. I say have the capability because the aforementioned
intent is most often to produce a musical product of aesthetic

value. In music improvisation, the individuals do not relate to
one another within a client-therapist relationship, and neither the
process nor the outcome is intended to be therapeutic in any way
(Hiller, 2006).
Improvisations may be solo, dyadic, or group. Solo improvisations
involve one player (client or therapist), dyadic involve two players
(client and therapist, client and client, therapist and co-therapist), and
group involve more than two players (clients or clients and therapists). In
group improvisation, then, it is possible to employ solo, dyadic, and
group improvisations. The primary focus of this book is group
improvisation, in which more than two players are actively engaged in
The labels therapist, facilitator, and leader are used synonymously
synonymously. Although the therapist typically improvises with her or
his clients and thus may be considered an improviser or player, there is
here a clear distinction between the person who is primarily responsible
for planning and facilitating the experience and the players who are the
primary focus or are intended to receive the therapeutic benefits of the
improvisation experience.
Throughout this book, you will encounter the terms effective and
effectively. These words can mean many things in many contexts; in this
text, these descriptors are employed to refer to outcomes that are
successful (toward a particular clinical aim) and to client experiences that
are meaningful and/or satisfying in some way.
The term percussion-based refers to improvisation that is created
with percussive sounds generated on or by the body and on various
drums and handheld rhythm instruments. To clarify further, percussion
instruments are those that are meant to be beaten with the hands and
struck together or with a mallet (strikers), shaken (shakers), or scraped
(scrapers). The term tonal-based refers to improvisation that is created
with melodies and/or harmonies on tonal instruments. Tonal instruments
are those that have the capability to produce distinct pitches to form
melodies and harmonies. Examples include piano, guitar, voice, and
14 Gardstrom
tonal instruments can be employed in a percussive fashion; in fact, the

piano and barred instruments are considered percussion instruments.
Their categorization here thus depends upon how they are used. They are
percussive if used in a primarily rhythmic (versus tonal) manner in the
improvisation, and they are tonal if used in a primarily melodic or
harmonic (versus rhythmic) manner. Of course, in any given
improvisation, a tonal instrument may be used in both fashions.
In this book you will find words that are familiar to you but that
require definition in an improvisational context. Three such terms are
method, procedure, and technique. You will also encounter terms that
are likely unfamiliar to you, such as referential, nonreferential, referent,
and given. These and other associated terms come from a vocabulary and
nomenclature first coined by Bruscia (1987, 1989) and now used and
embellished by many practitioners who use improvisation regularly in
their work. It is crucial that you have a clear conceptualization of all of
these terms so that as you progress through this book, encounter other
resources on improvisation, talk about this method with others, and
facilitate clinical improvisation experiences, your understanding and
discourse will have clarity and integrity.
Clinical music improvisation is practiced according to a number of
different models. A music therapy model can be considered a
comprehensive approach that includes theoretical concepts, clinical
indications, goals and objectives, guidelines for implementation, and an
explanation of the typical manifestation of the model in actual practice
(Bruscia, 1998). Some music therapists align with Nordoff and Robbins
(1977), others practice Priestleys Analytical Music Therapy (1975), and
still others adhere to a model that is their own unique creation or
amalgam. Within each model of improvisation, clinicians use a
distinctive vocabulary and nomenclature to communicate about their
work. Even a cursory glance through Bruscias Improvisational Models
of Music Therapy (1987) will reveal myriad approaches to clinical
improvisation and the corresponding vocabularies that have been
developed to describe the processes and products of these various models.
14 Gardstrom
tonal instruments
employed in a percussive fashion; in fact, the
Method,
Procedure,can
andbeTechnique
Their
here thus
depends
upon howofthey
used.method,
They are
Let
us categorization
begin this section
with
a discussion
the are
terms
percussiveand
if used
in a primarily
rhythmic
tonal) manner
in the
procedure,
technique.
It is important
to (versus
do so because
often these
improvisation,
and
they
are
tonal
if
used
in
a
primarily
melodic
terms are used synonymously when, in fact, they mean very differentor
harmonic
OfDefining
course, Music
in any
given
things.
Each (versus
of these rhythmic)
concepts is manner.
detailed in
Therapy
improvisation,
a
tonal
instrument
may
be
used
in
both
fashions.
(Bruscia, 1998), so a brief description will suffice in this book. If you do
In this book
you will find
words the
thatconcepts
are familiar
you but
that
not understand
the differences
between
aftertohaving
read
require
definition
in to
anrefer
improvisational
this
section,
I urge you
to the originalcontext.
source. Three such terms are
method,
procedure,
andoftechnique.
also methods.
encounterAterms
that
Improvisation
is one
four basic You
musicwill
therapy
method
are
likely
unfamiliar
to
you,
such
as
referential,
nonreferential,
referent,
is a particular type of music experience used for assessment, treatment,
and given.
TheseThe
andfour
othermain
associated
come from
a vocabularyreand
and/or
evaluation.
types ofterms
experience
are improvising,
nomenclature
first
coined
by
Bruscia
(1987,
1989)
and
now
used
and
creating (playing and singing precomposed music), composition, and
embellished
by
many
practitioners
who
use
improvisation
regularly
listening. Sometimes, the first three are called active methods because inin
theirmethods,
work. It is
have a clear
conceptualization
these
thecrucial
clientsthat
andyou
therapist
are typically
involved of
in all
theof
theseproduction
terms so that
as you
progress
through
thisinstruments,
book, encounter
other
active
of sound
forms
and music
using
the body,
resources
onActive
improvisation,
talk about
this method
withor others,
and
and
the voice.
methods stand
in contrast
to listening
receptive
facilitate
clinical
improvisation
experiences,
your
understanding
and
methods, in which the clients do not produce the music, but rather act as
discourse
clarity and
integrity.
receivers
of will
and have
responders
to the
recorded or live music in the clinical
Clinical
music
improvisation
practiced
a number of
environment. (I wish to note that the isword
activeaccording
here referstospecifically
models.
A musicto therapy
model can during
be considered
todifferent
the clients
relationship
the music-making;
receptive a
comprehensive
that active
includesin theoretical
concepts, clinical
experiences,
the approach
clients are
many wayscognitively,
indications, goals
and objectives,
guidelines
implementation,
and an
emotionally,
physically,
etc.even
though for
they
are not actively
explanation
of
the
typical
manifestation
of
the
model
in
actual
practice
producing the music.)
(Bruscia,
Some music
therapists
Nordoff
and Robbins
Within1998).
each method,
there are
severalalign
wayswith
to design
an experience.
(1977),
others
practice
Priestleys
Analytical
Music
Therapy
(1975), and
For instance, in the improvisational method, a therapist might facilitate
a
still improvisation
others adherewith
to aa single
modelclient,
that is
their own
unique
creation
vocal
whereas
another
therapist
or theor
amalgam.
Within
each model
of improvisation,
clinicians use a
same
therapist
on another
day might
facilitate a percussion-based
distinctive vocabulary
and nomenclature
to communicate
about are
their
improvisation
with an entire
group of clients.
Both experiences
work.
Even
a
cursory
glance
through
Bruscias
Improvisational
Models
examples of the improvisational method, but each varies from the other
Music significant
Therapy (1987)
myriad approaches
to group
clinical
inofseveral
ways. will
The reveal
latter variation,
instrumental
improvisation
and
the
corresponding
vocabularies
that
have
been
improvisation, is the salient focus of this book.
developed
to describe
andorganized
products sequence
of these various
A procedure
is the the
sumprocesses
total of an
of stepsmodels.
that
the therapist develops and implements in order to guide the client(s)
through the music experience. For instance, in the individual vocal
improvisation mentioned above, the procedure might be as follows: (1)
discuss clients emotional state and primary needs, (2) warm up the voice
with simple vocal exercises, (3) decide upon a title or theme for the
14 Gardstrom
tonal instruments
employed in a percussive fashion; in fact, the
Method,
Procedure,can
andbeTechnique
Method, Procedure, and Technique

Their
here thus
depends
upon howofthey
used.method,
They are
Let
us categorization
begin this section
with
a discussion
the are
terms
percussiveand
if used
in a primarily
rhythmic
tonal) manner
in the
procedure,
technique.
It is important
to (versus
do so because
often these
improvisation,
and
they
are
tonal
if
used
in
a
primarily
melodic
terms are used synonymously when, in fact, they mean very differentor
harmonic
OfDefining
course, Music
in any
given
things.
Each (versus
of these rhythmic)
concepts is manner.
detailed in
Therapy
improvisation,
a
tonal
instrument
may
be
used
in
both
fashions.
In this book
you will find
words the
thatconcepts
are familiar
you but
that
not understand
the differences
between
aftertohaving
read
require
definition
in to
anrefer
improvisational
this
section,
I urge you
to the originalcontext.
source. Three such terms are
method,
procedure,
andoftechnique.
also methods.
encounterAterms
that
Improvisation
is one
four basic You
musicwill
therapy
method
are
likely
unfamiliar
to
you,
such
as
referential,
nonreferential,
referent,
and given.
TheseThe
andfour
othermain
associated
come from
a vocabularyreand
and/or
evaluation.
types ofterms
experience
are improvising,
nomenclature
first
coined
by
Bruscia
(1987,
1989)
and
now
used
and
creating (playing and singing precomposed music), composition, and
embellished
by
many
practitioners
who
use
improvisation
regularly
listening. Sometimes, the first three are called active methods because inin
theirmethods,
work. It is
have a clear
conceptualization
these
thecrucial
clientsthat
andyou
therapist
are typically
involved of
in all
theof
theseproduction
terms so that
as you
progress
through
thisinstruments,
book, encounter
other
active
of sound
forms
and music
using
the body,
resources
onActive
improvisation,
talk about
this method
withor others,
and
and
the voice.
methods stand
in contrast
to listening
receptive
facilitate
clinical
improvisation
experiences,
your
understanding
and
discourse
clarity and
integrity.
receivers
of will
and have
responders
to the
recorded or live music in the clinical
Clinical
music
improvisation
practiced
a number of
environment. (I wish to note that the isword
activeaccording
here referstospecifically
models.
A musicto therapy
model can during
be considered
todifferent
the clients
relationship
the music-making;
receptive a
comprehensive
that active
includesin theoretical
concepts, clinical
experiences,
the approach
clients are
many wayscognitively,
indications, goals
and objectives,
guidelines
implementation,
and an
emotionally,
physically,
etc.even
though for
they
are not actively
explanation
of
the
typical
manifestation
of
the
model
in
actual
practice
(Bruscia,
Some music
therapists
Nordoff
and Robbins
Within1998).
each method,
there are
severalalign
wayswith
to design
an experience.
(1977),
others
practice
Priestleys
Analytical
Music
Therapy
(1975), and
For instance, in the improvisational method, a therapist might facilitate
a
still improvisation
others adherewith
to aa single
modelclient,
that is
their own
unique
creation
vocal
whereas
another
therapist
or theor
amalgam.
Within
each model
of improvisation,
clinicians use a
same
therapist
on another
day might
facilitate a percussion-based
distinctive vocabulary
and nomenclature
to communicate
about are
their
improvisation
with an entire
group of clients.
Both experiences
work.
Even
a
cursory
glance
through
Bruscias
Improvisational
Models
Music significant
Therapy (1987)
myriad approaches
to group
clinical
inofseveral
ways. will
The reveal
latter variation,
instrumental
improvisation
and
the
corresponding
vocabularies
that
have
been
developed
to describe
andorganized
products sequence
of these various
A procedure
is the the
sumprocesses
total of an
of stepsmodels.
that
Let us begin this section with a discussion of the terms method,

procedure, and technique. It is important to do so because often these
terms are used synonymously when, in fact, they mean very different
things. Each of these concepts is detailed in Defining Music Therapy
not understand the differences between the concepts after having read
this section, I urge you to refer to the original source.
Improvisation is one of four basic music therapy methods. A method
and/or evaluation. The four main types of experience are improvising, recreating (playing and singing precomposed music), composition, and
listening. Sometimes, the first three are called active methods because in
these methods, the clients and therapist are typically involved in the
active production of sound forms and music using instruments, the body,
and the voice. Active methods stand in contrast to listening or receptive
receivers of and responders to the recorded or live music in the clinical
environment. (I wish to note that the word active here refers specifically
to the clients relationship to the music-making; during receptive
experiences, the clients are active in many wayscognitively,
emotionally, physically, etc.even though they are not actively
Within each method, there are several ways to design an experience.
For instance, in the improvisational method, a therapist might facilitate a
vocal improvisation with a single client, whereas another therapist or the
same therapist on another day might facilitate a percussion-based
improvisation with an entire group of clients. Both experiences are
in several significant ways. The latter variation, instrumental group
A procedure is the sum total of an organized sequence of steps that
16 Gardstrom
improvisation, (4) determine whether the improvisation will be solo

(client only), dyadic (client and therapist), accompanied, or
unaccompanied, (5) improvise, and (6) discuss the improvisation.
The final term in this section is technique. This word refers to the
in-the-moment actions of the therapist used to shape the immediate
gestural, and musical actions performed by the therapist while the
experience is occurring. For example, in group instrumental
improvisation, imitating one clients rhythmic patterns is a musical
facilitation technique that the therapist may employ for any number of
reasons, such as to encourage or validate that client within the larger
group. Chapters Six and Seven refer to Nonmusical and Musical
Facilitation Techniques, respectively.

Let us move on to the terms referential and nonreferential. These terms
are not new, nor are they unique to clinical improvisationwe find them
(Meyer, 1956)but when used in this context, they function as an
important system of classification. An improvisation (both its process
and product) is either referential or nonreferential.
A referential improvisation is one that is created in reference to
something other than the music itself for example, an image, title, story,
feeling, or work of art. During referential improvisation, meaning is
formed from and revolves around the referent, which is preselected by
the therapist or the clients (Bruscia, 2001). Referential improvisations
can also be termed theme-based or programmatic. The expression
program music has been used to describe music that attempts to suggest,
rather than imitate, sounds in nature (birdsong, water, etc.) or narratives
(poetry). I prefer the term referential because it seems to imply a broader
imitation, which is considered undesirable in programmatic music but
which could be, at times, a desirable outcome in improvisation.
In contrast to music organized around a referent, sometimes we
create nonreferential improvisations with our clients. These types of
16 Gardstrom
improvisation,
intent is most
(4) determine
often to produce
whether athe
musical
improvisation
product of
will
aesthetic
be solo
(clientvalue.
only),
In music
dyadicimprovisation,
(client andthe therapist),
individuals accompanied,
do not relate toor
unaccompanied,
one another(5)within
improvise,
a client-therapist
and (6) discuss
relationship,
the improvisation.
and neither the
The
process
final nor
term
theinoutcome
this section
is intended
is technique.
to be therapeutic
This word in
refers
any way
to the
in-the-moment
(Hiller, 2006).
actions of the therapist used to shape the immediate
gestural,
Improvisations
and musical
may be
actions
solo, dyadic,
performed
or group.
by theSolo
therapist
improvisations
while the
involve
experience
one player
is occurring.
(client or For
therapist),
example,
dyadicin involve
group two
instrumental
players
(client
improvisation,
and therapist,
imitating
client one
and clients
client, therapist
rhythmicand
patterns
co-therapist),
is a musical
and
group
facilitation
involvetechnique
more thanthat
twothe
players
therapist
(clients
may
or employ
clients and
for therapists).
any numberInof
group
reasons,
improvisation,
such as to then,
encourage
it is possible
or validate
to that
employ
client
solo,
within
dyadic,
the larger
and
group
group.improvisations.
Chapters Six The
and primary
Seven refer
focusto of
Nonmusical
this bookand
is Musical
group
improvisation,
Facilitation Techniques,
in which more
respectively.
than two players are actively engaged in
The labelsand
therapist,
facilitator,
and leader are used synonymously
Referential
Nonreferential
Improvisations
synonymously.
Although
the therapist
typically
improvises with
herterms
or
Let us move on
to the terms
referential
and nonreferential.
These
hisare
clients
and nor
thusare
may
beunique
considered
an improviser
or player, find
therethem
is
not new,
they
to clinical
improvisationwe
here
a
clear
distinction
between
the
person
who
is
primarily
responsible
for(Meyer,
planning1956)but
and facilitating
experience
the players
who are as
thean
whenthe
used
in this and
context,
they function
primary
focus
or areofintended
to receive
therapeutic (both
benefits
the
important
system
classification.
An the
improvisation
its of
process
improvisation
and product)experience.
is either referential or nonreferential.
Throughout
this improvisation
book, you will
terms in
effective
andto
A referential
is encounter
one that isthecreated
reference
effectively.
canmusic
mean itself
manyfor
things
in many
contexts;
in this
somethingThese
otherwords
than the
example,
an image,
title,
story,
text,
theseordescriptors
are During
employed
to referimprovisation,
to outcomes meaning
that are is
feeling,
work of art.
referential
successful
(toward
a
particular
clinical
aim)
and
to
client
experiences
thatby
formed from and revolves around the referent, which is preselected
arethe
meaningful
in some 2001).
way. Referential improvisations
therapist and/or
or the satisfying
clients (Bruscia,
refersorto programmatic.
improvisation that
created
canThe
alsoterm
be percussion-based
termed theme-based
The isexpression
with
percussive
on or by
the that
bodyattempts
and ontovarious
program
music sounds
has beengenerated
used to describe
music
suggest,
drums
instruments.
To clarify
further,
percussion
ratherand
thanhandheld
imitate, rhythm
sounds in
nature (birdsong,
water,
etc.) or
narratives
instruments
those
that are
meant to
be beaten
withtothe
hands
and
(poetry). I are
prefer
the term
referential
because
it seems
imply
a broader
struck
together
or
with
a
mallet
(strikers),
shaken
(shakers),
or
scraped
(scrapers).
term
refers to improvisation
that ismusic
createdbut
imitation, The
which
is tonal-based
considered undesirable
in programmatic
with
melodies
and/or
harmonies
on tonal
instruments.
Tonal instruments
which
could be,
at times,
a desirable
outcome
in improvisation.
are those
that haveto the
capability
to produce
pitches
to formwe
In contrast
music
organized
around adistinct
referent,
sometimes
melodies
and harmonies.
Examples include
piano,
guitar,
voice,
andof
create nonreferential
improvisations
with our
clients.
These
types
20 Gardstrom
improvisations
Wigram (2004)
areuses
created
the term
around
playand
rules
derive
to describe
their meaning
the concept
fromofand
givens,
in
relation
writing,to the music and sounds themselves. These improvisations are
sometimes called nonprogrammatic or free improvisations. I prefer the
term nonreferential,
Most of all,primarily
play rulesbecause
are structured
the word
in order
free to
may
give
besome
confused
sort of
with a particular
sense ofclinical
meaning
model
and attributed
direction totoJuliette
the improvisational
Alvin, Free
Improvisation
experiences
Therapythat
(1982),
are going
in which
on, either
no structures
at a purelywhatsoever
musical level
areor
imposed upon
at thethe
more
clients
therapeutic
improvisations.
level where
While
musical
some improvisation
nonreferential is
improvisations
applied
mayinbeclinical
truly free,
work.
others
They
may can
be structured
add a dimension
through theof
use of various
containment,
parameters,
safetyorand
givens.
security
Theto concept
an experience
of givens
that will
may well
be
explored more
feel both
fullychallenging
in this and subsequent
and unsafe for
chapters.
the client(s). (p. 41)
It bears mentioning that with both types of improvisation, referential
and
It should
nonreferential,
be obvious
different
that a types
referent
of ismeanings
a type ofmay
givenbeorattributed
play rule,after
as its
thevery
improvisation
purpose is tooccurs,
provide
as athe
structure
playersand
ponder
focus and/or
for the discuss
groups it.
musicIn
hindsight,
making. However,
for example,
as we
the shall
players
see,may
theregive
are meaning
other types
to aofreferential
givens that
improvisation
may be usedthat
singularly
does not
or in
relate
combination
in any way
to structure
to the pre-established
both referential
referent
and nonreferential
(Gardstrom,
improvisations.
2004). Likewise, after a nonreferential
improvisation,
Bruscia the
outlines
players
three
maytypes
attach
of agivens
title, suggesting
that may assist
an internal
the group
pointin
offocusing
referencethe(Priestley,
improvisation:
1994),vocabulary,
or ascribe procedural,
symbolic meanings
and interpersonal.
to the
improvisation
Vocabulary givens
(Bruscia,
are2001).
those parameters related to the number or sorts of
sounds
Somethatreferents
may be used
are byconsidered
the players,static
including
referents
what instruments
in that the
may
word/concept
be played and
being
in what
portrayed
manner.suggests
An example
musicofor
a vocabulary
sound that given
does is
notthe
change
specification
considerably
that over
only time.
instruments
Examplesplayed
of staticwith
referents
mallets
are be
sleepy
used.
time,
Procedural
calm, and
givens,
a busy
as city
the street.
name Note
implies,
that static
relatedoes
to not
aspects
refer toof
theimprovisation
quality of theprocedure,
music itselfa
and often
busyguide
streetthe
implies
timing
loud
(sequence
sounds,or
a quick
length)
tempo,
of events
and thick
withintexturesbut
the piece. Anrather
example
to theof sameness
a procedural
of the
given
musical
is the
elements
mandateover
that time.
a group
A dynamic
of playersreferent,
improvise
on continuously
the other hand,
for isnoone
lessthat
than
involves
eight minutes.
musicalInterpersonal
movement and
givens
change
are used
fromto beginning
specify thetotypes
end.of
Examples
relationships
of dynamic
that are
referents
createdare
between
a typical
theday,
players,
theeither
storm,prior
and to
thethe
progression
improvisation
of my
or illness.
as it unfolds.
Sometimes
An example
referents
ofare
an used
interpersonal
in tandemgiven
with is
one
theanother
directive
as atoguide
play for
in particular
shifting from
dyads
thewithin
representation
the group.
of one
Theconcept
reader is
toreferred
its opposite.
to Bruscias
Examples
Improvisational
of such continuum
Modelsreferents
of MusicareTherapy
anxious
(1987)
to
calm
for more
and detailed
denial information
to acceptance.
aboutContinuum
these three referents
types of parameters
are alwaysas
dynamic,
well as considerations
in that the music
for changes
their selection
as players
and implementation.
move from one end of the
continuum
Givens,
to the
including
other. Appendix
referents, Cmay
contains
be established
further examples
by the therapist
of static,or
dynamic,
the members
and of
continuum
the group,referents
depending
thatonmay
a variety
have ofutility
factors.
in They
clinical
may
improvisation.
be based upon a preconceived plan of action or an immediate need that
improvisations are created around and derive their meaning from and in
relation to the music and sounds themselves. These improvisations are
term nonreferential, primarily because the word free may be confused
with a particular clinical model attributed to Juliette Alvin, Free
Improvisation Therapy (1982), in which no structures whatsoever are
imposed upon the clients improvisations. While some nonreferential
improvisations may be truly free, others may be structured through the
use of various parameters, or givens. The concept of givens will be
explored more fully in this and subsequent chapters.
and nonreferential, different types of meanings may be attributed after
the improvisation occurs, as the players ponder and/or discuss it. In
hindsight, for example, the players may give meaning to a referential
improvisation that does not relate in any way to the pre-established
referent (Gardstrom, 2004). Likewise, after a nonreferential
improvisation, the players may attach a title, suggesting an internal point
of reference (Priestley, 1994), or ascribe symbolic meanings to the
improvisation (Bruscia, 2001).
Some referents are considered static referents in that the
word/concept being portrayed suggests music or sound that does not
change considerably over time. Examples of static referents are sleepy
time, calm, and a busy city street. Note that static does not refer to
the quality of the music itselfa busy street implies loud sounds, a quick
tempo, and thick texturesbut rather to the sameness of the musical
elements over time. A dynamic referent, on the other hand, is one that
involves musical movement and change from beginning to end.
Examples of dynamic referents are a typical day, the storm, and the
progression of my illness. Sometimes referents are used in tandem with
one another as a guide for shifting from the representation of one concept
to its opposite. Examples of such continuum referents are anxious to
calm and denial to acceptance. Continuum referents are always
dynamic, in that the music changes as players move from one end of the
continuum to the other. Appendix C contains further examples of static,
dynamic, and continuum referents that may have utility in clinical
improvisation.
18 Gardstrom
Ex 21 (Experiential) Optional
If members of the group already have a functional understanding of the
instruments of improvisation (see Chapter Three), play through several
of the static and dynamic referents in Appendix C. Discuss the outcomes.
As the therapist moves through all phases of an improvisation
experience, from planning to evaluating, she or he will encounter both
process and product, two dimensions of improvisation that are
inextricably linked. In short, process refers to the manner in which the
improvisation unfolds, or the how of the experience (who plays what,
in what manner, when, and with whom), and the product is the actual
music that results from that process of unfolding, or the what of the
experience. The juxtaposition of the dimensions of how and what
with the dimensions of referential and nonreferential makes for countless
combinations of action and sound. Let us explore a few scenarios.
As noted, a referential improvisation flows from, is guided by, and
derives meaning in relationship to an external referent. Using sounds and
music, the players strive to symbolize that referent. At times this process
happens individually, even within group treatment, with each players
attention turned toward the referent and the degree to which her or his
own playing matches her or his concept of the referent. In this case, each
improvisers focus is on her or his own playing, rather than on the
actions of the other individual players or on the total group process. As
you may imagine, at times the product that results from this kind of
process sounds more like a collection of concurrent individual
improvisations, similar yet unrelated. This reminds me of what someone
would hear during a stroll through an open air market, in which each of
the street vendors cries out for the same purpose, yet where each cry is
distinctive from and somewhat misaligned with the next.
In contrast, there are times when a group rallies collectively around
a referent and the result is a highly unified and sophisticated musical
product. This may occur, for example, when the members have a strong
sense of group identity because they have played together frequently or
over a long period of time. Even in fledgling groups, particularly when
18 Gardstrom
members have lived through common hardships (cancer, death of a

spouse,Ex physical
21 (Experiential)
abuse, Optional
suicide, mental illness, etc.), intimate
relationships can develop quickly. In these cases, each player may give
more
If members
attentionoftothethe
group
otheralready
players,
have
anda the
functional
musicalunderstanding
product resulting
of the
from
instruments
this attentive
of improvisation
process may sound
(see Chapter
more cohesive.
Three), play through several
of the
Notice
staticthat
and dynamic
I say this
referents
mayinoccur.
AppendixThis
C. Discuss
is because
the outcomes.
group
cohesiveness is neither a surefire guarantee of nor a prerequisite for a
cohesive
Asprocess
the therapist
or product.
moves
There
through
are many
all other
phasesfactors
of anthat
improvisation
enter into
theexperience,
equation. from
One planning
such factor
to evaluating,
is the specific
she or
referent
he willapplied
encounter
to the
both
improvisation.
process and This
product,
structural
two device
dimensions
has a bearing
of improvisation
upon both process
that are
and
inextricably
product. Consider,
linked. Infor
short,
example,
processtherefers
wordtodisengaged
the manner in
versus
whichthethe
word
improvisation
solidarityunfolds,
or the continuum
or the how
referent
of theour
experience
family, before
(who plays
and after
what,
treatment.
in what manner,
With thewhen,
first referent,
and with one
whom),
wouldand
expect
the product
the improvisers
is the actual
to
play
music
in athat
disconnected
results from
manner
that process
resultingofinunfolding,
disconnected
or the
sounds;
whatinofthethe
latter
experience.
instances,
The
thejuxtaposition
themes themselves
of the suggest
dimensions
that of
thehow
group and
members
what
would
with the
attempt
dimensions
to workofmore
referential
closely
andtogether
nonreferential
in ordermakes
to represent
for countless
the
referent,
combinations
listening
of and
action
responding
and sound.
toLet
oneusanothers
explore amusic
few scenarios.
in a concerted
fashion.As noted, a referential improvisation flows from, is guided by, and
derives
The meaning
process of
in relationship
releasing and
to an
providing
externalrelief
referent.
from
Using
conscious
sounds or
and
unconscious
music, the players
(repressed)
strive
feelings
to symbolize
is calledthat
catharsis.
referent.Cathartic
At timesexpression
this process
can
happens
occur individually,
during instrumental
even within
improvisation;
group treatment,
the resulting
with each
product
players
is
called
attention
an expressive
turned toward
sound
theform.
referent
(Theand
word
the form
degree to
here
which
refers
hertooranhis
entity,
own playing
not an ordered
matchespattern.)
her or his
Forconcept
example,
of the
consider
referent.
three
In siblings
this case,who
each
areimprovisers
depicting their
focus
feelings
is on of
herrage
or toward
his ownsomeone
playing,who
rather
has than
abused
on orthe
betrayed
actions them.
of theWhat
other emerges
individual
is aplayers
very loud
or onpiece
the total
without
group
a constant
process.orAs
predictable
you may pulse,
imagine,
without
at times
a cohesive
the product
melodythat
or harmony,
results from
andthis
without
kind aof
distinguishable
process sounds
overarching
more like
plan.a The
collection
authenticofoutpouring
concurrent
of profound
individual
psychological
improvisations,
material,
similarsuch
yet unrelated.
as feelings
This
of reminds
rage, is me
often
of emancipated
what someone
from
would
the hear
conventional
during a stroll
rhythmic,
through
tonal,
an and
openformal
air market,
structures
in which
that typify
each of
music
the street
and distinguish
vendors cries
it from
out sound.
for the same purpose, yet where each cry is
GivensIn contrast, there are times when a group rallies collectively around
may of
occur,
for example,
members have
strong
Inproduct.
this finalThis
section
the chapter,
I willwhen
sharethe
a definition
of thea term
senseand
of describe
group identity
because types.
they have
played together
given
three specific
A parameter
or givenfrequently
(Bruscia,or
over can
a long
of time.
Even in fledgling
particularly
1987)
be period
considered
a structure,
limit, orgroups,
consideration
for when
the
improvisation. It serves to direct the groups attention and provides
the players with a common focus around which to interact (p. 175).
18 Gardstrom

spouse,Ex physical
21 (Experiential)
abuse, Optional
suicide, mental illness, etc.), intimate
more
If members
attentionoftothethe
group
otheralready
players,
have
anda the
functional
musicalunderstanding
product resulting
of the
from
instruments
this attentive
of improvisation
process may sound
(see Chapter
more cohesive.
Three), play through several
of the
Notice
staticthat
and dynamic
I say this
referents
mayinoccur.
AppendixThis
C. Discuss
is because
the outcomes.
group
cohesive
Asprocess
the therapist
or product.
moves
There
through
are many
all other
phasesfactors
of anthat
improvisation
enter into
theexperience,
equation. from
One planning
such factor
to evaluating,
is the specific
she or
referent
he willapplied
encounter
to the
both
improvisation.
process and This
product,
structural
two device
dimensions
has a bearing
of improvisation
upon both process
that are
and
inextricably
product. Consider,
linked. Infor
short,
example,
processtherefers
wordtodisengaged
the manner in
versus
whichthethe
word
improvisation
solidarityunfolds,
or the continuum
or the how
referent
of theour
experience
family, before
(who plays
and after
what,
treatment.
in what manner,
With thewhen,
first referent,
and with one
whom),
wouldand
expect
the product
the improvisers
is the actual
to
play
music
in athat
disconnected
results from
manner
that process
resultingofinunfolding,
disconnected
or the
sounds;
whatinofthethe
latter
experience.
instances,
The
thejuxtaposition
themes themselves
of the suggest
dimensions
that of
thehow
group and
members
what
would
with the
attempt
dimensions
to workofmore
referential
closely
andtogether
nonreferential
in ordermakes
to represent
for countless
the
referent,
combinations
listening
of and
action
responding
and sound.
toLet
oneusanothers
explore amusic
few scenarios.
in a concerted
fashion.As noted, a referential improvisation flows from, is guided by, and
derives
The meaning
process of
in relationship
releasing and
to an
providing
externalrelief
referent.
from
Using
conscious
sounds or
and
unconscious
music, the players
(repressed)
strive
feelings
to symbolize
is calledthat
catharsis.
referent.Cathartic
At timesexpression
this process
can
happens
occur individually,
during instrumental
even within
improvisation;
group treatment,
the resulting
with each
product
players
is
called
attention
an expressive
turned toward
sound
theform.
referent
(Theand
word
the form
degree to
here
which
refers
hertooranhis
entity,
own playing
not an ordered
matchespattern.)
her or his
Forconcept
example,
of the
consider
referent.
three
In siblings
this case,who
each
areimprovisers
depicting their
focus
feelings
is on of
herrage
or toward
his ownsomeone
playing,who
rather
has than
abused
on orthe
betrayed
actions them.
of theWhat
other emerges
individual
is aplayers
very loud
or onpiece
the total
without
group
a constant
process.orAs
predictable
you may pulse,
imagine,
without
at times
a cohesive
the product
melodythat
or harmony,
results from
andthis
without
kind aof
distinguishable
process sounds
overarching
more like
plan.a The
collection
authenticofoutpouring
concurrent
of profound
individual
psychological
improvisations,
material,
similarsuch
yet unrelated.
as feelings
This
of reminds
rage, is me
often
of emancipated
what someone
from
would
the hear
conventional
during a stroll
rhythmic,
through
tonal,
an and
openformal
air market,
structures
in which
that typify
each of
music
the street
and distinguish
vendors cries
it from
out sound.
for the same purpose, yet where each cry is
GivensIn contrast, there are times when a group rallies collectively around
may of
occur,
for example,
members have
strong
Inproduct.
this finalThis
section
the chapter,
I willwhen
sharethe
a definition
of thea term
senseand
of describe
group identity
because types.
they have
played together
given
three specific
A parameter
or givenfrequently
(Bruscia,or
over can
a long
of time.
Even in fledgling
particularly
1987)
be period
considered
a structure,
limit, orgroups,
consideration
for when
the

spouse, physical abuse, suicide, mental illness, etc.), intimate
more attention to the other players, and the musical product resulting
from this attentive process may sound more cohesive.
Notice that I say this may occur. This is because group
cohesive process or product. There are many other factors that enter into
the equation. One such factor is the specific referent applied to the
improvisation. This structural device has a bearing upon both process
and product. Consider, for example, the word disengaged versus the
word solidarity or the continuum referent our family, before and after
treatment. With the first referent, one would expect the improvisers to
play in a disconnected manner resulting in disconnected sounds; in the
latter instances, the themes themselves suggest that the group members
would attempt to work more closely together in order to represent the
referent, listening and responding to one anothers music in a concerted
fashion.
The process of releasing and providing relief from conscious or
unconscious (repressed) feelings is called catharsis. Cathartic expression
can occur during instrumental improvisation; the resulting product is
called an expressive sound form. (The word form here refers to an
entity, not an ordered pattern.) For example, consider three siblings who
are depicting their feelings of rage toward someone who has abused or
betrayed them. What emerges is a very loud piece without a constant or
predictable pulse, without a cohesive melody or harmony, and without a
distinguishable overarching plan. The authentic outpouring of profound
psychological material, such as feelings of rage, is often emancipated
from the conventional rhythmic, tonal, and formal structures that typify
music and distinguish it from sound.
Givens
In this final section of the chapter, I will share a definition of the term
given and describe three specific types. A parameter or given (Bruscia,
1987) can be considered a structure, limit, or consideration for the
20 Gardstrom
Wigram (2004) uses the term play rules to describe the concept of givens,
writing,
Most of all, play rules are structured in order to give some sort of
sense of meaning and direction to the improvisational
experiences that are going on, either at a purely musical level or
at the more therapeutic level where musical improvisation is
applied in clinical work. They can add a dimension of
containment, safety and security to an experience that may well
feel both challenging and unsafe for the client(s). (p. 41)
It should be obvious that a referent is a type of given or play rule, as its
very purpose is to provide a structure and focus for the groups musicmaking. However, as we shall see, there are other types of givens that
may be used singularly or in combination to structure both referential
and nonreferential improvisations.
Bruscia outlines three types of givens that may assist the group in
focusing the improvisation: vocabulary, procedural, and interpersonal.
Vocabulary givens are those parameters related to the number or sorts of
sounds that may be used by the players, including what instruments may
be played and in what manner. An example of a vocabulary given is the
specification that only instruments played with mallets be used.
Procedural givens, as the name implies, relate to aspects of
improvisation procedure, and often guide the timing (sequence or length)
of events within the piece. An example of a procedural given is the
mandate that a group of players improvise continuously for no less than
eight minutes. Interpersonal givens are used to specify the types of
relationships that are created between the players, either prior to the
improvisation or as it unfolds. An example of an interpersonal given is
the directive to play in particular dyads within the group. The reader is
referred to Bruscias Improvisational Models of Music Therapy (1987)
for more detailed information about these three types of parameters as
well as considerations for their selection and implementation.
Givens, including referents, may be established by the therapist or
the members of the group, depending on a variety of factors. They may
20 Gardstrom
improvisations
Wigram (2004)
areuses
created
the term
around
playand
rules
derive
to describe
their meaning
the concept
fromofand
givens,
in
relation
writing,to the music and sounds themselves. These improvisations are
term nonreferential,
Most of all,primarily
play rulesbecause
are structured
the word
in order
free to
may
give
besome
confused
sort of
with a particular
sense ofclinical
meaning
model
and attributed
direction totoJuliette
the improvisational
Alvin, Free
Improvisation
experiences
Therapythat
(1982),
are going
in which
on, either
no structures
at a purelywhatsoever
musical level
areor
imposed upon
at thethe
more
clients
therapeutic
improvisations.
level where
While
musical
some improvisation
nonreferential is
improvisations
applied
mayinbeclinical
truly free,
work.
others
They
may can
be structured
add a dimension
through theof
use of various
containment,
parameters,
safetyorand
givens.
security
Theto concept
an experience
of givens
that will
may well
be
explored more
feel both
fullychallenging
in this and subsequent
and unsafe for
chapters.
the client(s). (p. 41)
and
It should
nonreferential,
be obvious
different
that a types
referent
of ismeanings
a type ofmay
givenbeorattributed
play rule,after
as its
thevery
improvisation
purpose is tooccurs,
provide
as athe
structure
playersand
ponder
focus and/or
for the discuss
groups it.
musicIn
hindsight,
making. However,
for example,
as we
the shall
players
see,may
theregive
are meaning
other types
to aofreferential
givens that
improvisation
may be usedthat
singularly
does not
or in
relate
combination
in any way
to structure
to the pre-established
both referential
referent
and nonreferential
(Gardstrom,
improvisations.
2004). Likewise, after a nonreferential
improvisation,
Bruscia the
outlines
players
three
maytypes
attach
of agivens
title, suggesting
that may assist
an internal
the group
pointin
offocusing
referencethe(Priestley,
improvisation:
1994),vocabulary,
or ascribe procedural,
symbolic meanings
and interpersonal.
to the
improvisation
Vocabulary givens
(Bruscia,
are2001).
those parameters related to the number or sorts of
sounds
Somethatreferents
may be used
are byconsidered
the players,static
including
referents
what instruments
in that the
may
word/concept
be played and
being
in what
portrayed
manner.suggests
An example
musicofor
a vocabulary
sound that given
does is
notthe
change
specification
considerably
that over
only time.
instruments
Examplesplayed
of staticwith
referents
mallets
are be
sleepy
used.
time,
Procedural
calm, and
givens,
a busy
as city
the street.
name Note
implies,
that static
relatedoes
to not
aspects
refer toof
theimprovisation
quality of theprocedure,
music itselfa
and often
busyguide
streetthe
implies
timing
loud
(sequence
sounds,or
a quick
length)
tempo,
of events
and thick
withintexturesbut
the piece. Anrather
example
to theof sameness
a procedural
of the
given
musical
is the
elements
mandateover
that time.
a group
A dynamic
of playersreferent,
improvise
on continuously
the other hand,
for isnoone
lessthat
than
involves
eight minutes.
musicalInterpersonal
movement and
givens
change
are used
fromto beginning
specify thetotypes
end.of
Examples
relationships
of dynamic
that are
referents
createdare
between
a typical
theday,
players,
theeither
storm,prior
and to
thethe
progression
improvisation
of my
or illness.
as it unfolds.
Sometimes
An example
referents
ofare
an used
interpersonal
in tandemgiven
with is
one
theanother
directive
as atoguide
play for
in particular
shifting from
dyads
thewithin
representation
the group.
of one
Theconcept
reader is
toreferred
its opposite.
to Bruscias
Examples
Improvisational
of such continuum
Modelsreferents
of MusicareTherapy
anxious
(1987)
to
calm
for more
and detailed
denial information
to acceptance.
aboutContinuum
these three referents
types of parameters
are alwaysas
dynamic,
well as considerations
in that the music
forchanges
their selection
as players
and implementation.
move from one end of the
continuum
Givens,
to the
including
other. Appendix
referents, Cmay
contains
be established
further examples
by the therapist
of static,or
dynamic,
the members
and of
continuum
the group,referents
depending
thatonmay
a variety
have ofutility
factors.
in They
clinical
may
improvisation.
24 Gardstrom
arises during
10. the Strikers
session. Oftentimes, the group members or therapist
will select11.
a referent
Shakers
for an improvisation in response to the preceding
improvisation.
12. You
Scrapers
will gain practice in determining suitable givens for
group improvisation
13.
Model
as you work through the various exercises in this
book.
14.
Method
15.
Procedure
16.
Technique
Improvisation Versus
a Drum Circle
17.
Referential
18. thatReferent
It is critical
you understand the distinction between clinical
19. and Programmatic
improvisation
a drum circle. The two experiences are often mistaken
20.
Theme-based
for one another,
even
though they are more different than alike. Reread
21.
the definition of Nonreferential
Clinical Music Improvisation that appears at the
Nonprogrammatic
beginning 22.
of this chapter.
(Do it now!) Contrast this with the following
23.
Freecircle, excerpted from the website of Arthur Hull
description of a drum
24.
Static
Referent
(2006), considered
by many
to be the father of community drum
Dynamic Referent
circles: 25.
26.
Continuum Referent
27.
Process
A drum circle
is the use of a rhythm based event as a tool for
28.
unitya Product
collaboratively, self-organized and musical event
29. inCatharsis
created
the moment by all the people who participate and a
30. of Sound
Form timeless joy, passion, and release through
means
expressing
the31.
power Givens
of rhythm.
32.
Play Rules
33.
You can see rightVocabulary
away that Givens
there are similarities between community
34.
Procedural
Givens
drumming and percussion-based
group improvisation. Both experiences
35. of Interpersonal
Givens
involve groups
people making
music together, and both are oriented
36. andDrum
around drums
other Circle
rhythm instruments. However, each centers on
different purposes, materials, processes, role relationships, and outcomes.
Table 1, below, may help you make a side-by-side comparison of the two
experiences. Perhaps most importantly, improvisation is geared around
individualized needs as determined through assessment, whereas the
primary intent of a drum circle is to promote social unity and personal
enjoyment through rhythm-based playing. You are encouraged to visit
the aforementioned website and others like it in order to increase your
awareness.
arises during the session. Oftentimes, the group members or therapist

will select a referent for an improvisation in response to the preceding
improvisation. You will gain practice in determining suitable givens for
group improvisation as you work through the various exercises in this
book.

It is critical that you understand the distinction between clinical
improvisation and a drum circle. The two experiences are often mistaken
for one another, even though they are more different than alike. Reread
the definition of Clinical Music Improvisation that appears at the
beginning of this chapter. (Do it now!) Contrast this with the following
description of a drum circle, excerpted from the website of Arthur Hull
(2006), considered by many to be the father of community drum
circles:
A drum circle is the use of a rhythm based event as a tool for
unitya collaboratively, self-organized and musical event
created in the moment by all the people who participate and a
means of expressing timeless joy, passion, and release through
the power of rhythm.
You can see right away that there are similarities between community
drumming and percussion-based group improvisation. Both experiences
involve groups of people making music together, and both are oriented
around drums and other rhythm instruments. However, each centers on
awareness.
22 Gardstrom
22 Gardstrom
Table 1
A comparison of features of clinical music improvisation and a drum
circle
Table 1
may of
be directive
is directive
A comparisonFacilitator
of features
clinical or
musicFacilitator
improvisation
and a drum
nondirective
circle
Purpose/Aim
Materials
Processes
Roles and
Relationships
Improvisation
Oriented around growth and
development in functional
domains (social, emotional,
communicative, physical, etc.)
Drum Circle
Oriented around social and
recreational aims (building a
sense of community, sharing
rhythm, having fun)
Based on individualized
assessment and planning
Include all instruments, voice,
body sounds
No basis in formal,
individualized assessment or
planning
Include drums and handheld
percussion instruments
Referential or nonreferential
Nonreferential
Rhythmic or arrhythmic
Musical or musical and verbal
Rhythmic
Musical
Intrapersonal and
interpersonal
Facilitator
establishes personal
Improvisation
relationship with clients
Purpose/Aim
Facilitator uses techniques to
accomplish therapeutic aims
Materials
Facilitator
does not establish
Drum Circle
relationship with individual
participants
Facilitator uses techniques
rhythm, having fun)
to accomplish social and
recreational aims
No basis in formal,
Clients respond to inherent
Participants respond to and
planning
challenges and play within
play within fundamental
Include
all
instruments,
voice,
Include(Hull,
drums
and handheld
established givens
groove
2006)
body sounds
Participants abide by
Nonreferential
accepted
drum circle
etiquette (Hull, 2006)
Rhythmic
Progress toward a sense of
Musical enjoyment
community,
Somewhat intrapersonal, but

primarily interpersonal
Clients abide by unique

Referential
or nonreferential
rules
established
within the
improvisation group
Progress toward individual
Musical
or musical
and verbal
and
collective
goals and
objectives
Intrapersonal and
interpersonal
Musical
product may or may
Structured or unstructured
Highly structured
not be heard as aesthetically

pleasing
heard as aesthetically
Highly structured
pleasing
Processes shaped by
therapeutic aims
Processes shaped by social

and recreational aims
Processes shaped
by
Periodically
evaluated
therapeutic aims
Processes
by social
Not
formallyshaped
evaluated
Documented
Clients have personal
disability, illness, or special
need
Not documented
Clients do not necessarily
have a personal disability,
illness or special need
Group members are typically

homogeneous
Participants are typically

heterogeneous
Facilitator is a MT-BC
Facilitator is not typically a

MT-BC
Outcomes
Processes
Vocabulary for Chapter

Two
Documented
Roles and
1.
Clinical
Music
Improvisation
Relationships
disability,
illness,
or special
need Improvisation
2.
Music
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Solo Improvisation
Group members
are typically
Dyadic
Improvisation
homogeneous
Group Improvisation
Therapist/Facilitator/Leader
Clients/Improvisers/Players
Effective/Effectively
Percussion-based

primarily
interpersonal
Musical
product
is typically
Not documented
heterogeneous
MT-BC
22 Gardstrom
Table 1
may of
be directive
is directive
A comparisonFacilitator
of features
clinical or
musicFacilitator
improvisation
and a drum
nondirective
circle
Facilitator may be directive or

nondirective
Facilitator is directive
Facilitator
does not establish
Drum Circle
participants
rhythm, having fun)
recreational aims
No basis in formal,
planning
Include
all
instruments,
voice,
Include(Hull,
drums
and handheld
established givens
groove
2006)
body sounds
Facilitator establishes personal

Facilitator does not establish

participants


recreational aims

established givens

groove (Hull, 2006)

Referential
or nonreferential
rules
established
within the
improvisation group
Musical
or musical
and verbal
and
collective
goals and
objectives
Intrapersonal and
interpersonal
Musical
product may or may
Nonreferential
accepted
drum circle
Rhythmic
Musical enjoyment
community,

rules established within the
improvisation group
and collective goals and
objectives
accepted drum circle
community, enjoyment

pleasing
Highly structured
pleasing
Musical product may or may

pleasing
Musical product is typically

pleasing
Processes shaped
by
Periodically
evaluated
therapeutic aims
Processes
by social
Not
formallyshaped
evaluated
Periodically evaluated
Not formally evaluated
Facilitator
establishes personal
Improvisation
Purpose/Aim
Materials
Outcomes
Processes
Vocabulary for Chapter

Two
Documented
Roles and
1.
Clinical
Music
Improvisation
Relationships
disability,
illness,
or special
need Improvisation
2.
Music
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Solo Improvisation
Group members
are typically
Dyadic
Improvisation
homogeneous
Group Improvisation
Percussion-based
Outcomes

primarily
interpersonal
Musical
product
is typically
Not documented
heterogeneous
MT-BC
Vocabulary for Chapter Two

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Clinical Music Improvisation

Music Improvisation
Solo Improvisation
Dyadic Improvisation
Group Improvisation
Percussion-based
24 Gardstrom
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
Strikers
Shakers
Scrapers
Model
Method
Procedure
Technique
Referential
Referent
Programmatic
Theme-based
Nonreferential
Nonprogrammatic
Free
Static Referent
Dynamic Referent
Continuum Referent
Process
Product
Catharsis
Sound Form
Givens
Play Rules
Vocabulary Givens
Procedural Givens
Interpersonal Givens
Drum Circle
24 Gardstrom
arises during
10. the Strikers
session. Oftentimes, the group members or therapist
will select11.
a referent
Shakers
for an improvisation in response to the preceding
improvisation.
12. You
Scrapers
will gain practice in determining suitable givens for
group improvisation
13.
Model
as you work through the various exercises in this
book.
14.
Method
15.
Procedure
16.
Technique
Improvisation Versus
a Drum Circle
17.
Referential
18. thatReferent
It is critical
you understand the distinction between clinical
19. and Programmatic
improvisation
a drum circle. The two experiences are often mistaken
20.
Theme-based
for one another,
even
though they are more different than alike. Reread
21.
the definition of Nonreferential
Clinical Music Improvisation that appears at the
Nonprogrammatic
beginning 22.
of this chapter.
(Do it now!) Contrast this with the following
23.
Freecircle, excerpted from the website of Arthur Hull
description of a drum
24.
Static
Referent
(2006), considered
by many
to be the father of community drum
Dynamic Referent
circles: 25.
26.
Continuum Referent
27.
Process
A drum circle
is the use of a rhythm based event as a tool for
28.
unitya Product
collaboratively, self-organized and musical event
29. inCatharsis
created
the moment by all the people who participate and a
30. of Sound
Form timeless joy, passion, and release through
means
expressing
the31.
power Givens
of rhythm.
32.
Play Rules
33.
You can see rightVocabulary
away that Givens
there are similarities between community
34.
Procedural
Givens
drumming and percussion-based
group improvisation. Both experiences
35. of Interpersonal
Givens
involve groups
people making
music together, and both are oriented
36. andDrum
around drums
other Circle
rhythm instruments. However, each centers on
awareness.
28 Gardstrom
Ex 31 (Independent Chapter
Skill Development)
Three
Set aside ample and uninterrupted time to examine the instruments one
OF appeals
IMPROVISATION
by one. INSTRUMENTS
Start with the one that
most to your senses. Look
carefully at its shape; what does it remind you of? Hold the instrument,
and notice the way INSTRUMENTARIUM
it feels in your hands and/or against your body.
Consider the instrument as an extension of your body, and play it
Competencies
in this section
include
ability to:
accordingly, addressed
with as natural
a movement
asthe
possible.
Experiment with
so-called conventional and unconventional playing techniques.
PRExplore
3
Identify
by namedynamic
all instruments
the audible
improvisation
the instruments
range, from in
barely
to barely
instrumentarium.
tolerable.
AsNote:
you prepare
to use
leadTable
group2improvisation,
you will
to gain
access
You may
below to complete
thisneed
exercise,
describing
tosome
a wide
variety of instruments.
like
many music
youfind
areto
unconventional
techniquesIf,
and
commenting
on therapists,
anything you
traveling
to
your
clients
in
hospitals,
schools,
nursing
homes,
clinics,
be significant about each instrument.
community centers, etc., the instruments you select will need to be
portable.
Table 2 This means that you will have a combination of drums, handheld
rhythm (Portable)
instruments,
and barred melodic
instruments.
You may also
Suggested
Instrumentarium
for Group
Improvisation
find use for an electronic keyboard, guitar, or any number of woodwind,
string,
or brass instruments, depending
upon your client
configuration,
Instrument
Unconventional
Comments
their clinical goals and objectives,
and
your
treatment
setting.
If you are
Playing Techniques
fortunate
enough
to
have
a
home
base
for
treatment
sessions,
you may
1. Agogo Bells
have access to larger instruments, such as a piano or trap set. (The human
voice,2.a powerful
Bodhran tool in clinical improvisation, is not specifically
addressed in this text.) Your unique collection of percussion and tonal
instruments
is called your instrumentarium.
3. Bongos
Table 2 below contains a generous array of percussion and tonal
instruments
suitable for clinical improvisation with a range of individuals
4. Cabasa
and for a multiplicity of clinical aims. Most of these instruments can be
found 5.at music
Chimestores
Tree in urban areas or online through any number of
reputable music merchants.
6. Chromatic Bells
Chapter Three
INSTRUMENTS OF IMPROVISATION
INSTRUMENTARIUM
PR 3
Identify by name all instruments in the improvisation

instrumentarium.
As you prepare to lead group improvisation, you will need to gain access
to a wide variety of instruments. If, like many music therapists, you are
traveling to your clients in hospitals, schools, nursing homes, clinics,
portable. This means that you will have a combination of drums, handheld rhythm instruments, and barred melodic instruments. You may also
string, or brass instruments, depending upon your client configuration,
their clinical goals and objectives, and your treatment setting. If you are
fortunate enough to have a home base for treatment sessions, you may
voice, a powerful tool in clinical improvisation, is not specifically
instruments is called your instrumentarium.
instruments suitable for clinical improvisation with a range of individuals
found at music stores in urban areas or online through any number of
Mallets
Mallets
7. Claves
It is important to mention that your experience of playing percussion
instruments
(and your clients experiences) will differ considerably
8. Conga
depending upon whether you are using your hands or mallets. Mallets
serve as an extension of your hands and, thus, an extension of the

instruments (and your clients experiences) will differ considerably
26 Gardstrom
movements you are producing. Different mallet lengths and heads

produce different sensations and sound outcomes. It is worth your time to
experiment with the differences between hand and mallet playing with all
of the exercises in this chapter and those in subsequent chapters.
When using two mallets with novice players, I recommend matched
grip rather than traditional grip. Matched grip involves holding both
mallets in the same fashion, between the first joint of the index finger
with the other fingers wrapped loosely around the shaft of the mallet.
Matched grip is sometimes termed bicycle grip in that it resembles the
way one holds the handles of a bicycle, with the backs of the hands
facing upward. The stroke is identical in the left and right hands, and
consists of a natural down-up motion.
Occasionally, you will encounter clients who have trained with
traditional grip and prefer it to a matched style. Traditional grip, used in
some marching bands, involves holding the right stick as in matched grip
and the shaft of the left mallet under the thumb and between the second
and third fingers. The strokes of the left and right hand are not identical;
the left stroke involves a sideways motion of the wrist, which many
players may find awkward and difficult to control.

Once you have established an instrumentarium, it is critical that you
become intimately familiar with every piece in your collection. This
means first learning what to call each of them. (I have a distressing
memory of a rather ill-prepared and anxious student who, when
introducing the instruments to a group of adults in a psychiatric hospital,
referred to the cabasa as this shaky thing-a-ma-bob. It occurred to me
at the time that this was a fair description of the student herself!) I prefer
that our students use proper musical terminology with their clients, rather
than slang terms or simplified names. If a child has difficulty saying or
recalling the proper name of an instrument, however, it may be prudent
to simplify, as long as the new name is used consistently during the
sessions and, if possible, in other environments in which the child
encounters that same instrument. If you choose a new name, use one that
somehow relates to the sound of the instrument, the manner in which it is
played, or the way it looks, in order that it become more memorable. I
may refer to maracas as shakers, for example, or claves as click
26 Gardstrom
Instruments 27
sticks.
movements
With adults
you are
who producing.
have typicalDifferent
verbal functioning,
mallet lengths
there should
and heads
be
noproduce
need todifferent
alter the sensations
names of the
andinstruments,
sound outcomes.
but clients
It is worth
may your
need time
theirto
memories
experiment
jogged
withprior
the differences
to the improvisation.
between hand and mallet playing with all
of the
You
exercises
must also
in this
learnchapter
a bit about
and those
the history
in subsequent
of each instrument,
chapters. how
it feelsWhen
to play
usingit,
twothe
mallets
various
withways
noviceitplayers,
can beI recommend
sounded (playing
matched
configuration),
grip rather than
andtraditional
the unique
grip.
physical
Matched
challenges
grip involves
that itholding
presents.
both
Learning
mallets in
about
the same
the instruments
fashion, between
in your
the first
instrumentarium
joint of the index
will take
finger
considerable
with the other
timefingers
and practice,
wrapped
but loosely
this kindaround
of knowledge
the shaftand
of skill
the mallet.
with
your
Matched
professional
grip is sometimes
tools of the
termed
trade
bicycle
is absolutely
grip in imperative.
that it resembles
Whenthe
students
way one
question
holds the
whyhandles
music therapists
of a bicycle,
spend
with
so the
much
backs
timeofand
theeffort
hands
developing
facing upward.
performance
The stroke
skills,
is identical
I remindin them
the left
that
andweright
have
hands,
to be
and
competent
consists ofenough
a natural
on down-up
the various
motion.
instruments of improvisation that we
can, in Occasionally,
a sense, forgetyou
about
will
ourencounter
own playing
clients
so aswho
to focus
haveour
trained
attention
with
squarely
traditional
upongrip
the and
client.
prefer it to a matched style. Traditional grip, used in
Ambidexterity
the left
stroke
involves
a sidewaysskill,
motion
of the we
wrist,
which
While
we are
discussing
performance
and before
launch
into many
the
players
may
find
awkward
and
difficult
to
control.
first rhythmic exercise, let me mention that as a facilitator, you ought to
strive toward ambidexterity with the instruments, that is, the ability to
Getting
to Know
Your
Instruments
use
your left
and right
hands
with equal ease and expertise. There are a
number of reasons for this. One is that sometimes you will need to
demonstrate
patterns an
involving
extensive use
one arm/hand
Once you rhythmic
have established
instrumentarium,
it isofcritical
that you
orbecome
the other,
especially
if youwith
are every
tryingpiece
to encourage
the use ofThis
a
intimately
familiar
in your collection.
particular
side learning
of the body.
timesofyou
will(Ineed
for
means first
what At
to other
call each
them.
haveto amodel
distressing
players
whoofareaseated
from you.and
In this
case, ifstudent
the client
intends
memory
ratheracross
ill-prepared
anxious
who,
when
tointroducing
play Right-Left-Right-Right
you will
to playhospital,
Leftthe instruments to (R-L-R-R),
a group of adults
in aneed
psychiatric
Right-Left-Left
(L-R-L-L)
in shaky
mirrorthing-a-ma-bob.
fashion. Another
reason toforme
referred to the cabasa
as this
It occurred
developing
it frequently
necessary
to
at the timeambidexterity
that this was aisfairthat
description
of the becomes
student herself!)
I prefer
conduct
group use
or physically
assistterminology
a client while
to play
that ourthe
students
proper musical
withcontinuing
their clients,
rather
(see
Chapter
Six). If
client happens
seated
your dominant
than
slang terms
or that
simplified
names. Iftoabe
child
has on
difficulty
saying or
side,
the nondominant
arm/hand
be pressed
into itaction.
recalling
the proper name
of an may
instrument,
however,
may beFinally,
prudent
there
will mostascertainly
of your
arms or during
hands isthe
to simplify,
long as be
thetimes
new when
name one
is used
consistently
fatigued
andand,
you if
must
rest while
to play with
other.the child
sessions
possible,
in continuing
other environments
inthe
which
In order that
to develop
ambidexterity,
anytime
playname,
the exercises
encounters
same instrument.
If you
chooseyou
a new
use one in
that
this
book, berelates
sure totoexplore
a variety
Left-Rightthe
(L-R)
configurations.
somehow
the sound
of the of
instrument,
manner
in which it is
26 Gardstrom
Instruments 27
sticks.
movements
With adults
you are
who producing.
have typicalDifferent
verbal functioning,
mallet lengths
there should
and heads
be
noproduce
need todifferent
alter the sensations
names of the
andinstruments,
sound outcomes.
but clients
It is worth
may your
need time
theirto
memories
experiment
jogged
withprior
the differences
between hand and mallet playing with all
of the
You
exercises
must also
in this
learnchapter
a bit about
and those
the history
in subsequent
of each instrument,
chapters. how
it feelsWhen
to play
usingit,
twothe
mallets
various
withways
noviceitplayers,
can beI recommend
sounded (playing
matched
configuration),
grip rather than
andtraditional
the unique
grip.
physical
Matched
challenges
grip involves
that itholding
presents.
both
Learning
mallets in
about
the same
the instruments
fashion, between
in your
the first
instrumentarium
joint of the index
will take
finger
considerable
with the other
timefingers
and practice,
wrapped
but loosely
this kindaround
of knowledge
the shaftand
of skill
the mallet.
with
your
Matched
professional
grip is sometimes
tools of the
termed
trade
bicycle
is absolutely
grip in imperative.
that it resembles
Whenthe
students
way one
question
holds the
whyhandles
music therapists
of a bicycle,
spend
with
so the
much
backs
timeofand
theeffort
hands
developing
facing upward.
performance
The stroke
skills,
is identical
I remindin them
the left
that
andweright
have
hands,
to be
and
competent
consists ofenough
a natural
on down-up
the various
motion.
instruments of improvisation that we
can, in Occasionally,
a sense, forgetyou
about
will
ourencounter
own playing
clients
so aswho
to focus
haveour
trained
attention
with
squarely
traditional
upongrip
the and
client.
prefer it to a matched style. Traditional grip, used in
Ambidexterity
the left
stroke
involves
a sidewaysskill,
motion
of the we
wrist,
which
While
we are
discussing
performance
and before
launch
into many
the
players
may
find
awkward
and
difficult
to
control.
Getting
to Know
Your
Instruments
use
your left
and right
hands
with equal ease and expertise. There are a
demonstrate
patterns an
involving
extensive use
one arm/hand
Once you rhythmic
have established
instrumentarium,
it isofcritical
that you
orbecome
the other,
especially
if youwith
are every
tryingpiece
to encourage
the use ofThis
a
intimately
familiar
in your collection.
particular
side learning
of the body.
timesofyou
will(Ineed
for
means first
what At
to other
call each
them.
haveto amodel
distressing
players
whoofareaseated
from you.and
In this
case, ifstudent
the client
intends
memory
ratheracross
ill-prepared
anxious
who,
when
tointroducing
play Right-Left-Right-Right
you will
to playhospital,
Leftthe instruments to (R-L-R-R),
a group of adults
in aneed
psychiatric
Right-Left-Left
(L-R-L-L)
in shaky
mirrorthing-a-ma-bob.
fashion. Another
reason toforme
referred to the cabasa
as this
It occurred
developing
it frequently
necessary
to
at the timeambidexterity
that this was aisfairthat
description
of the becomes
student herself!)
I prefer
conduct
group use
or physically
assistterminology
a client while
to play
that ourthe
students
proper musical
withcontinuing
their clients,
rather
(see
Chapter
Six). If
client happens
seated
your dominant
than
slang terms
or that
simplified
names. Iftoabe
child
has on
difficulty
saying or
side,
the nondominant
arm/hand
be pressed
into itaction.
recalling
the proper name
of an may
instrument,
however,
may beFinally,
prudent
there
will mostascertainly
of your
arms or during
hands isthe
to simplify,
long as be
thetimes
new when
name one
is used
consistently
fatigued
andand,
you if
must
rest while
to play with
other.the child
sessions
possible,
in continuing
other environments
inthe
which
In order that
to develop
ambidexterity,
anytime
playname,
the exercises
encounters
same instrument.
If you
chooseyou
a new
use one in
that
this
book, berelates
sure totoexplore
a variety
Left-Rightthe
(L-R)
configurations.
somehow
the sound
of the of
instrument,
manner
in which it is
Instruments 27
sticks. With adults who have typical verbal functioning, there should be
no need to alter the names of the instruments, but clients may need their
memories jogged prior to the improvisation.
You must also learn a bit about the history of each instrument, how
it feels to play it, the various ways it can be sounded (playing
configuration), and the unique physical challenges that it presents.
Learning about the instruments in your instrumentarium will take
considerable time and practice, but this kind of knowledge and skill with
your professional tools of the trade is absolutely imperative. When
students question why music therapists spend so much time and effort
developing performance skills, I remind them that we have to be
competent enough on the various instruments of improvisation that we
can, in a sense, forget about our own playing so as to focus our attention
squarely upon the client.
Ambidexterity
While we are discussing performance skill, and before we launch into the
use your left and right hands with equal ease and expertise. There are a
demonstrate rhythmic patterns involving extensive use of one arm/hand
or the other, especially if you are trying to encourage the use of a
particular side of the body. At other times you will need to model for
players who are seated across from you. In this case, if the client intends
to play Right-Left-Right-Right (R-L-R-R), you will need to play LeftRight-Left-Left (L-R-L-L) in mirror fashion. Another reason for
developing ambidexterity is that it frequently becomes necessary to
conduct the group or physically assist a client while continuing to play
(see Chapter Six). If that client happens to be seated on your dominant
side, the nondominant arm/hand may be pressed into action. Finally,
there will most certainly be times when one of your arms or hands is
fatigued and you must rest while continuing to play with the other.
In order to develop ambidexterity, anytime you play the exercises in
this book, be sure to explore a variety of Left-Right (L-R) configurations.
28 Gardstrom
28 Gardstrom
Ex 31 (Independent Skill Development)
Ex 31 (Independent Chapter
Skill Development)
Three
by one. Start with the one that appeals most to your senses. Look
and notice the way it feels in your hands and/or against your body.
accordingly, with as natural a movement as possible. Experiment with
Explore the instruments dynamic range, from barely audible to barely
tolerable.
OF appeals
IMPROVISATION
by one. INSTRUMENTS
Start with the one that
most to your senses. Look
and notice the way INSTRUMENTARIUM
it feels in your hands and/or against your body.
Competencies
in this section
include
ability to:
accordingly, addressed
with as natural
a movement
asthe
possible.
Experiment with
PRExplore
3
Identify
by namedynamic
all instruments
the audible
improvisation
the instruments
range, from in
barely
to barely
instrumentarium.
tolerable.
Note: You may use Table 2 below to complete this exercise, describing
some unconventional techniques and commenting on anything you find to
AsNote:
you prepare
to use
leadTable
group2improvisation,
you will
to gain
access
You may
below to complete
thisneed
exercise,
describing
tosome
a wide
variety of instruments.
like
many music
youfind
areto
unconventional
techniquesIf,and
commenting
on therapists,
anything you
traveling
to
your
clients
in
hospitals,
schools,
nursing
homes,
clinics,
portable.
Table 2 This means that you will have a combination of drums, handheld
rhythm (Portable)
instruments,
and barred melodic
instruments.
You may also
Suggested
Instrumentarium
for Group
Improvisation
string,
or brass instruments, depending
upon your client
configuration,
Instrument
Unconventional
Comments
their clinical goals and objectives,
and
your
treatment
setting.
If you are
Playing Techniques
fortunate
enough
to
have
a
home
base
for
treatment
sessions,
you may
1. Agogo Bells
voice,2.a powerful
Bodhran tool in clinical improvisation, is not specifically
instruments
is called your instrumentarium.
3. Bongos
instruments
suitable for clinical improvisation with a range of individuals
4. Cabasa
found 5.at music
Chimestores
Tree in urban areas or online through any number of
Table 2
Suggested (Portable) Instrumentarium for Group Improvisation
Instrument
1. Agogo Bells
2. Bodhran
3. Bongos
4. Cabasa
5. Chime Tree
6. Chromatic Bells
7. Claves
8. Conga
Unconventional
Playing Techniques
Comments
6. Chromatic Bells
Mallets
7. Claves
instruments
(and your clients experiences) will differ considerably
8. Conga
32 Gardstrom
Instruments 29
Instruments 29
stress
how important it is to give careful consideration to the structural
9. Cowbell
and aesthetic quality, number, and specific types of instruments that you
make
for group improvisation. A nonchalant approach to these
10. available
Crash Cymbal
decisions could lead to any number of detrimental outcomes, some of
which
I have witnessed.
11. Cymbal
on Stand A lack of quality in construction, for instance,
will likely affect client participation. No one wants to play something
that
12. appears
Djembe shabby or produces a displeasing sound! Too few
instruments could result in client frustration, because options dwindle as
successive
group members make their selections or worse, because
13. Doumbek
someone is left without an instrument to play. A dearth of preferred
instruments
among the selection could lead to resistance, and a lack of
14. Egg Shakers
variety could restrict client musical and emotional expression.
15. Finger Cymbals
9. Cowbell
16. Frame Drum

Unfortunately, there are therapists who use substandard instruments in
their
17. clinical
Ganza improvisation. Two specific examples include the use of
poorly constructed or homemade instruments that produce a meager or
inauthentic
soundDrum
and the employment of childrens instruments (frog
18. Gathering
maracas, mini tubano, etc.) with adults. Each and every instrument you
offer
a client for the purpose of improvising should be matched to that
19. to
Gong
players attributes and should be of the highest-quality construction,
appearance,
20. Guiro and, most importantly, sound. Well-constructed instruments
tend to be more durable and predictable over time. Perhaps most
importantly,
the investment in well-manufactured instruments conveys
21. Jingle Bells
an attitude of respect for ones self as a professional, for the client as a
musical human being, and for the music itself.
22. Maracas
Suitable instruments for clinical improvisation may be electric or
acoustic; acoustic instruments may be orchestral (tympani, glockenspiel,
23. Ocean Drum
etc.) or ethnic. Ethnic instruments typically originate in Africa (talking
drum, djembe, etc.), Latin America (claves, maracas, etc.), or Asia and
24. Paddle Drum
the Middle East (gong, doumbek, etc.).
16. Frame Drum
Quality
25. Rainstick
10. Crash Cymbal

11. Cymbal on Stand
12. Djembe
13. Doumbek
14. Egg Shakers
15. Finger Cymbals
17. Ganza
18. Gathering Drum
19. Gong
20. Guiro
21. Jingle Bells
22. Maracas
23. Ocean Drum
24. Paddle Drum
Number
25. Rainstick
26. Rhythm Sticks

Like every other clinical decision you make as you prepare for
improvisation experiences, the number of instruments you provide for
the players depends first and foremost upon the clinical aim. In general,
26. Rhythm Sticks
30 Gardstrom
30 Gardstrom
32 (Independent Skill Development)

27.ExSandblocks
27. Sandblocks
28. Sheker
29. Slit Drum
30. Snare Drum
31. Talking Drum
32. Tambourine
33. Temple Blocks
34. Tom-toms
35. Triangle
36. Tubano
37. Woodblock
38. Wristbells
37. Alto
Metallophone
Instruments 31
Now that
you have examined the look and feel of the instruments and
28. Sheker
various ways to manipulate them, revisit each one and consider its
29. Slit Drum
characteristic
timbre(s) more fully. Again, start with the one that appeals
the most to you. What does its sound remind you of? Can you find a word
30. Snare
Drumthis sound?
or phrase
to describe
Talking
Drum
I 31.
often
use the
following structure with groups of clients who are
discovering the instruments of improvisation for the first time. I find it to
32. Tambourine
be a helpful
introductory experience because it allows each person to
explore the sound possibilities of every instrument in the circle, while
also demanding
a bit
of interaction among the players.
33. Temple
Blocks
Ex
(Experiential Learning)
34.33
Tom-toms
Sit in 35.
a circle,
Triangleeach player with a different instrument, if possible.
Designate a leader who will sit outside of the circle (or in the very center)
and establish
a steady beat. Join in with your own rhythms and continue
36. Tubano
to improvise with the beat until the leader breaks from pulse and plays a
rhythmic
to signal a change. At this point, pass your instrument to
37. figure
Woodblock
the person on your right and accept a new instrument from the person on
your left.
Listen for the leaders return to pulse, and continue the
38. Wristbells
sequence until all players have sounded all instruments in the circle.
Afterward,
discuss which instrument(s) you preferred, which were easiest
37. Alto
and most difficult to play, etc.
Metallophone
38. Soprano
Glockenspiel
SELECTING THE INSTRUMENTS

38. Soprano
Glockenspiel
39. Alto
Xylophone
PR 4
40. Tone Bar

41.
39. Alto
Select
instruments for the improvisation experience based upon
Xylophone
knowledge and perception of the players attributes, needs, and
objectives.
40.clinical
Tone Bar
Now 41.
you are ready to learn about instrument selection. First, let us
discuss some general guidelines for the selection of instruments. No
matter who your clients are or what their attributes may be, I can not
30 Gardstrom
Instruments 31
Instruments 31
32 (Independent Skill Development)

27.ExSandblocks
Now that
you have examined the look and feel of the instruments and
28. Sheker
29. Slit Drum
characteristic
timbre(s) more fully. Again, start with the one that appeals
30. Snare
Drumthis sound?
or phrase
to describe
Now that you have examined the look and feel of the instruments and
characteristic timbre(s) more fully. Again, start with the one that appeals
or phrase to describe this sound?
Talking
Drum
I 31.
often
use the
following structure with groups of clients who are
32. Tambourine
be a helpful
introductory experience because it allows each person to
also demanding
a bit
of interaction among the players.
33. Temple
Blocks
I often use the following structure with groups of clients who are
be a helpful introductory experience because it allows each person to
also demanding a bit of interaction among the players.
Ex
(Experiential Learning)
34.33
Tom-toms
Sit in 35.
a circle,
Triangleeach player with a different instrument, if possible.
and establish
a steady beat. Join in with your own rhythms and continue
36. Tubano
rhythmic
to signal a change. At this point, pass your instrument to
37. figure
Woodblock
your left.
Listen for the leaders return to pulse, and continue the
38. Wristbells
Afterward,
discuss which instrument(s) you preferred, which were easiest
37. Alto
Metallophone

38. Soprano
Glockenspiel
PR 4
39. Alto
Select
instruments for the improvisation experience based upon
Xylophone
objectives.
40.clinical
Tone Bar
Now 41.
you are ready to learn about instrument selection. First, let us
Ex 33 (Experiential Learning)
Sit in a circle, each player with a different instrument, if possible.
and establish a steady beat. Join in with your own rhythms and continue
rhythmic figure to signal a change. At this point, pass your instrument to
your left. Listen for the leaders return to pulse, and continue the
Afterward, discuss which instrument(s) you preferred, which were easiest

PR 4
Select instruments for the improvisation experience based upon

clinical objectives.
Now you are ready to learn about instrument selection. First, let us
32 Gardstrom
32 Gardstrom
stress how important it is to give careful consideration to the structural

make available for group improvisation. A nonchalant approach to these
which I have witnessed. A lack of quality in construction, for instance,
that appears shabby or produces a displeasing sound! Too few
successive group members make their selections or worse, because
instruments among the selection could lead to resistance, and a lack of
stress
how important it is to give careful consideration to the structural
9. Cowbell
make
for group improvisation. A nonchalant approach to these
10. available
Crash Cymbal
which
I have witnessed.
11. Cymbal
on Stand A lack of quality in construction, for instance,
that
12. appears
Djembe shabby or produces a displeasing sound! Too few
successive
group members make their selections or worse, because
13. Doumbek
instruments
among the selection could lead to resistance, and a lack of
14. Egg Shakers
15. Finger Cymbals
Quality
Instruments 29
Quality

their clinical improvisation. Two specific examples include the use of
inauthentic sound and the employment of childrens instruments (frog
offer to a client for the purpose of improvising should be matched to that
appearance, and, most importantly, sound. Well-constructed instruments
importantly, the investment in well-manufactured instruments conveys
16. Frame Drum

their
17. clinical
Ganza improvisation. Two specific examples include the use of
inauthentic
soundDrum
and the employment of childrens instruments (frog
18. Gathering
offer
a client for the purpose of improvising should be matched to that
19. to
Gong
appearance,
20. Guiro and, most importantly, sound. Well-constructed instruments
importantly,
the investment in well-manufactured instruments conveys
21. Jingle Bells
22. Maracas
23. Ocean Drum
24. Paddle Drum
Number
Number
26. Rhythm Sticks

25. Rainstick
36 Gardstrom
Instruments 33
Instruments 33
however,
try to allow for one-and-a-half to two instruments per player.
Cautions
Thus, in a group of 7 clients and one therapist, you would need to
provide
instruments
(not necessarily
12 to 16 different
While from
we are12ontothe16subject
of sandblocks,
it bears mentioning
that some
types
of instruments;
there could
duplication).
This amountare
instruments
and accessories
that be
are some
used in
clinical improvisation
would
allow hazardous
each person
to haveespecially
a reasonable
variety
from The
which
to
potentially
to clients,
to young
children.
staples
choose,
and,
depending
on the givens
thetoimprovisation
or tacks
used
to affix sandpaper
to theestablished
blocks or for
heads
the drums and
(see
Chapter Two),
someloose
players
multiple
instruments
to use
tambourines
can come
andcould
injureselect
the player.
The
elastic straps
used
simultaneously
within
a
single
experience.
to suspend finger cymbals and triangles, mallet heads, and guitar picks
are small enough to swallow. In addition, some rainsticks are made from
Types
cacti and have residual spines and rough spots that can hurt tender hands.
however, try to allow for one-and-a-half to two instruments per player.

provide from 12 to 16 instruments (not necessarily 12 to 16 different
types of instruments; there could be some duplication). This amount
would allow each person to have a reasonable variety from which to
choose, and, depending on the givens established for the improvisation
(see Chapter Two), some players could select multiple instruments to use
simultaneously within a single experience.
Needs
andthe
Objectives
Here
again,
types of instruments you provide should be selected with
the clinical aim in mind. For example, if you intend to lead the players
Along an
with
consideration
for on
age,theyou
willanger
need toinselect
through
improvisation
based
theme
order instruments
to clarify
according
client needs
clinical goals
and and
objectives.
are, of
that
emotion,to consider
the and
characteristic
sounds
actionsThese
associated
course,
through
careful assessment
in achosen
varietyallow
of functioning
with
this determined
emotion. Will
the instruments
you have
for the
domains.
Once again,
however,
there are
some
guidelines.
natural
expression
of anger?
Moreover,
if you
askgeneral
your players
to look at
Musical
instruments
are an extension
of included
the human
body. As that
such,
one another
during
the improvisation,
have you
instruments
at be
theplayed
most fundamental
level,visual
players
must be able to move their bodies
can
without constant
tracking?
(sometimes
with assistance)
produce
and manipulate
sound. An
astute
I have noticed
that clients to
who
have never
before improvised
tend
to
facilitator
will have
a senseinstruments
of each clients
and will
gravitate
toward
percussion
and motor
avoid functioning
tonal instruments.
provide
to this
functioning
level.instruments
Thus, it is asnot
This
may instruments
be because matched
the clients
perceive
percussion
enough more
for you
simplythan
to tonal
knowinstruments.
how to produce
on each
somehow
accessible
There issound
some validity
it is also
crucial drums,
that youand
have
a clear rhythm
understanding
of the
toinstrument;
this perception.
In general,
handheld
instruments
inherent
challenges experience,
of sounding
eachthan
instrument.
require
less physical
musical knowledge,
and skill
melodic or If
improvisation
is indicated
a method
to promote
changes
in motor
harmonic
instruments;
they areassimply
organized
and simply
manipulated
that is,
strength orsuccess
endurance,
improvethem.
coordination
sofunctioning,
that the clients
canincrease
have immediate
in sounding
I say
dexterity,because
and increase
flexibility
or range ofthat
motion,
the instruments
inorgeneral
there are
tonal instruments
are quite
simple to
provided for
improvisation
should
reflect theseimmediate
aims.
manipulate
andthe
with
which clients
can experience
success, if
immediate success is an important dimension of the work. Examples
barred
instruments, Autoharp, Omnichord, and
34Orff
(Didactic
Learning)
includeExthe
certain electronic keyboards.
Of together
courseand
thiseach
is ainstrument
theme thatlisted
runsinthroughout
this
Work
to place
Table 2 into
onebook
of three
clinical
decisions
arestrikers,
always shakers,
made onorthe
basis of(Note:
multiple
factors.
It is
piles on
the floor:
scrapers.
Some
instruments
impossible
to provide
an one
instrumental
for success
in allthe
may fit into
more than
category.)recipe
Improvise
briefly with
circumstances!
Although
percussion
instruments
be readily
instruments of each
subgroup
and discuss
the specificmay
physical
demands
accessible,
required. their exclusive use may cause a client to be or feel musically
restricted. In Chapter Four we will learn that rhythmic elements
Here again, the types of instruments you provide should be selected with
through an improvisation based on the theme anger in order to clarify
that emotion, consider the characteristic sounds and actions associated
with this emotion. Will the instruments you have chosen allow for the
natural expression of anger? Moreover, if you ask your players to look at
one another during the improvisation, have you included instruments that
can be played without constant visual tracking?
I have noticed that clients who have never before improvised tend to
gravitate toward percussion instruments and avoid tonal instruments.
This may be because the clients perceive percussion instruments as
somehow more accessible than tonal instruments. There is some validity
to this perception. In general, drums, and handheld rhythm instruments
require less musical knowledge, experience, and skill than melodic or
harmonic instruments; they are simply organized and simply manipulated
so that the clients can have immediate success in sounding them. I say
in general because there are tonal instruments that are quite simple to
manipulate and with which clients can experience immediate success, if
include the Orff barred instruments, Autoharp, Omnichord, and
Of courseand this is a theme that runs throughout this book
clinical decisions are always made on the basis of multiple factors. It is
impossible to provide an instrumental recipe for success in all
circumstances! Although percussion instruments may be readily
accessible, their exclusive use may cause a client to be or feel musically
Types
34 Gardstrom
primarily relate to the amount or level of energy or force in a players

expressions. Tonal elements (melody and harmony), on the other hand,
allow the player to reveal more specific aspects of the quality or direction
of that expression. A clients self-expression may thus be fuller and
richer with the addition of tonal instruments to the session
instrumentarium.
In selecting instruments for group improvisation, particularly as it
applies to a heterogeneous group, strive for (1) flexibility of use
(portability, compatibility), (2) dynamic capabilities (wide range of
loudness levels), (3) variety of timbre (diversity of tone colors), and (4)
role possibilities (one player, multiple players, leadership) (Stephens,
1985). Another possible rule of thumb is to provide instruments from
three distinct categories of movement. These categories were defined in
Chapter Two: (1) strikersthose that are beaten with the hands (djembe,
bongos, etc.) or struck together or with a mallet (chromatic bells,
woodblock, claves, etc.), (2) shakersthose that are shaken (maracas,
shakere, etc.), and (3) scrapersthose whose surfaces are scraped
(cabasa, guiro, etc.). When each of these categories of movement is
represented, I find that the instrumentarium typically embodies diversity
in dynamic and timbral potential as well. Now we will move on to
specific client attributes and objectives.
Client Age
I have already alluded to the fact that age is an important consideration in
selecting instruments for improvisation. As stated above, it is
recommended that you use adult (professionally constructed and fullsized) instruments for adult players. Try to apply this guideline to all
adults, no matter what their level of cognitive functioning. In my opinion,
it is no more appropriate to use childrens instruments with an adult who
has mental retardation, brain injury, or dementia than it is to sing
childrens songs, such as Mary Had a Little Lamb or Im a Little
Teapot! I also recommend adult instruments for teenagers. Bear in mind
that some instruments may be too heavy for elderly clients.
Although the period of adolescence is characterized by
unpredictable wavering between childlike and adult behaviors, I have
found that adolescent clients prefer to be treated as adults during musicmaking endeavors. Additionally, with individuals between the ages of 12
34 Gardstrom
Instruments 35
and
primarily
18, it is relate
important
to the
to amount
provide or
instruments
level of energy
that areorfashionable,
force in a players
that
is,expressions.
the types of Tonal
instruments
elements
that (melody
are associated
and harmony),
with the performers
on the other
whom
hand,
adolescents
allow the player
admire.
to reveal
In more
my specific
experience,
aspectsteenagers
of the quality
involved
or direction
in
improvisation
of that expression.
tend to gravitate
A clientstoward
self-expression
all manner may
of drums
thus (Gardstrom,
be fuller and
2004),
richer aswith
well the
as guitars,
addition keyboards,
of tonal and
instruments
certain handheld
to the Latin
session
percussion
instrumentarium.
instruments such as tambourines and maracas.
Typically
In selecting
developing
instruments
children
for group
have smaller
improvisation,
hands and
particularly
less manual
as it
dexterity
applies than
to a adolescents
heterogeneous
or adults.
group,For
strive
this for
reason,
(1) Iflexibility
sometimesofuse
use
instruments
(portability,that
compatibility),
are manufactured
(2) dynamic
for younger
capabilities
players. (wide
For example,
range of
plastic
loudness
egg levels),
shakers (3)
are variety
preferred
of to
timbre
traditional
(diversity
maracas
of tone
because
colors),
theand
eggs(4)
arerole
lighter,
possibilities
smaller,(one
andplayer,
easier multiple
to control.
players,
Drums
leadership)
with large
(Stephens,
heads
provide
1985).an
Another
easier target
possible
thanrule
those
of with
thumb
smaller
is to heads.
provideWith
instruments
very young
from
children,
three distinct
I recommend
categories
freestanding
of movement.
instruments
These categories
(floor toms,
weregathering
defined in
drums,
Chapter
mini-tubanos)
Two: (1) strikersthose
over those that
thataremust
beatenbewith
held,
the hands
balanced,
(djembe,
or
manipulated
bongos, etc.)
on aorlapstruck
whiletogether
the childorattempts
with a tomallet
sound(chromatic
them. For this
bells,
reason,
woodblock,
commercially
claves, etc.),
prepared
(2) shakersthose
stands for instruments
that aresuch
shaken
as djembes
(maracas,
and
shakere,
triangles
etc.),
are aand
good
(3)investment.
scrapersthose
Short mallets
whose and
surfaces
those are
with scraped
wide
handles
(cabasa,
or bolster
guiro, cuffs
etc.). provide
When each
for greater
of these
success.
categories
Youngof
children
movement
seem is
torepresented,
have the most
I find
difficulty
that the
coordinating
instrumentarium
small, two-handed
typically embodies
instruments
diversity
in
which
in dynamic
each hand
andis timbral
performing
potential
a disparate
as well.
motion.
NowExamples
we will include
move on
theto
agogo
specific
bells,
client
finger
attributes
cymbals,
and triangle
objectives.
(without a stand), claves, talking
drum, tambourine, and cabasa. While neither particularly difficult to hold
nor
to manipulate,
the ocean drum produces a sound that is difficult to
Client
Age
control and often perceived as hurtful to small, sensitive ears. For these
reasons,
the ocean
drum to
is not
suggested
forisimprovisation
with children.in
I have already
alluded
the fact
that age
an important consideration
Personally,
I
do
not
consider
the
sandblocks
to
be
a
musical
instrument;
selecting instruments for improvisation. As stated above,
it is
thus
I do not use
in adult
improvisation.
However,
sandblocks
recommended
that them
you use
(professionally
constructed
and are
fullincluded
in the list in
becauseTry
some
children
to enjoy
sized) instruments
forTable
adult 2players.
to apply
thisseem
guideline
to all
playing
manipulating
themofcan
promote
the development
of
adults, them,
no matter
what their level
cognitive
functioning.
In my opinion,
purposeful
bilateral
movement
andinstruments
they are often
in
it is no more
appropriate
to usepatterns,
childrens
with included
an adult who
commercially
prepared
childrens
instrument
collections
that
you
may
purchase.
If you
do use
sure the
a
childrens
songs,
suchsandblocks
as Marywith
Hadchildren,
a Little be
Lamb
or knobs
Im aare
Little
good
shape Iand
for grasping.
Teapot!
alsosize
recommend
adult instruments for teenagers. Bear in mind
yourinstruments
clients have
that prevent the
thatIfsome
may bephysical
too heavydisabilities
for elderly clients.
conventional
use of
the possibility
of purchasingby
Although
theinstruments,
period ofexplore
adolescence
is characterized
adapted
instruments.
Manybetween
merchants
now selland
apparatuses
such as clave
unpredictable
wavering
childlike
adult behaviors,
I have
and
tambourine
stands clients
(for one-hand
and
drums musicwith
found
that adolescent
prefer toplaying)
be treated
as raised
adults during
nonstick
feet
(for
wheelchair
trays).
making endeavors. Additionally, with individuals between the ages of 12
34 Gardstrom
Instruments 35
and
primarily
18, it is relate
important
to the
to amount
provide or
instruments
level of energy
that areorfashionable,
force in a players
that
is,expressions.
the types of Tonal
instruments
elements
that (melody
are associated
and harmony),
with the performers
on the other
whom
hand,
adolescents
allow the player
admire.
to reveal
In more
my specific
experience,
aspectsteenagers
of the quality
involved
or direction
in
improvisation
of that expression.
tend to gravitate
A clientstoward
self-expression
all manner may
of drums
thus (Gardstrom,
be fuller and
2004),
richer aswith
well the
as guitars,
addition keyboards,
of tonal and
instruments
certain handheld
to the Latin
session
percussion
instrumentarium.
instruments such as tambourines and maracas.
Typically
In selecting
developing
instruments
children
for group
have smaller
improvisation,
hands and
particularly
less manual
as it
dexterity
applies than
to a adolescents
heterogeneous
or adults.
group,For
strive
this for
reason,
(1) Iflexibility
sometimesofuse
use
instruments
(portability,that
compatibility),
are manufactured
(2) dynamic
for younger
capabilities
players. (wide
For example,
range of
plastic
loudness
egg levels),
shakers (3)
are variety
preferred
of to
timbre
traditional
(diversity
maracas
of tone
because
colors),
theand
eggs(4)
arerole
lighter,
possibilities
smaller,(one
andplayer,
easier multiple
to control.
players,
Drums
leadership)
with large
(Stephens,
heads
provide
1985).an
Another
easier target
possible
thanrule
those
of with
thumb
smaller
is to heads.
provideWith
instruments
very young
from
children,
three distinct
I recommend
categories
freestanding
of movement.
instruments
These categories
(floor toms,
weregathering
defined in
drums,
Chapter
mini-tubanos)
Two: (1) strikersthose
over those that
thataremust
beatenbewith
held,
the hands
balanced,
(djembe,
or
manipulated
bongos, etc.)
on aorlapstruck
whiletogether
the childorattempts
with a tomallet
sound(chromatic
them. For this
bells,
reason,
woodblock,
commercially
claves, etc.),
prepared
(2) shakersthose
stands for instruments
that aresuch
shaken
as djembes
(maracas,
and
shakere,
triangles
etc.),
are aand
good
(3)investment.
scrapersthose
Short mallets
whose and
surfaces
those are
with scraped
wide
handles
(cabasa,
or bolster
guiro, cuffs
etc.). provide
When each
for greater
of these
success.
categories
Youngof
children
movement
seem is
torepresented,
have the most
I find
difficulty
that the
coordinating
instrumentarium
small, two-handed
typically embodies
instruments
diversity
in
which
in dynamic
each hand
andis timbral
performing
potential
a disparate
as well.
motion.
NowExamples
we will include
move on
theto
agogo
specific
bells,
client
finger
attributes
cymbals,
and triangle
objectives.
(without a stand), claves, talking
nor
to manipulate,
the ocean drum produces a sound that is difficult to
Client
Age
reasons,
the ocean
drum to
is not
suggested
forisimprovisation
with children.in
I have already
alluded
the fact
that age
an important consideration
Personally,
I
do
not
consider
the
sandblocks
to
be
a
musical
instrument;
selecting instruments for improvisation. As stated above,
it is
thus
I do not use
in adult
improvisation.
However,
sandblocks
recommended
that them
you use
(professionally
constructed
and are
fullincluded
in the list in
becauseTry
some
children
to enjoy
sized) instruments
forTable
adult 2players.
to apply
thisseem
guideline
to all
playing
manipulating
themofcan
promote
the development
of
adults, them,
no matter
what their level
cognitive
functioning.
In my opinion,
purposeful
bilateral
movement
andinstruments
they are often
in
it is no more
appropriate
to usepatterns,
childrens
with included
an adult who
commercially
prepared
childrens
instrument
collections
that
you
may
purchase.
If you
do use
sure the
a
childrens
songs,
suchsandblocks
as Marywith
Hadchildren,
a Little be
Lamb
or knobs
Im aare
Little
good
shape Iand
for grasping.
Teapot!
alsosize
recommend
adult instruments for teenagers. Bear in mind
yourinstruments
clients have
that prevent the
thatIfsome
may bephysical
too heavydisabilities
for elderly clients.
conventional
use of
the possibility
of purchasingby
Although
theinstruments,
period ofexplore
adolescence
is characterized
adapted
instruments.
Manybetween
merchants
now selland
apparatuses
such as clave
unpredictable
wavering
childlike
adult behaviors,
I have
and
tambourine
stands clients
(for one-hand
and
drums musicwith
found
that adolescent
prefer toplaying)
be treated
as raised
adults during
nonstick
feet
(for
wheelchair
trays).
making endeavors. Additionally, with individuals between the ages of 12
Instruments 35
and 18, it is important to provide instruments that are fashionable, that

is, the types of instruments that are associated with the performers whom
adolescents admire. In my experience, teenagers involved in
improvisation tend to gravitate toward all manner of drums (Gardstrom,
2004), as well as guitars, keyboards, and certain handheld Latin
percussion instruments such as tambourines and maracas.
Typically developing children have smaller hands and less manual
dexterity than adolescents or adults. For this reason, I sometimes use
instruments that are manufactured for younger players. For example,
plastic egg shakers are preferred to traditional maracas because the eggs
are lighter, smaller, and easier to control. Drums with large heads
provide an easier target than those with smaller heads. With very young
children, I recommend freestanding instruments (floor toms, gathering
drums, mini-tubanos) over those that must be held, balanced, or
manipulated on a lap while the child attempts to sound them. For this
reason, commercially prepared stands for instruments such as djembes
and triangles are a good investment. Short mallets and those with wide
handles or bolster cuffs provide for greater success. Young children seem
to have the most difficulty coordinating small, two-handed instruments in
which each hand is performing a disparate motion. Examples include the
agogo bells, finger cymbals, triangle (without a stand), claves, talking
nor to manipulate, the ocean drum produces a sound that is difficult to
reasons, the ocean drum is not suggested for improvisation with children.
Personally, I do not consider the sandblocks to be a musical instrument;
thus I do not use them in improvisation. However, sandblocks are
included in the list in Table 2 because some children seem to enjoy
playing them, manipulating them can promote the development of
purposeful bilateral movement patterns, and they are often included in
commercially prepared childrens instrument collections that you may
purchase. If you do use sandblocks with children, be sure the knobs are a
good shape and size for grasping.
If your clients have physical disabilities that prevent the
conventional use of instruments, explore the possibility of purchasing
adapted instruments. Many merchants now sell apparatuses such as clave
and tambourine stands (for one-hand playing) and raised drums with
nonstick feet (for wheelchair trays).
36 Gardstrom
Cautions
While we are on the subject of sandblocks, it bears mentioning that some
instruments and accessories that are used in clinical improvisation are
potentially hazardous to clients, especially to young children. The staples
or tacks used to affix sandpaper to the blocks or heads to the drums and
tambourines can come loose and injure the player. The elastic straps used
Along with consideration for age, you will need to select instruments
according to client needs and clinical goals and objectives. These are, of
course, determined through careful assessment in a variety of functioning
domains. Once again, however, there are some general guidelines.
Musical instruments are an extension of the human body. As such,
at the most fundamental level, players must be able to move their bodies
(sometimes with assistance) to produce and manipulate sound. An astute
facilitator will have a sense of each clients motor functioning and will
provide instruments matched to this functioning level. Thus, it is not
enough for you simply to know how to produce sound on each
instrument; it is also crucial that you have a clear understanding of the
inherent physical challenges of sounding each instrument. If
improvisation is indicated as a method to promote changes in motor
functioning, that is, increase strength or endurance, improve coordination
or dexterity, and increase flexibility or range of motion, the instruments
provided for the improvisation should reflect these aims.
Ex 34 (Didactic Learning)
Work together to place each instrument listed in Table 2 into one of three
piles on the floor: strikers, shakers, or scrapers. (Note: Some instruments
may fit into more than one category.) Improvise briefly with the
instruments of each subgroup and discuss the specific physical demands
required.
36 Gardstrom
Instruments 33
however,
try to allow for one-and-a-half to two instruments per player.
Cautions
provide
instruments
(not necessarily
12 to 16 different
While from
we are12ontothe16subject
of sandblocks,
it bears mentioning
that some
types
of instruments;
there could
duplication).
This amountare
instruments
and accessories
that be
are some
used in
clinical improvisation
would
allow hazardous
each person
to haveespecially
a reasonable
variety
from The
which
to
potentially
to clients,
to young
children.
staples
choose,
and,
depending
on the givens
thetoimprovisation
or tacks
used
to affix sandpaper
to theestablished
blocks or for
heads
the drums and
(see
Chapter Two),
someloose
players
multiple
instruments
to use
tambourines
can come
andcould
injureselect
the player.
The
elastic straps
used
simultaneously
within
a
single
experience.
Types
Needs
andthe
Objectives
Here
again,
types of instruments you provide should be selected with
Along an
with
consideration
for on
age,theyou
willanger
need toinselect
through
improvisation
based
theme
order instruments
to clarify
according
client needs
clinical goals
and and
objectives.
are, of
that
emotion,to consider
the and
characteristic
sounds
actionsThese
associated
course,
through
careful assessment
in achosen
varietyallow
of functioning
with
this determined
emotion. Will
the instruments
you have
for the
domains.
Once again,
however,
there are
some
guidelines.
natural
expression
of anger?
Moreover,
if you
askgeneral
your players
to look at
Musical
instruments
are an extension
of included
the human
body. As that
such,
one another
during
the improvisation,
have you
instruments
at be
theplayed
most fundamental
level,visual
players
must be able to move their bodies
can
without constant
tracking?
(sometimes
with assistance)
produce
and manipulate
sound. An
astute
I have noticed
that clients to
who
have never
before improvised
tend
to
facilitator
will have
a senseinstruments
of each clients
and will
gravitate
toward
percussion
and motor
avoid functioning
tonal instruments.
provide
to this
functioning
level.instruments
Thus, it is asnot
This
may instruments
be because matched
the clients
perceive
percussion
enough more
for you
simplythan
to tonal
knowinstruments.
how to produce
on each
somehow
accessible
There issound
some validity
it is also
crucial drums,
that youand
have
a clear rhythm
understanding
of the
toinstrument;
this perception.
In general,
handheld
instruments
inherent
challenges experience,
of sounding
eachthan
instrument.
require
less physical
musical knowledge,
and skill
melodic or If
improvisation
is indicated
a method
to promote
changes
in motor
harmonic
instruments;
they areassimply
organized
and simply
manipulated
that is,
strength orsuccess
endurance,
improvethem.
coordination
sofunctioning,
that the clients
canincrease
have immediate
in sounding
I say
dexterity,because
and increase
flexibility
or range ofthat
motion,
the instruments
inorgeneral
there are
tonal instruments
are quite
simple to
provided for
improvisation
should
reflect theseimmediate
aims.
manipulate
andthe
with
which clients
can experience
success, if
barred
instruments, Autoharp, Omnichord, and
34Orff
(Didactic
Learning)
includeExthe
Of together
courseand
thiseach
is ainstrument
theme thatlisted
runsinthroughout
this
Work
to place
Table 2 into
onebook
of three
clinical
decisions
arestrikers,
always shakers,
made onorthe
basis of(Note:
multiple
factors.
It is
piles on
the floor:
scrapers.
Some
instruments
impossible
to provide
an one
instrumental
for success
in allthe
may fit into
more than
category.)recipe
Improvise
briefly with
circumstances!
Although
percussion
instruments
be readily
instruments of each
subgroup
and discuss
the specificmay
physical
demands
accessible,
required. their exclusive use may cause a client to be or feel musically
40 Gardstrom
Instruments 37
Instruments 37
The following
Talking
drum vignette is designed to help you think through the
factors
that are important in choosing instruments for one particular
Triangle
client
group.
Notice that the first question relates to age, the second to
Finger
cymbals
client
preference,
and the remaining to need and clinical goals and
Agogo
bells
objectives.
Barred instruments
The following vignette is designed to help you think through the

factors that are important in choosing instruments for one particular
client group. Notice that the first question relates to age, the second to
client preference, and the remaining to need and clinical goals and
objectives.
Vignette
These
tables31
contain rankings of several percussion instruments along the
dimensions of Strength/Endurance and Coordination/Dexterity. (By the
Imagine
arecategories
working inwith
65-year-old
man responses
who hasin
way, youthat
can you
use the
theseatables
to check your
hemiplegia
(the
result
of
a
stroke)
and
his
family.
Suppose
that
Exercise 34. How did you do?) Strength/Endurance refers tohis
theaims
force
are
to
increase
strength
and
improve
coordination
in
his
affected
of a movement required to produce a sound, and the energy that itarm
takes
(left),
furthermore,
he has
expressed an
interest in instrumental
to and,
sustain
the that
sound
producing
movement
over time.
improvisation.
You have brought
youorganization
a small subset
Coordination/Dexterity
relates with
to the
of from
grossyour
andfull
fine
instrumentarium.
Which
instruments
might
be
best
matched
to
muscle groups required to sound the instrument. These rankingsthisare
situation?
Your sequential
decision-making
process
mightdemands
go something
neither precise
nor absolute,
because the
particular
of an
like
this:
instrument depend somewhat on how it is played, as well as its size and
weight. Perhaps you will agree with these rankings, or perhaps your
1. opinion
Which
instruments
might
eliminate is
due
toyou
the learn
age oftothe
client
will differ.
What is
mostI important
that
keep
these
and
his
family
members?
(too
childish:
mini
tubano,
childrens
dimensions in the forefront of your clinical decision-making.
floor tom, sandblocks)
2.
Of those remaining, are there any instruments that the client or a
member
aninstruments
interest in playing?
(preferred:
With afamily
partner,
gatherhas
as expressed
many of the
that appear
in Tables
none,
although
the
clients
wife
mentioned
that
her
husband
has
3 and 4 to which you have access. Move down each column (strikers,
played
drums
and
other
rhythm
instruments
in
the
past)
shakers, and scrapers), playing the instruments in sequence and
discussing how they might have achieved their rankings. For example,
3. why might
Of the
drums anddrum
rhythm
which wouldtorequire
or a
a gathering
takeinstruments,
less strength/endurance
play than
use aofrainstick
both of require
the clients
arms? (two-handed
conga encourage
drum? Whythemight
less coordination/dexterity
cabasa,
framewith
drum/paddle
drumBe
than ainstruments:
tambourine?agogo,
Do you
agreecowbell,
or disagree
the rankings?
with
a
mallet,
talking
drum,
triangle)
prepared to discuss your findings with the entire group.
4.
Of the drums
and rhythm
instruments,
which
would
require
or
Certainly,
in addition
to motor
functioning,
there
are other
clinical
encourage
the when
desired
amount
of strength?
domains
to consider
selecting
instruments.
For(desired
example,strength:
therapists
frame
drum/paddleas
drum
with mallet
in left hand,
talking drum)
often use
improvisation
a method
to support
the emotional
lives of
their clients, through self-expression, validation, and exploration. As we
5. consider
Of emotional
these, which
instruments
would
require
or encourage
theDo
expression,
we need
to ask
an important
question:
desired
amount
of
coordination?
(desired
coordination:
frame
some instruments have more expressive potential than others? If by
drum/paddle
with
mallet in
hand,oftalking
drum)
expressive
potentialdrum
we are
referring
to left
a range
dynamic,
timbral, and
Vignette 31
Imagine that you are working with a 65-year-old man who has
hemiplegia (the result of a stroke) and his family. Suppose that his aims
are to increase strength and improve coordination in his affected arm
(left), and, furthermore, that he has expressed an interest in instrumental
improvisation. You have brought with you a small subset from your full
instrumentarium. Which instruments might be best matched to this
situation? Your sequential decision-making process might go something
like this:
1.
Which instruments might I eliminate due to the age of the client

and his family members? (too childish: mini tubano, childrens
2.

family member has expressed an interest in playing? (preferred:
none, although the clients wife mentioned that her husband has
played drums and other rhythm instruments in the past)
3.
Of the drums and rhythm instruments, which would require or

encourage the use of both of the clients arms? (two-handed
instruments: agogo, cabasa, cowbell, frame drum/paddle drum
with a mallet, talking drum, triangle)
4.
Of the drums and rhythm instruments, which would require or

encourage the desired amount of strength? (desired strength:
frame drum/paddle drum with mallet in left hand, talking drum)
5.
Of these, which instruments would require or encourage the

desired amount of coordination? (desired coordination: frame
drum/paddle drum with mallet in left hand, talking drum)
38 Gardstrom
38 Gardstrom
Of course, there are countless other factors that may enter your decisionmaking process and affect the outcome. These what ifs are hard to
predict, yet they are a certainty of clinical work. What if the client in this
scenario does not like the sound of the instruments? What if he can not
express what he needs to? What if his wife complains that she can not
hear the drums very well? What if the client experiences pain while
playing? What if?
Of course,
there are countless other factors that may enter your decisionFinger
cymbals
making
process and affect the outcome. These what ifs are hard to
Crash
cymbals
Conga
Bongos
Djembe
Doumbek
playing?drum
What if?
Talking
As you continue to ponder the inherent physical challenges of each

instrument, examine Tables 3 and 4 below.
Table 4As you continue to ponder the inherent physical challenges of each
(Note: Top to bottom indicates least to most coordination/dexterity
Table 3
required.)
Strength/Endurance
(Note: Top to bottom indicates
least to most strength/endurance
required.)
STRIKERS
SHAKERS
SCRAPERS
Table 3
Strength/Endurance
(Note: Top to bottom indicates least to most strength/endurance required.)
STRIKERS
SHAKERS
SCRAPERS
Gathering drum
Chime tree
Tubano
Cymbal on stand
Gong
Tom-toms
Snare drum
Slit drum
Barred instruments
Claves
Temple blocks
Rhythm sticks
Frame drum
Tambourine
Cowbell
Woodblock
Agogo bells
Paddle drum
Bodhran
Triangle
Wrist bells
Egg shakers
Maracas
Jingle bells
Rainstick
Ocean drum
Ganza
Tambourine
Guiro
Sandblocks
Cabasa
STRIKERS
Chime
tree
Gathering drum
Gathering drum
Tubano
Chime tree
Djembe
Tubano
Doumbek
Cymbal on stand
Conga
Gong
Bongos
Tom-toms
Gong
Snare drum
Cymbal
on stand
Slit
drum
Tom-toms
Barred
instruments
Crash
cymbals
Claves
Rhythm sticks
Temple
blocks
Paddle
drum
Rhythm
Snare
drumsticks
Frame
drum
Temple blocks
Tambourine
Slit drum
Cowbell
Frame
drum
Woodblock
Bodhran
Agogo bells
Tambourine
Paddle drum
Woodblock
Bodhran
Cowbell
Triangle
Claves
Instruments 39
SHAKERS
Wrist
bells
Rainstick
Wristdrum
bells
Ocean
Egg shakers
Ganza
Maracas
Egg
shakers
Jingle
Maracas bells
Rainstick
Jingle
bells
Ocean
drum
Tambourine
Ganza
Tambourine
SCRAPERS
Sandblocks
Guiro
Guiro
Cabasa
Sandblocks
Cabasa
38 Gardstrom
Instruments 39
Of course,
there are countless other factors that may enter your decisionFinger
cymbals
making
process and affect the outcome. These what ifs are hard to
Crash
cymbals
Conga
Bongos
Djembe
Doumbek
playing?drum
What if?
Talking
Table 4As you continue to ponder the inherent physical challenges of each
Table 3
required.)
Strength/Endurance
(Note: Top to bottom indicates
least to most strength/endurance
required.)
STRIKERS
SHAKERS
SCRAPERS
STRIKERS
Chime
tree
Gathering drum
Gathering drum
Tubano
Chime tree
Djembe
Tubano
Doumbek
Cymbal on stand
Conga
Gong
Bongos
Tom-toms
Gong
Snare drum
Cymbal
on stand
Slit
drum
Tom-toms
Barred
instruments
Crash
cymbals
Claves
Rhythm sticks
Temple
blocks
Paddle
drum
Rhythm
Snare
drumsticks
Frame
drum
Temple blocks
Tambourine
Slit drum
Cowbell
Frame
drum
Woodblock
Bodhran
Agogo bells
Tambourine
Paddle drum
Woodblock
Bodhran
Cowbell
Triangle
Claves
SHAKERS
Wrist
bells
Rainstick
Wristdrum
bells
Ocean
Egg shakers
Ganza
Maracas
Egg
shakers
Jingle
Maracas bells
Rainstick
Jingle
bells
Ocean
drum
Tambourine
Ganza
Tambourine
SCRAPERS
Sandblocks
Guiro
Guiro
Cabasa
Sandblocks
Cabasa
Instruments 39
Finger cymbals
Crash cymbals
Conga
Bongos
Djembe
Doumbek
Talking drum
Table 4
required.)
STRIKERS
SHAKERS
SCRAPERS
Chime tree
Gathering drum
Tubano
Djembe
Doumbek
Conga
Bongos
Gong
Cymbal on stand
Tom-toms
Crash cymbals
Rhythm sticks
Paddle drum
Snare drum
Temple blocks
Slit drum
Frame drum
Bodhran
Tambourine
Woodblock
Cowbell
Claves
Wrist bells
Rainstick
Ocean drum
Ganza
Egg shakers
Maracas
Jingle bells
Tambourine
Sandblocks
Guiro
Cabasa
40 Gardstrom
Talking drum
Triangle
Finger cymbals
Agogo bells
Barred instruments
These tables contain rankings of several percussion instruments along the
way, you can use the categories in these tables to check your responses in
Exercise 34. How did you do?) Strength/Endurance refers to the force
of a movement required to produce a sound, and the energy that it takes
to sustain the sound producing movement over time.
Coordination/Dexterity relates to the organization of gross and fine
muscle groups required to sound the instrument. These rankings are
neither precise nor absolute, because the particular demands of an
opinion will differ. What is most important is that you learn to keep these
With a partner, gather as many of the instruments that appear in Tables
why might a gathering drum take less strength/endurance to play than a
conga drum? Why might a rainstick require less coordination/dexterity
than a tambourine? Do you agree or disagree with the rankings? Be
Certainly, in addition to motor functioning, there are other clinical
domains to consider when selecting instruments. For example, therapists
often use improvisation as a method to support the emotional lives of
consider emotional expression, we need to ask an important question: Do
expressive potential we are referring to a range of dynamic, timbral, and
40 Gardstrom
Instruments 37
The following
Talking
drum vignette is designed to help you think through the
factors
that are important in choosing instruments for one particular
Triangle
client
group.
Notice that the first question relates to age, the second to
Finger
cymbals
client
preference,
and the remaining to need and clinical goals and
Agogo
bells
objectives.
Barred instruments
Vignette
These
tables31
contain rankings of several percussion instruments along the
Imagine
arecategories
working inwith
65-year-old
man responses
who hasin
way, youthat
can you
use the
theseatables
to check your
hemiplegia
(the
result
of
a
stroke)
and
his
family.
Suppose
that
Exercise 34. How did you do?) Strength/Endurance refers tohis
theaims
force
are
to
increase
strength
and
improve
coordination
in
his
affected
of a movement required to produce a sound, and the energy that itarm
takes
(left),
furthermore,
he has
expressed an
interest in instrumental
to and,
sustain
the that
sound
producing
movement
over time.
improvisation.
You have brought
youorganization
a small subset
relates with
to the
of from
grossyour
andfull
fine
instrumentarium.
Which
instruments
might
be
best
matched
to
thisare
muscle groups required to sound the instrument. These rankings
situation?
Your sequential
decision-making
process
might demands
go something
neither precise
nor absolute,
because the
particular
of an
like
this:
1. opinion
Which
instruments
might
eliminate is
due
toyou
the learn
age oftothe
client
will differ.
What is
mostI important
that
keep
these
and
his
family
members?
(too
childish:
mini
tubano,
childrens
2.
member
aninstruments
interest in playing?
(preferred:
With afamily
partner,
gatherhas
as expressed
many of the
that appear
in Tables
none,
although
the
clients
wife
mentioned
that
her
husband
has
played
drums
and
other
rhythm
instruments
in
the
past)
3. why might
Of the
drums anddrum
rhythm
which wouldtorequire
or a
a gathering
takeinstruments,
less strength/endurance
play than
use aofrainstick
both of require
the clients
arms? (two-handed
conga encourage
drum? Whythemight
less coordination/dexterity
cabasa,
framewith
drum/paddle
drumBe
than ainstruments:
tambourine?agogo,
Do you
agreecowbell,
or disagree
the rankings?
with
a
mallet,
talking
drum,
triangle)
4.
Of the drums
and rhythm
instruments,
which
would
require
or
Certainly,
in addition
to motor
functioning,
there
are other
clinical
encourage
the when
desired
amount
of strength?
domains
to consider
selecting
instruments.
For(desired
example,strength:
therapists
frame
drum/paddleas
drum
with mallet
in left hand,
talking drum)
often use
improvisation
a method
to support
the emotional
lives of
5. consider
Of emotional
these, which
instruments
would
require
or encourage
theDo
expression,
we need
to ask
an important
question:
desired
amount
of
coordination?
(desired
coordination:
frame
drum/paddle
with
mallet in
hand,oftalking
drum)
expressive
potentialdrum
we are
referring
to left
a range
dynamic,
timbral, and
44 Gardstrom
Instruments 41
Instruments 41
textural/role
In additioncapabilities,
to those thatwe
youcan
select
say with
for the
certainty
clients,that
yousome
must instruments
also consider
aretheindeed
instrument
more or
inherently
instruments
expressive.
that you will
That
playis,inby
your
virtue
role of
as the
the leader.
way
they
As Towse
are constructed,
and Roberts
they
point
areout
able
(intoDavies
be sounded
& Richards,
in a 2002),
multiplicity
the use
ofof
ways
the so
piano
that or
thethe
player
therapists
has moreown
options
instrument
for self-expression.
(primary instrument
Table 5 is aof
ranking
study) in
of the
percussion
context ofinstruments
group improvisation
with respect
can to
create
thisandimension
unwanted of
rift.
Sound
The authors
Variability.
caution:
textural/role capabilities, we can say with certainty that some instruments

are indeed more inherently expressive. That is, by virtue of the way
they are constructed, they are able to be sounded in a multiplicity of
ways so that the player has more options for self-expression. Table 5 is a
ranking of percussion instruments with respect to this dimension of
Sound Variability.
Table 5 Additionally, the use of an instrument not available to the rest of

Sound Variability
the group will have a significant impact on the dynamic matrix
(Note: Topoftothe
bottom
group.
indicates
It mayleast
be making
to most variable.)
the statement, I am different
from you. I can do something you cannot. This is not quite the
same as the unspoken
group analyst, which is
STRIKERS
SHAKERSstatement of the
SCRAPERS
one of I am like you but here I have a particular role. (p. 259)
Claves
Jingle bells
Sandblocks
Again, there is no recipe;
you recognize that even
Woodblock
Wristmost
bellsimportant is that
Guiro
this seemingly
benign
profound impact on the
Rhythm
sticks
Eggdecision
shakers may have a Cabasa
products
and processes
of group improvisation. Sometimes you will have
Crash
cymbals
Maracas
a
specific
reason
for
selecting
Paddle drum
Rainstick a given instrument, such as its volume
capabilities,
its
timbre,
its associative value, and so forth. At other times,
Chime tree
Ganza
you
will
wait
for
the
other
players to choose their instruments before
Cowbell
Tambourine
choosing
the clients
Agogo
Bellsyours so that
Ocean
drum will have full access to all of the tools
of
self-expression.
Triangle
The following exercise provides an opportunity for you to turn your
Gong
newly gained knowledge about instrument selection into action.
Finger cymbals
Tom-toms
Ex7 (Experiential Learning)
Tambourine
Snare
Takedrum
turns selecting a suitable array of instruments for 6 players with the
Frame
drum described below. If helpful, use the rankings in Tables 3, 4,
attributes
Bodhran
and 5 to inform your decisions:
Gathering
drum who have limited grasp and strength due to cerebral palsy
a.
adults
Bongos
b.
school-aged children who are partially sighted and blind
Conga
c.
adolescents who have severe behavior disorders
Cymbal
onolder
standadults who have mild to moderate hearing loss
d.
Slit drum
Temple blocks ARRANGING THE ENVIRONMENT
Doumbek
Talking
drum addressed in this section include the ability to:
Competencies
Table 5
Sound Variability
(Note: Top to bottom indicates least to most variable.)
STRIKERS
SHAKERS
SCRAPERS
Claves
Woodblock
Rhythm sticks
Crash cymbals
Paddle drum
Chime tree
Cowbell
Agogo Bells
Triangle
Gong
Finger cymbals
Tom-toms
Tambourine
Snare drum
Frame drum
Bodhran
Gathering drum
Bongos
Conga
Cymbal on stand
Slit drum
Temple blocks
Doumbek
Talking drum
Jingle bells
Wrist bells
Egg shakers
Maracas
Rainstick
Ganza
Tambourine
Ocean drum
Sandblocks
Guiro
Cabasa
42 Gardstrom
Tubano
Djembe
Barred instruments
42 Gardstrom
Instruments 43
2. Tubano
Which instruments might I eliminate as I consider the clients
fatigue (none)
Djembe
Barred instruments
3.
nausea?
(none)
Ex
36 (Independent
Skill Development)
Here, the line of questioning might proceed as follows:
4. In dyads
Which
instruments
might
I eliminate
as I consider
the clients
or triads,
as with
Exercise
35, gather
the instruments
that
pain
and
anxiety
(timbre
too
harsh:
cymbal,
gong,
ocean
appear in Table 5 and play them in sequence. Discuss with one drum,
another
shaker)
how each
instrument might have achieved its ranking with respect to
sound variability. For example, what makes a slit drum inherently more
5. variable
Which
I eliminate
as I consider
those with
clientsthe
thaninstruments
claves? Bemight
prepared
to discuss
your findings
who
have
restricted
or
no
use
of
one
arm
(two-handed
entire group.
instruments: agogo bells, claves, cowbell, doumbek, finger
cymbals,
guiro,case
paddle
drum, will
rhythm
sticks, the
sandblocks).
Note:of
The
following
example
illustrate
juxtaposition
of these
two-handed
as agogo
bells,
severalSome
general
and specific
factorsinstruments,
(such as age,such
physical
abilities,
and
cowbell,
doumbek,
guiro, paddle
drum, expression)
and rhythminsticks,
could
the clinical
objective
of promoting
emotional
the selection
be included
if the clients
were
to play in dyads; in fact, this
of instruments
for another
particular
group.
would support the clinical aim of socialization.
Vignette 32
6.
Which instruments might best enhance the clients expressions of
emotion?
question
a bitoftricky.
Obviously,
Imagine
you are This
working
with aisgroup
children,
ages 6 tothe
10,clients
who are
theirfor leukemia
illness and
treatment
will vary
being feelings
treated in aabout
day clinic
and other
blood disorders.
You
tremendously
duefamily
to factors
such
as age
at onset,
severityinofthe
provide
individual and
sessions
during
medical
procedures
illness,
intensity
treatment,
familial
support,
morning
and frequency
a group and
session
for allof children
in the
afternoon.
The
etc.
So,
although
the
claves
or
wristbells
may
be
perceived
children in the group experience fatigue, nausea, pain, or anxiety, as
and
expression,
theyblood
may transfusions
actually be orthechemotherapy
preferred
some restricting
are strapped
to an IV for
to main
express
the aims
restrictiveness
and ofresulting
duringinstruments
the session. The
clinical
for the members
the group
boredom (offering
that certain
clients
If, on thefor
are to frustration
provide for and
normalization
structure
andfeel!
opportunities
other hand,
very specific
theme is chosen
as a basis
socialization),
to apromote
the expression
of feelings
relatedfortothethe
group
improvisation
(everyone
plays
the
referent
anger
clients illnesses and treatment, and to decrease anxiety
relatedorto
peace),
it
may
be
prudent
to
eliminate
certain
instruments
and
medical procedures and the treatment environment.
retain others on the basis of the relationship between their sound
intensity and
the referent
portrayed.
Here, quality
the line and
of questioning
might
proceed being
as follows:
1.
The
Instrumentmight I eliminate due to the age of the clients?
1. Therapists
Which instruments
In dyads or triads, as with Exercise 35, gather the instruments that

appear in Table 5 and play them in sequence. Discuss with one another
how each instrument might have achieved its ranking with respect to
variable than claves? Be prepared to discuss your findings with the
entire group.
The following case example will illustrate the juxtaposition of
several general and specific factors (such as age, physical abilities, and
the clinical objective of promoting emotional expression) in the selection
of instruments for another particular group.
Vignette 32
Imagine you are working with a group of children, ages 6 to 10, who are
being treated in a day clinic for leukemia and other blood disorders. You
provide individual and family sessions during medical procedures in the
morning and a group session for all children in the afternoon. The
children in the group experience fatigue, nausea, pain, or anxiety, and
some are strapped to an IV for blood transfusions or chemotherapy
during the session. The main clinical aims for the members of the group
are to provide for normalization (offering structure and opportunities for
socialization), to promote the expression of feelings related to the
clients illnesses and treatment, and to decrease anxiety related to
Which instruments might I eliminate due to the age of the clients?

(too large or physically demanding: large djembe)

You now have an elementary understanding of some of the factors that
need to be considered as you select instruments for clinical improvisation.
42 Gardstrom
Instruments 43
Instruments 43
2. Tubano
fatigue (none)
Djembe
Barred instruments
3.
nausea?
(none)
Ex
36 (Independent
Skill Development)
2.

fatigue (none)
3.

nausea? (none)
4. In dyads
Which
instruments
might
I eliminate
as I consider
the clients
or triads,
as with
Exercise
35, gather
the instruments
that
pain
and
anxiety
(timbre
too
harsh:
cymbal,
gong,
ocean
appear in Table 5 and play them in sequence. Discuss with one drum,
another
shaker)
how each
instrument might have achieved its ranking with respect to
5. variable
Which
I eliminate
as I consider
those with
clientsthe
thaninstruments
claves? Bemight
prepared
to discuss
your findings
who
have
restricted
or
no
use
of
one
arm
(two-handed
entire group.
cymbals,
guiro,case
paddle
drum, will
rhythm
sticks, the
sandblocks).
Note:of
The
following
example
illustrate
juxtaposition
of these
two-handed
as agogo
bells,
severalSome
general
and specific
factorsinstruments,
(such as age,such
physical
abilities,
and
cowbell,
doumbek,
guiro, paddle
drum, expression)
and rhythminsticks,
could
the clinical
objective
of promoting
emotional
the selection
be included
if the clients
were
to play in dyads; in fact, this
of instruments
for another
particular
group.
Vignette 32
6.
emotion?
question
a bitoftricky.
Obviously,
Imagine
you are This
working
with aisgroup
children,
ages 6 tothe
10,clients
who are
theirfor leukemia
illness and
treatment
will vary
being feelings
treated in aabout
day clinic
and other
blood disorders.
You
tremendously
duefamily
to factors
such
as age
at onset,
severityinofthe
provide
individual and
sessions
during
medical
procedures
illness,
intensity
treatment,
familial
support,
morning
and frequency
a group and
session
for allof children
in the
afternoon.
The
etc.
So,
although
the
claves
or
wristbells
may
be
perceived
children in the group experience fatigue, nausea, pain, or anxiety, as
and
expression,
theyblood
may transfusions
actually be orthechemotherapy
preferred
some restricting
are strapped
to an IV for
to main
express
the aims
restrictiveness
and ofresulting
duringinstruments
the session. The
clinical
for the members
the group
boredom (offering
that certain
clients
If, on thefor
are to frustration
provide for and
normalization
structure
andfeel!
opportunities
other hand,
very specific
theme is chosen
as a related
basis fortothethe
socialization),
to apromote
the expression
of feelings
group
improvisation
(everyone
plays
the
referent
anger
clients illnesses and treatment, and to decrease anxiety
relatedorto
peace),
it
may
be
prudent
to
eliminate
certain
instruments
and
intensity and
the referent
portrayed.
Here, quality
the line and
of questioning
might
proceed being
as follows:
4.

pain and anxiety (timbre too harsh: cymbal, gong, ocean drum,
shaker)
5.
Which instruments might I eliminate as I consider those clients

who have restricted or no use of one arm (two-handed
cymbals, guiro, paddle drum, rhythm sticks, sandblocks). Note:
Some of these two-handed instruments, such as agogo bells,
cowbell, doumbek, guiro, paddle drum, and rhythm sticks, could
be included if the clients were to play in dyads; in fact, this
6.

emotion? This question is a bit tricky. Obviously, the clients
feelings about their illness and treatment will vary
tremendously due to factors such as age at onset, severity of
illness, frequency and intensity of treatment, familial support,
etc. So, although the claves or wristbells may be perceived as
restricting expression, they may actually be the preferred
instruments to express the restrictiveness and resulting
frustration and boredom that certain clients feel! If, on the
other hand, a very specific theme is chosen as a basis for the
group improvisation (everyone plays the referent anger or
peace), it may be prudent to eliminate certain instruments and
quality and intensity and the referent being portrayed.
The
Instrumentmight I eliminate due to the age of the clients?
1. Therapists
Which instruments


44 Gardstrom
44 Gardstrom
Instruments 41
In addition to those that you select for the clients, you must also consider
the instrument or instruments that you will play in your role as the leader.
As Towse and Roberts point out (in Davies & Richards, 2002), the use of
the piano or the therapists own instrument (primary instrument of
study) in the context of group improvisation can create an unwanted rift.
The authors caution:
textural/role
In additioncapabilities,
to those thatwe
youcan
select
say with
for the
certainty
clients,that
yousome
must instruments
also consider
aretheindeed
instrument
more or
inherently
instruments
expressive.
that you will
That
playis,inby
your
virtue
role of
as the
the leader.
way
they
As Towse
are constructed,
and Roberts
they
point
areout
able
(intoDavies
be sounded
& Richards,
in a 2002),
multiplicity
the use
ofof
ways
the so
piano
that or
thethe
player
therapists
has moreown
options
instrument
for self-expression.
(primary instrument
Table 5 is aof
ranking
study) in
of the
percussion
context ofinstruments
group improvisation
with respect
can to
create
thisandimension
unwanted of
rift.
Sound
The authors
Variability.
caution:
Additionally, the use of an instrument not available to the rest of

of the group. It may be making the statement, I am different
same as the unspoken statement of the group analyst, which is
Table 5 Additionally, the use of an instrument not available to the rest of

Sound Variability
(Note: Topoftothe
bottom
group.
indicates
It mayleast
be making
to most variable.)
the statement, I am different
same as the unspoken
group analyst, which is
STRIKERS
SHAKERSstatement of the
SCRAPERS
Claves
Jingle bells
Sandblocks
Again, there is no recipe;
you recognize that even
Woodblock
Wristmost
bellsimportant is that
Guiro
this seemingly
benign
profound impact on the
Rhythm
sticks
Eggdecision
shakers may have a Cabasa
products
and processes
of group improvisation. Sometimes you will have
Crash
cymbals
Maracas
a
specific
reason
for
selecting
Paddle drum
Rainstick a given instrument, such as its volume
capabilities,
its
timbre,
its associative value, and so forth. At other times,
Chime tree
Ganza
you
will
wait
for
the
other
players to choose their instruments before
Cowbell
Tambourine
choosing
the clients
Agogo
Bellsyours so that
Ocean
drum will have full access to all of the tools
of
self-expression.
Triangle
Gong
Finger cymbals
Tom-toms
Tambourine
Snare
Takedrum
turns selecting a suitable array of instruments for 6 players with the
Frame
drum described below. If helpful, use the rankings in Tables 3, 4,
attributes
Bodhran
Gathering
drum who have limited grasp and strength due to cerebral palsy
a.
adults
Bongos
b.
Conga
c.
Cymbal
onolder
standadults who have mild to moderate hearing loss
d.
Slit drum
Temple blocks ARRANGING THE ENVIRONMENT
Doumbek
Talking
drum addressed in this section include the ability to:
Competencies
Again, there is no recipe; most important is that you recognize that even
this seemingly benign decision may have a profound impact on the
products and processes of group improvisation. Sometimes you will have
a specific reason for selecting a given instrument, such as its volume
capabilities, its timbre, its associative value, and so forth. At other times,
you will wait for the other players to choose their instruments before
choosing yours so that the clients will have full access to all of the tools
of self-expression.
Take turns selecting a suitable array of instruments for 6 players with the
attributes described below. If helpful, use the rankings in Tables 3, 4,
a.
adults who have limited grasp and strength due to cerebral palsy
b.
c.
d.
older adults who have mild to moderate hearing loss
ARRANGING THE ENVIRONMENT

48 Gardstrom
Instruments 45
mother bringing a child into a family meal in which a huge array

PR 5 Arrange
of new the
and improvisation
exotic food is presented.
environment
... By
withtaking
attention
her alone
to the
into
relative
the dining
positioning
room beforehand
of the instruments,
and encouraging
the players,
her to have
anda the
little
leader.
taste of everything first, she can come to the table with a little
more confidence in her ability to join the meal. (pp. 9697)
Once the instruments have been selected for the experience, the next
decision
how to arrange the surroundings, either before the
Sound involves
Vocabulary
group arrives or before the improvisation experience begins. As Bruscia
(1987)
notes,introductory
The arrangement
of the
room the
determines
what kinds of
A helpful
procedure
is called
Sound Vocabulary.
The
interactions
and relationships
apt toprocedure,
develop between
client,
sound vocabulary
consists of are
a six-step
modifiedthe
in response
therapist,
and client
mediaknowledge
(e.g., instruments)
526).ofWhen
possible,
is
to existing
and skill,(p.depth
knowledge
andit skill
recommended
that
group
members
and
the
therapist
sit
in
chairs
or
required for success in the experience, and allotted time:
wheelchairs in a circle with the instruments placed in the center of the
circle
on a tableand
if announce
appropriate).
Children
who(This
are too
1. on the
Pickfloor
up an(orinstrument
what
it is called
is a
small for chairs
can be positioned in a circle on the floor. In this case the
bodhran).
therapist may either be in a low chair or on the floor, depending upon the
needs
group.
When myabout
students
work with groups
the
2. of the
Share
a bit(Note:
of information
the instruments
origin,on
history,
floor, theyorneed
to
be
reminded
to
position
themselves
on
their
bent
conventional role (This is an Irish drum, typically played in
knees andsmall
toes;Celtic
this folk
pose
allows
freedom and and
swiftness
of
bands
alongthem
with pennywhistles
fiddles).
movement that they would not have while seated cross-legged on the
floor.)
configuration
allows for
person to be
seen
heardthe
3. A circle
Demonstrate
or describe
theeach
conventional
way
toand
sound
and communicates
equality
of membership.
It mayisbecome
important
to a
instrument,
if known
(This instrument
typically
played in
suggest that
players
change
position
in thewooden
circle from
time to time,
rapid
fashion
withtheir
a small,
two-sided
beater).
in that sitting in a different place may affect what is seen and heard and
the4. types Demonstrate
of relationships
that develop
within the group.
at least
two unconventional
ways In
to fact,
soundonethe
technique instrument
for reenergizing
a
group
or
combating
boredom
or
distraction
(One can play on the head with the palm of the hand
is to ask the
group members
towith
reposition
prior to starting a
or scratch
the surface
the tipsthemselves
of the fingers).
new improvisation.
their arrangement
5. As with
Ask the
for selection
volunteersoforinstruments,
pass the instrument
around thedeserves
group for
careful consideration.
It
makes
good
sense
to
place
the
large
instruments
further demonstrations of how to sound the instrument.
such as the djembe, bongos on a stand, gong, etc., between the chairs so
that
not block
visibility.
arranged
6. they do
Once
all of the
the clients
instruments
haveEach
beeninstrument
introduced,
instructonthe
the floor clients
ought totospend
be set
apart
from sounding
its neighbor,
and necessary
a few
moments
and exploring
each of
accoutrements
(mallets and(All
strikers)
placed
immediately
besideunless
or on top
the instruments.
players
do this
simultaneously,
there
of each instrument
so that it is evident that they belong together. I have
are contraindications.)
encountered therapists who place an instrument under each chair before
the players enter the room, regardless of the clients needs or clinical
objectives. Most players do not notice the instruments, and they select
Instruments 45
PR 5
Arrange the improvisation environment with attention to the

relative positioning of the instruments, the players, and the
leader.
decision involves how to arrange the surroundings, either before the
(1987) notes, The arrangement of the room determines what kinds of
interactions and relationships are apt to develop between the client,
therapist, and media (e.g., instruments) (p. 526). When possible, it is
recommended that group members and the therapist sit in chairs or
circle on the floor (or on a table if appropriate). Children who are too
small for chairs can be positioned in a circle on the floor. In this case the
needs of the group. (Note: When my students work with groups on the
floor, they need to be reminded to position themselves on their bent
knees and toes; this pose allows them freedom and swiftness of
floor.) A circle configuration allows for each person to be seen and heard
and communicates equality of membership. It may become important to
suggest that players change their position in the circle from time to time,
the types of relationships that develop within the group. In fact, one
technique for reenergizing a group or combating boredom or distraction
is to ask the group members to reposition themselves prior to starting a
new improvisation.
As with the selection of instruments, their arrangement deserves
careful consideration. It makes good sense to place the large instruments
that they do not block the clients visibility. Each instrument arranged on
the floor ought to be set apart from its neighbor, and necessary
accoutrements (mallets and strikers) placed immediately beside or on top
of each instrument so that it is evident that they belong together. I have
46 Gardstrom
their seatsand hence, their instrumentsat random. While this type of

arrangement might provide a structure necessary for certain players or
certain clinical aims, it also negates free choice and may inhibit
expression.
Of course, there will always be exceptions to the recommended
arrangement. For example, therapists improvise in cramped hospital
rooms with patients and their families; here it may be virtually
impossible to position the group in a circle with the instruments in the
center. Likewise, with large groups (camps, workshops, assemblies) this
configuration may not work. Moreover, when therapists work with
groups of children who have behavior disorders or who are highly
impulsive, it may be contraindicated to display an entire array of
instruments at once. Be sure to consider, also, that certain alternative
configurations may actually promote certain aims. For example, if the
goal is to help clients form more intimate relationships within the larger
group, players may be asked to share a drum with rotating partners while
seated face to face, or to make musical connections with others while
moving about the room with their instruments.
Imagine you use improvisation throughout the workday with a variety of
groups ranging in size from 4 to 12 members. Practice arranging and
rearranging the room, chairs, and instruments for an effective
experience.
PRESENTING THE INSTRUMENTS

PR 6
Present/Introduce the instruments to the players in a manner

that enables their effective use.
The final preparatory competency in this chapter refers to the

presentation of the instruments that you have selected and arranged. Too
often, music therapists assume that their clients will know how to sound
their instrument or that they will be able to figure it out on their own.
While this may be the case for some, it does not hold true for all players.
46 Gardstrom
Instruments 47
Murow
their seatsand
(2002) writes:
hence, their instrumentsat random. While this type of
certainForclinical
the clients
aims,
theitfirst
also
contact
negates
withfree
music
choice
therapy
and
is to
may
discover
inhibit
expression.
the instruments (mainly percussion instruments), the way they
Of
sound,
course,
andthere
the different
will always
waysbethey
exceptions
can be played.
to the For
recommended
most of
arrangement.
them thatFor
is the
example,
first time
therapists
they hadimprovise
been in contact
in cramped
with thishospital
kind
roomsofwith
musical
patients
instruments.
and their
At the
families;
beginning,
here some
it may
clients
be have
virtually
a
impossible
hard time
to position
understanding
the group
what
in amusic
circletherapy
with the
is; instruments
some think they
in the
center.are
Likewise,
going to
with
getlarge
music
groups
lessons
(camps,
and workshops,
get frustrated
assemblies)
when they
this
configuration
realize they
mayarenot
notwork.
going Moreover,
to get lessons
when
and therapists
they ask how
workthey
with
groupsareof going
children
to who
get better
have behavior
playing disorders
and singing?
or who
As are
in highly
any
impulsive,
therapeutic
it mayprocess,
be contraindicated
clients have to to
learn
display
how toanuseentire
the medium,
array of
instruments
and when
at once.
theyBelearn
sure about
to consider,
all thealso,
possibilities
that certainthealternative
music
configurations
experience
may
offers
actually
they become
promoteinvolved
certain in
aims.
the process!
For example, if the
group,Typically,
players may
be asked
to share
a drumthe
withclients
rotatingacquisition
partners while
there
is cause
to expedite
of
seated face
face,soor
to the
make
musical work
connections
with purposeful
others while
knowledge
andtoskill
that
therapeutic
can be more
moving
about themore
roomreadily.
with their
instruments.
and
accomplished
If you
are working in a short-term care
facility, for instance, you may improvise with a particular client only two
Extimes;
38 (Experiential
Learning)
or three
the work that
you do together must proceed without
hesitation. Therefore, it is crucial that the therapist present some form of
Imagine you
throughout
the workday
with a with
variety
introduction
to use
the improvisation
instruments prior
to improvising,
especially
(1)of
4 to 12 members.
Practice
arranging
and
thegroups
use ofranging
ethnic in
or size
novelfrom
instruments
with which
the clients
may be
rearranging
the group
room,members,
chairs, (3)
andgroups
instruments
an effective
unfamiliar,
(2) new
in whichfor
members
have
experience.
memory
difficulties, and (4) groups in which members experience
anxiety or feel intimidated by the presence of musical instruments upon
PRESENTING
THELoth
INSTRUMENTS
which they are expected
to perform.
(in Davies & Richards, 2002)
writes about the importance of introducing the instruments to clients with
eating
Competencies
disorders prior
addressed
to improvising:
in this section include the ability to:
PR 6 Before
Present/Introduce
a patient joinsthetheinstruments
group, therefore,
to the players
I take her
in ainto
manner
the
music
that enables
room and
their
explain
effective
what
use.happens in the group and what
music therapy is about. I then encourage her to try out all the
instruments,
explaining
the rangein ofthis
sounds
available
The final
preparatory
competency
chapter
refersandtothethe
presentation
potential
of the
musical
instruments
vocabulary.
that youThis
havedoes
selected
something
and arranged.
to lessen
Too
often, the
music
potency
therapists
of herassume
fear inthat
the their
groupclients
so thatwill
sheknow
does how
not have
to sound
to
act entirelyorfrom
position
of defence,
but can
allow
to
their instrument
that athey
will be
able to figure
it out
onherself
their own.
While engage
this maywith
be the
thecase
group
for asome,
little.it The
doessituation
not hold true
is analogous
for all players.
to a
46 Gardstrom
Instruments 47
Murow
their seatsand
(2002) writes:
hence, their instrumentsat random. While this type of
certainForclinical
the clients
aims,
theitfirst
also
contact
negates
withfree
music
choice
therapy
and
is to
may
discover
inhibit
expression.
Of
sound,
course,
andthere
the different
will always
waysbethey
exceptions
can be played.
to the For
recommended
most of
arrangement.
them thatFor
is the
example,
first time
therapists
they hadimprovise
been in contact
in cramped
with thishospital
kind
roomsofwith
musical
patients
instruments.
and their
At the
families;
beginning,
here some
it may
clients
be have
virtually
a
impossible
hard time
to position
understanding
the group
what
in amusic
circletherapy
with the
is; instruments
some think they
in the
center.are
Likewise,
going to
with
getlarge
music
groups
lessons
(camps,
and workshops,
get frustrated
assemblies)
when they
this
configuration
realize they
mayarenot
notwork.
going Moreover,
to get lessons
when
and therapists
they ask how
workthey
with
groupsareof going
children
to who
get better
have behavior
playing disorders
and singing?
or who
As are
in highly
any
impulsive,
therapeutic
it mayprocess,
be contraindicated
clients have to to
learn
display
how toanuseentire
the medium,
array of
instruments
and when
at once.
theyBelearn
sure about
to consider,
all thealso,
possibilities
that certainthealternative
music
configurations
experience
may
offers
actually
they become
promoteinvolved
certain in
aims.
the process!
For example, if the
group,Typically,
players may
be asked
to share
a drumthe
withclients
rotatingacquisition
partners while
there
is cause
to expedite
of
seated face
face,soor
to the
make
musical work
connections
with purposeful
others while
knowledge
andtoskill
that
therapeutic
can be more
moving
about themore
roomreadily.
with their
instruments.
and
accomplished
If you
are working in a short-term care
Extimes;
38 (Experiential
Learning)
or three
the work that
you do together must proceed without
Imagine you
throughout
the workday
with a with
variety
introduction
to use
the improvisation
instruments prior
to improvising,
especially
(1)of
4 to 12 members.
Practice
arranging
and
thegroups
use ofranging
ethnic in
or size
novelfrom
instruments
with which
the clients
may be
rearranging
the group
room,members,
chairs, (3)
andgroups
instruments
an effective
unfamiliar,
(2) new
in whichfor
members
have
experience.
memory
difficulties, and (4) groups in which members experience
PRESENTING
THELoth
INSTRUMENTS
which they are expected
to perform.
(in Davies & Richards, 2002)
eating
Competencies
disorders prior
addressed
to improvising:
PR 6 Before
Present/Introduce
a patient joinsthetheinstruments
group, therefore,
to the players
I take her
in ainto
manner
the
music
that enables
room and
their
explain
effective
what
use.happens in the group and what
instruments,
explaining
the rangein ofthis
sounds
available
The final
preparatory
competency
chapter
refersandtothethe
presentation
potential
of the
musical
instruments
vocabulary.
that youThis
havedoes
selected
something
and arranged.
to lessen
Too
often, the
music
potency
therapists
of herassume
fear inthat
the their
groupclients
so thatwill
sheknow
does how
not have
to sound
to
act entirelyorfrom
position
of defence,
but can
allow
to
their instrument
that athey
will be
able to figure
it out
onherself
their own.
While engage
this maywith
be the
thecase
group
for asome,
little.it The
doessituation
not hold true
is analogous
for all players.
to a
Instruments 47
Murow (2002) writes:

For the clients the first contact with music therapy is to discover
sound, and the different ways they can be played. For most of
them that is the first time they had been in contact with this kind
of musical instruments. At the beginning, some clients have a
hard time understanding what music therapy is; some think they
are going to get music lessons and get frustrated when they
realize they are not going to get lessons and they ask how they
are going to get better playing and singing? As in any
therapeutic process, clients have to learn how to use the medium,
and when they learn about all the possibilities the music
experience offers they become involved in the process!
Typically, there is cause to expedite the clients acquisition of
knowledge and skill so that the therapeutic work can be more purposeful
and accomplished more readily. If you are working in a short-term care
or three times; the work that you do together must proceed without
introduction to the instruments prior to improvising, especially with (1)
the use of ethnic or novel instruments with which the clients may be
unfamiliar, (2) new group members, (3) groups in which members have
memory difficulties, and (4) groups in which members experience
which they are expected to perform. Loth (in Davies & Richards, 2002)
eating disorders prior to improvising:
Before a patient joins the group, therefore, I take her into the
music room and explain what happens in the group and what
instruments, explaining the range of sounds available and the
potential musical vocabulary. This does something to lessen
the potency of her fear in the group so that she does not have to
act entirely from a position of defence, but can allow herself to
engage with the group a little. The situation is analogous to a
48 Gardstrom

of new and exotic food is presented. ... By taking her alone into
the dining room beforehand and encouraging her to have a little
Sound Vocabulary
A helpful introductory procedure is called the Sound Vocabulary. The
sound vocabulary consists of a six-step procedure, modified in response
to existing client knowledge and skill, depth of knowledge and skill
1.
Pick up an instrument and announce what it is called (This is a

bodhran).
2.
Share a bit of information about the instruments origin, history,

or conventional role (This is an Irish drum, typically played in
small Celtic folk bands along with pennywhistles and fiddles).
3.
Demonstrate or describe the conventional way to sound the

instrument, if known (This instrument is typically played in a
rapid fashion with a small, two-sided wooden beater).
4.
Demonstrate at least two unconventional ways to sound the

instrument (One can play on the head with the palm of the hand
or scratch the surface with the tips of the fingers).
5.
Ask for volunteers or pass the instrument around the group for
6.
Once all of the instruments have been introduced, instruct the

clients to spend a few moments sounding and exploring each of
the instruments. (All players do this simultaneously, unless there
48 Gardstrom
Instruments 45

PR 5 Arrange
of new the
and improvisation
exotic food is presented.
environment
... By
withtaking
attention
her alone
to the
into
relative
the dining
positioning
room beforehand
of the instruments,
and encouraging
the players,
her to have
anda the
little
leader.
decision
how to arrange the surroundings, either before the
Sound involves
Vocabulary
(1987)
notes,introductory
The arrangement
of the
room the
determines
what kinds of
A helpful
procedure
is called
Sound Vocabulary.
The
interactions
and relationships
apt toprocedure,
develop between
client,
sound vocabulary
consists of are
a six-step
modifiedthe
in response
therapist,
and client
mediaknowledge
(e.g., instruments)
526).ofWhen
possible,
is
to existing
and skill,(p.depth
knowledge
andit skill
recommended
that
group
members
and
the
therapist
sit
in
chairs
or
circle
on a tableand
if announce
appropriate).
Children
who(This
are too
1. on the
Pickfloor
up an(orinstrument
what
it is called
is a
small for chairs
can be positioned in a circle on the floor. In this case the
bodhran).
needs
group.
When myabout
students
work with groups
the
2. of the
Share
a bit(Note:
of information
the instruments
origin,on
history,
floor, theyorneed
to
be
reminded
to
position
themselves
on
their
bent
conventional role (This is an Irish drum, typically played in
knees andsmall
toes;Celtic
this folk
pose
allows
freedom and and
swiftness
of
bands
alongthem
with pennywhistles
fiddles).
floor.)
configuration
allows for
person to be
seen
heardthe
3. A circle
Demonstrate
or describe
theeach
conventional
way
toand
sound
and communicates
equality
of membership.
It mayisbecome
important
to a
instrument,
if known
(This instrument
typically
played in
suggest that
players
change
position
in thewooden
circle from
time to time,
rapid
fashion
withtheir
a small,
two-sided
beater).
the4. types Demonstrate
of relationships
that develop
within the group.
at least
two unconventional
ways In
to fact,
soundonethe
technique instrument
for reenergizing
a
group
or
combating
boredom
or
distraction
(One can play on the head with the palm of the hand
is to ask the
group members
towith
reposition
prior to starting a
or scratch
the surface
the tipsthemselves
of the fingers).
new improvisation.
their arrangement
5. As with
Ask the
for selection
volunteersoforinstruments,
pass the instrument
around thedeserves
group for
careful consideration.
It
makes
good
sense
to
place
the
large
instruments
that
not block
visibility.
arranged
6. they do
Once
all of the
the clients
instruments
haveEach
beeninstrument
introduced,
instructonthe
the floor clients
ought totospend
be set
apart
from sounding
its neighbor,
and necessary
a few
moments
and exploring
each of
accoutrements
(mallets and(All
strikers)
placed
immediately
besideunless
or on top
the instruments.
players
do this
simultaneously,
there
of each instrument
so that it is evident that they belong together. I have
52 Gardstrom
7.
Instruments 49
Without
After theexception,
explorationrhythmic
phase, and
playing
depending
beginsupon
withthea type
pulse
of
sometimes
improvisation
called the to
basic
ensue,
beat,you
andmay
this element
want to either
inviteisthe
made
clients
manifest
to
(sounded)
return
ortoremains
their chairs
latentwith
(unsounded
an instrument(s)
yet internal
of their
andchoice.
understood).
Like your heartbeat, musical pulse is a series of sounds that mark off
When
time presenting
into equal,the
recurring
sound segments
vocabulary,(Bruscia,
try to adhere
1987, p.
to465).
the following
It is steady,
guidelines:
predictable, and static. The word static here implies stability and
sameness (much like a static referent was previously described). When
anindividual
Use language
is maintaining
that the clients
or listening
can understand.
to the musical pulse, there is no
sense of urgency or forward drive; rather, there is a state of equilibrium.
You
can
Stress
liken
that
thisauthentic
to the way
self-expression
you feel when
is of
your
theheart
highest
is beating
order of
at a
comfortable
playing,resting
and that
rate.a The
perceived
pulse, lack
or basic
of musical
beat, asknowledge
we shall see
andin
subsequent
skill orchapters,
experience
canwith
serve
improvisation
as an important
needclinical
not prevent
grounding
this. tool,
providing a sense of comfort and stability for clients and therapists.
Just
When
as your
modeling
hearthow
beats
to at
sound
various
the instruments,
speeds, so too
usedoes
boththe
rhythmic
musical
pulse and
occur
nonrhythmic
at different
examples.
rates. The rate of the pulse, that is, how
frequently the sound evenly punctuates a given period of time, is called
the tempo.
Incorporate
In fact, the
a variety
word tempo
of dynamics,
means time.
timbres,
Tempo
and can
playing
change
in oneconfigurations
of three directions;
into yourquite
playing
obviously,
so that the
the clients
music can
can hear
speed
andup
(accelerando),
see the various
slow down
possibilities.
(ritardando), or ebb and flow (rubato).
Tempo is one representation of the energy, force, and motivation
with
which
Avoid aputting
player emotional
produces music.
labels on
With
certain
an increase
sounds in
(You
the tempo
can
comesmake
a greater
a sad
level
sound
of playing
like this)
and listening
and judging
activity,
the and
value
weofexperience
certain
an accompanying
sounds (You
boost
might
in get
energy;
a better
likewise,
sound ifwhen
you play
the tempo
like this).
decreases,
less activity is implied, and we feel the energy level diminish. This
connection
Whenhas
demonstrating
clinical significance
the instruments,
as we bothbeassess
careful
andnot
attempt
to play
to help
in
group such
members
a sophisticated
alter their physical
or showy
or psychological
manner that
energy
the levels.
clients are
You
intimidated
are undoubtedly
or apprehensive
familiar about
with the
their
many
owntraditional
performance
Italian
skill.terms
that we use to describe tempo, such as lento, moderato, presto, and
soon.Consider
In this book,
the attributes
I will use
of the
justplayers.
five gradations,
Children need
represented
fewer words
by the
following
and more
terms:modeling;
very slow,older
slow,
adults
moderate,
may require
fast, and
a slower
very fast.
pace,I do
etc.this
because these terms are more client-friendly than the Italian words.
Present a sound vocabulary to a group of 5 to 7 players. Practice with
three
time parameters:
minute,
3 minutes,
minutes.
As adifferent
group, place
and feel the1pulse
somewhere
on and
your5 body
(legs,
Practice
if presenting
to children,
adolescents/adults,
and older
adults.
hands, as
chest,
etc.). Without
stopping,
beat in an unaccented
manner
for
several minutes as you work your way from very slow to very fast and
Instruments 49
7.
After the exploration phase, and depending upon the type of

improvisation to ensue, you may want to invite the clients to
return to their chairs with an instrument(s) of their choice.
When presenting the sound vocabulary, try to adhere to the following

guidelines:
Use language that the clients can understand.
Stress that authentic self-expression is of the highest order of

playing, and that a perceived lack of musical knowledge and
skill or experience with improvisation need not prevent this.
When modeling how to sound the instruments, use both rhythmic

and nonrhythmic examples.
Incorporate a variety of dynamics, timbres, and playing

configurations into your playing so that the clients can hear and
see the various possibilities.
Avoid putting emotional labels on certain sounds (You can

make a sad sound like this) and judging the value of certain
sounds (You might get a better sound if you play like this).
When demonstrating the instruments, be careful not to play in

such a sophisticated or showy manner that the clients are
intimidated or apprehensive about their own performance skill.
Consider the attributes of the players. Children need fewer words

and more modeling; older adults may require a slower pace, etc.
three different time parameters: 1 minute, 3 minutes, and 5 minutes.
Practice as if presenting to children, adolescents/adults, and older adults.
50 Gardstrom
50 Gardstrom
Now that you have explored the terms and instruments of

improvisation, it is time to consider the musical elements that are
employed when therapists and clients improvise. This is the subject of
the next chapter.
Now that you have

explored
Chapter
Fourthe terms and instruments of
the MUSICAL
next chapter. ELEMENTS OF IMPROVISATION
Vocabulary for Chapter Three

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Instrumentarium
Matched Grip
Traditional Grip
Ambidexterity
Strikers
Shakers
Scrapers
Motor Functioning
Strength/Endurance
Sound Variability
Expressive Potential
Sound Vocabulary
AllVocabulary
music is composed
of elements,
for Chapter
Three fundamental building blocks that
we stack together in various configurations to produce unique sounds. In
this chapter, I will identify and define the rhythmic, tonal, textural,
1.
Instrumentarium
dynamic, and timbral elements that we characteristically use in clinical
2.
Matched Grip
music improvisation. Information about the elements will assist us as we
3.
Traditional Grip
continue with subsequent skill-building exercises, and specifically as we
4.
Ambidexterity
encounter the Improvisation Assessment Profiles in Chapter Eight.
5.
Strikers
Within each of the sections on rhythmic, tonal, textural, dynamic, and
6.
Shakers
timbral elements below, exercises are included to help you solidify your
7.
Scrapers
perception and understanding of these concepts and begin to gain
8.
Motor Functioning
competency in employing them. As asserted above, the ability to
9.
Strength/Endurance
manipulate the musical elements in an intentional way is absolutely
10.
critical to your success as a facilitator of clinical improvisation.
11.
Sound Variability
12.
RHYTHMIC ELEMENTS
13.
Sound Vocabulary
PR 7
Identify the rhythmic elements commonly used in clinical

improvisation.
PR 8 Establish and maintain pulse in a variety of tempi.
PR 9 Establish and maintain subdivisions of the pulse.
PR 10 Establish duple and triple meters with the use of dynamic
accents.
PR 11 Create simple and complex rhythmic patterns in duple and triple
meters.
PR 12 Create effective rhythmic flourishes.
The rhythmic elements used in clinical improvisation are pulse, tempo,
subdivision, meter, rhythmic figure, and rhythmic flourish. All rhythmic
elements have to do with the organization of sound durationin other
words, the long and the short of it!
50 Gardstrom
Now that you have

explored
Chapter
Fourthe terms and instruments of
the MUSICAL
next chapter. ELEMENTS OF IMPROVISATION
Chapter Four
MUSICAL ELEMENTS OF IMPROVISATION
AllVocabulary
music is composed
of elements,
for Chapter
Three fundamental building blocks that
1.
Instrumentarium
2.
Matched Grip
3.
Traditional Grip
4.
Ambidexterity
5.
Strikers
6.
Shakers
7.
Scrapers
8.
Motor Functioning
9.
Strength/Endurance
10.
11.
Sound Variability
12.
RHYTHMIC ELEMENTS
13.
Sound Vocabulary
All music is composed of elements, fundamental building blocks that

PR 7

improvisation.
accents.
meters.
PR 7


RHYTHMIC ELEMENTS

improvisation.
accents.
meters.
52 Gardstrom
Without exception, rhythmic playing begins with a pulse

sometimes called the basic beat, and this element either is made manifest
(sounded) or remains latent (unsounded yet internal and understood).
time into equal, recurring segments (Bruscia, 1987, p. 465). It is steady,
an individual is maintaining or listening to the musical pulse, there is no
You can liken this to the way you feel when your heart is beating at a
comfortable resting rate. The pulse, or basic beat, as we shall see in
subsequent chapters, can serve as an important clinical grounding tool,
Just as your heart beats at various speeds, so too does the musical
pulse occur at different rates. The rate of the pulse, that is, how
the tempo. In fact, the word tempo means time. Tempo can change
in one of three directions; quite obviously, the music can speed up
(accelerando), slow down (ritardando), or ebb and flow (rubato).
with which a player produces music. With an increase in the tempo
comes a greater level of playing and listening activity, and we experience
an accompanying boost in energy; likewise, when the tempo decreases,
connection has clinical significance as we both assess and attempt to help
group members alter their physical or psychological energy levels.
You are undoubtedly familiar with the many traditional Italian terms
so on. In this book, I will use just five gradations, represented by the
following terms: very slow, slow, moderate, fast, and very fast. I do this
As a group, place and feel the pulse somewhere on your body (legs,
hands, chest, etc.). Without stopping, beat in an unaccented manner for
52 Gardstrom
7.
Instruments 49
Without
After theexception,
explorationrhythmic
phase, and
playing
depending
beginsupon
withthea type
pulse
of
sometimes
improvisation
called the to
basic
ensue,
beat,you
andmay
this element
want to either
inviteisthe
made
clients
manifest
to
(sounded)
return
ortoremains
their chairs
latentwith
(unsounded
an instrument(s)
yet internal
of their
andchoice.
understood).
When
time presenting
into equal,the
recurring
sound segments
vocabulary,(Bruscia,
try to adhere
1987, p.
to465).
the following
It is steady,
guidelines:
anindividual
Use language
is maintaining
that the clients
or listening
can understand.
to the musical pulse, there is no
You
can
Stress
liken
that
thisauthentic
to the way
self-expression
you feel when
is of
your
theheart
highest
is beating
order of
at a
comfortable
playing,resting
and that
rate.a The
perceived
pulse, lack
or basic
of musical
beat, asknowledge
we shall see
andin
subsequent
skill orchapters,
experience
canwith
serve
improvisation
as an important
needclinical
not prevent
grounding
this. tool,
Just
When
as your
modeling
hearthow
beats
to at
sound
various
the instruments,
speeds, so too
usedoes
boththe
rhythmic
musical
pulse and
occur
nonrhythmic
at different
examples.
rates. The rate of the pulse, that is, how
the tempo.
Incorporate
In fact, the
a variety
word tempo
of dynamics,
means time.
timbres,
Tempo
and can
playing
change
in oneconfigurations
of three directions;
into yourquite
playing
obviously,
so that the
the clients
music can
can hear
speed
andup
(accelerando),
see the various
slow down
possibilities.
(ritardando), or ebb and flow (rubato).
with
which
Avoid aputting
player emotional
produces music.
labels on
With
certain
an increase
sounds in
(You
the tempo
can
comesmake
a greater
a sad
level
sound
of playing
like this)
and listening
and judging
activity,
the and
value
weofexperience
certain
an accompanying
sounds (You
boost
might
in get
energy;
a better
likewise,
sound ifwhen
you play
the tempo
like this).
decreases,
connection
Whenhas
demonstrating
clinical significance
the instruments,
as we bothbeassess
careful
andnot
attempt
to play
to help
in
group such
members
a sophisticated
alter their physical
or showy
or psychological
manner that
energy
the levels.
clients are
You
intimidated
are undoubtedly
or apprehensive
familiar about
with the
their
many
owntraditional
performance
Italian
skill.terms
soon.Consider
In this book,
the attributes
I will use
of the
justplayers.
five gradations,
Children need
represented
fewer words
by the
following
and more
terms:modeling;
very slow,older
slow,
adults
moderate,
may require
fast, and
a slower
very fast.
pace,I do
etc.this
three
time parameters:
minute,
3 minutes,
minutes.
As adifferent
group, place
and feel the1pulse
somewhere
on and
your5 body
(legs,
Practice
if presenting
to children,
adolescents/adults,
and older
adults.
hands, as
chest,
etc.). Without
stopping,
beat in an unaccented
manner
for
56 Gardstrom
Elements 53
Elements 53
back
continue
again.theHow
harmonic
was your
progression
energy level
whileand
theyattention
improviseaffected
rhythmicasfigures
you
moved
(16 beats).
through
I have
the continua
found this
of tempi?
to be a good way to encourage the use of
swing-style rhythms, which do not seem to naturally appear in neophyte
improvisations.
back again. How was your energy level and attention affected as you
moved through the continua of tempi?
As a group,
Although
place
weand
canfeel
think
theofpulse
a rhythmic
somewhere
flourish
on your
as abody
subset
(legs,
of a
hands,
rhythmic
chest,
pattern,
etc.) orit on
hasandisparate
instrument.
qualities
Establish
and can
a common
functionpulse
differently
in a
moderate
from a pattern.
tempo; alternate
Here, I define
playing
a flourish
this for as
8 beats
a sudden
and internalizing
or sporadic, brief,
the
beat
ornamental
for 8 beats
musical
(hear and
statement
feel it but
thatdoserves
not playtoit embellish
out loud). the
Extend
ongoing
the
internalized
rhythmic sequences
beat to 16ofbeats
an improvisation.
or more. Is every
Thus,players
by definition,
conceptrhythmic
of the
tempo
flourishes
identical?
appear once in a while rather than consistently, are somewhat
showy in that they are more sophisticated than the underlying rhythmic
patterns,
When the
and,pulse
whenis used
subdivided,
most effectively,
it simply means
function
that to
where
lendtime
beauty
wasor
evenly
interest
punctuated
by one sound
In unit,
clinical
nowimprovisation,
it is equally divided
a flourish
bycan
more
also
than
be one:
used two,
to draw
three,
attention
four, and
to so
some
on. aspect
As withoftempo,
the music
subdivisions
or to theserve
player
towho
add to
introduces
the energyit.surrounding
Flourishes the
are pulse.
akin to
With
what
the drum
increase
set inplayers
physical
call
energy
fillsa
required
pinchtoofmove
salt or
from
pepper
playing
to add
theapulse
bit of to
flavor.
playing subdivisions,
there isLet
an accompanying
us take a moment
increasetoindiscuss
and accumulation
the inherent
of auditory
figure-ground
and
perceptual
associations
energy.
that exist between the rhythmic elements. The term figureground refers to the forefront-background relationships that comprise our
ongoing
Ex 43perceptual
(Experiential
fieldsin
Learning)
this case, our auditory/perceptual field. It
should be obvious that the pulse is always a ground and never a figure.
Somewhere
Subdivisions
on played
your body
against
(legs, or
hands,
on top
chest,
of etc.)
a pulse
or could
on an be
instrument,
considered
play
a figure
and feel
against
the pulse
or on
for top
16 beats.
of a ground,
Withoutbut
stopping,
the line double
of distinction
the pulse
here
foris 16
fuzzy.
beats
Certainly,
(duple subdivisions).
when subdivisions
Now are
double
first itintroduced,
again (quadruple).
they sound
Repeat
different
the cycle,
from pulse
beginning
and with
standtheout,
pulse.
implying
Concentrate
energyonand
howmovement
it feels
and
toward
sounds
some
to subdivide
kind of musical
the pulse
activity
in this
or manner.
event; however,
Repeat the
when
exercise,
they are
subdividing
repeated and
in groups
then maintained,
of three (triple)
subdivisions
and six begin
(sextuple).
to function as a ground.
Rhythmic patterns, with their varied sound durations, emerge as
foreground
One way orof figure
organizing
against
a basic
the ground,
beat or its
which
subdivisions
could beisthe
to use
pulse
meter.
(manifest
Musical
or latent),
meter refers
its subdivisions,
to the grouping
or a meter.
of the Rhythms
pulse intostand
numerical
out not
units.
onlyInbecause
duple meter,
they are
the different
pulse is grouped
from theinground,
twos and
butmanifested
also because
as one
they
emphasized
are typically
or strong
non cyclical.
beat followed
Here, as by
with
onesubdivisions,
deemphasizedhowever,
or weak
if a
beat
rhythmic
(or derivatives
pattern is and
repeated
combinations
without change,
of thisit configuration).
too may begin to
In function
triple
meter,
as a the
rhythmic
pulse isground.
groupedWe
in threes
might and
callmanifested
this a rhythmic
as one strong
ostinato,
beatby
followed
definition,
by atwo
repeating
weak beats
and persistent
(or derivatives
rhythmic
andpattern;
combinations
in fact, the
of this
word
configuration).
ostinato means
Such
obstinate,
organization
or unrelenting.
creates a hierarchy
Finally,
of aenergy
rhythmic
andflourish
time,
which can help to order and contain rhythmic expressions. Metric
As a group, place and feel the pulse somewhere on your body (legs,
hands, chest, etc.) or on an instrument. Establish a common pulse in a
moderate tempo; alternate playing this for 8 beats and internalizing the
beat for 8 beats (hear and feel it but do not play it out loud). Extend the
internalized beat to 16 beats or more. Is every players concept of the
tempo identical?
When the pulse is subdivided, it simply means that where time was
evenly punctuated by one sound unit, now it is equally divided by more
than one: two, three, four, and so on. As with tempo, subdivisions serve
to add to the energy surrounding the pulse. With the increase in physical
energy required to move from playing the pulse to playing subdivisions,
there is an accompanying increase in and accumulation of auditory and
perceptual energy.
Somewhere on your body (legs, hands, chest, etc.) or on an instrument,
play and feel the pulse for 16 beats. Without stopping, double the pulse
for 16 beats (duple subdivisions). Now double it again (quadruple).
Repeat the cycle, beginning with the pulse. Concentrate on how it feels
and sounds to subdivide the pulse in this manner. Repeat the exercise,
subdividing in groups of three (triple) and six (sextuple).
One way of organizing a basic beat or its subdivisions is to use
meter. Musical meter refers to the grouping of the pulse into numerical
units. In duple meter, the pulse is grouped in twos and manifested as one
emphasized or strong beat followed by one deemphasized or weak
beat (or derivatives and combinations of this configuration). In triple
meter, the pulse is grouped in threes and manifested as one strong beat
followed by two weak beats (or derivatives and combinations of this
configuration). Such organization creates a hierarchy of energy and time,
54 Gardstrom
groupings can be accomplished in a number of ways; in instrumental

improvisation, the most common way to create strong and weak beats
and thus create meter is through the use of dynamic accents.
54 Gardstrom
Elements 55
Using your body (legs, hands, chest, etc.) or an instrument, practice

playing and feeling the pulse in groupings of two (duple), three (triple),
and four (duple extended), with dynamic accents on beat 1. Be sure to
exaggerate the dynamic contrasts between accented and nonaccented
beats. Which metric system, duple or triple, feels more comfortable to
you as you use it?
eighth
groupings
notescan
(Lets
be accomplished
go), a quarter-note
in a number
triplet
of ways;
or an ineighth
instrumental
note
followed
improvisation,
by twothe
sixteenth
most common
notes (down
way totocreate
the),strong
and aand
quarter
weaknote
beats
(park)
and thusfollowed
create meter
by ais through
quarter the
rest.use
You
of dynamic
can create
accents.
language-based
rhythmic patterns and phrases using a wide range of text media, such as
the players
Ex4 names,
(Experiential
everyday
Learning)
conversational phrases, and even published
metric poetry.
playing
Ex 45
and
(Experiential
feeling the pulse
Learning)
in groupings of two (duple), three (triple),
Asexaggerate
a group, and
thethen
dynamic
individually
contrasts
within
between
the group,
accented
practice
and saying
nonaccented
and
subsequently
beats. Which
playing
metricvarious
system, words,
duple or
phrases,
triple, and
feelscomplete
more comfortable
sentences.to
Use
youslight
as you
dynamic
use it?accents to indicate stressed syllables in the text.
Now we come to rhythmic figure, sometimes called rhythmic

pattern. Players create figures or patterns by employing sounds that vary
in length, emphasis, and alignment with each other or with the
underlying pulse. Rhythmic figures range in complexity from
combinations of simple subdivisions of the basic beat, to those that are
based upon syncopation (emphasized sounds that do not align with the
basic beat or metric structure), frequent subdivision changes (doubling to
tripling or vice versa), or cross-rhythms (rhythmic patterns that fall
outside the established metric structure). Rhythmic patterns lend interest
and vitality to improvisation and quite obviously demand a higher level
of organizational skill than pulse or subdivision.
ExNow
46 (Experiential
we come toLearning)
rhythmic figure, sometimes called rhythmic
One
in way
length,
to understand
emphasis, how
andfigures
alignment
are organized
with each
intoother
coherent
or phrases
with the
is underlying
to play the pulse.
melodicRhythmic
rhythms offigures
pre-existing
rangesongs.
in complexity
Be sure to use
from
material
combinations
from a of
variety
simple
of subdivisions
genres, sinceofdifferent
the basic
styles
beat,of to
music
thosesuggest
that are
different
based upon
rhythmic
syncopation
configurations.
(emphasized
Case sounds
in point:
that
Compare
do not align
the melodic
with the
rhythms
basic beat
of (1)
or metric
Twinkle
structure),
Twinkle,
frequent
a childrens
subdivision
songchanges
composed
(doubling
of sixto
identical
tripling rhythmic
or vice phrases
versa), consisting
or cross-rhythms
of even subdivisions,
(rhythmic patterns
(2) The
that
Girl
fall
from
outside
Ipanema,
the established
a bossa metric
nova with
structure).
extensive
Rhythmic
syncopation,
patterns
andlend
(3) interest
The
Star
and Spangled
vitality to Banner,
improvisation
a patriotic
and quite song
obviously
with demand
many dotted
a highernote
level
configurations.
Language and Rhythm

Some individuals are more adept at forming spontaneous rhythmic
patterns than others, yet each of us can use our knowledge of and
comfort with rhythmicity in language as one way to begin creating
unique patterns and phrases. (The Orff-Schulwerk and Suzuki methods
of music education are heavily dependent upon this fundamental
connection between language and rhythm.) You have probably noticed
that there is a certain inherent prosody, or pattern of intonation, to the
words, phrases, and sentences that you speak on a daily basis. For
example, the name Cynthia Mallory Margaret Callahan might suggest
two measures of eighth notes in 6/8 meter. A phrase such as Lets go
down to the park! on the other hand, might suggest 4/4 meter, with two
Ex 47 (Experiential
Language
and RhythmLearning)
AsSome
an ensemble,
establish
a moderate
somewhere
on yourrhythmic
body
individuals
are more
adept atpulse
forming
spontaneous
(feet,
hands,
chest,
etc.) yet
or on
an instrument.
an accent
on theoffirst
patterns
than
others,
each
of us can Add
use our
knowledge
and
ofcomfort
every 4 with
beatsrhythmicity
to create distinct
measures
of duple
Playcreating
four
in language
as one
way meter.
to begin
measures
(16 beats)
pulse and(The
fourOrff-Schulwerk
measures (16 beats)
of improvised
unique patterns
andof phrases.
and Suzuki
methods
rhythmic
figures;
repeat.
Experiment
with
simple
of music education are heavily dependent upon thissubdivisions,
fundamental
syncopated
cross-rhythms.
Try to You
watchhave
and probably
listen for noticed
other
connectionrhythms,
betweenand
language
and rhythm.)
players
rhythms
while you
play. prosody, or pattern of intonation, to the
that there
is a certain
inherent
Variation:
I play theMallory
chord progression
for the chorus
Hit
example,Sometimes
the name Cynthia
Margaret Callahan
mighttosuggest
thetwo
Road,
Jack of
on eighth
the piano
as ainstructure
forAthis
exercise.
playersgo
measures
notes
6/8 meter.
phrase
suchThe
as Lets
sing
the tochorus
together
andother
maintain
pulse
(16 beats),
and with
thentwo
I
down
the park!
on the
hand, the
might
suggest
4/4 meter,
54 Gardstrom
Elements 55
eighth
groupings
notescan
(Lets
be accomplished
go), a quarter-note
in a number
triplet
of ways;
or an ineighth
instrumental
note
followed
improvisation,
by twothe
sixteenth
most common
notes (down
way totocreate
the),strong
and aand
quarter
weaknote
beats
(park)
and thusfollowed
create meter
by ais through
quarter the
rest.use
You
of dynamic
can create
accents.
language-based
the players
Ex4 names,
(Experiential
everyday
Learning)
conversational phrases, and even published
metric poetry.
playing
Ex 45
and
(Experiential
feeling the pulse
Learning)
in groupings of two (duple), three (triple),
Asexaggerate
a group, and
thethen
dynamic
individually
contrasts
within
between
the group,
accented
practice
and saying
nonaccented
and
subsequently
beats. Whichplaying
metricvarious
system, words,
duple or
phrases,
triple, and
feelscomplete
more comfortable
sentences.to
Use
youslight
as you
dynamic
use it?accents to indicate stressed syllables in the text.
ExNow
46 (Experiential
we come toLearning)
rhythmic figure, sometimes called rhythmic
One
in way
length,
to understand
emphasis, how
andfigures
alignment
are organized
with each
intoother
coherent
or phrases
with the
is underlying
to play the pulse.
melodicRhythmic
rhythms offigures
pre-existing
rangesongs.
in complexity
Be sure to use
from
material
combinations
from a of
variety
simple
of subdivisions
genres, sinceofdifferent
the basic
styles
beat,of to
music
thosesuggest
that are
different
based upon
rhythmic
syncopation
configurations.
(emphasized
Case sounds
in point:
that
Compare
do not align
the melodic
with the
rhythms
basic beat
of (1)
or metric
Twinkle
structure),
Twinkle,
frequent
a childrens
subdivision
songchanges
composed
(doubling
of sixto
identical
tripling rhythmic
or vice phrases
versa), consisting
or cross-rhythms
of even subdivisions,
(rhythmic patterns
(2) The
that
Girl
fall
from
outside
Ipanema,
the established
a bossa metric
nova with
structure).
extensive
Rhythmic
syncopation,
patterns
andlend
(3) interest
The
Star
and Spangled
vitality to Banner,
improvisation
a patriotic
and quite song
obviously
with demand
many dotted
a highernote
level
configurations.
Ex 47 (Experiential
Language
and RhythmLearning)
AsSome
an ensemble,
establish
a moderate
somewhere
on yourrhythmic
body
individuals
are more
adept atpulse
forming
spontaneous
(feet,
hands,
chest,
etc.) yet
or on
an instrument.
an accent
on theoffirst
patterns
than
others,
each
of us can Add
use our
knowledge
and
ofcomfort
every 4 with
beatsrhythmicity
to create distinct
measures
of duple
Playcreating
four
in language
as one
way meter.
to begin
measures
(16 beats)
pulse and(The
fourOrff-Schulwerk
measures (16 beats)
of improvised
unique patterns
andof phrases.
and Suzuki
methods
rhythmic
figures;
repeat.
Experiment
with
simple
of music education are heavily dependent upon thissubdivisions,
fundamental
syncopated
cross-rhythms.
Try to You
watchhave
and probably
listen for noticed
other
connectionrhythms,
betweenand
language
and rhythm.)
players
rhythms
while you
play. prosody, or pattern of intonation, to the
that there
is a certain
inherent
Variation:
I play theMallory
chord progression
for the chorus
Hit
example,Sometimes
the name Cynthia
Margaret Callahan
mighttosuggest
thetwo
Road,
Jack of
on eighth
the piano
as ainstructure
forAthis
exercise.
playersgo
measures
notes
6/8 meter.
phrase
suchThe
as Lets
sing
the tochorus
together
andother
maintain
pulse
(16 beats),
and with
thentwo
I
down
the park!
on the
hand, the
might
suggest
4/4 meter,
Elements 55
eighth notes (Lets go), a quarter-note triplet or an eighth note

followed by two sixteenth notes (down to the), and a quarter note
(park) followed by a quarter rest. You can create language-based
the players names, everyday conversational phrases, and even published
metric poetry.
As a group, and then individually within the group, practice saying and
subsequently playing various words, phrases, and complete sentences.
Use slight dynamic accents to indicate stressed syllables in the text.
One way to understand how figures are organized into coherent phrases
is to play the melodic rhythms of pre-existing songs. Be sure to use
material from a variety of genres, since different styles of music suggest
different rhythmic configurations. Case in point: Compare the melodic
rhythms of (1) Twinkle Twinkle, a childrens song composed of six
identical rhythmic phrases consisting of even subdivisions, (2) The Girl
from Ipanema, a bossa nova with extensive syncopation, and (3) The
Star Spangled Banner, a patriotic song with many dotted note
configurations.
As an ensemble, establish a moderate pulse somewhere on your body
(feet, hands, chest, etc.) or on an instrument. Add an accent on the first
of every 4 beats to create distinct measures of duple meter. Play four
measures (16 beats) of pulse and four measures (16 beats) of improvised
rhythmic figures; repeat. Experiment with simple subdivisions,
syncopated rhythms, and cross-rhythms. Try to watch and listen for other
players rhythms while you play.
Variation: Sometimes I play the chord progression for the chorus to Hit
the Road, Jack on the piano as a structure for this exercise. The players
sing the chorus together and maintain the pulse (16 beats), and then I
56 Gardstrom
56 Gardstrom
Elements 53
continue the harmonic progression while they improvise rhythmic figures

(16 beats). I have found this to be a good way to encourage the use of
improvisations.
back
continue
again.theHow
harmonic
was your
progression
energy level
whileand
theyattention
improviseaffected
rhythmicasfigures
you
moved
(16 beats).
through
I have
the continua
found this
of tempi?
to be a good way to encourage the use of
improvisations.
Although we can think of a rhythmic flourish as a subset of a

rhythmic pattern, it has disparate qualities and can function differently
from a pattern. Here, I define a flourish as a sudden or sporadic, brief,
ornamental musical statement that serves to embellish the ongoing
rhythmic sequences of an improvisation. Thus, by definition, rhythmic
flourishes appear once in a while rather than consistently, are somewhat
patterns, and, when used most effectively, function to lend beauty or
interest to the improvisation. In clinical improvisation, a flourish can also
be used to draw attention to some aspect of the music or to the player
who introduces it. Flourishes are akin to what drum set players call
fillsa pinch of salt or pepper to add a bit of flavor.
Let us take a moment to discuss the inherent figure-ground
associations that exist between the rhythmic elements. The term figureground refers to the forefront-background relationships that comprise our
ongoing perceptual fieldsin this case, our auditory/perceptual field. It
Subdivisions played against or on top of a pulse could be considered
a figure against or on top of a ground, but the line of distinction here
is fuzzy. Certainly, when subdivisions are first introduced, they sound
different from pulse and stand out, implying energy and movement
toward some kind of musical activity or event; however, when they are
repeated and then maintained, subdivisions begin to function as a ground.
foreground or figure against the ground, which could be the pulse
(manifest or latent), its subdivisions, or a meter. Rhythms stand out not
only because they are different from the ground, but also because they
are typically non cyclical. Here, as with subdivisions, however, if a
rhythmic pattern is repeated without change, it too may begin to function
as a rhythmic ground. We might call this a rhythmic ostinato, by
definition, a repeating and persistent rhythmic pattern; in fact, the word
ostinato means obstinate, or unrelenting. Finally, a rhythmic flourish
As a group,
Although
place
weand
canfeel
think
theofpulse
a rhythmic
somewhere
flourish
on your
as abody
subset
(legs,
of a
hands,
rhythmic
chest,
pattern,
etc.) orit on
hasandisparate
instrument.
qualities
Establish
and can
a common
functionpulse
differently
in a
moderate
from a pattern.
tempo; alternate
Here, I define
playing
a flourish
this for as
8 beats
a sudden
and internalizing
or sporadic, brief,
the
beat
ornamental
for 8 beatsmusical
(hear and
statement
feel it but
thatdoserves
not playtoit embellish
out loud). the
Extend
ongoing
the
internalized
rhythmic sequences
beat to 16ofbeats
an improvisation.
or more. Is every
Thus,players
by definition,
conceptrhythmic
of the
tempo
flourishes
identical?
appear once in a while rather than consistently, are somewhat
patterns,
When the
and,pulse
whenis used
subdivided,
most effectively,
it simply means
function
that to
where
lendtime
beauty
wasor
evenly
interest
punctuated
by one sound
In unit,
clinical
nowimprovisation,
it is equally divided
a flourish
bycan
more
also
than
be one:
used two,
to draw
three,
attention
four, and
to so
some
on. aspect
As withoftempo,
the music
subdivisions
or to theserve
player
towho
add to
introduces
the energyit.surrounding
Flourishes the
are pulse.
akin to
With
what
the drum
increase
set inplayers
physical
call
energy
fillsa
required
pinchtoofmove
salt or
from
pepper
playing
to add
theapulse
bit of to
flavor.
playing subdivisions,
there isLet
an accompanying
us take a moment
increasetoindiscuss
and accumulation
the inherent
of auditory
figure-ground
and
perceptual
associations
energy.
that exist between the rhythmic elements. The term figureground refers to the forefront-background relationships that comprise our
ongoing
Ex 43perceptual
(Experiential
fieldsin
Learning)
this case, our auditory/perceptual field. It
Somewhere
Subdivisions
on played
your body
against
(legs, or
hands,
on top
chest,
of etc.)
a pulse
or could
on an be
instrument,
considered
play
a figure
and feel
against
the pulse
or on
for top
16 beats.
of a ground,
Withoutbut
stopping,
the line double
of distinction
the pulse
here
foris 16
fuzzy.
beats
Certainly,
(duple subdivisions).
when subdivisions
Now are
double
first itintroduced,
again (quadruple).
they sound
Repeat
different
the cycle,
from pulse
beginning
and with
standtheout,
pulse.
implying
Concentrate
energyonand
howmovement
it feels
and
toward
sounds
some
to subdivide
kind of musical
the pulse
activity
in this
or manner.
event; however,
Repeat the
when
exercise,
they are
subdividing
repeated and
in groups
then maintained,
of three (triple)
subdivisions
and six begin
(sextuple).
to function as a ground.
foreground
One way orof figure
organizing
against
a basic
the ground,
beat or its
which
subdivisions
could beisthe
to use
pulse
meter.
(manifest
Musical
or latent),
meter refers
its subdivisions,
to the grouping
or a meter.
of the Rhythms
pulse intostand
numerical
out not
units.
onlyInbecause
duple meter,
they are
the different
pulse is grouped
from theinground,
twos and
butmanifested
also because
as one
they
emphasized
are typically
or strong
non cyclical.
beat followed
Here, as by
with
onesubdivisions,
deemphasizedhowever,
or weak
if a
beat
rhythmic
(or derivatives
pattern is and
repeated
combinations
without change,
of thisit configuration).
too may begin to
In function
triple
meter,
as a the
rhythmic
pulse isground.
groupedWe
in threes
might and
callmanifested
this a rhythmic
as one strong
ostinato,
beatby
followed
definition,
by atwo
repeating
weak beats
and persistent
(or derivatives
rhythmic
andpattern;
combinations
in fact, the
of this
word
configuration).
ostinato means
Such
obstinate,
organization
or unrelenting.
creates a hierarchy
Finally,
of aenergy
rhythmic
andflourish
time,
60 Gardstrom
Elements 57
Blues
could
be considered
theGrhythmic
to D
D a figure against
F
G# Afigure it is intended
C
(Minor)
embellish as well as against the underlying meter and pulse.
Blues
You may know
D fromEyour
F own
F# performance experiences
A
B that rubato D
(Major)
playing
within a group is often conducted. The word rubato means
Whole a reference
D
F# notes stealing
G#
A# from the
C short. D
robbed,
toEthe long
time
Toneis disregarded, but not so much so that the perception ofB#rhythm
Tempo
is completely destroyed. In the strictest sense, then, rubato is a concept
Ex 410
(Experiential
Learning)
that applies
to pulsed
rather than
unpulsed improvisation. Because rubato
is such a powerful expressive tool, I believe it can be a useful tool in
As a improvisation.
group and using chromatic bell sets (or another chromatic
clinical
instrument), play each scale/mode in Table 6 in ascending and
descending
several times.
Use a variety of tempi, from very slow
Exercise fashion
48 (Experiential
Learning)
to very fast. Decide whether the scale is essentially major or minor. What
words
or images
can you
use to depict
the characteristic
sound or and
mood
Use
binary
form (AB)
to explore
the contrast
between rhythmic
of eachplaying.
scale/mode?
tempowill
affect
character?
so, how?
rubato
The ADoes
section
be the
composed
of Ifgroup
rhythmic
playing; the B section will be solo rubato playing. Predetermine the
not only
they areto combined
length Pitches
of each are
A section,
butcombined
allow thesequentially,
soloist in thebut
B section
cue the
vertically
into was
harmony
as well. When related pitches are sounded
return
to A. What
this like?
together, we call them chords. A sequence of chords is referred to as a
harmonic
progression,
chord
simply,
changes.
In Appendix
As a facilitator,
it will
be changes,
importantor,
that
you are
intentional
about
you will
find several
harmonic
that, aswhen
repeated,
theD,types
of rhythmic
expressions
youprogressions
make. Serving
a rhythmic
serve for
asother
useful
structures
for a much
sustained
melodic
improvisation.
ground
players
is certainly
different
endeavor
than that
we call
a repetitive
harmonic
pattern
a vamp.
ofSometimes
playing varied
rhythmic
figures
or adding
occasional
embellishments.
let us revisit
the concept
of figure-ground
as it applies
tonal
ClinicalNow,
outcomes
may differ,
depending
upon the rhythmic
roletoyou
elements.
as improvisation.
a pulse servesThe
as ability
a ground
for subdivisions
and
assume
in a Just
group
to select,
manifest, and
rhythmic
thethese
scaleroles
or modality
as a ground
for melody.
fluidly
movefigures,
between
must beserves
developed.
This final
rhythmicAs
such, we
can say that
the melody
is a figure
relationship
a ground.
exercise
is designed
to heighten
awareness
of in
rhythmic
roles to
and
provide If
a melodic sequence
is created
solely
from the notes
of a given scale (C
opportunities
to shift between
roles
in a responsive
manner.
major), we can say that it is grounded in the modality. If it has the same
resting
tone
as that scale
(C), we can say that it is grounded in the
Ex 49
(Experiential
Learning)
tonality as well. Because harmony is also formed from pitches within a
scale,improvising
it too can be
a figure
in relationship
this ground;
While
in aconsidered
small group
with body
sounds ortoinstruments,
however,
in
improvisation,
harmony
often
serves
as
a
ground
make conscious and ongoing decisions about your rhythmic role.
Choosefor
or ground
melodicby fragments,
akin
to or
how
a rhythmic
tojuxtaposed
(1) serve asmelodies
a rhythmic
providing the
pulse
fashioning
a
ostinato
(composed
of subdivisions
of therhythmic
beat) serves
as aabove
groundthefor
simple
rhythmic
ostinato,
(2) play varied
figures
more(3)
discrete
rhythmic figures.
pulse,
add rhythmic
flourishes, or (4) listen carefully to the other
Perhaps
it is contributions.
obvious that aAssume
melodythecan
be that
grounded
in a given
members
rhythmic
role
you perceive
is
modality
tonality
of an underlying
For played.
example,
most
neededbut
at not
any share
giventhe
time.
Afterwards,
discuss the scale.
roles you
Elements 57
could be considered a figure against the rhythmic figure it is intended to

You may know from your own performance experiences that rubato
playing within a group is often conducted. The word rubato means
robbed, a reference to the long notes stealing time from the short.
Tempo is disregarded, but not so much so that the perception of rhythm
that applies to pulsed rather than unpulsed improvisation. Because rubato
clinical improvisation.
Exercise 48 (Experiential Learning)
Use binary form (AB) to explore the contrast between rhythmic and
rubato playing. The A section will be composed of group rhythmic
length of each A section, but allow the soloist in the B section to cue the
return to A. What was this like?
As a facilitator, it will be important that you are intentional about
the types of rhythmic expressions you make. Serving as a rhythmic
ground for other players is certainly a much different endeavor than that
of playing varied rhythmic figures or adding occasional embellishments.
Clinical outcomes may differ, depending upon the rhythmic role you
assume in a group improvisation. The ability to select, manifest, and
fluidly move between these roles must be developed. This final rhythmic
exercise is designed to heighten awareness of rhythmic roles and provide
opportunities to shift between roles in a responsive manner.
While improvising in a small group with body sounds or instruments,
make conscious and ongoing decisions about your rhythmic role. Choose
to (1) serve as a rhythmic ground by providing the pulse or fashioning a
simple rhythmic ostinato, (2) play varied rhythmic figures above the
pulse, (3) add rhythmic flourishes, or (4) listen carefully to the other
members rhythmic contributions. Assume the role that you perceive is
most needed at any given time. Afterwards, discuss the roles you played.
58 Gardstrom
58 Gardstrom
Which roles were most comfortable for you? Least comfortable? What
did you learn?
TONAL ELEMENTS
PR 13 Identify the tonal elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
PR 14 Create melodies in a variety of modalities and tonalities.
PR 15 Improvise simple harmonic structures.
PR 16 Memorize and reproduce several harmonic vamps.
The tonal features of improvisation are melody, modality, tonality, and
harmony, and all of these are based upon the concept of pitch, which
refers to the height or depth of a tone relative to other tones. Pitches are
combined in particular sequences to form melodies of varying lengths
and contours. Ordinarily melodies derive from and are embedded in
scales, which are a series of adjacent pitches arranged in vertical fashion
from low to high or vice versa (the Latin word scala means ladder.)
By definition, each unique scale or modality offers specific tones and
intervals that can be used as fodder for the creation of melody. Not only
do the tones of a melody have a specific highness or lowness and
relationship to one another, but they also have a given duration, and it is
the combination of the organization of pitch and rhythm that gives each
melody its characteristic sound.
Scales and the melodies that derive from them are situated around a
home tone or tonic. The tonic is the tone to which all other tones in
the scale or melody lead, aurally, and at which point there is a sense of
rest or resolution. The tonality of a given scale is defined by (and named
after) this resting tone. For example, a scale based on the white keys of
the piano and starting on C (C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C) would claim C as its
resting tone and thus its tonality.
Take a look at Table 6 below. This table contains a collection of
scales and modes that share a D tonality. (D is used as the resting tone
because the pitches that comprise the scales/modes in this tonality fall
within the range of pitches found on most chromatic bell sets, which I
use frequently for practice in the improvisation course.) Notice that each
Elements 59
scale
Which
is made
roles up
were
of most
a sequence
comfortable
of unique
for you?
pitches
Least
and,comfortable?
thus, distinctive
What
intervals.
did you learn?
With the exception of the chromatic, blues, and whole tone
scales, if the interval between the resting tone and the third pitch of the
sequence is a major third (4
semi-tones),
the scale/mode is considered to
TONAL
ELEMENTS
have a major quality. If the same interval is a minor third (3 semi-tones),
theCompetencies
scale/mode isaddressed
considered
a minor
quality.
You will
in to
thishave
section
include
the ability
to: need this
table for the following exercise, and I believe it will be useful as you
engage
further the
melodic
(Note: Another
PR 13 inIdentify
tonal improvisations.
elements commonly
used in helpful
clinical
resource is
Exploring Jazz: Scales for Keyboard by Bill Boyd, Hal
improvisation.
Leonard
Corporation.
Major
minor pentatonic
and blues
PR 14 Publishing
Create melodies
in a variety
of and
modalities
and tonalities.
scales,
progressions,
and
playing
exercises
comprise
this
manual.)
Table 6
Scales/Modes
Built onofDimprovisation are melody, modality, tonality, and
The tonal features
Chromatic
D# orEdepth
F of
F#a tone
G relative
G# Ato other
A# tones.
B C Pitches
C# areD
refers to theDheight
D
G
A
Eb
E
F
Gb
Ab
Bb
B
C
Db D
Dorian
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
and contours. Ordinarily melodies derive from and are embedded inD
Natural
E F
A scala
Bb means
C ladder.)D
from low toDhigh or vice
versa (the G
Latin word
Minor
Harmonic
D can be used
E Fas fodder Gfor the creation
A Bbof melody. Not
C#onlyD
intervals that
Minor
Melodic
E F but theyGalso haveAa given duration,
B
C# it isD
relationshipDto one another,
and
Minor
D
E
F
G
A
Bb
C
the combination of the organization of pitch and rhythm that gives eachD
Major
D
E sound.
F# G
A
B
C# D
melody its characteristic
Mixolydian
D or tonic.
E The tonic
F# isG the tone Ato which all
B other
C tones inD
home tone
Gypsy
D EbThe tonalityF#of a given
G
rest or resolution.
scaleAis Bb
defined by (and C#
namedD
Chinese
D startingE on C (C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C)
F#
A would
B claim C as its(D)
the piano and
Pentatonic
(1) Take a look at Table 6 below. This table contains a collection of
Chinese
D
G
scales and modes
thatE share a D tonality.
(D A
is used asBthe resting tone(D)
Pentatonic
(2)
Japanese
D Eb
G
A Bb
(D)
Pentatonic
58 Gardstrom
Elements 59
scale
Which
is made
roles up
were
of most
a sequence
comfortable
of unique
for you?
pitches
Least
and,comfortable?
thus, distinctive
What
intervals.
did you learn?
With the exception of the chromatic, blues, and whole tone
sequence is a major third (4
semi-tones),
the scale/mode is considered to
TONAL
ELEMENTS
theCompetencies
scale/mode isaddressed
considered
a minor
quality.
You will
in to
thishave
section
include
the ability
to: need this
engage
further the
melodic
(Note: Another
PR 13 inIdentify
tonal improvisations.
elements commonly
used in helpful
clinical
resource is
Exploring Jazz: Scales for Keyboard by Bill Boyd, Hal
improvisation.
Leonard
Corporation.
Major
minor pentatonic
and blues
PR 14 Publishing
Create melodies
in a variety
of and
modalities
and tonalities.
scales,
progressions,
and
playing
exercises
comprise
this
manual.)
Table 6
Scales/Modes
Built onofDimprovisation are melody, modality, tonality, and
The tonal features
Chromatic
D# orEdepth
F of
F#a tone
G relative
G# Ato other
A# tones.
B C Pitches
C# areD
refers to theDheight
D
G
A
Eb
E
F
Gb
Ab
Bb
B
C
Db D
Dorian
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
and contours. Ordinarily melodies derive from and are embedded inD
Natural
E F
A scala
Bb means
C ladder.)D
from low toDhigh or vice
versa (the G
Latin word
Minor
Harmonic
D can be used
E Fas fodder Gfor the creation
A Bbof melody. Not
C#onlyD
intervals that
Minor
Melodic
E F but theyGalso haveAa given duration,
B
C# it isD
relationshipDto one another,
and
Minor
D
E
F
G
A
Bb
C
the combination of the organization of pitch and rhythm that gives eachD
Major
D
E sound.
F# G
A
B
C# D
melody its characteristic
Mixolydian
D or tonic.
E The tonic
F# isG the tone Ato which all
B other
C tones inD
home tone
Gypsy
D EbThe tonalityF#of a given
G
rest or resolution.
scaleAis Bb
defined by (and C#
namedD
Chinese
D startingE on C (C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C)
F#
A would
B claim C as its(D)
the piano and
Pentatonic
(1) Take a look at Table 6 below. This table contains a collection of
Chinese
D
G
scales and modes
thatE share a D tonality.
(D A
is used asBthe resting tone(D)
Pentatonic
(2)
Japanese
D Eb
G
A Bb
(D)
Pentatonic
Elements 59
scale is made up of a sequence of unique pitches and, thus, distinctive

intervals. With the exception of the chromatic, blues, and whole tone
sequence is a major third (4 semi-tones), the scale/mode is considered to
the scale/mode is considered to have a minor quality. You will need this
engage in further melodic improvisations. (Note: Another helpful
resource is Exploring Jazz: Scales for Keyboard by Bill Boyd, Hal
Leonard Publishing Corporation. Major and minor pentatonic and blues
scales, progressions, and playing exercises comprise this manual.)
Table 6
Scales/Modes Built on D
Chromatic
D D#
D Eb
D
E
E
E
F
F
F
G G#
G Ab
G
A A#
A Bb
A
B C
B C
B C
Natural
Minor
Harmonic
Minor
Melodic
Minor
Major
A Bb
A Bb
D
D
D
E
E
E
F
F
F#
G
G
G
A
A Bb
A
Mixolydian
F#
B C
Gypsy
D Eb
F#
A Bb
Chinese
Pentatonic
(1)
Chinese
Pentatonic
(2)
Japanese
Pentatonic
Dorian
D Eb
F#
Gb
F#
C#
Db
D
D
D
D
C#
C#
D
D
D
C
C#
D
C#
(D)
(D)
A Bb
(D)
60 Gardstrom
Blues
(Minor)
Blues
(Major)
Whole
Tone
60 Gardstrom
G G#
F#
F#
A
G#
B
A#
D
D
C
B#

As a group and using chromatic bell sets (or another chromatic
descending fashion several times. Use a variety of tempi, from very slow
words or images can you use to depict the characteristic sound or mood
of each scale/mode? Does tempo affect the character? If so, how?
Pitches are not only combined sequentially, but they are combined
vertically into harmony as well. When related pitches are sounded
harmonic progression, chord changes, or, simply, changes. In Appendix
D, you will find several harmonic progressions that, when repeated,
serve as useful structures for sustained melodic improvisation.
Sometimes we call a repetitive harmonic pattern a vamp.
Now, let us revisit the concept of figure-ground as it applies to tonal
elements. Just as a pulse serves as a ground for subdivisions and
rhythmic figures, the scale or modality serves as a ground for melody. As
such, we can say that the melody is a figure in relationship to a ground. If
a melodic sequence is created solely from the notes of a given scale (C
resting tone as that scale (C), we can say that it is grounded in the
scale, it too can be considered a figure in relationship to this ground;
however, in improvisation, harmony often serves as a ground for
juxtaposed melodies or melodic fragments, akin to how a rhythmic
ostinato (composed of subdivisions of the beat) serves as a ground for
more discrete rhythmic figures.
Perhaps it is obvious that a melody can be grounded in a given
modality but not share the tonality of an underlying scale. For example,
Elements 57
Blues
could
be considered
theGrhythmic
to D
D a figure against
F
G# Afigure it is intended
C
(Minor)
Blues
You may know
D fromEyour
F own
F# performance experiences
A
B that rubato D
(Major)
playing
within a group is often conducted. The word rubato means
Whole a reference
D
F# notes stealing
G#
A# from the
C short. D
robbed,
toEthe long
time
Toneis disregarded, but not so much so that the perception ofB#rhythm
Tempo
Ex 410
(Experiential
Learning)
that applies
to pulsed
rather than
unpulsed improvisation. Because rubato
As a improvisation.
group and using chromatic bell sets (or another chromatic
clinical
descending
several times.
Use a variety of tempi, from very slow
Exercise fashion
48 (Experiential
Learning)
words
or images
can you
use to depict
the characteristic
sound or and
mood
Use
binary
form (AB)
to explore
the contrast
between rhythmic
of eachplaying.
scale/mode?
tempowill
affect
character?
so, how?
rubato
The ADoes
section
be the
composed
of Ifgroup
rhythmic
not only
they areto combined
length Pitches
of each are
A section,
butcombined
allow thesequentially,
soloist in thebut
B section
cue the
vertically
into was
harmony
as well. When related pitches are sounded
return
to A. What
this like?
harmonic
progression,
chord
simply,
changes.
In Appendix
As a facilitator,
it will
be changes,
importantor,
that
you are
intentional
about
you will
find several
harmonic
that, aswhen
repeated,
theD,types
of rhythmic
expressions
youprogressions
make. Serving
a rhythmic
serve for
asother
useful
structures
for a much
sustained
melodic
improvisation.
ground
players
is certainly
different
endeavor
than that
we call
a repetitive
harmonic
pattern
a vamp.
ofSometimes
playing varied
rhythmic
figures
or adding
occasional
embellishments.
let us revisit
the concept
of figure-ground
as it applies
tonal
ClinicalNow,
outcomes
may differ,
depending
upon the rhythmic
roletoyou
elements.
as improvisation.
a pulse servesThe
as ability
a ground
for subdivisions
and
assume
in a Just
group
to select,
manifest, and
rhythmic
thethese
scaleroles
or modality
as a ground
for melody.
fluidly
movefigures,
between
must beserves
developed.
This final
rhythmicAs
such, we
can say that
the melody
is a figure
relationship
a ground.
exercise
is designed
to heighten
awareness
of in
rhythmic
roles to
and
provide If
a melodic sequence
is created
solely
from the notes
of a given scale (C
opportunities
to shift between
roles
in a responsive
manner.
resting
tone
as that scale
(C), we can say that it is grounded in the
Ex 49
(Experiential
Learning)
scale,improvising
it too can be
a figure
in relationship
this ground;
While
in aconsidered
small group
with body
sounds ortoinstruments,
however,
in
improvisation,
harmony
often
serves
as
a
ground
make conscious and ongoing decisions about your rhythmic role.
Choosefor
or ground
melodic
akin
to or
how
a rhythmic
tojuxtaposed
(1) serve asmelodies
a rhythmic
by fragments,
providing the
pulse
fashioning
a
ostinato
(composed
of subdivisions
of therhythmic
beat) serves
as aabove
groundthefor
simple
rhythmic
ostinato,
(2) play varied
figures
more(3)
discrete
rhythmic figures.
pulse,
add rhythmic
flourishes, or (4) listen carefully to the other
Perhaps
it is contributions.
obvious that aAssume
melodythecan
be that
grounded
in a given
members
rhythmic
role
you perceive
is
modality
tonality
of an underlying
For played.
example,
most
neededbut
at not
any share
giventhe
time.
Afterwards,
discuss the scale.
roles you
64 Gardstrom
Elements 61
assume
strikes)that
in the
two center
peopleofare
theimprovising
head. All three
together.
resultThe
in the
firstsame
player
timbre.
is
playing
However,
a repetitive
the texturethe
C major chord
thinness
(C,E,
or and
thickness
G), thereby
of theestablishing
sound, if you
a
major
willis
modality
quite obviously
and a C modified
tonality. The
from other
one toplayer
the other.
is improvising
The first strike
a
melodic
is clearly
sequence
monophonic:
(C-G-E-D-C-B-C).
one hand, oneThis
voice.
sequence
The second
is grounded
strike isinclearly
the
modality
homophonic:
and tonality
two hands,
of thetwo
harmony.
voices. However,
It sounds when
thickerthe
than
second
the first.
player
The
shifts
thirdtois another
monophonic.
sequence
In actuality,
(A-E-C-D-E-E-A)
only one voice
aboveis the
sounding
continuing
at a time,
C
major
but depending
chord of the
upon
first,
the the
rapidity
two improvisers
with which no
the longer
hands share
alternate,
a tonal
there
ground
may be
even
the though
aural illusion
they are
ofplaying
thickness
from
of texture.
the same group of pitches.
Imagine the numerous textural possibilities and combinations that
could
Ex 411
emerge
(Independent
from a group
Skill consisting
Development)
of one therapist and just three
players: At any given time, one or more improvisers could be playing
You
monophonically,
will need to work
homophonically,
in pairs over or
multiple
polyphonically
sessions to
(oncomplete
one or this
more
exercise.
instruments),
One playing
player will
a ground
provide
or a figure,
harmonic
creating
support
a solo
in orthe
providing
form ofan
rhythmic
accompaniment,
ostinati and
acting
nonpulsed
as a leader
patterns,
or following
and usinganother
compatible
players
pitches
lead,
(e.g.,
and D
exploring
and A) aonvariety
bass tone
of playing
bars or
configurations.
the low range
Theofconcept
the piano.
of texture
The
other
is multifaceted
player will create
to begin
melodic
with; figures
when multiple
over theplayers
groundare
within
involved,
each ofthe
thechallenges
scales/modes
for the
in Table
therapist
6. Use
as observer
a chromatic
and bell
facilitator
set (with
seem
twotomallets)
increase
orexponentially.
any other melodic instrument with the necessary pitches. Audiorecord the improvisations, play back, and discuss. In which of the
scales/modes
Ex 415was
(Independent
it easiest toSkill
improvise?
Development)
Most difficult? Which specific
features did you like about the pieces you created together?
Using a barred instrument (xylophone, metallophone, etc.) and two
mallets,
Ex 412
construct
(Independent
a 2-minute
Skill Development)
improvisation that incorporates all of the
following playing configurations: single sequential pitches, thirds, sixths,
Memorize
three-noteseveral
chordsof(this
the may
vamps
be that
difficult),
appeararpeggios,
in Appendix
repeated
D. With
pitches,
a
different
tremolos
partner,
(two practice
differentimprovising
pitches), and
melodies
glissandi.
with each
Audio-record
of the vamps.
your
Which
improvisation
ones do you
andfind
play
most
it for
useful,
the and
entire
why?
group. Discuss the challenges
and the outcome.
TEXTURAL ELEMENTS
Using a freestanding drum on which you can use both hands, construct
incorporates
of the used
following
playing
PRan17 improvisation
Identify the that
textural
elements all
commonly
in clinical
configurations:
single sequential strikes, double strikes (two hands at
improvisation.
tremolos,
and solo/accompaniment,
in which
one hand
plays the
PRonce),
18 Assume
a variety
of musical roles to create
a variety
of textures.
or a rhythmicmultiple
ostinatoplaying
and theconfigurations
other plays rhythmic
AudioPRpulse
19 Demonstrate
on eachfigures.
instrument.
record your improvisation and play it for the entire group. Discuss the
challenges and the outcome.
Elements 61
assume that two people are improvising together. The first player is
playing a repetitive C major chord (C,E, and G), thereby establishing a
major modality and a C tonality. The other player is improvising a
melodic sequence (C-G-E-D-C-B-C). This sequence is grounded in the
modality and tonality of the harmony. However, when the second player
shifts to another sequence (A-E-C-D-E-E-A) above the continuing C
major chord of the first, the two improvisers no longer share a tonal
ground even though they are playing from the same group of pitches.
You will need to work in pairs over multiple sessions to complete this
exercise. One player will provide harmonic support in the form of
rhythmic ostinati and nonpulsed patterns, and using compatible pitches
(e.g., D and A) on bass tone bars or the low range of the piano. The
other player will create melodic figures over the ground within each of
the scales/modes in Table 6. Use a chromatic bell set (with two mallets)
or any other melodic instrument with the necessary pitches. Audiorecord the improvisations, play back, and discuss. In which of the
scales/modes was it easiest to improvise? Most difficult? Which specific
Memorize several of the vamps that appear in Appendix D. With a
different partner, practice improvising melodies with each of the vamps.
Which ones do you find most useful, and why?
TEXTURAL ELEMENTS
PR 17 Identify the textural elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
PR 18 Assume a variety of musical roles to create a variety of textures.
PR 19 Demonstrate multiple playing configurations on each instrument.
62 Gardstrom
In clinical improvisation, several aspects of texture emerge as important.

In general, texture refers to the overall fabric of the improvisation
(Bruscia, 1987, p. 406), a weaving that may involve various pitch
registers, musical roles, and playing configurations.
Pitch register applies to tonal improvisation, and refers to the range
of pitches used and changes therein. A related concept, tessitura, refers
to the general highness or lowness of a part; unlike pitch register,
tessitura can apply to nonpitched instruments. While most percussion
instruments are nonpitched in the classic sense, they do have a highness
or lowness about them and, when used together, suggest a pitch range.
One could say that a large ngoma drum has a lower tessitura than a frame
drum. There are, of course, certain pitched (yet nonmelodic)
percussion instruments: agogo bells, bongos, chime tree, slit drum,
talking drum, temple blocks, and triangle, to name a few.
As an extreme example of pitch register and tessitura, construct a threesection group improvisation. Play the first section on instruments with a
high register (soprano glockenspiel, finger cymbals, piano upper register,
claves, small drums, etc.); play the second section on instruments with a
low register (bass tone bars, piano lower register, large drums, etc.);
and play the final section on instruments from both registers. Contrast
the sections. What differences did you hear? What sensations, thoughts,
or emotions are triggered?
Musical roles relate to the various parts and how they function
within the overall texture of the piece, that is, how they determine partwhole relationships. This aspect of texture applies to both rhythmic and
tonal improvisation. A single line of music may serve as (1) a figure or a
ground (as previously mentioned), as in a solo vocal line with piano
accompaniment, (2) one of many equal parts sounding simultaneously, as
in homophonic or polyphonic drumming, and (3) a leader or a follower,
as in a dyadic improvisation in which one xylophone leads another.
Sometimes these role relationships are unvarying throughout a single
improvisation, and sometimes they change. In fact, if you hear a shift in
the texture of the music, it most likely signals a change in role functions.
62 Gardstrom
Elements 63
In clinical
Note that
improvisation,
the concept of
several
musical
aspects
roles of
is texture
relevantemerge
to bothasgroup
important.
and
solo
In improvisation.
general, texture
Byrefers
definition,
to the
group
overall
improvisation
fabric of isthehomophonic
improvisation
or
polyphonic
(Bruscia, 1987,
in nature.
p. 406),
Most a individual
weaving that
clients
may
youinvolve
will encounter
various pitch
in
clinical
registers,
improvisation
musical roles,
areand
capable
playingofconfigurations.
producing monophonic sounds,
with orPitch
without
register
assistance.
appliesClients
to tonal
with
improvisation,
functional use
andofrefers
two limbs
to the(two
range
arms/hands
of pitches or
used
an arm
and changes
and a leg)
therein.
or withA excellent
related concept,
dexteritytessitura,
in one hand
refers
aretocapable
the general
of playing
highness
homophonically
or lownessorofpolyphonically.
a part; unlikeI once
pitchworked
register,
with
tessitura
a young
canman
apply
who,towith
nonpitched
the left side
instruments.
of his body
While
paralyzed
most percussion
due to a
head
instruments
trauma, was
are nonpitched
able to produce
in the three
classicsimultaneous
sense, they do
musical
have alines
highness
by
employing
or lowness
twoabout
mallets
them
with
and,
hiswhen
right hand
used and
together,
playing
suggest
a tambourine
a pitch with
range.
hisOne
foot!
could
In fact,
say that
it was
a large
his self-determined
ngoma drum haschallenge
a lower tessitura
to create
than
multiple
a frame
voices,
drum.perhaps
There asare,
a way
of tocourse,
make upcertain
for the pitched
fact that a tracheotomy
(yet nonmelodic)
had
left
percussion
him without
instruments:
the use of his
agogo
original
bells,
voice.
bongos, chime tree, slit drum,
As a group, experiment with each of the three musical role relationships
specified
As an extreme
above:example
(1) solo
of pitch
with register
accompaniment,
and tessitura,
(2) construct
homophony
a threeor
polyphony,
section group
in which
improvisation.
each part has
Playequal
the first
importance,
section on
and
instruments
(3) leader with
and a
follower
high register
relationships.
(sopranoTalk
glockenspiel,
about howfinger
each role
cymbals,
withinpiano
eachupper
of theregister,
three
configurations
claves, small places
drums,distinctive
etc.); playdemands
the second
on the
section
improvisers.
on instruments with a
andTexture
play the
is final
partially
section
determined
on instruments
by playing
fromconfigurations.
both registers.Various
Contrast
configurations
the sections. that
Whatresult
differences
in specific
did textural
you hear?
complexions
What sensations,
are a melody
thoughts,
divided
or emotions
between
are two
triggered?
simultaneous parts (as in a passage of repeated
intervals of a third or sixth), block chords or broken chords (as in a piano
accompaniment),
Musical roles
repeated
relatenotes
to the
andvarious
tremolos
parts
(as and
in a how
rapidthey
alternation
function
between
within the left
overall
and texture
right hands
of the
on piece,
a drum),
thatand
is, glissandi
how they(as
determine
in a sliding
partofwhole
the mallet
relationships.
up or down
Thistheaspect
bars of texture
a metallophone).
applies to Without
both rhythmic
a doubt,
and
there
tonalis improvisation.
a direct relationship
A single
between
line oftexture
music (playing
may serveconfiguration)
as (1) a figureand
or a
timbre;
groundoftentimes
(as previously
a change
mentioned),
in the playing
as in
configuration
a solo vocal
creates
line with
a distinct
piano
change
accompaniment,
in timbre, such
(2) one
as of
themany
difference
equal parts
between
sounding
striking
simultaneously,
the head of aas
tambourine
in homophonic
and simply
or polyphonic
shaking the
drumming,
jingles. However,
and (3) a there
leaderareoralso
a follower,
times
when
as inthea playing
dyadic configuration
improvisation(and
in which
hence,one
the texture)
xylophone
changes
leads but
another.
the
timbre
Sometimes
remainsthese
constant.
role relationships
Consider, for are
instance,
unvarying
threethroughout
different ways
a single
of
approaching
improvisation,
a conga
and sometimes
drum: (1) athey
series
change.
of single
In fact,
strikes
if you
in the
hearcenter
a shift
ofin
thethehead,
texture
(2) of
a series
the music,
of double
it most
strikes
likely(two
signals
hands
a change
simultaneously)
in role functions.
in the
center of the head, and (3) a sustained roll (a rapid succession of L-R
62 Gardstrom
Elements 63
In clinical
Note that
improvisation,
the concept of
several
musical
aspects
roles of
is texture
relevantemerge
to bothasgroup
important.
and
solo
In improvisation.
general, texture
Byrefers
definition,
to the
group
overall
improvisation
fabric of isthehomophonic
improvisation
or
polyphonic
(Bruscia, 1987,
in nature.
p. 406),
Most a individual
weaving that
clients
may
youinvolve
will encounter
various pitch
in
clinical
registers,
improvisation
musical roles,
areand
capable
playingofconfigurations.
producing monophonic sounds,
with orPitch
without
register
assistance.
appliesClients
to tonal
with
improvisation,
functional use
andofrefers
two limbs
to the(two
range
arms/hands
of pitches or
used
an arm
and changes
and a leg)
therein.
or withA excellent
related concept,
dexteritytessitura,
in one hand
refers
aretocapable
the general
of playing
highness
homophonically
or lownessorofpolyphonically.
a part; unlikeI once
pitchworked
register,
with
tessitura
a young
canman
apply
who,towith
nonpitched
the left side
instruments.
of his body
While
paralyzed
most percussion
due to a
head
instruments
trauma, was
are nonpitched
able to produce
in the three
classicsimultaneous
sense, they do
musical
have alines
highness
by
employing
or lowness
twoabout
mallets
them
with
and,
hiswhen
right hand
used and
together,
playing
suggest
a tambourine
a pitch with
range.
hisOne
foot!
could
In fact,
say that
it was
a large
his self-determined
ngoma drum haschallenge
a lower tessitura
to create
than
multiple
a frame
voices,
drum.perhaps
There asare,
a way
of tocourse,
make upcertain
for the pitched
fact that a tracheotomy
(yet nonmelodic)
had
left
percussion
him without
instruments:
the use of his
agogo
original
bells,
voice.
bongos, chime tree, slit drum,
specified
As an extreme
above:example
(1) solo
of pitch
with register
accompaniment,
and tessitura,
(2) construct
homophony
a threeor
polyphony,
section group
in which
improvisation.
each part has
Playequal
the first
importance,
section on
and
instruments
(3) leader with
and a
follower
high register
relationships.
(sopranoTalk
glockenspiel,
about howfinger
each role
cymbals,
withinpiano
eachupper
of theregister,
three
configurations
claves, small places
drums,distinctive
etc.); playdemands
the second
on the
section
improvisers.
on instruments with a
andTexture
play the
is final
partially
section
determined
on instruments
by playing
fromconfigurations.
both registers.Various
Contrast
configurations
the sections. that
Whatresult
differences
in specific
did textural
you hear?
complexions
What sensations,
are a melody
thoughts,
divided
or emotions
between
are two
triggered?
simultaneous parts (as in a passage of repeated
accompaniment),
Musical roles
repeated
relatenotes
to the
andvarious
tremolos
parts
(as and
in a how
rapidthey
alternation
function
between
within the left
overall
and texture
right hands
of the
on piece,
a drum),
thatand
is, glissandi
how they(as
determine
in a sliding
partofwhole
the mallet
relationships.
up or down
Thistheaspect
bars of texture
a metallophone).
applies to Without
both rhythmic
a doubt,
and
there
tonalis improvisation.
a direct relationship
A single
between
line oftexture
music (playing
may serveconfiguration)
as (1) a figureand
or a
timbre;
groundoftentimes
(as previously
a change
mentioned),
in the playing
as in
configuration
a solo vocal
creates
line with
a distinct
piano
change
accompaniment,
in timbre, such
(2) one
as of
themany
difference
equal parts
between
sounding
striking
simultaneously,
the head of aas
tambourine
in homophonic
and simply
or polyphonic
shaking the
drumming,
jingles. However,
and (3) a there
leaderareoralso
a follower,
times
when
as inthea playing
dyadic configuration
improvisation(and
in which
hence,one
the texture)
xylophone
changes
leads but
another.
the
timbre
Sometimes
remainsthese
constant.
role relationships
Consider, for are
instance,
unvarying
threethroughout
different ways
a single
of
approaching
improvisation,
a conga
and sometimes
drum: (1) athey
series
change.
of single
In fact,
strikes
if you
in the
hearcenter
a shift
ofin
thethehead,
texture
(2) of
a series
the music,
of double
it most
strikes
likely(two
signals
hands
a change
simultaneously)
in role functions.
in the
Elements 63
Note that the concept of musical roles is relevant to both group and
solo improvisation. By definition, group improvisation is homophonic or
polyphonic in nature. Most individual clients you will encounter in
clinical improvisation are capable of producing monophonic sounds,
with or without assistance. Clients with functional use of two limbs (two
arms/hands or an arm and a leg) or with excellent dexterity in one hand
are capable of playing homophonically or polyphonically. I once worked
with a young man who, with the left side of his body paralyzed due to a
head trauma, was able to produce three simultaneous musical lines by
employing two mallets with his right hand and playing a tambourine with
his foot! In fact, it was his self-determined challenge to create multiple
voices, perhaps as a way to make up for the fact that a tracheotomy had
left him without the use of his original voice.
specified above: (1) solo with accompaniment, (2) homophony or
polyphony, in which each part has equal importance, and (3) leader and
follower relationships. Talk about how each role within each of the three
configurations places distinctive demands on the improvisers.
Texture is partially determined by playing configurations. Various
configurations that result in specific textural complexions are a melody
divided between two simultaneous parts (as in a passage of repeated
accompaniment), repeated notes and tremolos (as in a rapid alternation
between the left and right hands on a drum), and glissandi (as in a sliding
of the mallet up or down the bars of a metallophone). Without a doubt,
there is a direct relationship between texture (playing configuration) and
timbre; oftentimes a change in the playing configuration creates a distinct
change in timbre, such as the difference between striking the head of a
tambourine and simply shaking the jingles. However, there are also times
when the playing configuration (and hence, the texture) changes but the
timbre remains constant. Consider, for instance, three different ways of
approaching a conga drum: (1) a series of single strikes in the center of
the head, (2) a series of double strikes (two hands simultaneously) in the
64 Gardstrom
strikes) in the center of the head. All three result in the same timbre.
However, the texturethe thinness or thickness of the sound, if you
willis quite obviously modified from one to the other. The first strike
is clearly monophonic: one hand, one voice. The second strike is clearly
homophonic: two hands, two voices. It sounds thicker than the first. The
third is monophonic. In actuality, only one voice is sounding at a time,
but depending upon the rapidity with which the hands alternate, there
may be the aural illusion of thickness of texture.
could emerge from a group consisting of one therapist and just three
monophonically, homophonically, or polyphonically (on one or more
instruments), playing a ground or a figure, creating a solo or providing an
accompaniment, acting as a leader or following another players lead,
and exploring a variety of playing configurations. The concept of texture
is multifaceted to begin with; when multiple players are involved, the
challenges for the therapist as observer and facilitator seem to increase
exponentially.
mallets, construct a 2-minute improvisation that incorporates all of the
three-note chords (this may be difficult), arpeggios, repeated pitches,
tremolos (two different pitches), and glissandi. Audio-record your
improvisation and play it for the entire group. Discuss the challenges
and the outcome.
64 Gardstrom
Elements 61
assume
strikes)that
in the
two center
peopleofare
theimprovising
head. All three
together.
resultThe
in the
firstsame
player
timbre.
is
playing
However,
a repetitive
the texturethe
C major chord
thinness
(C,E,
or and
thickness
G), thereby
of theestablishing
sound, if you
a
major
willis
modality
quite obviously
and a C modified
tonality. The
from other
one toplayer
the other.
is improvising
The first strike
a
melodic
is clearly
sequence
monophonic:
(C-G-E-D-C-B-C).
one hand, oneThis
voice.
sequence
The second
is grounded
strike isinclearly
the
modality
homophonic:
and tonality
two hands,
of thetwo
harmony.
voices. However,
It sounds when
thickerthe
than
second
the first.
player
The
shifts
thirdtois another
monophonic.
sequence
In actuality,
(A-E-C-D-E-E-A)
only one voice
aboveis the
sounding
continuing
at a time,
C
major
but depending
chord of the
upon
first,
the the
rapidity
two improvisers
with which no
the longer
hands share
alternate,
a tonal
there
ground
may be
even
the though
aural illusion
they are
ofplaying
thickness
from
of texture.
the same group of pitches.
could
Ex 411
emerge
(Independent
from a group
Skill consisting
Development)
of one therapist and just three
You
monophonically,
will need to work
homophonically,
in pairs over or
multiple
polyphonically
sessions to
(oncomplete
one or this
more
exercise.
instruments),
One playing
player will
a ground
provide
or a figure,
harmonic
creating
support
a solo
in orthe
providing
form ofan
rhythmic
accompaniment,
ostinati and
acting
nonpulsed
as a leader
patterns,
or following
and usinganother
compatible
players
pitches
lead,
(e.g.,
and D
exploring
and A) aonvariety
bass tone
of playing
bars or
configurations.
the low range
Theofconcept
the piano.
of texture
The
other
is multifaceted
player will create
to begin
melodic
with; figures
when multiple
over theplayers
groundare
within
involved,
each ofthe
thechallenges
scales/modes
for the
in Table
therapist
6. Use
as observer
a chromatic
and bell
facilitator
set (with
seem
twotomallets)
increase
orexponentially.
any other melodic instrument with the necessary pitches. Audiorecord the improvisations, play back, and discuss. In which of the
scales/modes
Ex 415was
(Independent
it easiest toSkill
improvise?
Development)
Most difficult? Which specific
mallets,
Ex 412
construct
(Independent
a 2-minute
Skill Development)
improvisation that incorporates all of the
Memorize
three-noteseveral
chordsof(this
the may
vamps
be that
difficult),
appeararpeggios,
in Appendix
repeated
D. With
pitches,
a
different
tremolos
partner,
(two practice
differentimprovising
pitches), and
melodies
glissandi.
with each
Audio-record
of the vamps.
your
Which
improvisation
ones do you
andfind
play
most
it for
useful,
the and
entire
why?
group. Discuss the challenges
and the outcome.
TEXTURAL ELEMENTS
an improvisation that incorporates all of the following playing
configurations: single sequential strikes, double strikes (two hands at
once), tremolos, and solo/accompaniment, in which one hand plays the
pulse or a rhythmic ostinato and the other plays rhythmic figures. Audiorecord your improvisation and play it for the entire group. Discuss the

incorporates
of the used
following
playing
PRan17 improvisation
Identify the that
textural
elements all
commonly
in clinical
configurations:
single sequential strikes, double strikes (two hands at
improvisation.
tremolos,
and solo/accompaniment,
in which
one hand
plays the
PRonce),
18 Assume
a variety
of musical roles to create
a variety
of textures.
or a rhythmicmultiple
ostinatoplaying
and theconfigurations
other plays rhythmic
AudioPRpulse
19 Demonstrate
on eachfigures.
instrument.
record your improvisation and play it for the entire group. Discuss the
68 Gardstrom
Elements 65
11.
Rhythmic Ostinato
12.
Rubato
DYNAMIC ELEMENTS
13.
Melody
14. addressed
Modality
Competencies
15.
Tonality
16.
Harmony
PR 20 Identify
the
dynamic elements commonly used in clinical
17.
Harmonic
Progression
improvisation.
18.
Harmonic
Changes
PR 21 Create gradual and sudden
changes in volume.
19.
Vamp
20.
Pitch
Register
Dynamic elements
are those
elements relating to the mass and intensity
of sound, 21.
or what Tessitura
we commonly refer to as volume. Like tempo, volume
Musicalfrom
Rolessounds that are so soft they are barely
exists on 22.
a continuum,
23.
Playing
Configurations
audible, to sounds that are so loud they create pain or discomfort in the
Volume clinical improvisation, because we often use
listener. In24.
percussion-based
25.
Crescendo
acoustic instruments
that are designed for one player each, we rarely
encounter 26.
sounds Decrescendo
that are so intense that they cause pain. However, I
27. that Timbre
have noticed
prolonged or distinctive sounds (e.g., cabasa, ocean
drum, shaker, etc.), particularly at a high volume level, can create
discomfort and anxiety. In instrumental improvisation, the relative
intensity of sound results from the relative force applied to or through the
sounding surface of the instrument used. So, the more force you apply to
the head of a drum, for example, the louder that drum will sound, in
general. With group improvisation, multiple instruments are sounding at
once, which creates an additive effect.
Volume levels can stay the same or they can change. There are
essentially two types of change: (1) abrupt modifications, as with a piano
subito following a forte passage or the use of metered and unmetered
dynamic accents and (2) gradual modifications, as with a crescendo or
decrescendo. Unmetered accents are sometimes employed to lend vitality
and interest to a rhythmic ground consisting of basic pulse (Wigram,
2004). Such accents can also be used to call attention to the person
playing them, in that they are typically an unexpected departure from the
steadiness of the dynamic level of the music. Therefore, if a therapist or
client desires to be noticed, she or he might insert random accents into
the music. A further use of unmetered accents is to add tension or throw
the music off kilter. This might be of value during an improvisation in
which the players need a catalyst in order to take necessary risks in their
improvising, or need to be re-engaged in the music after a period of
Elements 65
DYNAMIC ELEMENTS
PR 20 Identify the dynamic elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
PR 21 Create gradual and sudden changes in volume.
Dynamic elements are those elements relating to the mass and intensity
of sound, or what we commonly refer to as volume. Like tempo, volume
exists on a continuum, from sounds that are so soft they are barely
listener. In percussion-based clinical improvisation, because we often use
acoustic instruments that are designed for one player each, we rarely
encounter sounds that are so intense that they cause pain. However, I
have noticed that prolonged or distinctive sounds (e.g., cabasa, ocean
66 Gardstrom
66 Gardstrom
interpersonal or intermusical isolation, inattention, or boredom. I caution

the therapist against the overuse of random dynamic accents. The
unexpected and poignant nature of these accents may create unwanted
anxiety or distract or bother individuals who have cognitive or sensory
processing deficits, and could create an unwelcome impression that the
therapist is unpredictable and therefore can not be trusted.
A gradual crescendo produced through the gathering and building of
energy and sound often suggests growing excitement, fortitude, tension,
apprehension, etc. (Think about Ravels Bolero.) A gradual decrescendo,
created through a decrease in energy and resulting sound, often suggests
diminishing excitement, lessening of tension, weakness, serenity, etc.
Dramatic changes in loudness, especially when unexpected as with
random dynamic accents, can convey surprise, fragmentation,
impulsivity, freedom, etc. Players often use changes in the dynamic
levels of their improvising to create, accumulate, and release physical
and emotional tension.
Singularly or as a group, experiment with gradual crescendi followed by
gradual decrescendi. Talk about the sensations that accompany this type
of dynamic change, as well as the sensorimotor demands placed upon
you.
As a group, practice using volume as a way to accumulate and release
tension. What are some of the ways you accomplished this?
TIMBRAL ELEMENTS
PR 22 Identify the timbral elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
PR 23 Demonstrate multiple timbres on each instrument.
Elements 67
Timbre,
interpersonal
which or
inintermusical
French means
isolation,
bellinattention,
or tone, orrefers
boredom.
here Itocaution
the
quality
the therapist
and coloragainst
of a sound
the overuse
producedofbyrandom
an instrument
dynamic
(including
accents. the
The
voice).
unexpected
The timbre
and poignant
of an instrument
nature of as
these
it isaccents
conventionally
may create
sounded
unwanted
is
what
anxiety
helpsorus
distract
characterize
or bother
it and
individuals
recognize
whoit have
as unique
cognitive
among
or sensory
other
instruments.
processing Each
deficits,
instrument
and couldis create
capable
an of
unwelcome
producingimpression
more thanthat
onethe
timbre
therapist
or multiple
is unpredictable
variations
andoftherefore
a fundamental
can not timbre,
be trusted.
and this feature
can be A
used
gradual
to communicate
crescendo produced
something
through
about the
the gathering
passage orand
piece
building
beingof
played.
energyWe
and often
sound use
oftenwords
suggests
likegrowing
dark,excitement,
bright, thick,
fortitude,thin,
tension,
harsh,
apprehension,
dull, etc.
focused,
(Think and
aboutbreathy
Ravels Bolero.)
to describe
A gradual
aspectsdecrescendo,
of timbre.
Most
created
of the
through
instruments
a decrease
that we
in energy
use in clinical
and resulting
improvisation
sound, often
have asuggests
wide
range
diminishing
of timbral
excitement,
possibilities,
lessening
becauseofthey
tension,
can beweakness,
sounded in
serenity,
so many
etc.
different
Dramatic
ways.
changes
For example,
in loudness,
a headed
especially
tambourine
when
canunexpected
be shaken; struck
as with
with
random
the open
dynamic
or fisted hand
accents,
or other
canpartconvey
of the body;
surprise,
struck fragmentation,
with a wood,
felt,
impulsivity,
or rubber freedom,
mallet; and
etc.scratched
Players with
oftenthe
usefingertips.
changes Each
in theofdynamic
these
playing
levels configurations
of their improvising
results in
to the
create,
production
accumulate,
of a unique
and release
timbre.physical
Some
instruments
and emotional
havetension.
more potential for variation than others; these are the
instruments that we typically think of as inherently more expressive (see
ChapterExThree).
417 (Experiential Learning)
Singularly
Ex 419or
(Experiential
as a group, Learning)
experiment with gradual crescendi followed by
Explore
of dynamic
timbre
change,
in as
a well
seriesas the
of sensorimotor
nonrhythmic, demands
referential
placed
group
upon
improvisations.
you.
Use referents mentioned in the above section (dark,
bright, etc.). Develop your own list of words to describe timbre and
play these
Ex 418
referents.
(Experiential
Discuss. Learning)
As a group,for
practice
using
volume as a way to accumulate and release
Vocabulary
Chapter
Four
1.
Musical elements
2.
Pulse TIMBRAL ELEMENTS
3.
Basic beat
Competencies
addressed in this section include the ability to:
4.
Subdivisions
5.
Meter
PR 226. Identify
the timbral
Rhythmic
Figure elements commonly used in clinical
7. improvisation.
Rhythmic Pattern
PR 238. Demonstrate
Prosodymultiple timbres on each instrument.
9.
Rhythmic Flourish
10.
Figure-Ground
66 Gardstrom
Elements 67
Timbre,
interpersonal
which or
inintermusical
French means
isolation,
bellinattention,
or tone, orrefers
boredom.
here Itocaution
the
quality
the therapist
and coloragainst
of a sound
the overuse
producedofbyrandom
an instrument
dynamic
(including
accents. the
The
voice).
unexpected
The timbre
and poignant
of an instrument
nature of as
these
it isaccents
conventionally
may create
sounded
unwanted
is
what
anxiety
helpsorus
distract
characterize
or bother
it and
individuals
recognize
whoit have
as unique
cognitive
among
or sensory
other
instruments.
processing Each
deficits,
instrument
and couldis create
capable
an of
unwelcome
producingimpression
more thanthat
onethe
timbre
therapist
or multiple
is unpredictable
variations
andoftherefore
a fundamental
can not timbre,
be trusted.
and this feature
can be A
used
gradual
to communicate
crescendo produced
something
through
about the
the gathering
passage orand
piece
building
beingof
played.
energyWe
and often
sound use
oftenwords
suggests
likegrowing
dark,excitement,
bright, thick,
fortitude,thin,
tension,
harsh,
apprehension,
dull, etc.
focused,
(Think and
aboutbreathy
Ravels Bolero.)
to describe
A gradual
aspectsdecrescendo,
of timbre.
Most
created
of the
through
instruments
a decrease
that we
in energy
use in clinical
and resulting
improvisation
sound, often
have asuggests
wide
range
diminishing
of timbral
excitement,
possibilities,
lessening
becauseofthey
tension,
can beweakness,
sounded in
serenity,
so many
etc.
different
Dramatic
ways.
changes
For example,
in loudness,
a headed
especially
tambourine
when
canunexpected
be shaken; struck
as with
with
random
the open
dynamic
or fisted hand
accents,
or other
canpartconvey
of the body;
surprise,
struck fragmentation,
with a wood,
felt,
impulsivity,
or rubber freedom,
mallet; and
etc.scratched
Players with
oftenthe
usefingertips.
changes Each
in theofdynamic
these
playing
levels configurations
of their improvising
results in
to the
create,
production
accumulate,
of a unique
and release
timbre.physical
Some
instruments
and emotional
havetension.
more potential for variation than others; these are the
ChapterExThree).
Elements 67
Timbre, which in French means bell or tone, refers here to the

quality and color of a sound produced by an instrument (including the
voice). The timbre of an instrument as it is conventionally sounded is
what helps us characterize it and recognize it as unique among other
instruments. Each instrument is capable of producing more than one
timbre or multiple variations of a fundamental timbre, and this feature
can be used to communicate something about the passage or piece being
played. We often use words like dark, bright, thick, thin,
harsh, dull, focused, and breathy to describe aspects of timbre.
Most of the instruments that we use in clinical improvisation have a wide
range of timbral possibilities, because they can be sounded in so many
different ways. For example, a headed tambourine can be shaken; struck
with the open or fisted hand or other part of the body; struck with a wood,
felt, or rubber mallet; and scratched with the fingertips. Each of these
playing configurations results in the production of a unique timbre. Some
instruments have more potential for variation than others; these are the
Chapter Three).
Singularly
Ex 419or
(Experiential
as a group, Learning)
experiment with gradual crescendi followed by
Explore
of dynamic
timbre
change,
in as
a well
seriesas the
of sensorimotor
nonrhythmic, demands
referential
placed
group
upon
improvisations.
you.
Use referents mentioned in the above section (dark,
play these
Ex 418
referents.
(Experiential
Discuss. Learning)
Explore timbre in a series of nonrhythmic, referential group

improvisations. Use referents mentioned in the above section (dark,
play these referents. Discuss.
As a group,for
practice
using
volume as a way to accumulate and release
Vocabulary
Chapter
Four
Vocabulary for Chapter Four

1.
Musical elements
2.
Pulse TIMBRAL ELEMENTS
3.
Basic beat
Competencies
addressed in this section include the ability to:
4.
Subdivisions
5.
Meter
PR 226. Identify
the timbral
Rhythmic
Figure elements commonly used in clinical
7. improvisation.
Rhythmic Pattern
PR 238. Demonstrate
Prosodymultiple timbres on each instrument.
9.
Rhythmic Flourish
10.
Figure-Ground
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Musical elements
Pulse
Basic beat
Subdivisions
Meter
Rhythmic Figure
Rhythmic Pattern
Prosody
Rhythmic Flourish
Figure-Ground
68 Gardstrom
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Rhythmic Ostinato
Rubato
Melody
Modality
Tonality
Harmony
Harmonic Progression
Harmonic Changes
Vamp
Pitch Register
Tessitura
Musical Roles
Playing Configurations
Volume
Crescendo
Decrescendo
Timbre
68 Gardstrom
Elements 65
11.
Rhythmic Ostinato
12.
Rubato
DYNAMIC ELEMENTS
13.
Melody
14. addressed
Modality
Competencies
15.
Tonality
16.
Harmony
PR 20 Identify
the
dynamic elements commonly used in clinical
17.
Harmonic
Progression
improvisation.
18.
Harmonic
Changes
PR 21 Create gradual and sudden
changes in volume.
19.
Vamp
20.
Pitch
Register
Dynamic elements
are those
elements relating to the mass and intensity
of sound, 21.
or what Tessitura
we commonly refer to as volume. Like tempo, volume
Musicalfrom
Rolessounds that are so soft they are barely
exists on 22.
a continuum,
23.
Playing
Configurations
Volume clinical improvisation, because we often use
listener. In24.
percussion-based
25.
Crescendo
acoustic instruments
that are designed for one player each, we rarely
encounter 26.
sounds Decrescendo
that are so intense that they cause pain. However, I
27. that Timbre
have noticed
prolonged or distinctive sounds (e.g., cabasa, ocean
72 Gardstrom
intervention must be
considered
in relation to these tasks in order
Chapter
Five
to understand its rationale. (p. 168)
STRUCTURES FOR IMPROVISATION
As mentioned above, Stephens (1984) recommends a four-part

group session structure in her model of improvisation, termed Adult
One
common misconception
aboutIclinical
improvisation
that there
Improvisational
Music Therapy.
have used
Stephenss issequence
in ismy
nowork
structure
the music-making
as a consequence,
thatfor
withfor
adults
in short-term experience,
psychiatric and
settings,
the population
there
is nothing
for was
the therapist
to With
plan ahead
of time. In fact,
this that
is
which
the format
developed.
some modifications,
I find
rarely
the
case;
various
structures
actually
exist
on
at
least
three
levels.
this structure can be effective in other treatment settings and with
First,
there areand
structures
adolescents
children of
as the
well.overall process of improvisation-based
therapy,The
which
involveofmultiple
sessions.
at the
thiswarm-up,
macro
first may
component
Stephenss
sessionStructures
structure is
level
may
be referred toimprovisation,
as sequential the
phases
of treatment.
a free
(nonreferential)
purpose
of which Examples
is to gather
include
developing
identifying
issues or The
themes
for treatment,
the group
membersrapport,
and promote
self-awareness.
second
phase is the
working
through, and
terminating.
At the
next
level,
therapists
verbal discussion,
during
which clients
share
what
has many
occurred
since the
determine
structures
or
formats
for
each
improvisational
session,
such
as
last session and target issues and concerns for therapy. The working
that
suggested
by
Stephens
(1984):
warm-up,
verbal
discussion,
core
through is the third and main phase. During the working through,
experience,
and closing.
On the third
level,toeach
singular
improvisation
and discussion
are used
explore
the improvisational
identified issues,
experience
the session
typically
some kind
of organizational
generate within
solutions
to problems
andhasconflicts,
release
energy, and
structure,
or parameter.
Even in
so-called
improvisation,
in which
consolidate
insights gained
through
thefree
therapy
process. At the
end of
noeach
parameters
determined
or imposed
aheadduring
of time,
structures
session,are
there
is a period
of closure,
which
clientsmay
may
and
often
do
emerge
as
the
music
unfolds
over
time.
In
her
writings
on
improvise, sing, or quietly reflect as a way to acknowledge the work that
structure
Analytical Music Therapy, Priestley (1994) refers to the
has beeninaccomplished.
human Now,
tendency
to impose
structure
activity
where there
is none
let us
work through
a on
caselifestudy
to illustrate
some
of the
readily
offered:
decisions
you must make in order to determine a suitable session
structure for one particular group of adults. Be aware that this vignette is
Thiswith
reminds
us of in
themind
strange
factverbal
that people
faced may
withbe
designed
verbal clients
and that
interventions
complete
freedom
from
some
past-imposed
discipline
usually
used in tandem with music improvisation.
proceed to write their own Book of Leviticus to give themselves
the security
Vignette
51 of the structure, sense of direction and identity that
they have lost. (p. 127)
Imagine that you are working in a psychiatric hospital with a group of
relevantsuch
here.as
six Hadsells
to nine (1993)
adult notions
patientsabout
withexternal
varied structure
mental are
illnesses
She
notes
that
three
levels
of
structuremaximum,
moderate,
and
schizophrenia, affective disorders, and personality disorders. Perhaps
minimumcan
be
applied
differentially
to
the
various
environmental
these individuals are coming together from disparate living units within
aspects
of music
therapy,
the activity
(the 50
improvisation
the hospital
for their
firstincluding
music therapy
session. With
minutes, and
experience).
For example,
highly structured
experience
having determined
that aimprovisation
is a improvisation
suitable method
for these
would
involve
therapist-sequenced
events and
taskkind
analysis.
On thestructure
other
particular
patients
and these conditions,
what
of session
Chapter Five

One common misconception about clinical improvisation is that there is
no structure for the music-making experience, and as a consequence, that
there is nothing for the therapist to plan ahead of time. In fact, this is
rarely the case; various structures actually exist on at least three levels.
First, there are structures of the overall process of improvisation-based
therapy, which may involve multiple sessions. Structures at this macro
level may be referred to as sequential phases of treatment. Examples
include developing rapport, identifying issues or themes for treatment,
working through, and terminating. At the next level, many therapists
determine structures or formats for each improvisational session, such as
that suggested by Stephens (1984): warm-up, verbal discussion, core
experience, and closing. On the third level, each singular improvisational
experience within the session typically has some kind of organizational
structure, or parameter. Even in so-called free improvisation, in which
no parameters are determined or imposed ahead of time, structures may
and often do emerge as the music unfolds over time. In her writings on
structure in Analytical Music Therapy, Priestley (1994) refers to the
human tendency to impose structure on life activity where there is none
readily offered:
This reminds us of the strange fact that people faced with
complete freedom from some past-imposed discipline usually
the security of the structure, sense of direction and identity that
Hadsells (1993) notions about external structure are relevant here.
She notes that three levels of structuremaximum, moderate, and
minimumcan be applied differentially to the various environmental
aspects of music therapy, including the activity (the improvisation
experience). For example, a highly structured improvisation experience
would involve therapist-sequenced events and task analysis. On the other
70 Gardstrom
70 Gardstrom
hand, an improvisation experience with minimum structure would

involve collaboration between the client and therapist in planning and
flexibility to rearrange steps in the process. Hadsell writes:
The type and amount of structure is client specific, environment
specific, and task specific. If any of these aspects of a situation
change, adjustments in structure may be required. External
factors such as medication, family interactions, and previous
days events may alter the needed amount of structure. Therefore,
the therapist must constantly monitor the stage of therapy in
which the client is operating and respond to fluctuations in the
clients need for structure even during a single music therapy
session. (p. 63)
That stated, the focus of this chapter is the planful development or
selection of structures for the improvisation session and experience.
SESSION STRUCTURES
PR 24 Identify suitable structures for improvisation sessions.
In this section of the chapter, I will discuss some of the ways in which
session structures are helpful to the process of therapy. We will then
provide some sample session formats and give you an opportunity to
develop your own. What do you think might be some of the benefits of
employing session structures?
1. Structures lend predictability. Recall the discussion in Chapter
Three about preparing the players to use the instruments. When clients
know something about what to expect during an improvisation session
and can predict certain aspects of their experience, they are less likely to
feel confused. Consistency and predictability can ease the anxiety that
often accompanies the prospect of risk and change. With reduced
confusion and anxiety, clients are more likely to trust the therapist, the
Structures 71
other
hand,
group
an members,
improvisation
and the
experience
process ofwith
improvisation.
minimum Increased
structure trust
would
can
involve
open the
collaboration
doors to clinical
between
rapport.
the client and therapist in planning and
2. Structures lend logic. When an improvisation session possesses
some kindThe
of type
structure,
it tendsoftostructure
flow inisaclient
logical
way. Events
are
and amount
specific,
environment
perceived specific,
as sequential
yet interrelated.
of of
thea clients
and task
specific. If Significant
any of theseaspects
aspects
situation
experiences
are more
effable in
andstructure
memorable
attached External
to an
change,
adjustments
maywhen
be required.
organizational
framework.
factors
such as medication, family interactions, and previous
3. Structures
lend equality
and cohesion.
the therapist
must constantly
monitor
the many
stage clients
of therapy
When
comein
whicharethe
clienttoisbeoperating
and respond
toand
fluctuations
in the
together, there
bound
multiple abilities,
needs
clinical aims,
clients
during
singleof music
therapy
personalities,
and need
levelsforofstructure
maturity.even
While
this adegree
heterogeneity
(p. 63)
can add asession.
richness
to group dynamics, it can also contribute to a
perception of inequality and fragmentation within the group. Without a
That stated,
themusical
focus of
chapter is interactions
the planful may
development
session
structure,
andthis
interpersonal
be stiltedor
selection
of structures
the improvisation
and experience.
and
chaotic.
However,forwhen
improvisers session
with divergent
attributes
proceed together through a structured session, they suddenly have a
common focus. PlayersSESSION
are equally
valued in the process of musicSTRUCTURES
making, and there is increased potential for the perception of we-ness
toCompetencies
develop as theaddressed
individuals
aroundinclude
the challenges
inherent
in rally
this section
the ability
to: in each
sequential component of the session.
4. Structures lend meaning. In reflection, clients and therapists can
comprehend
the significance
of their
actions
andsome
experiences
if they
In this section
of the chapter,
I will
discuss
of the ways
in have
which
a framework
for
doing
so.
Aigen
(1998)
writes
about
a
five-stage
session
structure
that sample
became session
evidentformats
as heandanalyzed
Nordoffsto
provide some
give you Paul
an opportunity
improvisational
sessions
anthink
adolescent
The
develop your own.
What with
do you
might beclient.
some of
the structure,
benefits of
opening-transition-working-transition-closure,
assisted Aigen in making
sense of the nature of the clients experience and Nordoffs interventions.
He states:
order to understand
significance
a clinical
intervention,
know In
something
about what the
to expect
duringofan
improvisation
session
it is
necessary
to perceive
in relation
to the they
stageare
of the
and can
predict
certain
aspects ofit their
experience,
lesssession
likely to
in which Consistency
it occurs. This
one of the many
meaning
feel confused.
andis predictability
cancontexts
ease theofanxiety
that
which it becomes
intelligible.
are different
tasks
often in
accompanies
the prospect
of risk There
and change.
With reduced
associated
with clients
each stage
of likely
the session,
andtherapist,
a giventhe
confusion
and anxiety,
are more
to trust the
70 Gardstrom
Structures 71
other
hand,
group
an members,
improvisation
and the
experience
process ofwith
improvisation.
minimum Increased
structure trust
would
can
involve
open the
collaboration
doors to clinical
between
rapport.
the client and therapist in planning and
some kindThe
of type
structure,
it tendsoftostructure
flow inisaclient
logical
way. Events
are
and amount
specific,
environment
perceived specific,
as sequential
yet interrelated.
of of
thea clients
and task
specific. If Significant
any of theseaspects
aspects
situation
experiences
are more
effable in
andstructure
memorable
attached External
to an
change,
adjustments
maywhen
be required.
organizational
framework.
factors
such as medication, family interactions, and previous
3. Structures
lend equality
and cohesion.
the therapist
must constantly
monitor
the many
stage clients
of therapy
When
comein
whicharethe
clienttoisbeoperating
and respond
toand
fluctuations
in the
together, there
bound
multiple abilities,
needs
clinical aims,
clients
during
singleof music
therapy
personalities,
and need
levelsforofstructure
maturity.even
While
this adegree
heterogeneity
(p. 63)
can add asession.
richness
to group dynamics, it can also contribute to a
That stated,
themusical
focus of
chapter is interactions
the planful may
development
session
structure,
andthis
interpersonal
be stiltedor
selection
of structures
the improvisation
and experience.
and
chaotic.
However,forwhen
improvisers session
with divergent
attributes
common focus. PlayersSESSION
are equally
valued in the process of musicSTRUCTURES
making, and there is increased potential for the perception of we-ness
toCompetencies
develop as theaddressed
individuals
aroundinclude
the challenges
inherent
in rally
this section
the ability
to: in each
comprehend
the significance
of their
actions
andsome
experiences
if they
In this section
of the chapter,
I will
discuss
of the ways
in have
which
a framework
for
doing
so.
Aigen
(1998)
writes
about
a
five-stage
session
structure
that sample
became session
evidentformats
as heandanalyzed
Nordoffsto
provide some
give you Paul
an opportunity
improvisational
sessions
anthink
adolescent
The
develop your own.
What with
do you
might beclient.
some of
the structure,
benefits of
opening-transition-working-transition-closure,
assisted Aigen in making
He states:
order to understand
significance
a clinical
intervention,
know In
something
about what the
to expect
duringofan
improvisation
session
it is
necessary
to perceive
in relation
to the they
stageare
of the
and can
predict
certain
aspects ofit their
experience,
lesssession
likely to
in which Consistency
it occurs. This
one of the many
meaning
feel confused.
andis predictability
cancontexts
ease theofanxiety
that
which it becomes
intelligible.
are different
tasks
often in
accompanies
the prospect
of risk There
and change.
With reduced
associated
with clients
each stage
of likely
the session,
andtherapist,
a giventhe
confusion
and anxiety,
are more
to trust the
Structures 71
other group members, and the process of improvisation. Increased trust

can open the doors to clinical rapport.
some kind of structure, it tends to flow in a logical way. Events are
perceived as sequential yet interrelated. Significant aspects of the clients
experiences are more effable and memorable when attached to an
organizational framework.
3. Structures lend equality and cohesion. When many clients come
together, there are bound to be multiple abilities, needs and clinical aims,
personalities, and levels of maturity. While this degree of heterogeneity
can add a richness to group dynamics, it can also contribute to a
session structure, musical and interpersonal interactions may be stilted
and chaotic. However, when improvisers with divergent attributes
common focus. Players are equally valued in the process of musicmaking, and there is increased potential for the perception of we-ness
to develop as the individuals rally around the challenges inherent in each
comprehend the significance of their actions and experiences if they have
a framework for doing so. Aigen (1998) writes about a five-stage session
structure that became evident as he analyzed Paul Nordoffs
improvisational sessions with an adolescent client. The structure,
opening-transition-working-transition-closure, assisted Aigen in making
He states:
In order to understand the significance of a clinical intervention,
it is necessary to perceive it in relation to the stage of the session
in which it occurs. This is one of the many contexts of meaning
in which it becomes intelligible. There are different tasks
associated with each stage of the session, and a given
72 Gardstrom
72 Gardstrom
intervention must be considered in relation to these tasks in order

intervention must be
considered
in relation to these tasks in order
Chapter
Five

Improvisational Music Therapy. I have used Stephenss sequence in my
work with adults in short-term psychiatric settings, the population for
which the format was developed. With some modifications, I find that
adolescents and children as well.
The first component of Stephenss session structure is the warm-up,
a free (nonreferential) improvisation, the purpose of which is to gather
the group members and promote self-awareness. The second phase is the
verbal discussion, during which clients share what has occurred since the
improvisation and discussion are used to explore the identified issues,
generate solutions to problems and conflicts, release energy, and
consolidate insights gained through the therapy process. At the end of
each session, there is a period of closure, during which clients may
has been accomplished.
Now, let us work through a case study to illustrate some of the
decisions you must make in order to determine a suitable session
designed with verbal clients in mind and that verbal interventions may be

One
common misconception
aboutIclinical
improvisation
that there
Improvisational
Music Therapy.
have used
Stephenss issequence
in ismy
nowork
structure
the music-making
as a consequence,
thatfor
withfor
adults
in short-term experience,
psychiatric and
settings,
the population
there
is nothing
for was
the therapist
to With
plan ahead
of time. In fact,
this that
is
which
the format
developed.
some modifications,
I find
rarely
the
case;
various
structures
actually
exist
on
at
least
three
levels.
First,
there areand
structures
adolescents
children of
as the
well.overall process of improvisation-based
therapy,The
which
involveofmultiple
sessions.
at the
thiswarm-up,
macro
first may
component
Stephenss
sessionStructures
structure is
level
may
be referred toimprovisation,
as sequential the
phases
of treatment.
a free
(nonreferential)
purpose
of which Examples
is to gather
include
developing
identifying
issues or The
themes
for treatment,
the group
membersrapport,
and promote
self-awareness.
second
phase is the
working
through, and
terminating.
At the
next
level,
therapists
verbal discussion,
during
which clients
share
what
has many
occurred
since the
determine
structures
or
formats
for
each
improvisational
session,
such
as
that
suggested
by
Stephens
(1984):
warm-up,
verbal
discussion,
core
experience,
and closing.
On the third
level,toeach
singular
improvisation
and discussion
are used
explore
the improvisational
identified issues,
experience
the session
typically
some kind
of organizational
generate within
solutions
to problems
andhasconflicts,
release
energy, and
structure,
or parameter.
Even in
so-called
improvisation,
in which
consolidate
insights gained
through
thefree
therapy
process. At the
end of
noeach
parameters
determined
or imposed
aheadduring
of time,
structures
session,are
there
is a period
of closure,
which
clientsmay
may
and
often
do
emerge
as
the
music
unfolds
over
time.
In
her
writings
on
structure
Analytical Music Therapy, Priestley (1994) refers to the
has beeninaccomplished.
human Now,
tendency
to impose
structure
activity
where there
is none
let us
work through
a on
caselifestudy
to illustrate
some
of the
readily
offered:
decisions
you must make in order to determine a suitable session
Thiswith
reminds
us of in
themind
strange
fact verbal
that people
faced may
withbe
designed
verbal clients
and that
interventions
complete
freedom
from
some
past-imposed
discipline
usually
the security
Vignette
51 of the structure, sense of direction and identity that
relevantsuch
here.as
six Hadsells
to nine (1993)
adult notions
patientsabout
withexternal
varied structure
mental are
illnesses
She
notes
that
three
levels
of
structuremaximum,
moderate,
and
minimumcan
be
applied
differentially
to
the
various
environmental
aspects
of music
therapy,
the activity
(the 50
improvisation
the hospital
for their
firstincluding
music therapy
session. With
minutes, and
experience).
For example,
highly structured
experience
having determined
that aimprovisation
is a improvisation
suitable method
for these
would
involve
therapist-sequenced
events and
taskkind
analysis.
On thestructure
other
particular
patients
and these conditions,
what
of session
Vignette 51
six to nine adult patients with varied mental illnesses such as
the hospital for their first music therapy session. With 50 minutes, and
having determined that improvisation is a suitable method for these
particular patients and these conditions, what kind of session structure
76 Gardstrom
Structures 73
will
12.you implement?
Is it necessary
Here are
to have
someaofdistinct
the questions
closingyou
segment?
may ask Probably.
and the
factors
With you
this may
group,
consider
it maythroughout
be sufficient
your
to process
close with
of discernment:
a verbal summary of
what has taken place during the session. However, if time permits and
1. there is
Is aitvalid
necessary
reasonthat
to do
I begin
so (again,
the session
if it meets
witha some
determined
discussion?
need or
Absolutely!
clinical objective),
These clients
I would
do prefer
not know
to employ
one another,
a musical
andclosing,
they do
because
not
know
all ofme.
theI clients
will need
are to
involved
begin with
in verbal
a brief
psychotherapy
introduction so
several
they times
can start
each
toweek,
learn one
yet anothers
their opportunities
names. It for
is likely
creative
thatarts
some
expression
of them have
are severely
never
improvised,
limited. Further
and it improvisation,
is a certainty that
singing,
they have
and never
brief reflective
improvisedlistening
with oneare
another.
reasonable
I will
options
need to
fortalk
musical
a bitclosure.
about improvisationwhat it is and is
not, what they can expect to experience, how it may assist them, etc.
There
So, having
is likelycompleted
to be elevated
the above
anxietyprocess,
related to
you
thehave
clients
fleshed
diagnoses
out asthe
well
following
as to thesession
novelty
structure:
of the situation. There also may be a high degree of
social tension as different ages, genders, races, ethnicities, sexual
orientations,
1. Introductory
and personalities
Discussion
merge for the first time. I may need to
reassure
2. the
Verbal
clients
Check-in
with a (optional)
brief discussion about expectations related to
physical
3. and
Sound
psychological
Vocabulary safety and confidentiality. It may even be
necessary
4. Warm-up
to establish
Improvisation
some rules for our work together.
5. Brief Discussion (optional)
2.
6.Will
Corea Improvisation
verbal check-in
Experience
be necessary? Perhaps. A check-in
typically
7. includes
Verbal Processing
a statement of how each person is feeling and what
issues 8.
areVerbal
on herororMusical
his mind
Closure
at the time of the session. In ongoing
therapy, a check-in may also include a recapitulation of events or actions
since the
Exlast
51session.
(Didactic
Since
Learning)
this is a fledgling group, it may be prudent to
offer the clients the option to say something personal, while also offering
theWith
option
a partner,
to pass.
select
In athe
clinical
future,
scenario
an instrumental
from the list
check-in
that appears
mightbelow.
be
helpful.
Together, develop a session structure that seems well-suited to the
attributes of the clients and the specified time frame. Share your session
3. structure
Shall
and
I provide
your decision-making
a sound vocabulary?
processes
Of with
course!
other
Themembers
instruments
of the
wegroup.
will be using are unfamiliar to most of the clients. Naming and
demonstrating each one will help them become more comfortable with
the tools
1. Six
andelderly
language
residents,
of improvisation.
mild dementia,
I will
20-minute
limit session.
the number of
instruments
2. Sixweschool-aged
use and the children,
information
specific
that I share
learning
about
disabilities,
each one so
30that I do not
minute
overwhelm
session.the clients during this introductory phase.
3. Six adolescents, severe behavior disorders, 45-minute session.
4.
4.Shall
Six adults,
I plan various
a musical
neurological
warm-up?impairments,
Yes! Once I 30-minute
have introduced
session.
the instruments, it may be important for the members of the group to
begin playing immediately, especially if I sense that their anxiety is
Structures 73
will you implement? Here are some of the questions you may ask and the
factors you may consider throughout your process of discernment:
1.
Is it necessary that I begin the session with some discussion?
Absolutely! These clients do not know one another, and they do not
know me. I will need to begin with a brief introduction so they can start
to learn one anothers names. It is likely that some of them have never
improvised, and it is a certainty that they have never improvised with one
another. I will need to talk a bit about improvisationwhat it is and is
There is likely to be elevated anxiety related to the clients diagnoses as
well as to the novelty of the situation. There also may be a high degree of
orientations, and personalities merge for the first time. I may need to
reassure the clients with a brief discussion about expectations related to
physical and psychological safety and confidentiality. It may even be
necessary to establish some rules for our work together.
2.
Will a verbal check-in be necessary? Perhaps. A check-in
typically includes a statement of how each person is feeling and what
issues are on her or his mind at the time of the session. In ongoing
since the last session. Since this is a fledgling group, it may be prudent to
the option to pass. In the future, an instrumental check-in might be
helpful.
3.
Shall I provide a sound vocabulary? Of course! The instruments
we will be using are unfamiliar to most of the clients. Naming and
the tools and language of improvisation. I will limit the number of
instruments we use and the information that I share about each one so
that I do not overwhelm the clients during this introductory phase.
4.
Shall I plan a musical warm-up? Yes! Once I have introduced
74 Gardstrom
mounting as time passes and, as a result, they are growing resistant. On

the other hand, there may be excitement and enthusiasm once the
instruments have been presented; I would like to capitalize on this.
74 Gardstrom
Structures 75
6.
Shall the warm-up be structured in any way? Definitely! I
believe it is critical that there be some predetermined and verbalized
structure since this is our first improvisation experience together; in this
case, structure may diminish confusion and anxiety. However, I do not
want the warm-up to be so structured that the clients feel stifled in their
expression, independence, or creativity. It is too early in the session and
in their development as a group to expect that individuals would
naturally connect with one another during the music-making, although I
will watch and listen for this; however, the clients may be able to use the
warm-up to develop some basic self-awareness of their physical and
emotional states. Whatever givens I choose will be geared toward this
aim.
forth
mounting
are theasclients
time passes
instrument
and, as
choices,
a result,
comfort,
they are
energy
growing
levels,
resistant.
sensoryOn
perceptions,
the other emotional
hand, there
responses,
may be and
excitement
reactions and
to theenthusiasm
musical product.
once the
I
will
instruments
be ready have
to facilitate
been presented;
some discussion
I would like
on these
to capitalize
topics, on
using
this.active
listening and verbal techniques.
5.
Shall the warm-up involve group or solo playing? Group playing!
9. Because
What
this next,
is a first
a core
experience,
improvisation
and based
experience?
on my assumption
Yes! This
thatisthere
a
juncture
may beinsome
the initial
process
anxiety,
duringI which
think itI isreally
important
need to
to play
remain
as an
open
ensemble.
and
flexible.
That way,
Obviously,
individuals
I want
can hide
to move
within
ahead
thewith
music
theuntil
clients
they needs
are ready
andto
clinical
revealobjectives
somethinginunique
mind. These
about may
themselves.
be immediately
When the
apparent
clients because
are more
they
confident
flow from
with the
the instruments,
facility goals,
theirassessment
abilities, and
outcomes,
their roles
or within
clientsthe
treatment
group, I will
plans.
be Or,
ableperhaps
to introduce
the needs
some solo
and playing.
objectives will be evident
during the warm-up, which can serve as a kind of in-the-moment
assessment.
6.
Shall
Perhaps
the Iwarm-up
will act upon
be structured
a hunch. Finally,
in any I way?
may make
Definitely!
a plan I
forbelieve
the core
it isexperience
critical that
based
there
upon
be something
some predetermined
that a client
andshares
verbalized
out
loud.
structure
Whatever
sincethe
thiscase,
is our
andfirst
even
improvisation
if I have a predetermined
experience together;
plan, I need
in this
tocase,
be ready
structure
and may
feel diminish
free to respond
confusion
to and
what
anxiety.
is most
However,
salient at
I do
thisnot
particular
want thepoint
warm-up
in time.
to be
Onesothing
structured
I knowthat
for the
sureclients
is thatfeel
all of
stifled
the clients
in their
have
expression,
been referred
independence,
to this group
or creativity.
because they
It isneed
too early
to practice
in theinteracting
session and
with
in their
othersdevelopment
in positive and
as ameaningful
group to ways.
expectOver
that time,
individuals
I want would
this
group
naturally
to beconnect
a placewith
where
oneclients
another
know
during
theythe
can
music-making,
be themselves
although
with I
others,
will watch
express
anddifficult
listen forthoughts
this; however,
and feelings,
the clients
andmay
develop
be abletrust
to use
andthe
empathy.
warm-upWith
to develop
that in mind,
some basic
the core
self-awareness
experience will
of their
revolve
physical
around
and
establishing
emotional preliminary
states. Whatever
connections
givens Iwith
choose
one will
another
be geared
throughtoward
musical
this
interactions.
aim.
7.
Shall I choose instruments for the players? No! I will let them
select their own instruments because their choices and decision-making
process could tell me something significant about them and their
preferences. Additionally, allowing them to make their own choices
validates their self-determinism and communicates that I trust them and
respect their actions.
10.7.
Shall
ShallI Ifacilitate
choose instruments
discussion for
about
the the
players?
core experience?
No! I will letYes!
them
Here
select
again,
theirit own
is difficult
instruments
to predict
because
whattheir
willchoices
emergeand
as most
decision-making
important
about
process
the core
could
improvisation,
tell me something
but in general,
significant
the verbal
abouttechniques
them andI use
their
(see
preferences.
Chapter Nine)
Additionally,
will be designed
allowing
to elicit
them patient
to make
verbalizations,
their own choices
focus
thevalidates
discussion
theiraround
self-determinism
emerging issues,
and communicates
and validate authentic
that I trust
responses
them and
and
respect
meaningful
their actions.
insights.
8.
Shall we discuss the warm-up? I dont know yet; I may have to
decide this on the spot. Sometimes warm-ups are verbally processed, but
often they are not. If, however, a client begins sharing in an unsolicited
fashion and others join in productively, I certainly would not squelch that
course of action! Some of the aspects of the warm-up that could come
11.8.
Will
Shall
we we
playdiscuss
again?the
This
warm-up?
will be entirely
I dont dependent
know yet; upon
I mayfactors
have to
such
decide
as time,
this on
client
the motivation,
spot. Sometimes
and what
warm-ups
remains
aretoverbally
be accomplished
processed,inbut
theoften
session,
theyamong
are not.
other
If, however,
factors. a client begins sharing in an unsolicited
5.
Because this is a first experience, and based on my assumption that there
may be some initial anxiety, I think it is important to play as an ensemble.
That way, individuals can hide within the music until they are ready to
reveal something unique about themselves. When the clients are more
confident with the instruments, their abilities, and their roles within the
group, I will be able to introduce some solo playing.
74 Gardstrom
Structures 75
Structures 75
forth
mounting
are theasclients
time passes
instrument
and, as
choices,
a result,
comfort,
they are
energy
growing
levels,
resistant.
sensoryOn
perceptions,
the other emotional
hand, there
responses,
may be and
excitement
reactions and
to theenthusiasm
musical product.
once the
I
will
instruments
be ready have
to facilitate
been presented;
some discussion
I would like
on these
to capitalize
topics, on
using
this.active
5.
9. Because
What
this next,
is a first
a core
experience,
improvisation
and based
experience?
on my assumption
Yes! This
thatisthere
a
juncture
may beinsome
the initial
process
anxiety,
duringI which
think itI isreally
important
need to
to play
remain
as an
open
ensemble.
and
flexible.
That way,
Obviously,
individuals
I want
can hide
to move
within
ahead
thewith
music
theuntil
clients
they needs
are ready
andto
clinical
revealobjectives
somethinginunique
mind. These
about may
themselves.
be immediately
When the
apparent
clients because
are more
they
confident
flow from
with the
the instruments,
facility goals,
theirassessment
abilities, and
outcomes,
their roles
or within
clientsthe
treatment
group, I will
plans.
be Or,
ableperhaps
to introduce
the needs
some solo
and playing.
objectives will be evident
assessment.
6.
Shall
Perhaps
the Iwarm-up
will act upon
be structured
a hunch. Finally,
in any I way?
may make
Definitely!
a plan I
forbelieve
the core
it isexperience
critical that
based
there
upon
be something
some predetermined
that a client
andshares
verbalized
out
loud.
structure
Whatever
sincethe
thiscase,
is our
andfirst
even
improvisation
if I have a predetermined
experience together;
plan, I need
in this
tocase,
be ready
structure
and may
feel diminish
free to respond
confusion
to and
what
anxiety.
is most
However,
salient at
I do
thisnot
particular
want thepoint
warm-up
in time.
to be
Onesothing
structured
I knowthat
for the
sureclients
is thatfeel
all of
stifled
the clients
in their
have
expression,
been referred
independence,
to this group
or creativity.
because they
It isneed
too early
to practice
in theinteracting
session and
with
in their
othersdevelopment
in positive and
as ameaningful
group to ways.
expectOver
that time,
individuals
I want would
this
group
naturally
to beconnect
a placewith
where
oneclients
another
know
during
theythe
can
music-making,
be themselves
although
with I
others,
will watch
express
anddifficult
listen forthoughts
this; however,
and feelings,
the clients
andmay
develop
be abletrust
to use
andthe
empathy.
warm-upWith
to develop
that in mind,
some basic
the core
self-awareness
experience will
of their
revolve
physical
around
and
establishing
emotional preliminary
states. Whatever
connections
givens Iwith
choose
one will
another
be geared
throughtoward
musical
this
interactions.
aim.
forth are the clients instrument choices, comfort, energy levels, sensory
perceptions, emotional responses, and reactions to the musical product. I
will be ready to facilitate some discussion on these topics, using active
10.7.
Shall
ShallI Ifacilitate
choose instruments
discussion for
about
the the
players?
core experience?
No! I will letYes!
them
Here
select
again,
theirit own
is difficult
instruments
to predict
because
whattheir
willchoices
emergeand
as most
decision-making
important
about
process
the core
could
improvisation,
tell me something
but in general,
significant
the verbal
abouttechniques
them andI use
their
(see
preferences.
Chapter Nine)
Additionally,
will be designed
allowing
to elicit
them patient
to make
verbalizations,
their own choices
focus
thevalidates
discussion
theiraround
self-determinism
emerging issues,
and communicates
and validate authentic
that I trust
responses
them and
and
respect
meaningful
their actions.
insights.
10.
Shall I facilitate discussion about the core experience? Yes!
Here again, it is difficult to predict what will emerge as most important
about the core improvisation, but in general, the verbal techniques I use
(see Chapter Nine) will be designed to elicit patient verbalizations, focus
the discussion around emerging issues, and validate authentic responses
and meaningful insights.
11.8.
Will
Shall
we we
playdiscuss
again?the
This
warm-up?
will be entirely
I dont dependent
know yet; upon
I mayfactors
have to
such
decide
as time,
this on
client
the motivation,
spot. Sometimes
and what
warm-ups
remains
aretoverbally
be accomplished
processed,inbut
theoften
session,
theyamong
are not.
other
If, however,
factors. a client begins sharing in an unsolicited
11.
Will we play again? This will be entirely dependent upon factors
such as time, client motivation, and what remains to be accomplished in
the session, among other factors.
9.
What next, a core improvisation experience? Yes! This is a
juncture in the process during which I really need to remain open and
flexible. Obviously, I want to move ahead with the clients needs and
clinical objectives in mind. These may be immediately apparent because
they flow from the facility goals, assessment outcomes, or clients
treatment plans. Or, perhaps the needs and objectives will be evident
assessment. Perhaps I will act upon a hunch. Finally, I may make a plan
for the core experience based upon something that a client shares out
loud. Whatever the case, and even if I have a predetermined plan, I need
to be ready and feel free to respond to what is most salient at this
particular point in time. One thing I know for sure is that all of the clients
have been referred to this group because they need to practice interacting
with others in positive and meaningful ways. Over time, I want this
group to be a place where clients know they can be themselves with
others, express difficult thoughts and feelings, and develop trust and
empathy. With that in mind, the core experience will revolve around
establishing preliminary connections with one another through musical
interactions.
76 Gardstrom
12.
Is it necessary to have a distinct closing segment? Probably.
With this group, it may be sufficient to close with a verbal summary of
there is a valid reason to do so (again, if it meets a determined need or
clinical objective), I would prefer to employ a musical closing, because
all of the clients are involved in verbal psychotherapy several times each
week, yet their opportunities for creative arts expression are severely
limited. Further improvisation, singing, and brief reflective listening are
reasonable options for musical closure.
So, having completed the above process, you have fleshed out the
following session structure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introductory Discussion
Verbal Check-in (optional)
Sound Vocabulary
Warm-up Improvisation
Brief Discussion (optional)
Core Improvisation Experience
Verbal Processing
Verbal or Musical Closure
With a partner, select a clinical scenario from the list that appears below.
structure and your decision-making processes with other members of the
group.
1. Six elderly residents, mild dementia, 20-minute session.
2. Six school-aged children, specific learning disabilities, 30minute session.
4. Six adults, various neurological impairments, 30-minute session.
76 Gardstrom
Structures 73
will
12.you implement?
Is it necessary
Here are
to have
someaofdistinct
the questions
closingyou
segment?
may ask Probably.
and the
factors
With you
this may
group,
consider
it maythroughout
be sufficient
your
to process
close with
of discernment:
a verbal summary of
1. there is
Is aitvalid
necessary
reasonthat
to do
I begin
so (again,
the session
if it meets
witha some
determined
discussion?
need or
Absolutely!
clinical objective),
These clients
I would
do prefer
not know
to employ
one another,
a musical
andclosing,
they do
because
not
know
all ofme.
theI clients
will need
are to
involved
begin with
in verbal
a brief
psychotherapy
introduction so
several
they times
can start
each
toweek,
learn one
yet anothers
their opportunities
names. It for
is likely
creative
thatarts
some
expression
of them have
are severely
never
improvised,
limited. Further
and it improvisation,
is a certainty that
singing,
they have
and never
brief reflective
improvisedlistening
with oneare
another.
reasonable
I will
options
need to
fortalk
musical
a bitclosure.
about improvisationwhat it is and is
There
So, having
is likelycompleted
to be elevated
the above
anxietyprocess,
related to
you
thehave
clients
fleshed
diagnoses
out asthe
well
following
as to thesession
novelty
structure:
of the situation. There also may be a high degree of
orientations,
1. Introductory
and personalities
Discussion
merge for the first time. I may need to
reassure
2. the
Verbal
clients
Check-in
with a (optional)
brief discussion about expectations related to
physical
3. and
Sound
psychological
Vocabulary safety and confidentiality. It may even be
necessary
4. Warm-up
to establish
Improvisation
some rules for our work together.
5. Brief Discussion (optional)
2.
6.Will
Corea Improvisation
verbal check-in
Experience
be necessary? Perhaps. A check-in
typically
7. includes
Verbal Processing
a statement of how each person is feeling and what
issues 8.
areVerbal
on herororMusical
his mind
Closure
at the time of the session. In ongoing
since the
Exlast
51session.
(Didactic
Since
Learning)
this is a fledgling group, it may be prudent to
theWith
option
a partner,
to pass.
select
In athe
clinical
future,
scenario
an instrumental
from the list
check-in
that appears
mightbelow.
be
helpful.
3. structure
Shall
and
I provide
your decision-making
a sound vocabulary?
processes
Of with
course!
other
Themembers
instruments
of the
wegroup.
will be using are unfamiliar to most of the clients. Naming and
the tools
1. Six
andelderly
language
residents,
of improvisation.
mild dementia,
I will
20-minute
limit session.
the number of
instruments
2. Sixweschool-aged
use and the children,
information
specific
that I share
learning
about
disabilities,
each one so
30that I do not
minute
overwhelm
session.the clients during this introductory phase.
4.
4.Shall
Six adults,
I plan various
a musical
neurological
warm-up?impairments,
Yes! Once I 30-minute
have introduced
session.
80 Gardstrom
Structures 77
Structures 77
The
5. nextThe
step
request
in the
of an
planning
influential
process
or trusted
is tomember
determine
of the
which
group
structures, if any,
(e.g.,may
a member
be applied
whotohas
individual
assumedimprovisations
a parental or authoritative
within the
session. That brings
role inusthe
to the
group
nextrequests
section. to use the drums as a way to
release the anger that he senses is building up within the
SELECTINGgroup).
AND PRESENTING GIVENS AND REFERENTS
The next step in the planning process is to determine which

structures, if any, may be applied to individual improvisations within the
session. That brings us to the next section.
6.
Modifications
in section
the group
configuration
or facilitator(s)
Competencies
addressed in this
include
the ability to:
(e.g., several new individuals are unexpectedly referred to
the group
once; suitable
the therapist
and for
new
PR 25 Determine
and at
present
givensasks
andveteran
referents
membersexperiences.
to improvise in pairs).
improvisation
7.
modifications
in considered
the environment
or orthe
As defined
inUnexpected
Chapter Two,
a given can be
a structure
(e.g.,
due
to
a
quarantine,
the
session
is held
instrumentarium
parameter for improvisation, selected in response to one or multiple
on
the
unit
rather
than
in
the
music
therapy
clinic,
and
factors related to client need and/or clinical objective. Recall that thethe
children
are are
unable
to use procedural,
the instruments;
the therapist
three categories
of givens
vocabulary,
and interpersonal.
suggests
an to
improvisation
body
or objects
Vocabulary givens
relate
the number using
or sorts
of sounds
instruments
and/orin
their
environment).
sounds that are used by the players, as in the following example:
As defined in Chapter Two, a given can be considered a structure or

factors related to client need and/or clinical objective. Recall that the
three categories of givens are vocabulary, procedural, and interpersonal.
Vocabulary givens relate to the number or sorts of instruments and/or
8. Linda
Modifications
the piano,
relationships
approachedin the
lookingbetween
angry, members
and beganof tothe
group
(e.g.,
two
members
are
at
odds
with
one
another,
and
bang out loud tone clusters. When she agreed verbally
that she
the tension
between asked
them ishercreating
division
was angry,
the therapist
to try some
singing
a songwithin
to
theher
group;
therapist
dyad in question
to share
express
angerthe
verbally
as asks
well the
as physically
(Dvorkin,
1998,an
instrument, improvise together, and subsequently discuss the
p. 295).
experience).
Procedural givens often guide the sequence or length of an
9.
Needs
and/or
themes
that emerge during a verbal check-in
improvisation.
Priestley
(1994)
writes:
(e.g., during check-in, three members mention fear of
alcohol
relapse
andisone
talksinabout
fearimprovisation
of losing custody
Another
structure
which
useful
dyadic
is theof
a child;
therapist
an toimprovisation
based
limitation
of athecertain
timerecommends
span. I used
begin a certain
upon
the
referent,
fear).
patients session with a 10-minute improvisation. We were quite
free as far as subject matter was concerned and there were no
Keep
in mind
that therebut
are,thequite
likely, infinite
when it
musical
constraints,
realization
that thepossibilities
time was limited
comesmade
to the
selection
givens for
clinical
improvisation.
him
pour hisofexpression
into
the time
available. (p. Treatment
132)
groups are made up of several clients, each a unique human being with a
distinct personality
and to
distinct
needs. The
therapist,
as an
Interpersonal
givens relate
relationships
specified
between
the authentic,
various
communicative,
flexible,
and
responsive
leader
(remember
these
terms?),
improvisers, as in this excerpt:
can select and create givens that serve to provide for a meaningful and
Linda approached the piano, looking angry, and began to

bang out loud tone clusters. When she agreed verbally that she
was angry, the therapist asked her to try singing a song to
express her anger verbally as well as physically (Dvorkin, 1998,
p. 295).
SELECTING AND PRESENTING GIVENS AND REFERENTS
PR 25 Determine and present suitable givens and referents for

improvisation experiences.

improvisation. Priestley (1994) writes:
Another structure which is useful in dyadic improvisation is the
limitation of a certain time span. I used to begin a certain
musical constraints, but the realization that the time was limited
made him pour his expression into the time available. (p. 132)
Interpersonal givens relate to relationships specified between the various
78 Gardstrom
As depression is often based on anger bound by guilt, I devised

some exercises to express aggression in a non-threatening way
on two 16-inch tom-toms. Each of them had to play on his own
drum then reach over and bang on the others drum. (Priestley,
1994, p. 287)
78 Gardstrom
Structures 79
Further examples of all three types of givens appear in Appendix E. Take

a look at No. 6 under Vocabulary Givens. This parameter refers to setting
up the tonal instruments in a Chinese pentatonic scale. There are myriad
possible factors that might steer a therapist (or the players) to select this
particular given. The Chinese pentatonic scale, by virtue of its
construction of whole steps, possesses little (if any) musical dissonance.
All possible melodic and harmonic intervals in the scale are considered
consonant intervals (major seconds and sixths, major and minor thirds,
and perfect fourths and fifths). Because there are no semitones in this
five-note scale, there is no tension-resolution cycle. My students often
describe the Chinese pentatonic as open, unfinished, and floaty,
particularly when it is played in an unpulsed manner or in a moderate,
slow, or very slow tempo. Now consider why a therapist (or the players)
might want to avoid musical tension and build consonance and
suspension into a group improvisation? Could it be that the group
members are highly tense to begin with and need to experience a
contrasting relief? Or maybe the therapist has limited the number of
different pitches in the scale to five in order to make the instruments less
complicated or intimidating. Or perhaps the scale is being used as a
transition to an introspective music-assisted imagery experience. Each of
these is a plausible explanation for the therapists decision to select this
particular vocabulary given.

Ex 53
some
(Didactic
exercises
Learning)
to express aggression in a non-threatening way
Alone or with
druma then
partner,
reachselect
over aand
specific
bang need
on theand/or
others
clinical
drum. objective
(Priestley,
and determine
1994, ap. vocabulary,
287)
procedural, or interpersonal given that
might assist in addressing the need or objective. Be prepared to discuss
your
findings with the group .(Note: If desired, you may move from the
Selection
group discussion immediately into the following exercise.)
Asa stated
and referents
may beThis
selected
during
the session,
look atabove,
No. 6 givens
under Vocabulary
Givens.
parameter
refers
to setting
asup
opposed
to beforehand,
on athe
basis of
significant
factors
thatare
emerge
the tonal
instruments in
Chinese
pentatonic
scale.
There
myriad
and
deservefactors
consideration.
Here
area atherapist
few:
possible
that might
steer
(or the players) to select this
1.
Theofenergy
the grouplittle
as members
enter the
playing
construction
whole level
steps,ofpossesses
(if any) musical
dissonance.
space
(e.g., and
the harmonic
players are
physically
active
All possible
melodic
intervals
in the
scaleand
are talkative,
considered
is (major
a pleasant
change;
the therapist
consonant which
intervals
seconds
and sixths,
major andincorporates
minor thirds,
movement
intofifths).
the improvisation
to sustaininthe
and perfect
fourths and
Because thereinareorder
no semitones
this
desiredthere
levelisofno
energy).
five-note scale,
tension-resolution cycle. My students often
2.
Casual
made manner
as members
the
particularly
when comments
it is played that
in anare
unpulsed
or in aenter
moderate,
playing
client says,
really dont
feelplayers)
like
slow, or very
slow space
tempo.(e.g.,
Nowaconsider
why I
a therapist
(or the
being
today;
therapist
selects the
might want
to around
avoid anyone
musical else
tension
andthebuild
consonance
and
alone).
suspensionreferent,
into a leave
group me
improvisation?
Could it be that the group
of (a)
3.
Urgent
or perceived
emotional
contrasting
relief?stated
Or maybe
the therapist
hasneeds
limited
themember(s)
number of
of
the
group
(e.g.,
a
member
enters
the
room
crying and
different pitches in the scale to five in order to make the instruments
less
talking
about feelingOrlike
an abandoned
the therapist
complicated
or intimidating.
perhaps
the scalechild;
is being
used as a
invites
her to sit in music-assisted
the center of theimagery
circle and
asks the group
transition to
an introspective
experience.
Each of
improvisefor
around
her in a rocking
fashion,
softly
these is a members
plausible to
explanation
the therapists
decision
to select
this
and in 6/8 meter).
particular vocabulary
given.
Alone or with a partner, select two givens from each category presented
in Appendix E. Working in reverse, so to speak, discern some factors that
might have caused a therapist (or the players) to establish these givens
and write these factors in the space provided. Be prepared to discuss
your findings with the group.
4. Ex 52
An(Didactic
intuitionLearning)
of the therapist (e.g., the therapist feels a sense
of intimacy
between
certain
members presented
of the
Alone or with
a partner,developing
select two givens
from
each category
group
and asks
them toso improvise
with one
in
in Appendix
E. Working
in reverse,
to speak, discern
someanother
factors that
conversational,
subsequently
talk
might havedialogic,
caused or
a therapist
(or thefashion
players)and
to to
establish
these givens
experience).
and write about
these the
factors
in the space provided. Be prepared to discuss
Selection
78 Gardstrom
Structures 79

Ex 53
some
(Didactic
exercises
Learning)
to express aggression in a non-threatening way
Alone or with
druma then
partner,
reachselect
over aand
specific
bang need
on theand/or
others
clinical
drum. objective
(Priestley,
and determine
1994, ap. vocabulary,
287)
procedural, or interpersonal given that
your
findings with the group .(Note: If desired, you may move from the
Selection
Asa stated
and referents
may beThis
selected
during
the session,
look atabove,
No. 6 givens
under Vocabulary
Givens.
parameter
refers
to setting
asup
opposed
to beforehand,
on athe
basis of
significant
factors
thatare
emerge
the tonal
instruments in
Chinese
pentatonic
scale.
There
myriad
and
deservefactors
consideration.
Here
area atherapist
few:
possible
that might
steer
(or the players) to select this
1.
Theofenergy
the grouplittle
as members
enter the
playing
construction
whole level
steps,ofpossesses
(if any) musical
dissonance.
space
(e.g., and
the harmonic
players are
physically
active
All possible
melodic
intervals
in the
scaleand
are talkative,
considered
is (major
a pleasant
change;
the therapist
consonant which
intervals
seconds
and sixths,
major andincorporates
minor thirds,
movement
intofifths).
the improvisation
to sustaininthe
and perfect
fourths and
Because thereinareorder
no semitones
this
desiredthere
levelisofno
energy).
five-note scale,
tension-resolution cycle. My students often
2.
Casual
made manner
as members
the
particularly
when comments
it is played that
in anare
unpulsed
or in aenter
moderate,
playing
client says,
really dont
feelplayers)
like
slow, or very
slow space
tempo.(e.g.,
Nowaconsider
why I
a therapist
(or the
being
today;
therapist
selects the
might want
to around
avoid anyone
musical else
tension
andthebuild
consonance
and
alone).
suspensionreferent,
into a leave
group me
improvisation?
Could it be that the group
of (a)
3.
Urgent
or perceived
emotional
contrasting
relief?stated
Or maybe
the therapist
hasneeds
limited
themember(s)
number of
of
the
group
(e.g.,
a
member
enters
the
room
crying and
different pitches in the scale to five in order to make the instruments
less
talking
about feelingOrlike
an abandoned
the therapist
complicated
or intimidating.
perhaps
the scalechild;
is being
used as a
invites
her to sit in music-assisted
the center of theimagery
circle and
asks the group
transition to
an introspective
experience.
Each of
improvisefor
around
her in a rocking
fashion,
softly
these is a members
plausible to
explanation
the therapists
decision
to select
this
and in 6/8 meter).
particular vocabulary
given.
4. Ex 52
An(Didactic
intuitionLearning)
of the therapist (e.g., the therapist feels a sense
of intimacy
between
certain
members presented
of the
Alone or with
a partner,developing
select two givens
from
each category
group
and asks
them toso improvise
with one
in
in Appendix
E. Working
in reverse,
to speak, discern
someanother
factors that
conversational,
subsequently
talk
might havedialogic,
caused or
a therapist
(or thefashion
players)and
to to
establish
these givens
experience).
and write about
these the
factors
in the space provided. Be prepared to discuss
Structures 79
Alone or with a partner, select a specific need and/or clinical objective
and determine a vocabulary, procedural, or interpersonal given that
your findings with the group .(Note: If desired, you may move from the
As stated above, givens and referents may be selected during the session,
as opposed to beforehand, on the basis of significant factors that emerge
and deserve consideration. Here are a few:
1.
The energy level of the group as members enter the playing

space (e.g., the players are physically active and talkative,
which is a pleasant change; the therapist incorporates
movement into the improvisation in order to sustain the
desired level of energy).
2.
Casual comments that are made as members enter the

playing space (e.g., a client says, I really dont feel like
being around anyone else today; the therapist selects the
referent, leave me alone).
3.
Urgent stated or perceived emotional needs of (a) member(s)

of the group (e.g., a member enters the room crying and
talking about feeling like an abandoned child; the therapist
invites her to sit in the center of the circle and asks the group
members to improvise around her in a rocking fashion, softly
and in 6/8 meter).
4.
An intuition of the therapist (e.g., the therapist feels a sense

of intimacy developing between certain members of the
group and asks them to improvise with one another in
dialogic, or conversational, fashion and to subsequently talk
about the experience).
80 Gardstrom
80 Gardstrom
Structures 77
5.
The request of an influential or trusted member of the group

(e.g., a member who has assumed a parental or authoritative
role in the group requests to use the drums as a way to
group).
The
5. nextThe
step
request
in the
of an
planning
influential
process
or trusted
is tomember
determine
of the
which
group
structures, if any,
(e.g.,may
a member
be applied
whotohas
individual
assumedimprovisations
a parental or authoritative
within the
session. That brings
role inusthe
to the
group
nextrequests
section. to use the drums as a way to
SELECTINGgroup).
AND PRESENTING GIVENS AND REFERENTS
6.
Modifications in the group configuration or facilitator(s)

the group at once; the therapist asks veteran and new
members to improvise in pairs).
6.
Modifications
in section
the group
configuration
or facilitator(s)
Competencies
addressed in this
include
the ability to:
the group
once; suitable
the therapist
and for
new
PR 25 Determine
and at
present
givensasks
andveteran
referents
membersexperiences.
to improvise in pairs).
improvisation
7.
Unexpected modifications in the environment or the

instrumentarium (e.g., due to a quarantine, the session is held
on the unit rather than in the music therapy clinic, and the
children are unable to use the instruments; the therapist
suggests an improvisation using body sounds or objects in
their environment).
7.
modifications
in considered
the environment
or orthe
As defined
inUnexpected
Chapter Two,
a given can be
a structure
(e.g.,
due
to
a
quarantine,
the
session
is held
instrumentarium
on
the
unit
rather
than
in
the
music
therapy
clinic,
and
factors related to client need and/or clinical objective. Recall that thethe
children
are are
unable
to use procedural,
the instruments;
the therapist
three categories
of givens
vocabulary,
and interpersonal.
suggests
an to
improvisation
body
or objects
Vocabulary givens
relate
the number using
or sorts
of sounds
instruments
and/orin
their
environment).
8.
Modifications in the relationships between members of the

group (e.g., two members are at odds with one another, and
the tension between them is creating some division within
the group; the therapist asks the dyad in question to share an
experience).
9.
Needs and/or themes that emerge during a verbal check-in

alcohol relapse and one talks about fear of losing custody of
a child; the therapist recommends an improvisation based
upon the referent, fear).
8. Linda
Modifications
the piano,
relationships
approachedin the
lookingbetween
angry, members
and beganof tothe
group
(e.g.,
two
members
are
at
odds
with
one
another,
and
bang out loud tone clusters. When she agreed verbally
that she
the tension
between asked
them ishercreating
division
was angry,
the therapist
to try some
singing
a songwithin
to
theher
group;
therapist
dyad in question
to share
express
angerthe
verbally
as asks
well the
as physically
(Dvorkin,
1998,an
p. 295).
experience).
9.
Needs
and/or
themes
that emerge during a verbal check-in
improvisation.
Priestley
(1994)
writes:
alcohol
relapse
andisone
talksinabout
fearimprovisation
of losing custody
Another
structure
which
useful
dyadic
is theof
a child;
therapist
an toimprovisation
based
limitation
of athecertain
timerecommends
span. I used
begin a certain
upon
the
referent,
fear).
Keep
in mind
that therebut
are,thequite
likely, infinite
when it
musical
constraints,
realization
that thepossibilities
time was limited
comesmade
to the
selection
givens for
clinical
improvisation.
him
pour hisofexpression
into
the time
available. (p. Treatment
132)
distinct personality
and to
distinct
needs. The
therapist,
as an
Interpersonal
givens relate
relationships
specified
between
the authentic,
various
communicative,
flexible,
and
responsive
leader
(remember
these
terms?),
Keep in mind that there are, quite likely, infinite possibilities when it
comes to the selection of givens for clinical improvisation. Treatment
distinct personality and distinct needs. The therapist, as an authentic,
communicative, flexible, and responsive leader (remember these terms?),
Structures 81
Structures 81
productive improvisation experiences.

ChapterStaying
Six open to the immediate
needs of your clients will help you access your creative storehouse!
productive improvisation experiences. Staying open to the immediate

NONMUSICAL FACILITATION SKILLS

(VERBAL & GESTURAL)
Presentation
Presentation
The skills related to the verbal presentation of givens and referents are
The no
briefdifferent
verbalizations
andskills
gestures
of thefor
therapist
duringoftheverbal
actual
really
from the
necessary
other types
music-making
are
the
focus
of
this
chapter.
As
you
will
see,
there
are
interaction in the music therapy session. Here are a few reminders.
fiveInidentified
competencies
in
this
area,
called
Nonmusical
Facilitation.
general, it is recommended that the leader be as concise as
Along with
Seven),
these The
are the
heartisof
possible
whenMusical
issuing Facilitation
or explaining(Chapter
givens and
referents.
reason
the
improvisational
experience.
simple: Long-winded directions and explanations can result in extreme
boredom and/or confusion. I encourage leaders to say what needs to be
AND
said in four sentencesSTARTING
or less, which
is a STOPPING
formidable challenge at times.
Further, it is always a good idea to check for (or, in young or nonverbal
Competencies
addressed
in this sectionifinclude
the ability
to: questions
clients,
watch for)
comprehensionask
the players
have any
about what has been said or what is expected of them.
NMOne
1 challenge
Start and is
stop
improvisation
if necessary.
to the
match
the vocabulary
in the directions to the age
and/or verbal abilities of the clients. For example, imagine that you are
Once the
presented, and
selected,
and
working
withinstruments
a group of have
clientsbeen
witharranged,
global developmental
delays.
If you
once
relevant
givens
or
referents
have
been
established,
it
is
time
to
start
were to say, I will cue your entrances, so you need to focus your
playing.on
Starting
and stopping
the music-making
the focus
first
attention
me, please,
the players
would mostislikely
stareofattheyou
competency.
blankly.
They may have heard the words cue and attention but they
may not understand their meanings. In this situation, it would be better to
Starting
say
simply, Follow me! When working with adolescents and adults
who have typical verbal skills, I recommend that you use a vocabulary
suited
to job
a typical
which is the
standard
most
writingis,
Whose
is it toeighth-grader,
begin an improvisation?
The
answer for
to this
question
inofthe
popular
press. Certain
terms, playing
such asdepends
timbre,
course,
It depends.
How amusical
group begins
upon
crescendo,
rondo form,
syncopation,
etc., are
canage,
be used
freely once
several interdependent
factors,
some of which
need/clinical
aim,
they
have been
defined within
the group.
previous
improvisation
experiences,
and size of the group. There will be
No when
matteranhow
thoughtful begins
the content
your
instructions,
your
times
improvisation
freelyofand
naturally,
without
any
words
may from
be losttheontherapist.
the players
if the
delivery
not solid.
direction
There
will
also beis times
whenAspects
a groupofof
pacing,
andguidance
pitch areofofthe
equal
importance
in the presentation
playersvolume,
needs the
leader
or the structure
of a given toofget
givens
referents
for improvisation.
Pacing
is an intervention
issue with at
off theand
ground.
Let us explore
several options
for therapist
individuals
who
have
difficulty
processing
spoken
language due to
this juncture
of the
process
and the
implications
of each.
neurological
or sensory
impairments.
As a rule,
I find that novice
leaders a
One highly
structured
way to begin
an improvisation
is to provide
tend
to speak (One,
more quickly
than they
ought
to as
when
communicating
countdown
two, ready,
play!),
just
a conductor
might with
start a
band, orchestra, or chorus. Consider the implications of this sort of
really no different from the skills necessary for other types of verbal
In general, it is recommended that the leader be as concise as
possible when issuing or explaining givens and referents. The reason is
said in four sentences or less, which is a formidable challenge at times.
clients, watch for) comprehensionask if the players have any questions
One challenge is to match the vocabulary in the directions to the age
working with a group of clients with global developmental delays. If you
attention on me, please, the players would most likely stare at you
blankly. They may have heard the words cue and attention but they
say simply, Follow me! When working with adolescents and adults
suited to a typical eighth-grader, which is the standard for most writing
in the popular press. Certain musical terms, such as timbre,
crescendo, rondo form, syncopation, etc., can be used freely once
they have been defined within the group.
No matter how thoughtful the content of your instructions, your
words may be lost on the players if the delivery is not solid. Aspects of
pacing, volume, and pitch are of equal importance in the presentation of
givens and referents for improvisation. Pacing is an issue with
individuals who have difficulty processing spoken language due to
neurological or sensory impairments. As a rule, I find that novice leaders
tend to speak more quickly than they ought to when communicating with
82 Gardstrom
their players, often due to performance anxiety or a lack of clarity about

what it is that they are trying to say.
Another common problem in beginning leaders is a tendency to
speak too quietly with certain populations and too loudly with others.
When the students at my university begin leading sessions in a local
nursing care facility with elderly residents, most of whom have some
hearing loss, the students must be constantly reminded to project their
voices. A clients lack of comprehension due to her or his inability to
hear the directions can be mistaken for a lack of interest or resistance
two responses that will swiftly undermine a novice leaders confidence,
not to mention thwart therapy. On the other hand, it is not necessary to
speak more loudly than usual to a person who has a visual impairment
but adequate hearing.
If the therapists voice is pitched exceptionally high, people with
hearing loss in the upper register may have difficulty making sense of the
directions. Also, a high-pitched voice may be appropriate when speaking
to small children but may be perceived as condescending when used with
adolescents, adults, and older adults. Finally, high-pitched voices may be
associated with a lack of confidence, maturity, or authority.
Together, create a hypothetical client group of four to six members.
Determine attributes of the group and at least one need or clinical
objective. Determine several possible givens and select one or two to
address attributes, needs, and/or objectives. Improvise and discuss the
effectiveness of the given(s). Did it (they) match an attribute, fill a need,
or fulfill an objective? How? If not, why not?
Conduct a brief verbal check-in with the group. From the information
shared during this check-in, determine a referent that might meet one or
more members immediate needs. Play the referent and discuss the
improvisation. Was the referent a good choice? Why or why not?
82 Gardstrom
Structures 83
their players,
due to
performance anxiety or a lack of clarity about
Vocabulary
foroften
Chapter
Five
common problem in beginning leaders is a tendency to
1. Another
Phases
speak
quietly withRapport
certain populations and too loudly with others.
2. too Developing
When
students atIssues
my university begin leading sessions in a local
3. the Identifying
nursing
care
facility
with elderly residents, most of whom have some
4.
Working
Through
hearing
loss,
the
students
must be constantly reminded to project their
5.
Terminating
voices.
A
clients
lack
of
comprehension
due to her or his inability to
6.
Adult Improvisational
Music Therapy
hear
7. the directions
Warm-upcan be mistaken for a lack of interest or resistance
two
thatDiscussion
will swiftly undermine a novice leaders confidence,
8. responses
Verbal
not9.to mention
therapy. On the other hand, it is not necessary to
Core thwart
Experience
speak
loudly than usual to a person who has a visual impairment
10. more
Closure
but11.
adequate
hearing.
Verbal
Check-in
If
the
therapists
voice is pitched exceptionally high, people with
12.
Dialogic Improvisation
82 Gardstrom
Structures 83
their players,
due to
performance anxiety or a lack of clarity about
Vocabulary
foroften
Chapter
Five
common problem in beginning leaders is a tendency to
1. Another
Phases
speak
quietly withRapport
certain populations and too loudly with others.
2. too Developing
When
students atIssues
my university begin leading sessions in a local
3. the Identifying
nursing
care
facility
with elderly residents, most of whom have some
4.
Working
Through
hearing
loss,
the
students
must be constantly reminded to project their
5.
Terminating
voices.
A
clients
lack
of
comprehension
due to her or his inability to
6.
Adult Improvisational
Music Therapy
hear
7. the directions
Warm-upcan be mistaken for a lack of interest or resistance
two
thatDiscussion
will swiftly undermine a novice leaders confidence,
8. responses
Verbal
not9.to mention
therapy. On the other hand, it is not necessary to
Core thwart
Experience
speak
loudly than usual to a person who has a visual impairment
10. more
Closure
but11.
adequate
hearing.
Verbal
Check-in
If
the
therapists
voice is pitched exceptionally high, people with
12.
Structures 83
Vocabulary for Chapter Five

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Phases
Developing Rapport
Identifying Issues
Working Through
Terminating
Adult Improvisational Music Therapy
Warm-up
Verbal Discussion
Core Experience
Closure
Verbal Check-in
Structures 81
Chapter Six

(VERBAL & GESTURAL)
The brief verbalizations and gestures of the therapist during the actual
music-making are the focus of this chapter. As you will see, there are
five identified competencies in this area, called Nonmusical Facilitation.
Along with Musical Facilitation (Chapter Seven), these are the heart of
the improvisational experience.
STARTING AND STOPPING

NM 1
Start and stop the improvisation if necessary.
Once the instruments have been arranged, presented, and selected, and
once relevant givens or referents have been established, it is time to start
playing. Starting and stopping the music-making is the focus of the first
competency.
Starting
Whose job is it to begin an improvisation? The answer to this question is,
of course, It depends. How a group begins playing depends upon
several interdependent factors, some of which are age, need/clinical aim,
previous improvisation experiences, and size of the group. There will be
times when an improvisation begins freely and naturally, without any
direction from the therapist. There will also be times when a group of
players needs the guidance of the leader or the structure of a given to get
off the ground. Let us explore several options for therapist intervention at
this juncture of the process and the implications of each.
One highly structured way to begin an improvisation is to provide a
countdown (One, two, ready, play!), just as a conductor might start a
productive improvisation experiences.

ChapterStaying
Six open to the immediate

(VERBAL & GESTURAL)
Presentation
The no
briefdifferent
verbalizations
andskills
gestures
of thefor
therapist
duringofthe
actual
really
from the
necessary
other types
verbal
music-making
are
the
focus
of
this
chapter.
As
you
will
see,
there
are
fiveInidentified
competencies
in
this
area,
called
Nonmusical
Facilitation.
general, it is recommended that the leader be as concise as
Along with
Seven),
these The
are the
heartisof
possible
whenMusical
issuing Facilitation
or explaining(Chapter
givens and
referents.
reason
the
improvisational
experience.
AND
said in four sentencesSTARTING
or less, which
is a STOPPING
formidable challenge at times.
Competencies
addressed
in this sectionifinclude
the ability
to: questions
clients,
watch for)
comprehensionask
the players
have any
NMOne
1 challenge
Start and is
stop
improvisation
if necessary.
to the
match
the vocabulary
in the directions to the age
Once the
presented, and
selected,
and
working
withinstruments
a group of have
clientsbeen
witharranged,
global developmental
delays.
If you
once
relevant
givens
or
referents
have
been
established,
it
is
time
to
start
playing.on
Starting
and stopping
the music-making
the focus
first
attention
me, please,
the players
would mostislikely
stareofattheyou
competency.
blankly.
They may have heard the words cue and attention but they
Starting
say
simply, Follow me! When working with adolescents and adults
suited
to job
a typical
which is the
standard
most
writingis,
Whose
is it toeighth-grader,
begin an improvisation?
The
answer for
to this
question
inofthe
popular
press. Certain
terms, playing
such asdepends
timbre,
course,
It depends.
How amusical
group begins
upon
crescendo,
rondo form,
syncopation,
etc., are
canage,
be used
freely once
several interdependent
factors,
some of which
need/clinical
aim,
they
have been
defined within
the group.
previous
improvisation
experiences,
and size of the group. There will be
No when
matteranhow
thoughtful begins
the content
your
instructions,
your
times
improvisation
freelyofand
naturally,
without
any
words
may from
be losttheontherapist.
the players
if the
delivery
not solid.
direction
There
will
also beis times
whenAspects
a groupofof
pacing,
andguidance
pitch areofofthe
equal
importance
in the presentation
playersvolume,
needs the
leader
or the structure
of a given toofget
givens
referents
for improvisation.
Pacing
is an intervention
issue with at
off theand
ground.
Let us explore
several options
for therapist
individuals
who
have
difficulty
processing
spoken
language due to
this juncture
of the
process
and the
implications
of each.
neurological
or sensory
impairments.
As a rule,
I find that novice
leaders a
One highly
structured
way to begin
an improvisation
is to provide
tend
to speak (One,
more quickly
than they
ought
to as
when
communicating
countdown
two, ready,
play!),
just
a conductor
might with
start a
88 Gardstrom
Nonmusical Facilitation 85
guidance.
as long Itasshould
the players
be obvious
are aware
that a of
countdown
what theplaces
signala means
great deal
and ofthe
control
instrument
in thehas
hands
enough
of thedynamic
person who
potential
is counting.
to cut through
When that
veryindividual
loud music
counts,
shouldhe
thisorbeshe
required.
may dictate tempo, meter, musical style, and even
dynamic level. This type of authority may be necessary in certain
situations,
Ex 62
such
(Experiential
as with highly
Learning)
anxious clients whose motor activity
needs to be slowed. On the other hand, a countdown start can thwart free
expression
Take turns
and stopping
independence
improvisations
and may be
using
contraindicated
each of the
withtechniques
clients
who
described
have been
above:
controlled
(1) countdown;
in the past
(2) Stop!;
through (3)
sexual,
gesture;
physical,
(4) musical
and
emotional
cue. Discuss
abuse.
which
Another,
types feel
lessleast
directive,
and most
verbal
comfortable.
cue is toTry
say,
to generate
Lets
play
at least
or Play
one new
with
way
me.
to stop
Thisan
type
improvisation
of cue signals
effectively.
that it is time to start
without establishing the specifics of how that will occur.
A similar
means of beginningDURING
is for the therapist
or designated client
COMMUNICATING
IMPROVISATION
simply to begin the playing without speaking. As with the countdown
start,
this affordsaddressed
the therapist
(or client)
opportunity
to set
Competencies
in this
sectionan
include
the ability
to:the general
character of the improvisationor at least the first few moments of the
musicthrough
the manipulation
of certain
musical
elements.
NM 2 Communicate
with players
nonverbally
while
improvising.
way to start
theplayers
music-making
to establish
a procedural
NMA3fourth
Communicate
with
verbally is
while
improvising.
parameter. One way to begin improvisation experiences with adults who
can
language
to itask
them tototake
a momentwith
of silent
At comprehend
times, a therapist
may isfind
necessary
communicate
clients
reflection
and
start
whenever
they
are
moved
to
begin
playing.
This
without disrupting or halting the music-making. The above competencies
allows
eachdevelopment
player to ponder
how they will
contribute
thewhile
groupthe
speakfor
to the
of communicative
techniques
fortouse
experience
and determine
they are techniques
ready to join
process.when
Often,(1)
music proceeds.
Gesturalwhen
(nonverbal)
arethe
indicated
thetheperson
apparentcan
investment
in her
the process
or
musicwho
is soplays
loudfirst
thathas
thean
therapist
not project
or his voice
resulting
Obviously,
if would
the same
player
time, there
above it,product.
(2) speaking
out loud
distract
or starts
startleeach
the players,
or (3)
may
be issues
of impulsivity
control or
to explore
the group.
speaking
would
upset the or
character
mood ofwithin
the music,
as during a
Another
useful
parameter
is
to
specify
who
will
begin
thebebasis
particularly contemplative or tender passage. Gesture mayon
also
more
ofeffective
the instrument
they are
playing.
For example,
leader mightwith
direct
than words
when
the therapist
wants tothecommunicate
one
theplayer
players
enter one
at awithin
time, beginning
theGestures
smallest that
instrument
or to
a small
group
the larger with
group.
you will
and
ending
with the
the group.ofOrencouragement
the therapist might
ask thoseor
need
generally
falllargest
into theincategories
and direction
with
shakers to begin and those with strikers and scrapers to join in. One
redirection.
benefitGestures
of this type
of start (a procedural
is that reticent
or
of encouragement
are used given)
to communicate
pleasure,
resistant
players
may
be
more
quickly
engaged.
support, or validation to the clients as they are playing. Smiles, head
A less
structured
way to begin
improvisation
to use
gesture
nods,
thumbs
up, proximity,
and an
gentle
touch fallisinto
thisa category.
that
communicates,
Lets
begin! This
mighttobecommunicate
a head nod, musical
a circular
Gestures
of direction
or redirection
function
and
orinterpersonal
swirling motion
withorthe
hand, that
or a the
finger
point. With
start,or
action
change
therapist
wantsatogestural
encourage
control
of Some
the tempo,
meter,areetc.,
is negotiated
among
the players
ratheras
require.
examples
standing
up to draw
attention
to oneself
than assumed by the therapist. On the other hand, gestural starts can be
vague and may confuse certain players.
guidance. It should be obvious that a countdown places a great deal of

control in the hands of the person who is counting. When that individual
counts, he or she may dictate tempo, meter, musical style, and even
situations, such as with highly anxious clients whose motor activity
expression and independence and may be contraindicated with clients
who have been controlled in the past through sexual, physical, and
emotional abuse. Another, less directive, verbal cue is to say, Lets
play or Play with me. This type of cue signals that it is time to start
A similar means of beginning is for the therapist or designated client
start, this affords the therapist (or client) an opportunity to set the general
musicthrough the manipulation of certain musical elements.
A fourth way to start the music-making is to establish a procedural
can comprehend language is to ask them to take a moment of silent
reflection and start whenever they are moved to begin playing. This
allows for each player to ponder how they will contribute to the group
experience and determine when they are ready to join the process. Often,
the person who plays first has an apparent investment in the process or
resulting product. Obviously, if the same player starts each time, there
may be issues of impulsivity or control to explore within the group.
Another useful parameter is to specify who will begin on the basis
of the instrument they are playing. For example, the leader might direct
the players to enter one at a time, beginning with the smallest instrument
and ending with the largest in the group. Or the therapist might ask those
with shakers to begin and those with strikers and scrapers to join in. One
benefit of this type of start (a procedural given) is that reticent or
resistant players may be more quickly engaged.
A less structured way to begin an improvisation is to use a gesture
that communicates, Lets begin! This might be a head nod, a circular
or swirling motion with the hand, or a finger point. With a gestural start,
control of the tempo, meter, etc., is negotiated among the players rather
86 Gardstrom
Another possible tactic is to employ a single strike on a gong or

cymbal to signal the start of the music-making. In effect, this functions
similarly to a gestural start in that no specific rhythmic (and hence,
stylistic) elements are predesignated, although the dynamic level could
be suggested.
Now it is time for you to practice. (Note: The following exercise is
designed to be accomplished in the group as Experiential Learning;
however, if you are having difficulty with this particular skill, find a
partner for some Independent Skill Development outside of class time.)
Take turns starting improvisations using each of the techniques
described above: (1) countdown; (2) Lets play; (3) begin playing
without speaking; (4) procedural parameter (given); (5) gesture; (6)
musical cue. Discuss which types feel least and most comfortable and
why. Try to generate at least one new way to begin an improvisation
effectively.
Stopping
Stopping a clinical improvisation seems to trigger more anxiety and
frustration among students and novice leaders than any other
responsibility associated with leadership. Knowing when to stop involves
a complex set of decisions based on information, leadership experience,
and intuition, and thus lies beyond the scope of this book. I will, however,
address how to stop.
As with starting, there will be times that a group improvisation ends
naturally. Sometimes it will finish with a loud bang or crash by the
ensemble, usually with accompanying smiles, laughter, or shouts; or
perhaps it will fizzle out or slow to a stop with sighs, tears, or blank
stares. Sometimes a natural ending will feel satisfying or invigorating; at
other times it will feel unfinished or disappointing. Just as there may be
players who start consistently, there may also be individuals in the group
who always have to have the last word as the music comes to a close.
There may also be individuals who are reluctant to stopperhaps
86 Gardstrom
becauseAnother
they arepossible
really enjoying
tactic is the
to employ
experience
a single
or because
strikeaon
need
a gong
is yetor
unfulfilledeven
cymbal to signalwhen
the start
the of
allotted
the music-making.
time is up, the
In effect,
music this
has functions
lost its
vigor
similarly
or meaning,
to a gestural
or the players
start in
arethat
exhausted!
no specific rhythmic (and hence,
stylistic)
When elements
the guidance
are of
predesignated,
a therapist isalthough
required,the
shedynamic
or he needs
leveltocould
be
ready
be suggested.
with a pocketful of tactics to end the music. You will notice that
there are
Nowsimilarities
it is time for
between
you to practice.
techniques
(Note:
for The
starting
following
and those
exercise
for is
stopping;
designedthat
to is,besome
accomplished
are verbal, in
some
theare
group
gestural,
as Experiential
and some areLearning;
tied to
a procedural
however, ifgiven.
you are
Forhaving
instance,
difficulty
one waywith
to end
thisanparticular
improvisation
skill, is
find
to a
use
partner
a countdown.
for some As
Independent
with the countdown
Skill Development
start, this
outside
type of
of ending
class time.)
puts
the authority squarely in the hands of the therapist. Players are expected
to stop Ex
whether
61 (Experiential
they are ready
Learning)
or not. When employing a countdown stop,
the therapist typically calls out a given number and proceeds backwards.
For
Take
instance,
turnsthestarting
therapistimprovisations
will say Four!using
at theeach
beginning
of the
of atechniques
musical
phrase,
described
Three!
above:
at (1)
the countdown;
start of the (2)
nextLets
phrase,
play;
and so
(3) on,
begin
until
playing
the
players
withouthave
speaking;
reached(4)theprocedural
downbeat parameter
immediately
(given);
following
(5) gesture;
the final(6)
counted
musicalphrase.
cue. Discuss
Countdown
which
stops
types
are feel
obviously
least and
ill-suited
most to
comfortable
nonrhythmic
and
improvisations.
effectively.
Another verbal technique is simply to say, and stop. This will
usually put an immediate halt to the music and therefore might be
indicated
when players are perseverating (engaging in nonpurposeful,
Stopping
repetitive actions) or acting in an injurious manner. Although effective,
this
tactic can
unnaturally
abrupt and
awkward.
Stopping
a feel
clinical
improvisation
seems
to trigger more anxiety and
Gestural stops
can students
be difficultand
to master
quite effective
frustration
among
novicebut leaders
than clinically.
any other
One
of the nice associated
things about
nonverbal
stops
is that they
allow
the involves
music
responsibility
with
leadership.
Knowing
when
to stop
toa continue
to
conclusion
without
verbal
interference.
Some
possible
complex set of decisions based on information, leadership experience,
hand
group
cutoff
in formal
conducting),
(2) a
and gestures
intuition,are
and(1)
thusa lies
beyond
the(as
scope
of this book.
I will, however,
gradual
of players in the group with a wave of the hand, (3)
addresselimination
how to stop.
the raising
of both
arms there
abovewill
the be
head
to signal
bombastic
ending, and
As with
starting,
times
that aagroup
improvisation
ends
(4)naturally.
the opposite,
a steady
that aeventually
to silence,
Sometimes
it decrescendo
will finish with
loud bangleads
or crash
by the
accomplished
by bringing
or both hands,
palmslaughter,
down, from
high toor
ensemble, usually
with one
accompanying
smiles,
or shouts;
low
in
front
of
the
players.
You
will
find
that
all
of
these
hand
gestures
arestares.
moreSometimes
effective when
the body
and
face
involvedorand
congruent. at
a natural
ending
will
feelaresatisfying
invigorating;
With
gestures
will need
to be exaggerated;
instance,
othercertain
times clients,
it will feel
unfinished
or disappointing.
Just asfor
there
may be
when
working
with consistently,
children or clients
whoalso
havebecognitive
impairments,
players
who start
there may
individuals
in the group
thewho
therapist
begin
a decrescendo
gesture
her ortohisa close.
feet
alwaysmay
have
to have
the last word
as standing
the musiconcomes
and
end with
body
downwho
and are
hands
on the floor.
There
maythe
also
becrouched
individuals
reluctant
to stopperhaps
Musical signals, such as a cymbal crash, are useful to stop as well as
to start an improvisation. Any instrument can be used to provide the cue,
86 Gardstrom
becauseAnother
they arepossible
really enjoying
tactic is the
to employ
experience
a single
or because
strikeaon
need
a gong
is yetor
unfulfilledeven
cymbal to signalwhen
the start
the of
allotted
the music-making.
time is up, the
In effect,
music this
has functions
lost its
vigor
similarly
or meaning,
to a gestural
or the players
start in
arethat
exhausted!
no specific rhythmic (and hence,
stylistic)
When elements
the guidance
are of
predesignated,
a therapist isalthough
required,the
shedynamic
or he needs
leveltocould
be
ready
be suggested.
with a pocketful of tactics to end the music. You will notice that
there are
Nowsimilarities
it is time for
between
you to practice.
techniques
(Note:
for The
starting
following
and those
exercise
for is
stopping;
designedthat
to is,besome
accomplished
are verbal, in
some
theare
group
gestural,
as Experiential
and some areLearning;
tied to
a procedural
however, ifgiven.
you are
Forhaving
instance,
difficulty
one waywith
to end
thisanparticular
improvisation
skill, is
find
to a
use
partner
a countdown.
for some As
Independent
with the countdown
Skill Development
start, this
outside
type of
of ending
class time.)
puts
to stop Ex
whether
61 (Experiential
they are ready
Learning)
or not. When employing a countdown stop,
For
Take
instance,
turnsthestarting
therapistimprovisations
will say Four!using
at theeach
beginning
of the
of atechniques
musical
phrase,
described
Three!
above:
at (1)
the countdown;
start of the (2)
nextLets
phrase,
play;
and so
(3) on,
begin
until
playing
the
players
withouthave
speaking;
reached(4)theprocedural
downbeat parameter
immediately
(given);
following
(5) gesture;
the final(6)
counted
musicalphrase.
cue. Discuss
Countdown
which
stops
types
are feel
obviously
least and
ill-suited
most to
comfortable
nonrhythmic
and
improvisations.
effectively.
indicated
when players are perseverating (engaging in nonpurposeful,
Stopping
this
tactic can
unnaturally
abrupt and
awkward.
Stopping
a feel
clinical
improvisation
seems
to trigger more anxiety and
Gestural stops
can students
be difficultand
to master
quite effective
frustration
among
novicebut leaders
than clinically.
any other
One
of the nice associated
things about
nonverbal
stops
is that they
allow
the involves
music
responsibility
with
leadership.
Knowing
when
to stop
toa continue
to
conclusion
without
verbal
interference.
Some
possible
complex set of decisions based on information, leadership experience,
hand
group
cutoff
in formal
conducting),
(2) a
and gestures
intuition,are
and(1)
thusa lies
beyond
the(as
scope
of this book.
I will, however,
gradual
of players in the group with a wave of the hand, (3)
addresselimination
how to stop.
the raising
of both
arms there
abovewill
the be
head
to signal
bombastic
ending, and
As with
starting,
times
that aagroup
improvisation
ends
(4)naturally.
the opposite,
a steady
that aeventually
to silence,
Sometimes
it decrescendo
will finish with
loud bangleads
or crash
by the
accomplished
by bringing
or both hands,
palms
down, from
high toor
ensemble, usually
with one
accompanying
smiles,
laughter,
or shouts;
low
in
front
of
the
players.
You
will
find
that
all
of
these
hand
gestures
arestares.
moreSometimes
effective when
the body
and
face
involvedorand
congruent. at
a natural
ending
will
feelaresatisfying
invigorating;
With
gestures
will need
to be exaggerated;
instance,
othercertain
times clients,
it will feel
unfinished
or disappointing.
Just asfor
there
may be
when
working
with consistently,
children or clients
whoalso
havebecognitive
impairments,
players
who start
there may
individuals
in the group
thewho
therapist
begin
a decrescendo
gesture
her ortohisa close.
feet
alwaysmay
have
to have
the last word
as standing
the musiconcomes
and
end with
body
downwho
and are
hands
on the floor.
There
maythe
also
becrouched
individuals
reluctant
to stopperhaps
because they are really enjoying the experience or because a need is yet
unfulfilledeven when the allotted time is up, the music has lost its
vigor or meaning, or the players are exhausted!
When the guidance of a therapist is required, she or he needs to be
ready with a pocketful of tactics to end the music. You will notice that
there are similarities between techniques for starting and those for
stopping; that is, some are verbal, some are gestural, and some are tied to
a procedural given. For instance, one way to end an improvisation is to
use a countdown. As with the countdown start, this type of ending puts
to stop whether they are ready or not. When employing a countdown stop,
For instance, the therapist will say Four! at the beginning of a musical
phrase, Three! at the start of the next phrase, and so on, until the
players have reached the downbeat immediately following the final
counted phrase. Countdown stops are obviously ill-suited to nonrhythmic
improvisations.
indicated when players are perseverating (engaging in nonpurposeful,
this tactic can feel unnaturally abrupt and awkward.
Gestural stops can be difficult to master but quite effective clinically.
One of the nice things about nonverbal stops is that they allow the music
to continue to conclusion without verbal interference. Some possible
hand gestures are (1) a group cutoff (as in formal conducting), (2) a
gradual elimination of players in the group with a wave of the hand, (3)
the raising of both arms above the head to signal a bombastic ending, and
(4) the opposite, a steady decrescendo that eventually leads to silence,
accomplished by bringing one or both hands, palms down, from high to
low in front of the players. You will find that all of these hand gestures
are more effective when the body and face are involved and congruent.
With certain clients, gestures will need to be exaggerated; for instance,
when working with children or clients who have cognitive impairments,
the therapist may begin a decrescendo gesture standing on her or his feet
and end with the body crouched down and hands on the floor.
88 Gardstrom
as long as the players are aware of what the signal means and the
instrument has enough dynamic potential to cut through very loud music
should this be required.
Take turns stopping improvisations using each of the techniques
described above: (1) countdown; (2) Stop!; (3) gesture; (4) musical
cue. Discuss which types feel least and most comfortable. Try to generate
at least one new way to stop an improvisation effectively.
COMMUNICATING DURING IMPROVISATION

NM 2
NM 3
Communicate with players nonverbally while improvising.

Communicate with players verbally while improvising.
At times, a therapist may find it necessary to communicate with clients

speak to the development of communicative techniques for use while the
music proceeds. Gestural (nonverbal) techniques are indicated when (1)
the music is so loud that the therapist can not project her or his voice
above it, (2) speaking out loud would distract or startle the players, or (3)
speaking would upset the character or mood of the music, as during a
particularly contemplative or tender passage. Gesture may also be more
effective than words when the therapist wants to communicate with one
player or a small group within the larger group. Gestures that you will
need generally fall into the categories of encouragement and direction or
redirection.
Gestures of encouragement are used to communicate pleasure,
nods, thumbs up, proximity, and gentle touch fall into this category.
Gestures of direction or redirection function to communicate musical and
interpersonal action or change that the therapist wants to encourage or
require. Some examples are standing up to draw attention to oneself as
88 Gardstrom
guidance.
as long Itasshould
the players
be obvious
are aware
that a of
countdown
what theplaces
signala means
great deal
and ofthe
control
instrument
in thehas
hands
enough
of thedynamic
person who
potential
is counting.
to cut through
When that
veryindividual
loud music
counts,
shouldhe
thisorbeshe
required.
may dictate tempo, meter, musical style, and even
situations,
Ex 62
such
(Experiential
as with highly
Learning)
anxious clients whose motor activity
expression
Take turns
and stopping
independence
improvisations
and may be
using
contraindicated
each of the
withtechniques
clients
who
described
have been
above:
controlled
(1) countdown;
in the past
(2) Stop!;
through (3)
sexual,
gesture;
physical,
(4) musical
and
emotional
cue. Discuss
abuse.
which
Another,
types feel
lessleast
directive,
and most
verbal
comfortable.
cue is toTry
say,
to generate
Lets
play
at least
or Play
one new
withway
me.
to stop
Thisan
type
improvisation
of cue signals
effectively.
that it is time to start
A similar
means of beginningDURING
is for the therapist
or designated client
COMMUNICATING
IMPROVISATION
start,
this affordsaddressed
the therapist
(or client)
opportunity
to set
Competencies
in this
sectionan
include
the ability
to:the general
musicthrough
the manipulation
of certain
musical
elements.
NM 2 Communicate
with players
nonverbally
while
improvising.
way to start
theplayers
music-making
to establish
a procedural
NMA3fourth
Communicate
with
verbally is
while
improvising.
can
language
to itask
them tototake
a momentwith
of silent
At comprehend
times, a therapist
may isfind
necessary
communicate
clients
reflection
and
start
whenever
they
are
moved
to
begin
playing.
This
allows
eachdevelopment
player to ponder
how they will
contribute
thewhile
groupthe
speakfor
to the
of communicative
techniques
fortouse
experience
and determine
they are techniques
ready to join
process.when
Often,(1)
music proceeds.
Gesturalwhen
(nonverbal)
arethe
indicated
thetheperson
apparentcan
investment
in her
the process
or
musicwho
is soplays
loudfirst
thathas
thean
therapist
not project
or his voice
resulting
Obviously,
if would
the same
player
time, there
above it,product.
(2) speaking
out loud
distract
or starts
startleeach
the players,
or (3)
may
be issues
of impulsivity
control or
to explore
the group.
speaking
would
upset the or
character
mood ofwithin
the music,
as during a
Another
useful
parameter
is
to
specify
who
will
begin
thebebasis
particularly contemplative or tender passage. Gesture mayon
also
more
ofeffective
the instrument
they are
playing.
For example,
leader mightwith
direct
than words
when
the therapist
wants tothecommunicate
one
theplayer
players
enter one
at awithin
time, beginning
theGestures
smallest that
instrument
or to
a small
group
the larger with
group.
you will
and
ending
with the
the group.ofOrencouragement
the therapist might
ask thoseor
need
generally
falllargest
into theincategories
and direction
with
shakers to begin and those with strikers and scrapers to join in. One
redirection.
benefitGestures
of this type
of start (a procedural
is that reticent
or
of encouragement
are used given)
to communicate
pleasure,
resistant
players
may
be
more
quickly
engaged.
A less
structured
way to begin
improvisation
to use
gesture
nods,
thumbs
up, proximity,
and an
gentle
touch fallisinto
thisa category.
that
communicates,
Lets
begin! This
mighttobecommunicate
a head nod, musical
a circular
Gestures
of direction
or redirection
function
and
orinterpersonal
swirling motion
withorthe
hand, that
or a the
finger
point. With
start,or
action
change
therapist
wantsatogestural
encourage
control
of Some
the tempo,
meter,areetc.,
is negotiated
among
the players
ratheras
require.
examples
standing
up to draw
attention
to oneself
92 Gardstrom
theShe
leader,
will not
moving
need next
physical
to a particular
assistanceplayer
to sound
or closer
the instrument,
to an individual
but it must
to
influence
be placed
their
a bit
responses,
to her side
handing
rathersomeone
than directly
an instrument
in front oftoher
play,
in adding
order to
oraccommodate
eliminating instruments
her naturaltoposture
the improvisation
and movement
as itpatterns.
continues,
Another
pointing
child
tohas
certain
spinaindividuals
bifida andwhen
has selected
it is their
theturn
maracas.
to play,
Her
and
upper
conducting
body is the
fully
expressive
functional,
features
so sheofwill
the require
music, such
no assistance.
as tempo, phrasing,
A third child
and dynamics.
has severe
Novice
cerebral
leaders
palsy,need
and tohisbehands
reminded
and arms
that they
are rigidly
ought not
contracted.
feel bound
He to
has
their
selected
chairshis
when
favorite
they feel
instrument,
the urgeatoframe
move drum,
about, for
as long
the upcoming
as their
movement
improvisation.
is purposeful
He is ableand
to grasp
not the
disruptive.
shaft of aNeedless
mallet with
to his
say,leftit hand
is
essential
and hasthat
enough
everyrange
therapist
of motion
developtoclarity
strike and
the drum
comfort
independently.
of movementHe
in is
order
not to
able
employ
to hold
communicative
the drum, norgesture
is he able
in antoeffective
balanceway.
it on his legs. You
could
Sometimes
suggest that
the therapist
he position
maythe
need
drum
to speak
on histowheelchair
clients while
tray,
they
butare
that
improvising.
will create an
Words
awkward
are usually
playing more
position,
effective
the drum
than
willgestures
certainlywhen
slide,
visibility
and theissound
obstructed,
will be
such
muffled
as withand
large
displeasing,
groups, and
unless
with it
players
is specially
who
have
constructed
visual impairments
to rest on theor
tray.
who
Youclose
will likely
their need
eyes towhile
hold the
improvising
instrument
(which
for him
happens
or coach
surprisingly
another individual
often). Therapists
in the room
often
to use
do likewise.
words in tandem
with gesture
You know
to that
makeit is
a critical
clearer,tomore
attendimmediate,
to both height
or more
and angle
emphatic
as you
statement.
hold the frame
Brevitydrum.
is key.
One possible error would be holding the instrument
tooAs
high,
withespecially
gesture, verbal
if you prompts
are standing
function
in front
to offer
of the
encouragement
seated client,
and
which
direction
is not orrecommended
redirection. but
Words
which
of may
support
be unavoidable
and encouragement
at times.
include
Another
Yes,
tendency
Good
would
for be
you,
for you
Keep
to hold
going,
the I
drum
likeperpendicular
that, Thatsor
beautiful,
parallel toand
theTry
floor,again.
neitherWords
of which
of direction
would be or
a fitting
redirection
angleinclude
for most
Listen,
players.Go,
You will
Stop,
needWatch
to assess
me,
thisand
childs
Get ready.
natural arc of movement in
order
Youtowill
determine
find at the
times
bestthat
angle
it isfor
necessary
him. Finally,
for you
youtowill
giveneed
or repeat
to hold
brief
the instrument
directions, in
communicate
such a way that
a given,
you provide
or eventhe
converse
necessary
with
resistance
a clientto
while
the force
continuing
of histobeating.
play your
If the
instrument.
drum flops
This requires
when the
considerable
child attempts
skill!to
If play
the music
it, he ismay
rhythmic,
modifythe
histendency
playing for
unnecessarily
many leaders
or isbecome
either to
frustrated
speak
inand
synchrony
give up.with the musical rhythms or in awkward spurts, rather than
with the
The
natural
last prosody
child in ofthespeech.
groupHere
is aisboy
a chance
with multiple
for you toand
practice
severe
talking
physical
while
andplaying.
sensory impairments. He has no speech and no discernable
functional movement of his limbs, which are flaccid. You are not sure
howExmuch
63 (Experiential
he is able toLearning)
see, but you know that he tracks purposefully
with his eyes and can produce a head nod in response to yes-no
Take
questions.
turns facilitating
Using his eyes
a group
or head
improvisation.
to communicate,
Practice
he can
usingselect
gesture
his own
to
conduct
instrument;
thehowever,
expressive
hefeatures
will need
of hand-over-hand
the music.
assistance in order to
play it, unless he is able to use the functional movement of his head to
play
Exan
64
adapted
(Experiential
instrument.
Learning)
(If you have never provided hand-over-hand
the leader, moving next to a particular player or closer to an individual to

influence their responses, handing someone an instrument to play, adding
or eliminating instruments to the improvisation as it continues, pointing
to certain individuals when it is their turn to play, and conducting the
expressive features of the music, such as tempo, phrasing, and dynamics.
Novice leaders need to be reminded that they ought not feel bound to
their chairs when they feel the urge to move about, as long as their
movement is purposeful and not disruptive. Needless to say, it is
essential that every therapist develop clarity and comfort of movement in
order to employ communicative gesture in an effective way.
Sometimes the therapist may need to speak to clients while they are
improvising. Words are usually more effective than gestures when
visibility is obstructed, such as with large groups, and with players who
have visual impairments or who close their eyes while improvising
(which happens surprisingly often). Therapists often use words in tandem
with gesture to make a clearer, more immediate, or more emphatic
statement. Brevity is key.
As with gesture, verbal prompts function to offer encouragement
and direction or redirection. Words of support and encouragement
include Yes, Good for you, Keep going, I like that, Thats
beautiful, and Try again. Words of direction or redirection include
Listen, Go, Stop, Watch me, and Get ready.
You will find at times that it is necessary for you to give or repeat
brief directions, communicate a given, or even converse with a client
while continuing to play your instrument. This requires considerable skill!
If the music is rhythmic, the tendency for many leaders is either to speak
in synchrony with the musical rhythms or in awkward spurts, rather than
with the natural prosody of speech. Here is a chance for you to practice
talking while playing.
Take turns facilitating a group improvisation. Practice using gesture to
conduct the expressive features of the music.
90 Gardstrom
90 Gardstrom
While playing a rhythmic improvisation, hold a conversation that

involves all members of the group. Ask and answer questions about what
is happening in the improvisation. Start with short phrases and sentences
and move to longer, more complicated verbalizations. Keep the pulse,
tempo, and meter steady!
MOVEMENT
NM 4
Move within and around the group while improvising for

purposes of support or guidance.
One of the most difficult and uncomfortable challenges for novice

leaders is to incorporate their entire physical selves into the process of
facilitation. Their uneasiness seems related both to a lack of comfort with
their own bodies and an inability to sense when it is prudent to move or
how to use movement in an effective manner. I have already alluded to a
few situations in which a therapist will find it necessary to move the
entire body while improvising, namely during stops and starts and as a
way to communicate support and direction without using words. There
are at least two other conditions in which you will need to move your
entire body. These are addressed in this next competency.
There will be times when you need to move in order to provide
general support to one or many players. An example of providing
musical support is moving toward and standing or kneeling next to or in
front of a player to model or reinforce a particular tempo, rhythm, phrase
structure, dynamic level, playing configuration, etc. At times it may be
important to draw the groups visual and auditory awareness to a certain
player with your physical presence, such as when an otherwise
withdrawn adult engages in the improvisation or when a child has
mastered a particularly complicated instrument, rhythm, etc., and
deserves some recognition. The therapists physical proximity, or
nearness, sometimes serves to alter the players responses in a
meaningful and fruitful way. Examples include moving between children
toWhile
stop counterproductive
playing a rhythmic
or harmful
improvisation,
interactions,
hold
andamoving
conversation
next to an
that
individual
involves as
allamembers
way to refocus
of the group.
her or his
Askattention
and answer
or music-making.
questions about what
andExmove
65 (Experiential
to longer, more
Learning)
complicated verbalizations. Keep the pulse,
Take turns moving about the group during an improvisation: Stand,
move to a player, and kneel next
to or in front of this person in order to
MOVEMENT
provide support or supervision. Provide feedback to one another about
which
actions were
most helpful.
Competencies
addressed
PHYSICAL
ASSISTANCE
Move within
and around
the group while improvising for
NM
5 Help
players produce
soundphysical
on the percussion
leaders
is tothe
incorporate
their entire
selves intoinstruments
the processasof
necessary
position
therelated
instrument,
theof instrument,
facilitation.
Their(e.g.,
uneasiness
seems
both tohold
a lack
comfort with
provide
hand-over-hand
assistance).
Once
are comfortable
about
group,
you will to
be move
able tothe
few you
situations
in which amoving
therapist
willthefind
it necessary
offer
physical
assistance
to those clients
require
in order
make
entire
body while
improvising,
namelywho
during
stopsit and
startstoand
as a
music.
This
is the focussupport
of the and
finaldirection
competency.
(Obviously,
physical
way to
communicate
without
using words.
There
assistance
is not
the method
clinical
you may
are at least
twounique
other toconditions
in of
which
youimprovisation;
will need to move
your
also
need
to assist
in re-creative
experiences
in which musical
entire
body.
Theseclients
are addressed
in this next
competency.
instruments
used.)
At times,
you
willneed
reposition
an in
instrument
that
Thereare
will
be times
when
you
to move
order tosoprovide
it general
is easiersupport
for a client
to play
or so players.
that it produces
a more
to one
or many
An example
of pleasing
providing
sound.
Atsupport
other times,
youtoward
will be
upon
to hold next
a clients
musical
is moving
andcalled
standing
or kneeling
to or in
instrument
or he or
strikes
or scrapes
it. Finally,
willphrase
be
front of a while
playershe
to model
reinforce
a particular
tempo, there
rhythm,
times
when dynamic
you will level,
need to
provide
direct, hand-over-hand
structure,
playing
configuration,
etc. At timesassistance
it may be
soimportant
that the toclient
producevisual
a particular
movement
to sound
the
drawcan
the groups
and auditory
awareness
to a certain
instrument.
Following
is
a
case
example
that
may
help
you
think
through
how
you might
bestengages
physically
assist
several clients
with aa range
withdrawn
adult
in the
improvisation
or when
child of
has
abilities.
Vignettesometimes
61
nearness,
serves to alter the players responses in a
Imagine that you are just starting to use improvisation with a group of
children who have various physical disabilities. One child in the group
has mild cerebral palsy and has chosen to play the djembe on the stand.
NM 4
90 Gardstrom
toWhile
stop counterproductive
playing a rhythmic
or harmful
improvisation,
interactions,
hold
andamoving
conversation
next to an
that
individual
involves as
allamembers
way to refocus
of the group.
her or his
Askattention
and answer
or music-making.
questions about what
andExmove
65 (Experiential
to longer, more
Learning)
complicated verbalizations. Keep the pulse,
move to a player, and kneel next
to or in front of this person in order to
MOVEMENT
which
actions were
most helpful.
Competencies
addressed
to stop counterproductive or harmful interactions, and moving next to an

individual as a way to refocus her or his attention or music-making.
PHYSICAL
ASSISTANCE
Move within
and around
the group while improvising for
NM
5 Help
players produce
soundphysical
on the percussion
leaders
is tothe
incorporate
their entire
selves intoinstruments
the processasof
necessary
position
therelated
instrument,
theof instrument,
facilitation.
Their(e.g.,
uneasiness
seems
both tohold
a lack
comfort with
provide
hand-over-hand
assistance).
Once
are comfortable
about
group,
you will to
be move
able tothe
few you
situations
in which amoving
therapist
willthefind
it necessary
offer
physical
assistance
to those clients
require
in order
make
entire
body while
improvising,
namelywho
during
stopsit and
startstoand
as a
music.
This
is the focussupport
of the and
finaldirection
competency.
(Obviously,
physical
way to
communicate
without
using words.
There
assistance
is not
the method
clinical
you may
are at least
twounique
other toconditions
in of
which
youimprovisation;
will need to move
your
also
need
to assist
in re-creative
experiences
in which musical
entire
body.
Theseclients
are addressed
in this next
competency.
instruments
used.)
At times,
you
willneed
reposition
an in
instrument
that
Thereare
will
be times
when
you
to move
order tosoprovide
it general
is easiersupport
for a client
to play
or so players.
that it produces
a more
to one
or many
An example
of pleasing
providing
sound.
Atsupport
other times,
youtoward
will be
upon
to hold next
a clients
musical
is moving
andcalled
standing
or kneeling
to or in
instrument
or he or
strikes
or scrapes
it. Finally,
willphrase
be
front of a while
playershe
to model
reinforce
a particular
tempo, there
rhythm,
times
when dynamic
you will level,
need to
provide
direct, hand-over-hand
structure,
playing
configuration,
etc. At timesassistance
it may be
soimportant
that the toclient
producevisual
a particular
movement
to sound
the
drawcan
the groups
and auditory
awareness
to a certain
instrument.
Following
is
a
case
example
that
may
help
you
think
through
how
you might
bestengages
physically
assist
several clients
with aa range
withdrawn
adult
in the
improvisation
or when
child of
has
abilities.
Vignettesometimes
61
nearness,
serves to alter the players responses in a
PHYSICAL ASSISTANCE
move to a player, and kneel next to or in front of this person in order to
which actions were most helpful.
NM 4

NM 5
Help the players produce sound on the percussion instruments as

necessary (e.g., position the instrument, hold the instrument,
provide hand-over-hand assistance).
Once you are comfortable moving about the group, you will be able to
offer physical assistance to those clients who require it in order to make
music. This is the focus of the final competency. (Obviously, physical
assistance is not unique to the method of clinical improvisation; you may
also need to assist clients in re-creative experiences in which musical
instruments are used.) At times, you will reposition an instrument so that
it is easier for a client to play or so that it produces a more pleasing
sound. At other times, you will be called upon to hold a clients
instrument while she or he strikes or scrapes it. Finally, there will be
times when you will need to provide direct, hand-over-hand assistance
so that the client can produce a particular movement to sound the
instrument. Following is a case example that may help you think through
how you might best physically assist several clients with a range of
abilities.
Vignette 61
92 Gardstrom
She will not need physical assistance to sound the instrument, but it must
be placed a bit to her side rather than directly in front of her in order to
accommodate her natural posture and movement patterns. Another child
has spina bifida and has selected the maracas. Her upper body is fully
functional, so she will require no assistance. A third child has severe
cerebral palsy, and his hands and arms are rigidly contracted. He has
selected his favorite instrument, a frame drum, for the upcoming
improvisation. He is able to grasp the shaft of a mallet with his left hand
and has enough range of motion to strike the drum independently. He is
not able to hold the drum, nor is he able to balance it on his legs. You
could suggest that he position the drum on his wheelchair tray, but that
will create an awkward playing position, the drum will certainly slide,
and the sound will be muffled and displeasing, unless it is specially
constructed to rest on the tray. You will likely need to hold the instrument
for him or coach another individual in the room to do likewise.
You know that it is critical to attend to both height and angle as you
hold the frame drum. One possible error would be holding the instrument
too high, especially if you are standing in front of the seated client,
which is not recommended but which may be unavoidable at times.
Another tendency would be for you to hold the drum perpendicular or
parallel to the floor, neither of which would be a fitting angle for most
players. You will need to assess this childs natural arc of movement in
order to determine the best angle for him. Finally, you will need to hold
the instrument in such a way that you provide the necessary resistance to
the force of his beating. If the drum flops when the child attempts to
play it, he may modify his playing unnecessarily or become frustrated
and give up.
The last child in the group is a boy with multiple and severe
physical and sensory impairments. He has no speech and no discernable
how much he is able to see, but you know that he tracks purposefully
questions. Using his eyes or head to communicate, he can select his own
instrument; however, he will need hand-over-hand assistance in order to
play an adapted instrument. (If you have never provided hand-over-hand
92 Gardstrom
theShe
leader,
will not
moving
need next
physical
to a particular
assistanceplayer
to sound
or closer
the instrument,
to an individual
but it must
to
influence
be placed
their
a bit
responses,
to her side
handing
rathersomeone
than directly
an instrument
in front oftoher
play,
in adding
order to
oraccommodate
eliminating instruments
her naturaltoposture
the improvisation
and movement
as itpatterns.
continues,
Another
pointing
child
tohas
certain
spinaindividuals
bifida andwhen
has selected
it is their
theturn
maracas.
to play,
Her
and
upper
conducting
body is the
fully
expressive
functional,
features
so sheofwill
the require
music, such
no assistance.
as tempo, phrasing,
A third child
and dynamics.
has severe
Novice
cerebral
leaders
palsy,need
and tohisbehands
reminded
and arms
that they
are rigidly
ought not
contracted.
feel bound
He to
has
their
selected
chairshis
when
favorite
they feel
instrument,
the urgeatoframe
move drum,
about, for
as long
the upcoming
as their
movement
improvisation.
is purposeful
He is ableand
to grasp
not the
disruptive.
shaft of aNeedless
mallet with
to his
say,leftit hand
is
essential
and hasthat
enough
everyrange
therapist
of motion
developtoclarity
strike and
the drum
comfort
independently.
of movementHe
in is
order
not to
able
employ
to hold
communicative
the drum, norgesture
is he able
in antoeffective
balanceway.
it on his legs. You
could
Sometimes
suggest that
the therapist
he position
maythe
need
drum
to speak
on histowheelchair
clients while
tray,
they
butare
that
improvising.
will create an
Words
awkward
are usually
playing more
position,
effective
the drum
than
willgestures
certainlywhen
slide,
visibility
and theissound
obstructed,
will be
such
muffled
as withand
large
displeasing,
groups, and
unless
with it
players
is specially
who
have
constructed
visual impairments
to rest on theor
tray.
who
Youclose
will likely
their need
eyes towhile
hold the
improvising
instrument
(which
for him
happens
or coach
surprisingly
another individual
often). Therapists
in the room
often
to use
do likewise.
words in tandem
with gesture
You know
to that
makeit is
a critical
clearer,tomore
attendimmediate,
to both height
or more
and angle
emphatic
as you
statement.
hold the frame
Brevitydrum.
is key.
One possible error would be holding the instrument
tooAs
high,
withespecially
gesture, verbal
if you prompts
are standing
function
in front
to offer
of the
encouragement
seated client,
and
which
direction
is not orrecommended
redirection. but
Words
which
of may
support
be unavoidable
and encouragement
at times.
include
Another
Yes,
tendency
Good
would
for be
you,
for you
Keep
to hold
going,
the I
drum
likeperpendicular
that, Thatsor
beautiful,
parallel toand
theTry
floor,again.
neitherWords
of which
of direction
would be or
a fitting
redirection
angleinclude
for most
Listen,
players.Go,
You will
Stop,
needWatch
to assess
me,
thisand
childs
Get ready.
natural arc of movement in
order
Youtowill
determine
find at the
times
bestthat
angle
it isfor
necessary
him. Finally,
for you
youtowill
giveneed
or repeat
to hold
brief
the instrument
directions, in
communicate
such a way that
a given,
you provide
or eventhe
converse
necessary
with
resistance
a clientto
while
the force
continuing
of histobeating.
play your
If the
instrument.
drum flops
This requires
when the
considerable
child attempts
skill!to
If play
the music
it, heismay
rhythmic,
modifythe
histendency
playing for
unnecessarily
many leaders
or isbecome
either to
frustrated
speak
inand
synchrony
give up.with the musical rhythms or in awkward spurts, rather than
with the
The
natural
last prosody
child in ofthespeech.
groupHere
is aisboy
a chance
with multiple
for you toand
practice
severe
talking
physical
while
andplaying.
sensory impairments. He has no speech and no discernable
howExmuch
63 (Experiential
he is able toLearning)
see, but you know that he tracks purposefully
Take
questions.
turns facilitating
Using his eyes
a group
or head
improvisation.
to communicate,
Practice
he can
usingselect
gesture
his own
to
conduct
instrument;
thehowever,
expressive
hefeatures
will need
of hand-over-hand
the music.
assistance in order to
play
Exan
64
adapted
(Experiential
instrument.
Learning)
(If you have never provided hand-over-hand
96 Gardstrom
assistancehoping
to an to
individual,
make a itconnection.
would be ...wise
Helen
to talk
was with
here teachers,
using the
parents, physical
techniques
therapists,
described
and
earlier,
occupational
similar totherapists
those usedwho
when
know
a mother,
this
child andlistening
his particular
and attending
physical
to her
needs
baby,
andmatches
objectives.)
and imitates
In mostthe
situations,sounds
it is possible
that the
to baby
provide
makes.
gentle(Darnley-Smith
physical assistance
& Patey,
without
2003,
risk p.
of causing99)
pain or physical damage. Fortunately, you have been in the
classroom while the physical therapist assists this child in holding and
using
Froma spoon
this excerpt,
during lunch.
one might
You have
conclude
noticed
thatthat
joining,
she sitsmatching,
beside him
and
and
imitating
supports
refer
histoelbow
the same
jointset
with
of actions
one hand
by and
the therapist,
his grasping
yet this
handmay
with
not
another.
be the intended
Using this
meaning.
same principle, you may be able to support his elbow
and hand
Bruscia
so that
(1987)
he can
hasstrike
developed
a drumwhat
with Iabelieve
mallet. is
It aprobably
comprehensible
would
notandbecomprehensive
prudent to usetaxonomy
a small of
drum;
techniques
a largethat
target
helpswill
to unshroud
afford more
some
success
of the in
mystery
this situation.
related to this important feature of clinical work. Bruscia
has organized the techniques (both musical and nonmusical) into nine
distinct
Ex 66categories:
(Didactic Learning)
Empathy, Structuring, Elicitation, Redirection,
Intimacy, Procedural, Referential, Emotional Exploration, and
With
Discussion.
a partner,
Ofplay
his your
list, Icollection
have selected
of strikers,
exclusively
shakers,
from
andthe
scrapers
musical
one
techniques,
at a time. versus
Take turns
techniques
repositioning
in other
and modalitiesverbal,
holding the instruments
art, for
etc.
the(Discussion
other player.
techniques,
Pay attention
which
to usually
height, angle,
occur and
afterthe
thestrength
improvisation
required
has
tooccurred,
balance the
willother
be addressed
individuals
in playing
Chapter force.
Nine.)Discuss
In this your
chapter,
findings
you in
will
theread
group.
about and practice several musical facilitation techniques that I
believe have relevance for entry-level clinical practice. You will also be
cursorily
Ex 67 introduced
(ExperientialtoLearning)
more advanced techniques that most music
therapists would position within the realm of music psychotherapy or
Ininsight-oriented
the context oftherapy
a group
(Wheeler,
improvisation,
1983). I believe
designate
it is important
two or three
that all
individuals
clinicians are
to aware
provide
of some
hand-over-hand
of these advanced
assistance
techniques,
to other
but players.
additional
Repeat
training
until
in all
improvisation
group members
as a have
form had
of music
an opportunity
psychotherapy
to assist
is strongly
other
clients.
advised in
Discuss.
order that facilitators can develop a thorough understanding of
treatment indications and contraindications and the confidence necessary
Vocabulary
to use these
foradvanced
Chapter techniques
Six
effectively and ethically.
Clinical citations accompany most techniques. The majority of these
illustrations
1.
Verbalizations
hail from literature connected to the practice of dyadic
improvisation;
2.
Gestures
this is due to the aforementioned paucity of published text
on3.the useCountdown
of improvisation with client groups and, specifically, the use
of4.clinical Perseverating
techniques in the context of group therapy. In spite of the fact
that
5. manyEncouragement/Praise
of the examples do not reflect a group emphasis, all of the
techniques
6.
Direction/Redirection
presented below are pertinent to group improvisation and can
be7.quite potent
Verbal
inPrompts
this milieu. And, although the focus here is on clinical
skills,
8. the Proximity
general music education students who have completed the
assistance to an individual, it would be wise to talk with teachers,

parents, physical therapists, and occupational therapists who know this
child and his particular physical needs and objectives.) In most
situations, it is possible to provide gentle physical assistance without risk
of causing pain or physical damage. Fortunately, you have been in the
using a spoon during lunch. You have noticed that she sits beside him
and supports his elbow joint with one hand and his grasping hand with
another. Using this same principle, you may be able to support his elbow
and hand so that he can strike a drum with a mallet. It probably would
not be prudent to use a small drum; a large target will afford more
success in this situation.
With a partner, play your collection of strikers, shakers, and scrapers
one at a time. Take turns repositioning and holding the instruments for
the other player. Pay attention to height, angle, and the strength required
to balance the other individuals playing force. Discuss your findings in
the group.
In the context of a group improvisation, designate two or three
individuals to provide hand-over-hand assistance to other players.
Repeat until all group members have had an opportunity to assist other
clients. Discuss.
Vocabulary for Chapter Six
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Verbalizations
Gestures
Countdown
Perseverating
Encouragement/Praise
Verbal Prompts
Proximity
94 Gardstrom
9.
Hand-over-Hand
94 Gardstrom
9.
Hand-over-Hand
Chapter Seven
MUSICAL FACILITATION SKILLS

Thus far, you have been introduced to the terms and nomenclature
relevant to clinical improvisation, as well as the musical elements that
you will employ. You have explored the instruments and experimented
with their unique sounds and inherent challenges. In Chapter Five, you
learned about the importance of structure in group improvisation and
practiced developing suitable session structures. You then moved on to
the verbal and gestural facilitative processes. Now you have arrived at
what I believe are the most interesting and unique of all procedures and
techniques in our toolbox: musical facilitation techniques.
Unfortunately, as I have already noted in Chapter Two, there is
great disparity in the terms used to describe the processes and products of
clinical improvisation. The musical facilitation techniques are no
exception. In many writings, techniques are named yet remain undefined
or untethered to any kind of classification system, leading to ambiguity.
Synonyms are erroneously used, leading to confusion. For example,
synchrony, an empathic technique (Bruscia, 1987), is alternately referred
to in the literature as joining and matching. However, matching is
also used synonymously or in conjunction with reflecting (Robbins &
Robbins, 1991) and as a form of mirroring (Pavlicevic, 1997). Wigram
(2004) writes:
Mirroring and imitating are frequently used as empathic
techniques where the music therapist intends to give a message
to the client that they are meeting them exactly at their level and
attempting to achieve synchronicity with the client (p. 82).
Are we then to assume that mirroring, imitating, meeting, and
synchronizing refer to the same technique? Here is another example of
linguistic mishandling:
At first [the client] was unaware of Helens presence at the piano,
as she joined his tempo of beating and matched his vocal sounds,
94 Gardstrom
9.
Hand-over-Hand
Chapter Seven
Chapter Seven
(2004) writes:
(2004) writes:






96 Gardstrom
hoping to make a connection. ... Helen was here using the

techniques described earlier, similar to those used when a mother,
listening and attending to her baby, matches and imitates the
sounds that the baby makes. (Darnley-Smith & Patey, 2003, p.
99)
From this excerpt, one might conclude that joining, matching, and
imitating refer to the same set of actions by the therapist, yet this may not
be the intended meaning.
Bruscia (1987) has developed what I believe is a comprehensible
and comprehensive taxonomy of techniques that helps to unshroud some
of the mystery related to this important feature of clinical work. Bruscia
distinct categories: Empathy, Structuring, Elicitation, Redirection,
Discussion. Of his list, I have selected exclusively from the musical
techniques, versus techniques in other modalitiesverbal, art, etc.
(Discussion techniques, which usually occur after the improvisation has
occurred, will be addressed in Chapter Nine.) In this chapter, you will
read about and practice several musical facilitation techniques that I
cursorily introduced to more advanced techniques that most music
insight-oriented therapy (Wheeler, 1983). I believe it is important that all
clinicians are aware of some of these advanced techniques, but additional
training in improvisation as a form of music psychotherapy is strongly
advised in order that facilitators can develop a thorough understanding of
to use these advanced techniques effectively and ethically.
illustrations hail from literature connected to the practice of dyadic
improvisation; this is due to the aforementioned paucity of published text
on the use of improvisation with client groups and, specifically, the use
of clinical techniques in the context of group therapy. In spite of the fact
that many of the examples do not reflect a group emphasis, all of the
techniques presented below are pertinent to group improvisation and can
be quite potent in this milieu. And, although the focus here is on clinical
skills, the general music education students who have completed the
96 Gardstrom
assistancehoping
to an to
individual,
make a itconnection.
would be ...wise
Helen
to talk
was with
here teachers,
using the
parents, physical
techniques
therapists,
described
and
earlier,
occupational
similar totherapists
those usedwho
when
know
a mother,
this
child andlistening
his particular
and attending
physical
to her
needs
baby,
andmatches
objectives.)
and imitates
In mostthe
situations,sounds
it is possible
that the
to baby
provide
makes.
gentle(Darnley-Smith
physical assistance
& Patey,
without
2003,
risk p.
of causing99)
pain or physical damage. Fortunately, you have been in the
using
Froma spoon
this excerpt,
during lunch.
one might
You have
conclude
noticed
thatthat
joining,
she sitsmatching,
beside him
and
and
imitating
supports
refer
histoelbow
the same
jointset
with
of actions
one hand
by and
the therapist,
his grasping
yet this
handmay
with
not
another.
be the intended
Using this
meaning.
same principle, you may be able to support his elbow
and hand
Bruscia
so that
(1987)
he can
hasstrike
developed
a drumwhat
with Iabelieve
mallet. is
It aprobably
comprehensible
would
notandbecomprehensive
prudent to usetaxonomy
a small of
drum;
techniques
a largethat
target
helpswill
to unshroud
afford more
some
success
of the in
mystery
this situation.
related to this important feature of clinical work. Bruscia
distinct
Ex 66categories:
(Didactic Learning)
Empathy, Structuring, Elicitation, Redirection,
With
Discussion.
a partner,
Ofplay
his your
list, Icollection
have selected
of strikers,
exclusively
shakers,
from
andthe
scrapers
musical
one
techniques,
at a time. versus
Take turns
techniques
repositioning
in other
and holding
modalitiesverbal,
the instruments
art, for
etc.
the(Discussion
other player.
techniques,
Pay attention
which
to usually
height, angle,
occur and
afterthe
thestrength
improvisation
required
has
tooccurred,
balance the
willother
be addressed
individuals
in playing
Chapter force.
Nine.)Discuss
In this your
chapter,
findings
you in
will
theread
group.
about and practice several musical facilitation techniques that I
cursorily
Ex 67 introduced
(ExperientialtoLearning)
more advanced techniques that most music
Ininsight-oriented
the context oftherapy
a group
(Wheeler,
improvisation,
1983). I believe
designate
it is important
two or three
that all
individuals
clinicians are
to aware
provide
of some
hand-over-hand
of these advanced
assistance
techniques,
to other
but players.
additional
Repeat
training
until
in all
improvisation
group members
as a have
form had
of music
an opportunity
psychotherapy
to assist
is strongly
other
clients.
advised in
Discuss.
order that facilitators can develop a thorough understanding of
Vocabulary
to use these
foradvanced
Chapter techniques
Six
effectively and ethically.
illustrations
1.
Verbalizations
hail from literature connected to the practice of dyadic
improvisation;
2.
Gestures
this is due to the aforementioned paucity of published text
on3.the useCountdown
of improvisation with client groups and, specifically, the use
of4.clinical Perseverating
techniques in the context of group therapy. In spite of the fact
that
5. manyEncouragement/Praise
of the examples do not reflect a group emphasis, all of the
techniques
6.
presented below are pertinent to group improvisation and can
be7.quite potent
Verbal
inPrompts
this milieu. And, although the focus here is on clinical
skills,
8. the Proximity
general music education students who have completed the
100 Gardstrom
Musical Facilitation 97
improvisation
Ex 73 (Experiential
course have found
Learning)
many of these techniques to be of great
value in public and private school settings with typically developing
children
In round-robin
and adolescents.
fashion, designate two individuals to serve as cotherapists
I wouldduring
like toamake
groupthree
improvisation.
points aboutThe
theco-therapists
techniques. The
will first
respond
is
that,
imitatively
although
to each
the techniques
of the other are
players
neatly
in an
categorized
organic fashion,
here, that
Bruscia
is, as
indicates
certain sounds
that they
and
doactions
overlapcome
withinto
oneawareness.
another more
Audio-record
often thanand
not.listen.
In
many
Discuss
cases,
thethey
exercise.
serve similar
How didfunctions,
it feel toand
imitate
they others?
are typically
What used
were inthe
combination
challenges?with
Howone
did another,
it feel to be
both
imitated?
simultaneously
Did the use
and ofconsecutively
this technique
within
have improvisation
any positive orexperiences
negative outcomes?
and sessions.
The second point is that, in one sense, the techniques that you
choose
to employ within the context of group improvisation are often
Synchronizing
suggestive of a role that you are assuming. For instance, as you will see,
one
of theput,
choices
that you
maytomake
to provide
a rhythmic
Simply
synchrony
refers
doingiswhat
the client
does as or
thetonal
client
ground
for
the
groups
music-making.
In
this
sense,
you
are
establishing
is doing it (Bruscia, 1987, p. 538). This may mean playing the same
yourself
as apattern,
consistent
presence
upon whom
the players
cantexture,
rely and,
rhythmic
melody,
harmonic
progression,
timbre,
etc.,
depending
upon the
level
organization
among
various
players, thein
coincidentally
with
theof clients.
It can
alsothemean
improvising
glue
that binds
On the etc.
other
hand, you may
synchrony
with the
the groups
clients expressions.
movement, breath,
Darnley-Smith
and
choose
recedeprovide
from an
improvisation
andthis
allow
the group
to continue
Patey to
(2003)
a good
example of
in their
account
of a group
playing
its own.
the latter
situation,
you are palsy:
establishing yourself as
sessiononwith
threeIn
young
children
with cerebral
a different kind of leader, one who encourages the players to explore
their own After
strengths
whomoves
truststothem
to findastheir
own structures,
allto
this,and
Robin
the piano
the children
take turns
the whileplay
remaining
available toheld
them
should
they require
a large tambourine,
for them
by Christine.
Maryyour
plays
intervention.
(2003) points
to this incontrovertible
connection
withNolan
big, random,
and uncontrolled
arm movements,
which
between Robin
actionssupports
and thewiththerapists
role inonhis
dramatic chords
the description
piano, timedofto
improvisational
work
withher
a young
coincide
with
hand man:
making contact with the tambourine.
Gradually, her beating becomes more controlled, and she finds a
During
allpulse
of thesomusical
I took
various
positions
as
regular
that sheexperiences,
and Robin are
playing
in time
together.
accompanist,
co-creator, and/or initiator, in different musical
(p. 96)
pieces or within the same piece, while maintaining my role as
therapist.
Sometimes,
in the
stagesinof her
treatment,
Forinash
also refers
to the especially
intuitive use
of early
synchrony
story of
my
musical
presence
functioned
in
a
similar
way
to
Bollas
improvisation with a hospice patient (Forinash & Gonzalez, 1989):
description of the transformational mother, in shaping or
exerting
musical
structure
in the
style, andbasing
in thethe
The music
reflected
the change
[in form
her]. Iofimprovised,
determination
of many
musicalAs
elements.
Other
times,more
I provided
rhythm on Saras
breathing.
her breaths
became
shallow
a and
support
by Iaccepting
whatever
expression
in musical
slower,
changed to
softer and
slower music
(p. 42).sound,
spoken word, or chanted formats emerged. Musically, I
In this example, synchrony of tempo and volume served to create a
connection with the client and communicate that, even in her dying
improvisation course have found many of these techniques to be of great

children and adolescents.
I would like to make three points about the techniques. The first is
that, although the techniques are neatly categorized here, Bruscia
indicates that they do overlap with one another more often than not. In
many cases, they serve similar functions, and they are typically used in
combination with one another, both simultaneously and consecutively
within improvisation experiences and sessions.
choose to employ within the context of group improvisation are often
one of the choices that you may make is to provide a rhythmic or tonal
ground for the groups music-making. In this sense, you are establishing
yourself as a consistent presence upon whom the players can rely and,
depending upon the level of organization among the various players, the
glue that binds the groups expressions. On the other hand, you may
choose to recede from an improvisation and allow the group to continue
playing on its own. In the latter situation, you are establishing yourself as
their own strengths and who trusts them to find their own structures, all
the while remaining available to them should they require your
intervention. Nolan (2003) points to this incontrovertible connection
between actions and the therapists role in his description of
improvisational work with a young man:
During all of the musical experiences, I took various positions as
accompanist, co-creator, and/or initiator, in different musical
therapist. Sometimes, especially in the early stages of treatment,
my musical presence functioned in a similar way to Bollas
exerting musical structure in the form of style, and in the
determination of many musical elements. Other times, I provided
a support by accepting whatever expression in musical sound,
98 Gardstrom
98 Gardstrom
matched the energy level and fanned the flames of primal

musical expression, or confronted/challenged [the clients]
various efforts and expressions directed toward the object of
transference. At times, my musical function was influenced
by my imagined manifestation of what he was attempting to
create through me. At other times, my role reflected where,
developmentally, he needed, and seemed equipped, or capable,
to go. (p. 327)
Finally, the techniques are not meant to be prescriptive, as such.
They are used according to what you detect to be the needs and
objectives of the group members via your prior knowledge and in-themoment listening and observation. For now, let us simply become
familiar with the various techniques themselves.
TECHNIQUES OF EMPATHY
MU 1
MU 2
MU 3
MU 4
MU 5
Imitate a clients response.

Synchronize with a clients playing.
Incorporate a musical motif of the client into ones improvising.
Pace ones improvising with the clients energy level.
Reflect the moods, attitudes, and feelings exhibited by the client.
Empathic techniques can be described as those in-the-moment actions

taken by the therapist for the purposes of establishing rapport with the
clients, eliciting interaction, and conveying empathy (Bruscia, 1987).
Empathy can be defined as the ability to understand and share the
feelings of another (The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001, p.
557). Techniques of empathy can be useful at all stages of the therapeutic
process, but have obvious utility in initial phases or during points of
client mistrust, withdrawal, or regression.
Imitating
The first technique of empathy is called imitation. This refers to echoing
some aspect (rhythmic, tonal, etc.) of the clients playing after they have
played it. matched

When youthe
imitate
energy
onelevel
or many
and clients
fannedwithin
the flames
the context
of primal
of a
group, there
musical
are several
expression,
possible or
positive
confronted/challenged
outcomes. First, the[the
individual
clients]
client mayvarious
gain greater
efforts awareness
and expressions
of whatdirected
she or toward
he is doing
the object
in thatof
moment. Second,
transference.
the other
At
players
times,may
my also
musical
become
function
more was
aware
influenced
of the
individualby
or my
individuals
imaginedwho
manifestation
are being imitated,
of what he
which
was can
attempting
promoteto
their statuscreate
withinthrough
the group.
me. Third,
At other
the clients
times, may
my role
feel as
reflected
though where,
their
musical contributions
developmentally,
have he
been
needed,
endorsed.
and A
seemed
fourthequipped,
potential benefit
or capable,
is
that the clients
to go.may
(p. 327)
accept a position of leadership as they create sounds
and you (or other players) emulate them. In his overview of the
Paraverbal
Finally,
Therapy
the techniques
model ofareHeimlich,
not meantBruscia
to be prescriptive,
(1987) notesas that
such.
imitation
They areis used
frequently
according
usedtoaswhat
a clinical
you detect
technique
to be to
theencourage
needs and
interaction,
objectives demonstrate
of the groupcause-effect
members via
relationships,
your prior knowledge
and provideand
sensory
in-thefeedback.
moment (Note:
listening
Imitation,
and observation.
as all of these
For now,
techniques,
let us must
simplybebecome
used
cautiously.
familiar with
If imitation
the various
is employed
techniquestoo
themselves.
often or for too long a period,
clients may feel mimicked or derided rather than esteemed, leading to
anger, embarrassment,
etc. The clientsOF
may
also feel unwanted pressure
TECHNIQUES
EMPATHY
to perform if placed constantly in the leadership role.)
Before proceeding
toinExercise
73,include
whichthe
focuses
Competencies
addressed
this section
ability more
to: on the
natural, clinical use of imitation, let us practice foundational imitation
skills
methodical
way. response.
MUin
1 a Imitate
a clients
MU 2 Synchronize with a clients playing.
(Experiential
Learning)
MUEx3 71
Incorporate
a musical
motif of the client into ones improvising.
MU 4 Pace ones improvising with the clients energy level.
One
begins
playingattitudes,
a rhythmic
tonal solo
consisting
two
MUperson
5 Reflect
thebymoods,
andor
feelings
exhibited
by theofclient.
phrases of a predesignated length. The entire group imitates the second
ofEmpathic
the two phrases,
and can
the soloing
continues
with the
next player in
the
techniques
be described
as those
in-the-moment
actions
circle.
a steady
and consistent
meter throughout
thisthe
taken Maintain
by the therapist
forpulse
the purposes
of establishing
rapport with
exercise.
expand the and
length
of the solo
and imitation.
clients, Gradually
eliciting interaction,
conveying
empathy
(Bruscia,Which
1987).
types
of phrases
easiest as
or toughest
to copy
and why? and share the
Empathy
can were
be defined
the ability
to understand
ExTechniques
72 (Experiential
Learning)
557).
of empathy
can be useful at all stages of the therapeutic
Repeat
previous
exercise,orplaying
in a nonrhythmic fashion, but in
client the
mistrust,
withdrawal,
regression.
identifiable phrases. Discuss the implications of and differences between
imitation
in this context and imitation in the previous context.
Imitating
98 Gardstrom
played it. matched

When youthe
imitate
energy
onelevel
or many
and clients
fannedwithin
the flames
the context
of primal
of a
group, there
musical
are several
expression,
possible or
positive
confronted/challenged
outcomes. First, the[the
individual
clients]
client mayvarious
gain greater
efforts awareness
and expressions
of whatdirected
she or toward
he is doing
the object
in thatof
moment. Second,
transference.
the other
At
players
times,may
my also
musical
become
function
more was
aware
influenced
of the
individualby
or my
individuals
imaginedwho
manifestation
are being imitated,
of what he
which
was can
attempting
promoteto
their statuscreate
withinthrough
the group.
me. Third,
At other
the clients
times, may
my role
feel as
reflected
though where,
their
musical contributions
developmentally,
have he
been
needed,
endorsed.
and A
seemed
fourthequipped,
potential benefit
or capable,
is
that the clients
to go.may
(p. 327)
accept a position of leadership as they create sounds
Paraverbal
Finally,
Therapy
the techniques
model ofareHeimlich,
not meantBruscia
to be prescriptive,
(1987) notesas that
such.
imitation
They areis used
frequently
according
usedtoaswhat
a clinical
you detect
technique
to be to
theencourage
needs and
interaction,
objectives demonstrate
of the groupcause-effect
members via
relationships,
your prior knowledge
and provideand
sensory
in-thefeedback.
moment (Note:
listening
Imitation,
and observation.
as all of these
For now,
techniques,
let us must
simplybebecome
used
cautiously.
familiar with
If imitation
the various
is employed
techniquestoo
themselves.
often or for too long a period,
anger, embarrassment,
etc. The clientsOF
may
also feel unwanted pressure
TECHNIQUES
EMPATHY
Before proceeding
toinExercise
73,include
whichthe
focuses
Competencies
addressed
this section
ability more
to: on the
skills
methodical
way. response.
MUin
1 a Imitate
a clients
MU 2 Synchronize with a clients playing.
(Experiential
Learning)
MUEx3 71
Incorporate
a musical
motif of the client into ones improvising.
MU 4 Pace ones improvising with the clients energy level.
One
begins
playingattitudes,
a rhythmic
tonal solo
consisting
two
MUperson
5 Reflect
thebymoods,
andor
feelings
exhibited
by theofclient.
ofEmpathic
the two phrases,
and can
the soloing
continues
with the
next player in
the
techniques
be described
as those
in-the-moment
actions
circle.
a steady
and consistent
meter throughout
thisthe
taken Maintain
by the therapist
forpulse
the purposes
of establishing
rapport with
exercise.
expand the and
length
of the solo
and imitation.
clients, Gradually
eliciting interaction,
conveying
empathy
(Bruscia,Which
1987).
types
of phrases
easiest as
or toughest
to copy
and why? and share the
Empathy
can were
be defined
the ability
to understand
ExTechniques
72 (Experiential
Learning)
557).
of empathy
can be useful at all stages of the therapeutic
Repeat
previous
exercise,orplaying
in a nonrhythmic fashion, but in
client the
mistrust,
withdrawal,
regression.
imitation
in this context and imitation in the previous context.
Imitating
played it. When you imitate one or many clients within the context of a
group, there are several possible positive outcomes. First, the individual
client may gain greater awareness of what she or he is doing in that
moment. Second, the other players may also become more aware of the
individual or individuals who are being imitated, which can promote
their status within the group. Third, the clients may feel as though their
musical contributions have been endorsed. A fourth potential benefit is
that the clients may accept a position of leadership as they create sounds
Paraverbal Therapy model of Heimlich, Bruscia (1987) notes that
imitation is frequently used as a clinical technique to encourage
interaction, demonstrate cause-effect relationships, and provide sensory
feedback. (Note: Imitation, as all of these techniques, must be used
cautiously. If imitation is employed too often or for too long a period,
anger, embarrassment, etc. The clients may also feel unwanted pressure
Before proceeding to Exercise 73, which focuses more on the
skills in a methodical way.
One person begins by playing a rhythmic or tonal solo consisting of two
of the two phrases, and the soloing continues with the next player in the
circle. Maintain a steady pulse and consistent meter throughout this
exercise. Gradually expand the length of the solo and imitation. Which
types of phrases were easiest or toughest to copy and why?
Repeat the previous exercise, playing in a nonrhythmic fashion, but in
imitation in this context and imitation in the previous context.
100 Gardstrom
In round-robin fashion, designate two individuals to serve as cotherapists during a group improvisation. The co-therapists will respond
imitatively to each of the other players in an organic fashion, that is, as
certain sounds and actions come into awareness. Audio-record and listen.
Discuss the exercise. How did it feel to imitate others? What were the
challenges? How did it feel to be imitated? Did the use of this technique
have any positive or negative outcomes?
Synchronizing
Simply put, synchrony refers to doing what the client does as the client
rhythmic pattern, melody, harmonic progression, timbre, texture, etc.,
coincidentally with the clients. It can also mean improvising in
synchrony with the clients movement, breath, etc. Darnley-Smith and
Patey (2003) provide a good example of this in their account of a group
session with three young children with cerebral palsy:
After this, Robin moves to the piano as the children take turns to
play a large tambourine, held for them by Christine. Mary plays
with big, random, and uncontrolled arm movements, which
Robin supports with dramatic chords on the piano, timed to
coincide with her hand making contact with the tambourine.
regular pulse so that she and Robin are playing in time together.
(p. 96)
Forinash also refers to the intuitive use of synchrony in her story of
The music reflected the change [in her]. I improvised, basing the
rhythm on Saras breathing. As her breaths became more shallow
and slower, I changed to softer and slower music (p. 42).
100 Gardstrom
improvisation
Ex 73 (Experiential
course have found
Learning)
many of these techniques to be of great
children
In round-robin
and adolescents.
fashion, designate two individuals to serve as cotherapists
I wouldduring
like toamake
groupthree
improvisation.
points aboutThe
theco-therapists
techniques. The
will first
respond
is
that,
imitatively
although
to each
the techniques
of the other are
players
neatly
in an
categorized
organic fashion,
here, that
Bruscia
is, as
indicates
certain sounds
that they
and
doactions
overlapcome
withinto
oneawareness.
another more
Audio-record
often thanand
not.listen.
In
many
Discuss
cases,
thethey
exercise.
serve similar
How didfunctions,
it feel toand
imitate
they others?
are typically
What used
were inthe
combination
challenges?with
Howone
did another,
it feel to be
both
imitated?
simultaneously
Did the use
and ofconsecutively
this technique
within
have improvisation
any positive orexperiences
negative outcomes?
and sessions.
choose
to employ within the context of group improvisation are often
Synchronizing
one
of theput,
choices
that you
maytomake
to provide
a rhythmic
Simply
synchrony
refers
doingiswhat
the client
does as or
thetonal
client
ground
for
the
groups
music-making.
In
this
sense,
you
are
establishing
yourself
as apattern,
consistent
presence
upon whom
the players
cantexture,
rely and,
rhythmic
melody,
harmonic
progression,
timbre,
etc.,
depending
upon the
level
organization
among
various
players, thein
coincidentally
with
theof clients.
It can
alsothemean
improvising
glue
that binds
On the etc.
otherDarnley-Smith
hand, you may
synchrony
with the
the groups
clients expressions.
movement, breath,
and
choose
recedeprovide
from an
improvisation
andthis
allow
the group
to continue
Patey to
(2003)
a good
example of
in their
account
of a group
playing
its own.
the latter
situation,
you are palsy:
establishing yourself as
sessiononwith
threeIn
young
children
with cerebral
their own After
strengths
whomoves
truststothem
to findastheir
own structures,
allto
this,and
Robin
the piano
the children
take turns
the whileplay
remaining
available toheld
them
should
they require
a large tambourine,
for them
by Christine.
Maryyour
plays
intervention.
(2003) points
to this incontrovertible
connection
withNolan
big, random,
and uncontrolled
arm movements,
which
between Robin
actionssupports
and thewiththerapists
role inonhis
dramatic chords
the description
piano, timedofto
improvisational
work
withher
a young
coincide
with
hand man:
making contact with the tambourine.
During
allpulse
of thesomusical
I took
various
positions
as
regular
that sheexperiences,
and Robin are
playing
in time
together.
accompanist,
co-creator, and/or initiator, in different musical
(p. 96)
therapist.
Sometimes,
in the
stagesinof her
treatment,
Forinash
also refers
to the especially
intuitive use
of early
synchrony
story of
my
musical
presence
functioned
in
a
similar
way
to
Bollas
exerting
musical
structure
in the
style, andbasing
in thethe
The music
reflected
the change
[in form
her]. Iofimprovised,
determination
of many
musicalAs
elements.
Other
times,more
I provided
rhythm on Saras
breathing.
her breaths
became
shallow
a and
support
by Iaccepting
whatever
expression
in musical
slower,
changed to
softer and
slower music
(p. 42).sound,
104 Gardstrom
moments, the music (and the therapist) was present with her in a very
real
Repeat
and physical
the above
sense.
exercise,
In group
this time
improvisation,
reflecting the primary
emotional
purpose
character
of aof
therapists
the players
synchronizing
music. What
is to are
encourage
the challenges
the clients
here?
self-awareness
Does reflecting
and
leadership
interface (as
withwith
otherimitation),
techniques?
increase
If so, which
interpersonal
ones and and
how?intermusical
intimacy, and convey acceptance and empathy to the client (Bruscia,
1987). Bruscia defines
mirroring as synchrony
of action that occurs in
STRUCTURING
TECHNIQUES
reverse direction, such as when the therapist coincides in descent to a
clients
ascending
melody.
(Note:
If include
synchronizing
is to:
misused or
Competencies
addressed
in this
section
the ability
overused, the clients may feel as though they have been invaded by the
therapist,
their sense
of individuality
mayground.
be compromised.)
MU 6 and
Establish
and maintain
a rhythmic
let us practice
the skill
of synchronizing
with others in a
MUAgain,
7 Establish
and maintain
a tonal
center.
methodical fashion, and then we will proceed to a more natural use of the
clinical
technique.
At times,
you may need to provide some kind of structure for your
clients music-making. Bruscia defines three structuring techniques, two
Ex 74are
(Experiential
Learning)
of which
discussed here.
Miller (1991) writes about her deliberate use
of both of these with a group of patients who had long-term mental
Take
turns synchronizing with a partners rhythmic or tonal
illness:
improvisation. Discuss the inherent challenges of this technique.
I have found that the best way for the group to function is to
Ex 75
(Experiential
allow
things to Learning)
develop, and to provide musical structures at
times when this seems appropriate. I provided such structure
In round-robin
fashion,
designate
serve
as comuch more
frequently
in thetwo
first individuals
phase of the to
group
process
than
therapists in
during
group
Thethe
co-therapists
respond
later aones,
forimprovisation.
at the beginning,
group was will
in the
process
synchronously
to each
the other
players in
organic
fashion,and
thatsome
is,
of finding
outofabout
possibilities
of an
using
instruments,
as certainmembers
sounds and
actions
come
into
awareness.
Audio-record
and
could participate only with rhythmic or harmonic
listen. Discuss
thefrom
exercise.
How
did it feel to synchronize with others?
support
me. (p.
424)
How did it feel to be synchronized with? What were the challenges? Did
theRhythmic
techniqueGrounding
real and physical sense. In group improvisation, the primary purpose of a
therapists synchronizing is to encourage the clients self-awareness and
leadership (as with imitation), increase interpersonal and intermusical
1987). Bruscia defines mirroring as synchrony of action that occurs in
clients ascending melody. (Note: If synchronizing is misused or
therapist, and their sense of individuality may be compromised.)
Again, let us practice the skill of synchronizing with others in a
clinical technique.
Incorporating
One of the most important roles that you will accept or assert as a leader
Incorporating
is that of providing a rhythmic ground for the other players. Bruscia

Todefines
incorporate
means
to borrowasa keeping
motif froma the
clients
rhythmic
grounding
basic
beat improvisation
or providing a
and
integrate
it into your
playing improvising
(Bruscia, 1987).
In contrast
to
rhythmic
foundation
for own
the clients
(p. 535).
A ground
imitation,
in
which
you
attempt
to
play
the
clients
music
verbatim
supports the temporal organization and stabilization of the music and
(rhythm
forprovide
rhythmvital
and/or
pitch
pitch),forwhen
youthat
incorporate,
you
thus can
safety
andfor
security
groups
are disorganized,
may
play
only
a
portion
of
the
clients
motifs,
alter
the
patterns
in
some
confused, anxious, or even frantic. This technique also helps players
control impulses, remain in physical reality, and gain confidence to
To incorporate means to borrow a motif from the clients improvisation

and integrate it into your own playing (Bruscia, 1987). In contrast to
imitation, in which you attempt to play the clients music verbatim
(rhythm for rhythm and/or pitch for pitch), when you incorporate, you
may play only a portion of the clients motifs, alter the patterns in some
Take turns synchronizing with a partners rhythmic or tonal
In round-robin fashion, designate two individuals to serve as cotherapists during a group improvisation. The co-therapists will respond
synchronously to each of the other players in an organic fashion, that is,
as certain sounds and actions come into awareness. Audio-record and
listen. Discuss the exercise. How did it feel to synchronize with others?
the technique have any positive or negative outcomes?
102 Gardstrom
102 Gardstrom
way, use them when they are first presented, or integrate them into a
subsequent improvisation. As an empathic technique, incorporation is
designed to communicate acceptance of the clients musical ideas. It also
serves to build repertoire and model musical expression, effort, and
resolution. Wigram (2004) accurately asserts that
playing.
way, use
Pacing
themdoes
when
notthey
require
are actions
first presented,
that are identical
or integrate
to those
themofinto
the a
clients;
subsequent
only the
improvisation.
vigor and phrasing
As anofempathic
the actions
technique,
is matched.
incorporation
Effectively is
used,
designed
pacing
to communicate
can encourageacceptance
the clients
of the
physical
clientsrelatedness
musical ideas.
to their
It also
surroundings,
serves to build
promote
repertoire
self-awareness,
and model
andmusical
ready the
expression,
clients for effort,
a shift in
and
energy.
The development of a musical relationship through music based

on an idea or theme presented by the client relies on the
therapists skill in both nurturing as well as exploiting musical
material produced by the client (p. 178).
Ex 77
(Experiential
Learning)
The
development
of a musical relationship through music based
Designatetherapists
one personskill
to begin
improvisation
as as
if she
or he were
a
in boththenurturing
as well
exploiting
musical
client. Thematerial
other group
members
that
players intensity, speed,
produced
by the match
client (p.
178).
and phrasing. Solicit feedback from the client. Repeat until all
members
had...
a turn
to play
each
role.musical language that builds up,
and thathave
themes
become
part
of the
underpinning a shared musical understanding that connects and
intensifies the relationship (p. 179). (Note: When overused or ill-timed,
Reflecting
incorporation can leave the clients feeling threatened or cheated, as if
havethestolen
personal
from them,
or mocked,
as revealed
Asyou
with
othersomething
techniques
of empathy,
reflecting
is designed
to
in the following
excerpt:
convey
acceptance
of the clients actions and feelings (Bruscia, 1987,
p. 541), demonstrate understanding, and establish a working alliance.
often expressing
felt that I was
mocking
my playing.
This
ReflectionToni
involves
the same
moodsherorinfeelings
that the
happened
when
I
picked
up
some
aspect
of
her
metallophone
clients are expressing while the clients are expressing them. Unlike
playing,
a harmonicthemotif,
interval
rhythmic
fragment,
and
imitation and
incorporation,
therapist
doesornot
necessarily
use the
incorporated
my piano
in some
way.instead,
It was the
as if
same musical
elements it
or in
materials
thatplaying
the clients
are using;
Toni the
hadunderlying
no boundaries
between
herselfof and
others, actions.
she was
aim is to match
emotional
character
the clients
unable
to regulate
her experience
with the
external
world. (Loth,
Your ability
to reflect
thus depends
upon your
ability
to interpret
the
2002,
pp.
101102)
feelings underlying the clients expression and to translate them into
impressions (p. 541). Henderson (1991) captures the essence of this
Skill of
Development)
technique Ex
in 76
her (Independent
poignant account
her work with a severely abused
and fragile South African 13-year-old:
With a partner, take turns incorporating rhythmic and/or melodic themes
that emerge
in eachher
others
playing. Audio-record
and6/8
listen.
well
I interpreted
improvisation,
which was in
time,How
as an
did you
do?
Was
the
incorporation
evident
to
your
partner
during
expression of her need for comfort, and I began to improvise anthe
music-making?
African lullaby. Our interaction continued for quite a while and
she finally whispered that she was scared. I kept supporting her
Pacingmusically, reflecting the mood she was projecting (p. 214).
and that themes ... become part of the musical language that builds up,
you have stolen something personal from them, or mocked, as revealed
in the following excerpt:
Toni often felt that I was mocking her in my playing. This
happened when I picked up some aspect of her metallophone
playing, a harmonic motif, interval or rhythmic fragment, and
incorporated it in my piano playing in some way. It was as if
Toni had no boundaries between herself and others, she was
unable to regulate her experience with the external world. (Loth,
2002, pp. 101102)
that emerge in each others playing. Audio-record and listen. How well
did you do? Was the incorporation evident to your partner during the
music-making?
Pacing
The technique of pacing requires that you match the clients level of
energy during the improvisation (Bruscia, 1987), in most cases
responding to either the intensity (dynamics) or speed (tempo) of the
78 (Experiential
Learning)
TheExtechnique
of pacing
requires that you match the clients level of
102 Gardstrom
playing.
way, use
Pacing
themdoes
when
notthey
require
are actions
first presented,
that are identical
or integrate
to those
themofinto
the a
clients;
subsequent
only the
improvisation.
vigor and phrasing
As anofempathic
the actions
technique,
is matched.
incorporation
Effectively is
used,
designed
pacing
to communicate
can encourageacceptance
the clients
of the
physical
clientsrelatedness
musical ideas.
to their
It also
surroundings,
serves to build
promote
repertoire
self-awareness,
and model
andmusical
ready the
expression,
clients for effort,
a shift in
and
energy.
Ex 77
(Experiential
Learning)
The
development
of a musical relationship through music based
Designatetherapists
one personskill
to begin
improvisation
as as
if she
or he were
a
in boththenurturing
as well
exploiting
musical
client. Thematerial
other group
members
match (p.
that
players intensity, speed,
produced
by the client
178).
members
had...
a turn
to play
each
role.musical language that builds up,
and thathave
themes
become
part
of the
Reflecting
havethestolen
personal
from them,
or mocked,
as revealed
Asyou
with
othersomething
techniques
of empathy,
reflecting
is designed
to
in the following
excerpt:
convey
acceptance
of the clients actions and feelings (Bruscia, 1987,
often expressing
felt that I was
mocking
my playing.
This
ReflectionToni
involves
the same
moodsherorinfeelings
that the
happened
when
I
picked
up
some
aspect
of
her
metallophone
playing,
a harmonicthemotif,
interval
rhythmic
fragment,
and
imitation and
incorporation,
therapist
doesornot
necessarily
use the
incorporated
my piano
in some
way.instead,
It was the
as if
same musical
elements it
or in
materials
thatplaying
the clients
are using;
Toni the
hadunderlying
no boundaries
between
herselfof and
others, actions.
she was
aim is to match
emotional
character
the clients
unable
to regulate
her experience
with the
external
world. (Loth,
Your ability
to reflect
thus depends
upon your
ability
to interpret
the
2002,
pp.
101102)
Skill of
Development)
technique Ex
in 76
her (Independent
poignant account
her work with a severely abused
that emerge
in eachher
others
playing. Audio-record
and6/8
listen.
well
I interpreted
improvisation,
which was in
time,How
as an
did you
do?
Was
the
incorporation
evident
to
your
partner
during
expression of her need for comfort, and I began to improvise anthe
music-making?
Pacingmusically, reflecting the mood she was projecting (p. 214).
78 (Experiential
Learning)
TheExtechnique
of pacing
requires that you match the clients level of
playing. Pacing does not require actions that are identical to those of the
clients; only the vigor and phrasing of the actions is matched. Effectively
used, pacing can encourage the clients physical relatedness to their
surroundings, promote self-awareness, and ready the clients for a shift in
energy.
Designate one person to begin the improvisation as if she or he were a
client. The other group members match that players intensity, speed,
members have had a turn to play each role.
Reflecting
As with the other techniques of empathy, reflecting is designed to
convey acceptance of the clients actions and feelings (Bruscia, 1987,
Reflection involves expressing the same moods or feelings that the
imitation and incorporation, the therapist does not necessarily use the
same musical elements or materials that the clients are using; instead, the
aim is to match the underlying emotional character of the clients actions.
Your ability to reflect thus depends upon your ability to interpret the
technique in her poignant account of her work with a severely abused
I interpreted her improvisation, which was in 6/8 time, as an
expression of her need for comfort, and I began to improvise an
musically, reflecting the mood she was projecting (p. 214).
104 Gardstrom
104 Gardstrom
Repeat the above exercise, this time reflecting the emotional character of
the players music. What are the challenges here? Does reflecting
interface with other techniques? If so, which ones and how?
STRUCTURING TECHNIQUES
MU 6 Establish and maintain a rhythmic ground.
MU 7 Establish and maintain a tonal center.
At times, you may need to provide some kind of structure for your
of which are discussed here. Miller (1991) writes about her deliberate use
illness:
allow things to develop, and to provide musical structures at
much more frequently in the first phase of the group process than
in later ones, for at the beginning, the group was in the process
of finding out about possibilities of using instruments, and some
members could participate only with rhythmic or harmonic
support from me. (p. 424)
Rhythmic Grounding
defines rhythmic grounding as keeping a basic beat or providing a
rhythmic foundation for the clients improvising (p. 535). A ground
thus can provide vital safety and security for groups that are disorganized,
real
Repeat
and physical
the above
sense.
exercise,
In group
this time
improvisation,
reflecting the primary
emotional
purpose
character
of aof
therapists
the players
synchronizing
music. What
is to are
encourage
the challenges
the clients
here?
self-awareness
Does reflecting
and
leadership
interface (as
withwith
otherimitation),
techniques?
increase
If so, which
interpersonal
ones and and
how?intermusical
1987). Bruscia defines
mirroring as synchrony
of action that occurs in
STRUCTURING
TECHNIQUES
clients
ascending
melody.
(Note:
If include
synchronizing
is to:
misused or
Competencies
addressed
in this
section
the ability
therapist,
their sense
of individuality
mayground.
be compromised.)
MU 6 and
Establish
and maintain
a rhythmic
let us practice
the skill
of synchronizing
with others in a
MUAgain,
7 Establish
and maintain
a tonal
center.
clinical
technique.
At times,
you may need to provide some kind of structure for your
Ex 74are
(Experiential
Learning)
of which
discussed here.
Miller (1991) writes about her deliberate use
Take
turns synchronizing with a partners rhythmic or tonal
illness:
Ex 75
(Experiential
allow
things to Learning)
develop, and to provide musical structures at
In round-robin
fashion,
designate
serve
as comuch more
frequently
in thetwo
first individuals
phase of the to
group
process
than
therapists in
during
group
Thethe
co-therapists
respond
later aones,
forimprovisation.
at the beginning,
group was will
in the
process
synchronously
to each
the other
players in
organic
fashion,and
thatsome
is,
of finding
outofabout
possibilities
of an
using
instruments,
as certainmembers
sounds and
actions
come
into
awareness.
Audio-record
and
could participate only with rhythmic or harmonic
listen. Discuss
thefrom
exercise.
How
did it feel to synchronize with others?
support
me. (p.
424)
theRhythmic
techniqueGrounding
Incorporating
Todefines
incorporate
means
to borrowasa keeping
motif froma the
clients
rhythmic
grounding
basic
beat improvisation
or providing a
and
integrate
it into your
playing improvising
(Bruscia, 1987).
In contrast
to
rhythmic
foundation
for own
the clients
(p. 535).
A ground
imitation,
in
which
you
attempt
to
play
the
clients
music
verbatim
(rhythm
forprovide
rhythmvital
and/or
pitch
pitch),forwhen
youthat
incorporate,
you
thus can
safety
andfor
security
groups
are disorganized,
may
play
only
a
portion
of
the
clients
motifs,
alter
the
patterns
in
some
108 Gardstrom
express
themselves more creatively, as in the following example of an
Repeating
improvisation with an older adult who had Alzheimers Disease:
In repeating, a rhythmic or tonal motif from the clients or therapists
[Sheila] chose
a drumbyand
to play,
accompanied
music-making
is repeated
thebegan
therapist
in order
to elicitby
a Rachel
response
on
the
cello.
...
After
some
experimenting,
Rachel
began
to
play
from the client and/or establish a mood in the improvisation (Bruscia,
a
continuous,
slow,
walking
rhythm,
rather
like
a
ground
bass,
in
1987). Typically, repetition of a motif ends with a distinctive musical
the
tempo
of
Sheilas
playing.
This
simple
repetitive
musical
rest, which functions as an invitation for response.
structure enabled Sheila to feel confident enough to continue
with
her(Independent
playing andSkill
gradually
to experiment with the different
Ex
712
Development)
sounds she could make on the drum. (Darnley-Smith & Patey,
p. 77)
With a2003,
partner,
practice repeating as an elicitation technique. Did you
find specific ways to facilitate your partners response?
A rhythmic ground is often a basic pulse; it also can be a rhythmic
ostinato.
Keeping a steady beat on a drum sounds easy enough, but many
Modeling
therapists have difficulty with this most fundamental of rhythmic skills,
particularly
if theirinvolves
musical training
has not
required anyatype
of manual
Here, modeling
the therapist
demonstrating
desired
musical
coordination.
In
all
players,
both
skilled
and
unskilled,
there
response, such as a playing technique on a specific instrumentis ora a
tendency
irregularity
of theMontello
pulse at (2004)
times ofused
transition
between
musical toward
motif (Bruscia,
1987).
modeling
with a
meters
and
at
the
extreme
ends
of
the
spectrum
of
tempi;
in
the
later
case,
traumatized client to elicit courage to improvise vocally:
therapists are likely to either drag the tempo when playing very slowly or
rush it when
playing
quickly.
Therefore,
it may was
be beneficial
to
During
this very
phase
of treatment,
Jennifer
dealing with
devote independent
practice
time
to
this
skill
area.
Do
not
shy
away
from
feelings of alienation from her body, heart, and soul. As a way of
using a metronome
while you
on the
other
hand, do notJennifer
becometo
making contact
withpractice;
her deeper
self,
I encouraged
entirely dependent
upon
it
to
establish
or
maintain
the
beat.
As
a
music
engage in vocal improvisations with me at the piano. She
was
therapist, you
will
need
to
develop
a
confident,
internal
sense
of
pulse
to I
terrified of opening her mouth and singing. In a playful way,
guide you demonstrated
in your work, especially
if thatofwork
improvisational!Why are
my own style
vocalis improvisation.
Any time
you actsoasmuch
a rhythmic
ground
it is
you having
fun? she
askedduring
me. (p.improvisation,
311)
critical that your pulse is clearly discernable. Consider the notion that
certainEx
instruments
provide a Learning)
more precise sound than others. In general,
713 (Experiential
instruments that are struck with the hand or a mallet are more discrete
than
those
thatmodeling
are shaken
or scraped.
Case
in point,for
contrast
the sound
of
Take
turns
desired
musical
responses
the group
members.
a The
djembe
with
that
of
a
cabasa.
If
you
find
yourself
with
an
instrument
responses can be rhythmic, tonal, or relate to the use of particular
that
does not naturally
a crisp
beat and this is what you need to
instruments
(includingproduce
the voice).
Discuss.
provide, think about how you might adapt your playing to obtain the
desired
sound.
For example, you might find that holding a maraca around
Making
Spaces
the round chamber as opposed to the handle allows you to produce a
In this elicitation technique, the therapist stops playing momentarily and
allows the client to fill in the silence with her or his music (Bruscia,
express themselves more creatively, as in the following example of an

[Sheila] chose a drum and began to play, accompanied by Rachel
on the cello. ... After some experimenting, Rachel began to play
a continuous, slow, walking rhythm, rather like a ground bass, in
the tempo of Sheilas playing. This simple repetitive musical
with her playing and gradually to experiment with the different
2003, p. 77)
ostinato. Keeping a steady beat on a drum sounds easy enough, but many
particularly if their musical training has not required any type of manual
coordination. In all players, both skilled and unskilled, there is a
tendency toward irregularity of the pulse at times of transition between
meters and at the extreme ends of the spectrum of tempi; in the later case,
rush it when playing very quickly. Therefore, it may be beneficial to
devote independent practice time to this skill area. Do not shy away from
using a metronome while you practice; on the other hand, do not become
entirely dependent upon it to establish or maintain the beat. As a music
therapist, you will need to develop a confident, internal sense of pulse to
guide you in your work, especially if that work is improvisational!
Any time you act as a rhythmic ground during improvisation, it is
certain instruments provide a more precise sound than others. In general,
than those that are shaken or scraped. Case in point, contrast the sound of
a djembe with that of a cabasa. If you find yourself with an instrument
that does not naturally produce a crisp beat and this is what you need to
desired sound. For example, you might find that holding a maraca around
106 Gardstrom
more precise movement and therefore a more distinct pulse. Likewise,

tapping the rim of a nonheaded tambourine on the palm of the opposite
hand obviously produces a more discrete sound than shaking the
instrument in the air. (Note: Rhythmic grounding must be used carefully
so as not to restrict the clients musical expression. Along these lines,
Wigram cautions against imposing meter: In fact, it can be quite
constraining and directive to take the clients musical production and
establish a specific metre such as 4/4 or 3/4 for what they are doing
[2004, p. 93]).
In duple and triple meter and in a variety of tempi, take turns
establishing and maintaining rhythmic grounds. Use both basic pulse
and rhythmic ostinati. How does it feel to provide the primary rhythmic
structure for the group?
A fun challenge within this competency is for some players to take turns
holding the rhythmic ground steady while the others purposefully attempt
to throw it off. (Your clients may try the same thing!)
Tonal Centering
Centering works much the same way as the rhythmic ground, except that
the elements employed are tonal. Here, the therapist grounds and
contains the clients playing in a key center, scale, or harmonic
component (Bruscia, 1987), as the following metaphor by Darnley-Smith
and Patey (2003) suggests:
In an adult mental health setting, the music of a new group of
patients, who were acutely ill, was extremely chaotic. Some were
playing music which was loud and energetic, whilst others were
quietly experimenting. ... The therapist felt an urgent need to
provide some structure. She began to play a simple three-chord
progression on the piano, at first starting with single notes, and
then gradually building up the chords so that they became more
106 Gardstrom
more precise
complex....She
movement
usedand
thetherefore
sounds she
a more
was distinct
making pulse.
as a means
Likewise,
of
tapping
providing
the rim of
a musical
a nonheaded
focus, tambourine
a
point of
on safety,
the palm
leadership,
of the opposite
and
hand containment.
obviously produces
It was asa though
more she
discrete
was asound
motherthan
putting
shaking
down the
a
instrument
large inmat
theinair.a (Note:
nurseryRhythmic
upon which
grounding
all the must
children
be used
could
carefully
play
so as together.
not to restrict
Gradually
the clients
the patients
musicalsounds
expression.
became
Along
less these
disparate
lines,
Wigram
andcautions
more connected
against as
imposing
they began
meter:
to respond
In fact,
to the
it can
security
be quite
of
constraining
the musical
and directive
structure that
to take
the therapist
the clients
was musical
providing.
production
(p. 81) and
In[2004,
a morep. succinct
93]).
fashion, Robarts (2004) describes centering through
the use of a harmonic vamp in her sessions with a severely abused 11
year-old
Exgirl:
In duple
I answer
and her
triple
musings
meterabout
and music
in a therapy
varietyleading
of tempi,
into atake
gentle
turns
I
establishing
Ib IV Vand
accompanimentbanal
maintaining rhythmicin grounds.
its predictability,
Use both
wherein
basic lies
pulse
and rhythmic
its therapeutic
ostinati.value
How in
does
thisit feel
instance.
to provide
It becomes
the primary
a refrain,
rhythmic
to
structure
which
for the
we group?
return, when the musical development of emotional
expression is more than Lena can bear ... .(p. 158)
Repeat
holding
thethe
above
rhythmic
exercise,
ground
substituting
steady while
tonalthe
centering.
others purposefully
How does itattempt
feel
toto
provide
throw the
it off.
primary
(Your tonal
clientsstructure
may try the
for the
same
group?
thing!)
Tonal Centering ELICITATION TECHNIQUES

Competencies
addressed
section
the ability
to: except that
Centering works
much in
thethis
same
way include
as the rhythmic
ground,
MU
8 Usethe
repetition
an invitation
the client
respond.
contains
clientsas playing
in aforkey
center,to scale,
or harmonic
MU
9
Model
desired
musical
responses.
MU
Make
spaces
in ones improvising for the clients improvising.
and10Patey
(2003)
suggests:
MU 11 Interject music into the spaces made by the client.
This set ofpatients,
in-the-moment
actions
is ill,
performed
by the chaotic.
therapistSome
in order
who were
acutely
was extremely
were
to bring something
forth
from
the
client.
106 Gardstrom
more precise
complex....She
movement
usedand
thetherefore
sounds she
a more
was distinct
making pulse.
as a means
Likewise,
of
tapping
providing
the rim of
a musical
a nonheaded
focus, tambourine
a
point of
on safety,
the palm
leadership,
of the opposite
and
hand containment.
obviously produces
It was asa though
more she
discrete
was asound
motherthan
putting
shaking
down the
a
instrument
large inmat
theinair.a (Note:
nurseryRhythmic
upon which
grounding
all the must
children
be used
could
carefully
play
so as together.
not to restrict
Gradually
the clients
the patients
musicalsounds
expression.
became
Along
less these
disparate
lines,
Wigram
andcautions
more connected
against as
imposing
they began
meter:
to respond
In fact,
to the
it can
security
be quite
of
constraining
the musical
and directive
structure that
to take
the therapist
the clients
was musical
providing.
production
(p. 81) and
In[2004,
a morep. succinct
93]).
fashion, Robarts (2004) describes centering through
year-old
Exgirl:
In duple
I answer
and her
triple
musings
meterabout
and music
in a therapy
varietyleading
of tempi,
into atake
gentle
turns
I
establishing
Ib IV Vand
accompanimentbanal
maintaining rhythmicin grounds.
its predictability,
Use both
wherein
basic lies
pulse
and rhythmic
its therapeutic
ostinati.value
How in
does
thisit feel
instance.
to provide
It becomes
the primary
a refrain,
rhythmic
to
structure
which
for the
we group?
return, when the musical development of emotional
Repeat
holding
thethe
above
rhythmic
exercise,
ground
substituting
steady while
tonalthe
centering.
others purposefully
How does itattempt
feel
toto
provide
throw the
it off.
primary
(Your tonal
clientsstructure
may try the
for the
same
group?
thing!)
complex....She used the sounds she was making as a means of

providing a musical focus, a
point of safety, leadership, and
containment. It was as though she was a mother putting down a
large mat in a nursery upon which all the children could play
together. Gradually the patients sounds became less disparate
and more connected as they began to respond to the security of
the musical structure that the therapist was providing. (p. 81)
In a more succinct fashion, Robarts (2004) describes centering through
year-old girl:
I answer her musings about music therapy leading into a gentle I
Ib IV V accompanimentbanal in its predictability, wherein lies
its therapeutic value in this instance. It becomes a refrain, to
which we return, when the musical development of emotional
Repeat the above exercise, substituting tonal centering. How does it feel
to provide the primary tonal structure for the group?
Tonal Centering ELICITATION TECHNIQUES

Competencies
addressed
section
the ability
to: except that
Centering works
much in
thethis
same
way include
as the rhythmic
ground,
MU
8 Usethe
repetition
an invitation
the client
respond.
contains
clientsas playing
in aforkey
center,to scale,
or harmonic
MU
9
Model
desired
musical
responses.
MU
Make
spaces
in ones improvising for the clients improvising.
and10Patey
(2003)
suggests:
MU 11 Interject music into the spaces made by the client.
This set ofpatients,
in-the-moment
actions
is ill,
performed
by the chaotic.
therapistSome
in order
who were
acutely
was extremely
were
to bring something
forth
from
the
client.
ELICITATION TECHNIQUES
MU 8
MU 9
MU 10
MU 11
Use repetition as an invitation for the client to respond.

Model desired musical responses.
Make spaces in ones improvising for the clients improvising.
Interject music into the spaces made by the client.
This set of in-the-moment actions is performed by the therapist in order

to bring something forth from the client.
108 Gardstrom
Repeating
music-making is repeated by the therapist in order to elicit a response
With a partner, practice repeating as an elicitation technique. Did you
Modeling
Here, modeling involves the therapist demonstrating a desired musical
response, such as a playing technique on a specific instrument or a
musical motif (Bruscia, 1987). Montello (2004) used modeling with a
During this phase of treatment, Jennifer was dealing with
making contact with her deeper self, I encouraged Jennifer to
engage in vocal improvisations with me at the piano. She was
terrified of opening her mouth and singing. In a playful way, I
demonstrated my own style of vocal improvisation. Why are
you having so much fun? she asked me. (p. 311)
Take turns modeling desired musical responses for the group members.
The responses can be rhythmic, tonal, or relate to the use of particular
instruments (including the voice). Discuss.
Making Spaces
108 Gardstrom
express
themselves more creatively, as in the following example of an
Repeating
[Sheila] chose
a drumbyand
to play,
accompanied
music-making
is repeated
thebegan
therapist
in order
to elicitby
a Rachel
response
on
the
cello.
...
After
some
experimenting,
Rachel
began
to
play
a
continuous,
slow,
walking
rhythm,
rather
like
a
ground
bass,
in
the
tempo
of
Sheilas
playing.
This
simple
repetitive
musical
with
her(Independent
playing andSkill
gradually
to experiment with the different
Ex
712
Development)
p. 77)
With a2003,
partner,
practice repeating as an elicitation technique. Did you
ostinato.
Keeping a steady beat on a drum sounds easy enough, but many
Modeling
particularly
if theirinvolves
musical training
has not
required anyatype
of manual
Here, modeling
the therapist
demonstrating
desired
musical
coordination.
In
all
players,
both
skilled
and
unskilled,
there
response, such as a playing technique on a specific instrumentis ora a
tendency
irregularity
of theMontello
pulse at (2004)
times ofused
transition
between
musical toward
motif (Bruscia,
1987).
modeling
with a
meters
and
at
the
extreme
ends
of
the
spectrum
of
tempi;
in
the
later
case,
rush it when
playing
quickly.
Therefore,
it may was
be beneficial
to
During
this very
phase
of treatment,
Jennifer
dealing with
devote independent
practice
time
to
this
skill
area.
Do
not
shy
away
from
using a metronome
while you
on the
other
hand, do notJennifer
becometo
making contact
withpractice;
her deeper
self,
I encouraged
entirely dependent
upon
it
to
establish
or
maintain
the
beat.
As
a
music
engage in vocal improvisations with me at the piano. She
was
therapist, you
will
need
to
develop
a
confident,
internal
sense
of
pulse
to I
terrified of opening her mouth and singing. In a playful way,
guide you demonstrated
in your work, especially
if thatofwork
improvisational!Why are
my own style
vocalis improvisation.
Any time
you actsoasmuch
a rhythmic
ground
it is
you having
fun? she
askedduring
me. (p.improvisation,
311)
certainEx
instruments
provide a Learning)
more precise sound than others. In general,
713 (Experiential
than
those
thatmodeling
are shaken
or scraped.
Case
in point,for
contrast
the sound
of
Take
turns
desired
musical
responses
the group
members.
a The
djembe
with
that
of
a
cabasa.
If
you
find
yourself
with
an
instrument
responses can be rhythmic, tonal, or relate to the use of particular
that
does not naturally
a crisp
beat and this is what you need to
instruments
(includingproduce
the voice).
Discuss.
desired
sound.
For example, you might find that holding a maraca around
Making
Spaces
112 Gardstrom
1987).
instruments.
The primary
Talk about
purpose
your of
feelings
making
related
spaces
to the
is to
physical
elicit and
a musical
musical
response,
intimacyasrequired
is evident
in in
thisthe
exercise.
following excerpt by Smeijsters (2005):
Van den Hurk, in her improvisations with the client, used
Bonding
techniques of elicitation and redirection (Bruscia, 1987).
Theinvolves
first type
technique was
to stimulate
client tothe
Bonding
theofdevelopment
of aused
musical
theme thatthe
represents
react.
As
a
result
of
meter,
rhythm,
and
melodic
line
and
chordor
therapeutic relationship. The theme may emerge from the therapists
progression,
a
musical
process
is
felt
as
an
ongoing
process
clients improvising or both. (Note: Since this technique relates toinan
time,
and an anticipation
of good
Whileto
ongoing
relationship
between client
andcontinuation
therapist, itisisevoked.
not feasible
participating
in ain
musical
play, of
one
is stimulated
practice
this technique
the context
these
exercises.)to keep it going.
If the music therapist leaves an open space in the ongoing
process, then the client is provoked to fill up this space, to give
Soliloquy
an answer to it....In this treatment of Joshua, Van den Hurk
graduallytheintroduced
morea song
suddenly.
Thisto
In a soliloquy,
therapist (or open
client) spaces
improvises
as if talking
stimulated
to react
spontaneously.
(p. 137)
him/herself
aboutJoshua
the client
[him/herself]
(Bruscia,
1987, p. 548). This
is akin to what Boxill (1985) terms identification, a technique that she
Interjecting
used regularly in the first stages of therapy with individuals who have
developmental disabilities. In this technique, the therapist provides
Interjecting
canthe
be client
considered
opposite
of leaving
spaces,
where about
the
feedback for
in the the
form
of improvised
songs
and chants
therapist
musically
in theandspaces
by moment.
the client, as in the
the client,
therapist,fills
situation,
actionsleft
of the
description provided by Nolan (2004):
Ex 718 (Independent Skill Development & Experiential Learning)
During these [piano] pieces, Rick would occasionally give me
He wouldimprovise
communicate
by dropping(chant)
his volume
and
With solos.
a partner,
a this
rhythm-based
soliloquy
by removing
any melody,
limiting
theaspect
right ofhand
open
(accompanied
or a capella)
to describe
some
yourtointernal
intervals in
an accompanying
style (p.Switch
330). roles. Try out this
conversation
about
the other person.
technique in the larger group, this time improvising about the group as a
Ex 714
Skill Development)
whole.
How(Independent
comfortable were
you with this technique?
1987). The primary purpose of making spaces is to elicit a musical

response, as is evident in the following excerpt by Smeijsters (2005):
The first type of technique was used to stimulate the client to
react. As a result of meter, rhythm, and melodic line and chord
progression, a musical process is felt as an ongoing process in
time, and an anticipation of good continuation is evoked. While
participating in a musical play, one is stimulated to keep it going.
gradually introduced open spaces more suddenly. This
stimulated Joshua to react spontaneously. (p. 137)
Interjecting
Interjecting can be considered the opposite of leaving spaces, where the
therapist musically fills in the spaces left by the client, as in the
solos. He would communicate this by dropping his volume and
by removing any melody, limiting the right hand to open
intervals in an accompanying style (p. 330).
With a partner, practice

leaving purposeful
spaces in your music for her
PROCEDURAL
TECHNIQUES
or his interjections. Switch roles.
With a partner, practice leaving purposeful spaces in your music for her
REDIRECTION TECHNIQUES
MU 17 Recede from playing during a group improvisation.

110 Gardstrom
110 Gardstrom
Introducing Change

MU 12 Introduce musical change to redirect the clients playing.
InMU
the 13
group,
Intensify
take elements
turns acting
within
as the
the leader,
improvisation.
intensifying some aspect of
the sounds that are being created. Which aspect was easiest to intensify
and
why? Which
was most difficult and why?
Introducing
Change
In this technique, the therapist introduces new rhythmic or tonal figures

in order to move through an impasse or counteract rigidity (Bruscia,
1987). Smeijsters (2005) pens:
INTIMACY
TECHNIQUES
In this technique, the
therapist introduces
new rhythmic or tonal figures
Competencies
addressed
inpens:
this section include the ability to:
1987). Smeijsters
(2005)
With redirection techniques, Van den Hurk introduced new

musical motifs, intensified the musical play, and destabilized
existing patterns. Joshua was transported into musical territories
he had never experienced before. After some time, he himself
initiated musical redirections (p. 137).
I imitated his drumming and slowly brought a little more energy,

accelerating the tempo and making louder sounds. He joined me
and together we created an improvisation that reached a forte (p.
52).
MU 14 Assist
in the sharing
of instruments.
With clients
redirection
techniques,
Van den Hurk introduced new
MU 15 Bond
with
the
client
through
repetition
of a
musical motifs, intensified the
thecreation
musicaland
play,
and destabilized
musical
existingtheme.
patterns. Joshua was transported into musical territories
MU 16 Demonstrate
theexperienced
effective usebefore.
of musical
soliloquy.
he had never
After
some time, he himself
Techniques designed to promote client-therapist closeness for the
purposes
of advancing
the Learning)
therapeutic (working) relationship can be
Ex 715
(Experiential
termed intimacy techniques (Bruscia, 1987).
Take turns in small groups introducing new musical material for the
Sharing
expressInstruments
purpose of destabilizing existing patterns. How did this feel?
What were the reactions of the other players?
You may suggest that a client share an instrument with you or with
another
group member for purposes of promoting intimacy, exploring
Intensifying
interpersonal boundaries, and establishing give-and-take in the
relationship
(Bruscia,
1987).
group
therapy, followed
two or more
players may
Amir (1996)
describes
her In
use
of imitation
by intensification
share
an
instrument.
Instruments
that
can
be
shared
comfortably
by
with a 25-year-old man in psychotherapy:
multiple improvisers (playing simultaneously) are the piano, drum set,
bodhran, crash
cymbal,
large djembe,
drum,agong,
split drum,
I imitated
his drumming
and gathering
slowly brought
little more
energy,
temple blocks,
and
larger
(alto
or
bass)
barred
instruments.
(Note:
Someme
accelerating the tempo and making louder sounds. He joined
clients may
have
difficulty
sharingananimprovisation
instrument due
a fear of
being(p.
and
together
we created
thattoreached
a forte
overcome 52).
by the other player or because of boundary ambiguity.)
To intensify means to increase or add tension to some aspect of the

music (Bruscia, 1987). (Notice that the term itself suggests the word
tense.) In improvisation, the elements that are most frequently
intensified are the dynamics and tempo (as in the above example),
rhythm patterns, and melody.
717 (Experiential
Learning)
To Ex
intensify
means to increase
or add tension to some aspect of the
Sotense.)
that youIncanimprovisation,
experience what
clients
play
the your
elements
thatmay
areexperience,
most frequently
several
improvisations
with
dyads
and
triads
of
players
sharing
various

MU 13 Intensify elements within the improvisation.

express purpose of destabilizing existing patterns. How did this feel?
Intensifying
Amir (1996) describes her use of imitation followed by intensification
110 Gardstrom

InMU
the 13
group,
Intensify
take elements
turns acting
within
as the
the leader,
improvisation.
intensifying some aspect of
and
why? Which
was most difficult and why?
Introducing
Change
INTIMACY
TECHNIQUES
In this technique, the
therapist introduces
new rhythmic or tonal figures
Competencies
addressed
inpens:
this section include the ability to:
1987). Smeijsters
(2005)
MU 14 Assist
in the sharing
of instruments.
With clients
redirection
techniques,
Van den Hurk introduced new
MU 15 Bond
with
the
client
through
repetition
of a
musical motifs, intensified the
thecreation
musicaland
play,
and destabilized
musical
existingtheme.
patterns. Joshua was transported into musical territories
MU 16 Demonstrate
theexperienced
effective usebefore.
of musical
soliloquy.
he had never
After
some time, he himself
purposes
of advancing
the Learning)
therapeutic (working) relationship can be
Ex 715
(Experiential
Sharing
expressInstruments
purpose of destabilizing existing patterns. How did this feel?
another
group member for purposes of promoting intimacy, exploring
Intensifying
relationship
(Bruscia,
1987).
therapy, followed
two or more
players may
Amir (1996)
describes
her In
usegroup
of imitation
by intensification
share
an
instrument.
Instruments
that
can
be
shared
comfortably
by
bodhran, crash
cymbal,
large djembe,
drum,agong,
split drum,
I imitated
his drumming
and gathering
slowly brought
little more
energy,
temple blocks,
and
larger
(alto
or
bass)
barred
instruments.
(Note:
Someme
accelerating the tempo and making louder sounds. He joined
clients may
have
difficulty
sharingananimprovisation
instrument due
a fear of
being(p.
and
together
we created
thattoreached
a forte
overcome 52).
by the other player or because of boundary ambiguity.)
717 (Experiential
Learning)
To Ex
intensify
means to increase
or add tension to some aspect of the
Sotense.)
that youIncanimprovisation,
experience what
clients
play
the your
elements
thatmay
areexperience,
most frequently
several
improvisations
with
dyads
and
triads
of
players
sharing
various

In the group, take turns acting as the leader, intensifying some aspect of
and why? Which was most difficult and why?
INTIMACY TECHNIQUES
MU 14 Assist clients in the sharing of instruments.
MU 15 Bond with the client through the creation and repetition of a
musical theme.
MU 16 Demonstrate the effective use of musical soliloquy.
purposes of advancing the therapeutic (working) relationship can be
Sharing Instruments
another group member for purposes of promoting intimacy, exploring
relationship (Bruscia, 1987). In group therapy, two or more players may
share an instrument. Instruments that can be shared comfortably by
bodhran, crash cymbal, large djembe, gathering drum, gong, split drum,
temple blocks, and larger (alto or bass) barred instruments. (Note: Some
clients may have difficulty sharing an instrument due to a fear of being
overcome by the other player or because of boundary ambiguity.)
So that you can experience what your clients may experience, play
several improvisations with dyads and triads of players sharing various
112 Gardstrom
112 Gardstrom
instruments. Talk about your feelings related to the physical and musical
intimacy required in this exercise.
1987).
instruments.
The primary
Talk about
purpose
your of
feelings
making
related
spaces
to the
is to
physical
elicit and
a musical
musical
response,
intimacyasrequired
is evident
in in
thisthe
exercise.
following excerpt by Smeijsters (2005):
Bonding
Bonding
Bonding involves the development of a musical theme that represents the
therapeutic relationship. The theme may emerge from the therapists or
clients improvising or both. (Note: Since this technique relates to an
ongoing relationship between client and therapist, it is not feasible to
practice this technique in the context of these exercises.)
Soliloquy
In a soliloquy, the therapist (or client) improvises a song as if talking to
him/herself about the client [him/herself] (Bruscia, 1987, p. 548). This
feedback for the client in the form of improvised songs and chants about
the client, therapist, situation, and actions of the moment.
With a partner, improvise a rhythm-based (chant) soliloquy
(accompanied or a capella) to describe some aspect of your internal
conversation about the other person. Switch roles. Try out this
whole. How comfortable were you with this technique?
PROCEDURAL TECHNIQUES

Theinvolves
first type
technique was
to stimulate
client tothe
Bonding
theofdevelopment
of aused
musical
theme thatthe
represents
react.
As
a
result
of
meter,
rhythm,
and
melodic
line
and
chordor
therapeutic relationship. The theme may emerge from the therapists
progression,
a
musical
process
is
felt
as
an
ongoing
process
clients improvising or both. (Note: Since this technique relates toinan
time,
and an anticipation
of good
Whileto
ongoing
relationship
between client
andcontinuation
therapist, itisisevoked.
not feasible
participating
in ain
musical
play, of
one
is stimulated
practice
this technique
the context
these
exercises.)to keep it going.
Soliloquy
graduallytheintroduced
morea song
suddenly.
Thisto
In a soliloquy,
therapist (or open
client) spaces
improvises
as if talking
stimulated
to react
spontaneously.
(p. 137)
him/herself
aboutJoshua
the client
[him/herself]
(Bruscia,
1987, p. 548). This
Interjecting
Interjecting
canthe
be client
considered
opposite
of leaving
spaces,
where about
the
feedback for
in the the
form
of improvised
songs
and chants
therapist
musically
in theandspaces
by moment.
the client, as in the
the client,
therapist,fills
situation,
actionsleft
of the
He wouldimprovise
communicate
by dropping(chant)
his volume
and
With solos.
a partner,
a this
rhythm-based
soliloquy
by removing
any melody,
limiting
theaspect
right ofhand
open
(accompanied
or a capella)
to describe
some
yourtointernal
intervals in
an accompanying
style (p.Switch
330). roles. Try out this
conversation
about
the other person.
Ex 714
Skill Development)
whole.
How(Independent
comfortable were
you with this technique?
With a partner, practice
leaving purposeful
spaces in your music for her
PROCEDURAL
TECHNIQUES

116 Gardstrom
with clients who have been traumatized, reflecting through her own solo
Receding
singing what she senses the clients are feeling in a given moment but are
not able
or willing
to express
in sound.
Most
of the
procedural
techniques
are nonmusical in nature. One,
however, warrants our attention. This is receding, in which the therapist
Contrasting
pulls
back or withdraws completely from improvising with the group
(Bruscia, 1987). Your retreat may help clients take more responsibility
In this
technique,
the therapist
directs
the clients
to sequentially
explore,
and
express
themselves
in a freer
manner.
(Note:
A retreat that
is
through improvisation,
divergent
qualities feelings
or feelings
1987).inIn
unexpected
or too sudden
may stimulate
of (Bruscia,
abandonment
most clients.)
cases, contrasting is accomplished with the use of referents that
certain
encapsulate the notions being portrayed. Verbal processing is typically
used
a way
to help the
client synthesize important aspects of the
Ex as
719
(Experiential
Learning)
experience of improvising in contrast.
In a group of no more than four total players, take turns serving as the
groups
leader and then receding from the improvisation. As you retreat,
Splitting
pay attention to what happens in the musical and nonmusical responses
ofInthesplitting,
other players.
What factors
your decisionorof alternately
when to
the therapist
and influenced
clients simultaneously
recede?
How
did
it
feel
to
pull
out?
What
did
you
hear
and
observe
as athe
improvise the good and bad parts of a feeling or situation within
listener?
clients experience of self (Bruscia, 1987). An example is the
intrapersonal split between the real and ideal self. Often the therapist
REFERENTIAL
TECHNIQUES
and clients switch
roles and repeat
the representation. The splitting
technique assists the client in gaining awareness and insight toward the
Competencies
section include
thefollowing
ability to:
integration ofaddressed
polaritiesin
ofthis
experience,
as in the
example:
MU 18 Improvise
a clients
association.
I asked to
Henry
if hefree
could
play the music of [himself as] the
awed musician. He improvised a fresh, elegant, yet
powerfully sensual line that conveyed a sense of mastery and
Free Associating
confidence. I then asked him to play himself in relation to the
bland and
lacking in
We have awed
alreadymusician.
discussed His
the music
use ofwas
referents
as acolorless,
way to structure
any
power
or
sensuality.
The
contrast
was
remarkable.
(Montello,
improvisations. One technique that we have not yet explored is the
use of
1998,
p. 311)
musical free
association.
This is a receptive technique in which the
therapist improvises to the clients verbalized associations. It can be used
toTransferring
ready the client for a referential piece or to explore unconscious
material that emerges through the free association (Bruscia, 1987).
In transferring,
the therapist
and clientthe
assume
specific
to help isthe
Although
not termed
free association,
essence
of thisroles
technique
client explore
significant
interpersonal
and/or familial
beautifully
captured
in a case
study by Robarts
(2004), relationships
in which thein
her or his life (Bruscia, 1987). Montello (2004) articulates her use of this
technique (paired with doubling) and its power with a 32-year-old
woman who had been emotionally and physically abused by her mother:
Receding
Most of the procedural techniques are nonmusical in nature. One,
pulls back or withdraws completely from improvising with the group
and express themselves in a freer manner. (Note: A retreat that is
unexpected or too sudden may stimulate feelings of abandonment in
certain clients.)
groups leader and then receding from the improvisation. As you retreat,
of the other players. What factors influenced your decision of when to
recede? How did it feel to pull out? What did you hear and observe as a
listener?
REFERENTIAL TECHNIQUES
MU 18 Improvise to a clients free association.
Free Associating
We have already discussed the use of referents as a way to structure
improvisations. One technique that we have not yet explored is the use of
musical free association. This is a receptive technique in which the
to ready the client for a referential piece or to explore unconscious
Although not termed free association, the essence of this technique is
beautifully captured in a case study by Robarts (2004), in which the
114 Gardstrom
therapist improvises at the piano in response to the clients spontaneous

songs and Sprchgesang.
Acting as a therapist, take turns improvising in response to various
players free associations, presented in either verbal or song lyric format.
What challenges accompany this technique? How did the client
respond to your musical interpretation of their words?
EMOTIONAL EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES

The final section in this chapter describes some of the techniques of
emotional exploration. All of the techniques in this category are designed
to assist the client as she or he explores both previously encountered and
in-the-moment emotions. Verbal processing is an integral aspect of these
techniques.
Please note that these are advanced techniques for clinicians with
advanced training in clinical improvisation. They are not to be used by
undergraduate students in music therapy practica; neither are they to be
used by seasoned clincians without proper training and supervision, no
matter how many years these individuals have been practicing or how
skillfully they are able to facilitate other music therapy methods. I
include them here solely to heighten the readers (my students)
awareness and stimulate interest in improvisation as a form of music
psychotherapy.
114 Gardstrom
environment.
therapist improvises
Althoughat the
his piano
definition
in response
of holding
to the clients
differs spontaneous
from that
espoused
songs and
here,
Sprchgesang.
Wigrams containing example helps us understand how
the therapists music can serve to draw a line around particularly raw
expression:
ActingContaining
as a therapist,
impliestake
a different
turns improvising
process where
in response
the clients
to music
various
players
is quite
free associations,
chaotic and may
presented
also be
in quite
eitherloud.
verbal
Therapeutically,
or song lyric format.
the
What client
challenges
needs accompany
to be allowed
thisto technique?
be chaotic, noisy,
How did
exaggerated
the client
(a
respond
good
to your
example
musicalwould
interpretation
be an of
out-of-control
their words? child having a
musical/emotional tantrum). The therapist provides a musical
container
for the clients
music, playingTECHNIQUES
strongly and confidently
EMOTIONAL
EXPLORATION
enough to be heard by the client. it needs to be structured
music
that provides
pattern.describes
(2004, p. some
97) of the techniques of
The final
section
in this achapter
Kowski
(2003)
describes
of the holding
techniqueencountered
with a group
to assist
the client
as sheher
or use
he explores
both previously
and
ofin-the-moment
children who have
emotional
disturbances:
emotions.
Verbal
processing is an integral aspect of these
techniques.
I started
theareguitar,
strumming
D minor,
A minor
Please
note playing
that these
advanced
techniques
for clinicians
with
(picking
up
the
pentatonic
scale
of
the
marimba
phone:
FGACD),
establishing
a holding
environment.
I triedneither
to sendarethe
signal
undergraduate
students
in music
therapy practica;
they
to be
thatseasoned
I was there
to holdwithout
(using proper
the AMT
holding
technique),no
used by
clincians
training
and supervision,
and years
encourage
them, and have
not to
stop
them unless
matterprotect
how many
these individuals
been
practicing
or how
somebody
acted
in atodestructive
(pp. 9192).
skillfully
they are
able
facilitate manner
other music
therapy methods. I
Holding
is aand
difficult
concept
to in
convey
in wordsasyet
it is of
readily
awareness
stimulate
interest
improvisation
a form
music
identifiable
in
sound.
The
reader
is
referred
to
Track
32
on
Wigrams
psychotherapy.
(2004) companion disc for a dyadic example with percussion instruments.
Holding
Holding
Doubling
Holding, also called containing in the literature, is one of the most

frequently cited emotional techniques, and citations appear in
publications anchored in a wide variety of theoretical perspectives. Mary
Priestley (Analytical Music Therapy) is attributed with the first uses of
the term in the context of music psychotherapy. Bruscia defines holding
as providing a musical background or accompaniment that reverberates
the clients feelings while also offering a musical structure for containing
their release (1987, p. 552). The technique is used to help the client
explore and express or release difficult feelings in a safe and reassuring

When
a therapist
(or peer)
serves techniques,
as a double for
client, theyappear
expressin
frequently
cited
emotional
andthe citations
musically
(or verbally,
movement,
feelingsperspectives.
that the clientMary
is
publications
anchoredthrough
in a wide
variety ofetc.)
theoretical
unable
to (Analytical
clearly or Music
fully articulate.
properly
applied,
thisof
Priestley
Therapy) isWhen
attributed
with the
first uses
technique
hasthethe
effectof music
of expanding
the clients
of,
the term in
context
psychotherapy.
Brusciaawareness
defines holding
expression
of, aand
ownership
for theirorfeelings
(Bruscia, that
1987).
Austin
as providing
musical
background
accompaniment
reverberates
(1991)
writesfeelings
about her
usealso
of offering
this technique
within
improvised
song
the clients
while
a musical
structure
for containing
114 Gardstrom
environment.
therapist improvises
Althoughat the
his piano
definition
in response
of holding
to the clients
differs spontaneous
from that
espoused
songs and
here,
Sprchgesang.
Wigrams containing example helps us understand how
expression:
environment. Although his definition of holding differs from that

espoused here, Wigrams containing example helps us understand how
expression:
ActingContaining
as a therapist,
impliestake
a different
turns improvising
process where
in response
the clients
to music
various
players
is quite
free associations,
chaotic and may
presented
also be
in quite
eitherloud.
verbal
Therapeutically,
or song lyric format.
the
What client
challenges
needs accompany
to be allowed
thisto technique?
be chaotic, noisy,
How did
exaggerated
the client
(a
respond
good
to your
example
musicalwould
interpretation
be an of
out-of-control
their words? child having a
container
for the clients
music, playingTECHNIQUES
strongly and confidently
EMOTIONAL
EXPLORATION
music
that provides
pattern.describes
(2004, p. some
97) of the techniques of
The final
section
in this achapter
Kowski
(2003)
describes
useexplores
of the holding
techniqueencountered
with a group
to assist
the client
as sheher
or he
both previously
and
ofin-the-moment
children who have
emotional
disturbances:
emotions.
Verbal
processing is an integral aspect of these
techniques.
I started
theareguitar,
strumming
D minor,
A minor
Please
note playing
that these
advanced
techniques
for clinicians
with
(picking
up
the
pentatonic
scale
of
the
marimba
phone:
FGACD),
establishing
a holding
environment.
I triedneither
to sendarethe
signal
undergraduate
students
in music
therapy practica;
they
to be
thatseasoned
I was there
to holdwithout
(using proper
the AMT
holding
technique),no
used by
clincians
training
and supervision,
and years
encourage
them, and have
not to
stop
them unless
matterprotect
how many
these individuals
been
practicing
or how
somebody
acted
in atodestructive
(pp. 9192).
skillfully
they are
able
facilitate manner
other music
therapy methods. I
Holding
is aand
difficult
concept
to in
convey
in wordsasyet
it is of
readily
awareness
stimulate
interest
improvisation
a form
music
identifiable
in
sound.
The
reader
is
referred
to
Track
32
on
Wigrams
psychotherapy.
Containing implies a different process where the clients music

is quite chaotic and may also be quite loud. Therapeutically, the
client needs to be allowed to be chaotic, noisy, exaggerated (a
good example would be an out-of-control child having a
container for the clients music, playing strongly and confidently
music that provides a pattern. (2004, p. 97)
Holding
Doubling
When
a therapist
(or peer)
serves techniques,
as a double for
client, theyappear
expressin
frequently
cited
emotional
andthe citations
musically
(or verbally,
movement,
feelingsperspectives.
that the clientMary
is
publications
anchoredthrough
in a wide
variety ofetc.)
theoretical
unable
to (Analytical
clearly or Music
fully articulate.
properly
applied,
thisof
Priestley
Therapy) isWhen
attributed
with the
first uses
technique
hasthethe
effectof music
of expanding
the clients
of,
the term in
context
psychotherapy.
Brusciaawareness
defines holding
expression
of, aand
ownership
for theirorfeelings
(Bruscia, that
1987).
Austin
as providing
musical
background
accompaniment
reverberates
(1991)
writesfeelings
about her
usealso
of offering
this technique
within
improvised
song
the clients
while
a musical
structure
for containing
Kowski (2003) describes her use of the holding technique with a group
of children who have emotional disturbances:
I started playing the guitar, strumming D minor, A minor
(picking up the pentatonic scale of the marimba phone: FGACD),
establishing a holding environment. I tried to send the signal
that I was there to hold (using the AMT holding technique),
protect and encourage them, and not to stop them unless
somebody acted in a destructive manner (pp. 9192).
Holding is a difficult concept to convey in words yet it is readily
identifiable in sound. The reader is referred to Track 32 on Wigrams
Doubling
When a therapist (or peer) serves as a double for the client, they express
musically (or verbally, through movement, etc.) feelings that the client is
unable to clearly or fully articulate. When properly applied, this
technique has the effect of expanding the clients awareness of,
expression of, and ownership for their feelings (Bruscia, 1987). Austin
(1991) writes about her use of this technique within improvised song
116 Gardstrom
not able or willing to express in sound.
Contrasting
In this technique, the therapist directs the clients to sequentially explore,
through improvisation, divergent qualities or feelings (Bruscia, 1987). In
most cases, contrasting is accomplished with the use of referents that
used as a way to help the client synthesize important aspects of the
Splitting
In splitting, the therapist and clients simultaneously or alternately
improvise the good and bad parts of a feeling or situation within the
and clients switch roles and repeat the representation. The splitting
integration of polarities of experience, as in the following example:
I asked Henry if he could play the music of [himself as] the
awed musician. His music was bland and colorless, lacking in
any power or sensuality. The contrast was remarkable. (Montello,
1998, p. 311)
Transferring
In transferring, the therapist and client assume specific roles to help the
client explore significant interpersonal and/or familial relationships in
116 Gardstrom
Receding
not able
or willing
to express
in sound.
Most
of the
procedural
techniques
are nonmusical in nature. One,
Contrasting
pulls
back or withdraws completely from improvising with the group
In this
technique,
the therapist
directs
the clients
to sequentially
explore,
and
express
themselves
in a freer
manner.
(Note:
A retreat that
is
through improvisation,
divergent
qualities feelings
or feelings
1987).inIn
unexpected
or too sudden
may stimulate
of (Bruscia,
abandonment
most clients.)
cases, contrasting is accomplished with the use of referents that
certain
used
a way
to help the
client synthesize important aspects of the
Ex as
719
(Experiential
Learning)
groups
leader and then receding from the improvisation. As you retreat,
Splitting
ofInthesplitting,
other players.
What factors
your decisionorof alternately
when to
the therapist
and influenced
clients simultaneously
recede?
How
did
it
feel
to
pull
out?
What
did
you
hear
and
observe
as athe
improvise the good and bad parts of a feeling or situation within
listener?
REFERENTIAL
TECHNIQUES
and clients switch
roles and repeat
the representation. The splitting
Competencies
section include
thefollowing
ability to:
integration ofaddressed
polaritiesin
ofthis
experience,
as in the
example:
MU 18 Improvise
a clients
association.
I asked to
Henry
if hefree
could
play the music of [himself as] the
Free Associating
bland and
lacking in
We have awed
alreadymusician.
discussed His
the music
use ofwas
referents
as acolorless,
way to structure
any
power
or
sensuality.
The
contrast
was
remarkable.
(Montello,
improvisations. One technique that we have not yet explored is the
use of
1998,
p. 311)
musical free
association.
This is a receptive technique in which the
toTransferring
ready the client for a referential piece or to explore unconscious
In transferring,
the therapist
and clientthe
assume
specific
to help isthe
Although
not termed
free association,
essence
of thisroles
technique
client explore
significant
interpersonal
and/or familial
beautifully
captured
in a case
study by Robarts
(2004), relationships
in which thein
120 Gardstrom
uneasy. Someone punctuates the composite sound with a series of frantic

scrapes
Jennifer
on the had
guiro.
become
The sound
the mother
is harshwho
and ignored,
unsettling.
rejected,
The auditory
and
input is
abused
beginning
the innocent
to overwhelm
divineyou.
child
Youwho
dont
simply
knowwanted
what to
to listen
playfor
and, although
to love and
you be
continue
loved.toWe
play,
engaged
you are
in not
musical
sure how
role-playing
to make to
any
kind ofexplore
meaningful
this dynamic.
contribution
I played
her out-of-control mom and she
would defend herself. It was helpful for her to have a chance to
fight
Youback.
will I find
was moved,
that onehowever,
of the most
to take
difficult,
care of yet
the little
most critical,
girl.
aspectsDuring
of the facilitation
one sessionofwhen
groupJennifer
improvisation
was loathe
is listening,
to listen
the to
focus
herof
this chapter.
little How
girl do
part,
you Iknow
played
whather
to listen
role for?
and Your
during
attention
a vocal
may
wanderimprovisation,
from player to
sang,
player
Youre
or sound
usingto me,
sound,
youasnever
the above
let mevignette
have
suggests.
anySometimes
fun. Jennifer
you may
wasfocus
touched
on your
by my
own
words.
playing,
(p. 315)
sometimes on
that of another player or subgroup of players, and sometimes on the
music of thefor
group
as a whole.
Vocabulary
Chapter
Seven At certain moments you may be attracted
to a particular musical element, such as the timbre, volume level, or
tempo
the piece. At
times, you may be attracted to a musical
1. of Techniques
of other
Empathy
process, such
accumulation of harmonic tension as time goes by. It
a. as the
imitation
is no wonder
even expert facilitators often feel bombarded by the
b. that synchrony
enormity of
simultaneous
input resulting from group improvisation. And,
c.
mirroring
assuming you
are
able
to
settle
d.
incorporatingin and really listen to one precise feature
of the music,
what
words do you use to label it for yourself and talk
e.
pacing
about it with
f. others?
reflecting
music therapists
audio- or video-record group improvisations
2. SomeStructuring
Techniques
so that they
them
more carefully after their sessions. Some
a. can review
rhythmic
grounding
therapists b.transcribe
the
improvisations
from these recordings using
tonal centering
traditional
or
nontraditional
systems
of
notation. Recording and
3.
transcription
can
be
helpful
tools
but
they
can
not assist you in real
a.
Repeating
time, as the
unfolds. Let me suggest an in-the-moment, real-time
b. musicmodeling
listening framework
that spaces
I have found helpful in my clinical work,
c.
making
research, d.
and teaching.
This is a system called the Improvisation
interjecting
Assessment
Profiles (IAPs),
developed by Bruscia (1987). The profiles
4.
Redirection
Techniques
were originally
created
as
a
assessment tool. In this chapter, we
a.
introducingclient
change
will explore
the
IAPs
as
a
listening
guide
and a system of description for
b.
differentiating
both the processes
and products of clinical improvisation.
c.
modulating
d.
intensifying
5.
Intimacy Techniques
a.
sharing instruments
Jennifer had become the mother who ignored, rejected, and

abused the innocent divine child who simply wanted to play
to love and be loved. We engaged in musical role-playing to
explore this dynamic. I played her out-of-control mom and she
fight back. I was moved, however, to take care of the little girl.
During one session when Jennifer was loathe to listen to her
little girl part, I played her role and during a vocal
improvisation, sang, Youre using me, you never let me have
any fun. Jennifer was touched by my words. (p. 315)
Vocabulary for Chapter Seven

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Techniques of Empathy
a.
imitation
b.
synchrony
c.
mirroring
d.
incorporating
e.
pacing
f.
reflecting
Structuring Techniques
a.
rhythmic grounding
b.
tonal centering
a.
Repeating
b.
modeling
c.
making spaces
d.
interjecting
Redirection Techniques
a.
introducing change
b.
differentiating
c.
modulating
d.
intensifying
Intimacy Techniques
a.
sharing instruments
118 Gardstrom
6.
7.
8.
b.
bonding
c.
soliloquies
a.
receding
a.
free associating
a.
holding
b.
doubling
c.
contrasting
d.
splitting
e.
transferring
118 Gardstrom
b.
bonding
Chapter Eight
c.
soliloquies
6.
MAKING
SENSE OF WHAT WE HEAR:
a.
receding
THE IAPs
7.
a.
free associating
8.
Vignette
81
a.
holding
b. are adoubling
Imagine that you
student music therapist who has just begun your
c. at thecontrasting
clinical training
local forensic psychiatric hospital. It is Tuesday
splittingfrom Unit Five greet you on their way into
morning, and d.
seven patients
e.
the therapy room. Thetransferring
chairs in the room are arranged in a circle, and
there are varied percussion instruments in the center on the floor.
Once everyone is seated, your supervisor makes introductions
and asks each person in the circle to choose an instrument that appeals
to them. One by one the participants select an instrument and bring it
back to their seats. After a moment of silence, one patient, Bob, begins a
moderately-paced pulse on a conga drum. You watch as two other
patients join in, playing simple rhythmic patterns in time with the beat.
The music therapist and the rest of the players add their sound to the
mix, and you begin to play sporadic triplets on your tambourine. Now
everyone is improvising together, and your attention turns to the various
timbres that are created.
You find yourself drawn first but only briefly to the sound of the
temple blocks, and you notice that the patient who is playing them, Chris,
is attempting a syncopated rhythm that is slightly misaligned with the
underlying pulse of the group. You pick out the sound of the cabasa, and
then your focus shifts abruptly to the sound of the bongos and the talking
drum. The patients playing these two instruments are improvising
imitatively. Another player, Ruth, joins in the copy game, and all three
patients smile at one another. One patient, Karen, is creating lively and
syncopated rhythms, but her playing is barely audible and is inconsistent
in tempo. She appears disinterested in the entire experience, slouching,
leaning her arm on the chair, and avoiding eye contact with the other
players. After about a minute of sound, Bob, the player who started the
improvisation, ceases the pulse; quite suddenly the rhythmic patterns
dissipate, becoming seemingly random thuds and clicks. You start to feel
118 Gardstrom
b.
bonding
Chapter Eight
c.
soliloquies
6.
MAKING
SENSE OF WHAT WE HEAR:
a.
receding
THE IAPs
7.
a.
free associating
8.
Vignette
81
a.
holding
b. are adoubling
Imagine that you
student music therapist who has just begun your
c. at thecontrasting
clinical training
local forensic psychiatric hospital. It is Tuesday
splittingfrom Unit Five greet you on their way into
morning, and d.
seven patients
e.
the therapy room. Thetransferring
chairs in the room are arranged in a circle, and
Chapter Eight
MAKING SENSE OF WHAT WE HEAR:

THE IAPs
Vignette 81
Imagine that you are a student music therapist who has just begun your
clinical training at the local forensic psychiatric hospital. It is Tuesday
morning, and seven patients from Unit Five greet you on their way into
the therapy room. The chairs in the room are arranged in a circle, and
120 Gardstrom

scrapes on the guiro. The sound is harsh and unsettling. The auditory
input is beginning to overwhelm you. You dont know what to listen for
and, although you continue to play, you are not sure how to make any
kind of meaningful contribution to the improvisation.
You will find that one of the most difficult, yet most critical,
aspects of the facilitation of group improvisation is listening, the focus of
this chapter. How do you know what to listen for? Your attention may
wander from player to player or sound to sound, as the above vignette
suggests. Sometimes you may focus on your own playing, sometimes on
music of the group as a whole. At certain moments you may be attracted
tempo of the piece. At other times, you may be attracted to a musical
process, such as the accumulation of harmonic tension as time goes by. It
is no wonder that even expert facilitators often feel bombarded by the
enormity of simultaneous input resulting from group improvisation. And,
assuming you are able to settle in and really listen to one precise feature
of the music, what words do you use to label it for yourself and talk
about it with others?
Some music therapists audio- or video-record group improvisations
so that they can review them more carefully after their sessions. Some
therapists transcribe the improvisations from these recordings using
traditional or nontraditional systems of notation. Recording and
transcription can be helpful tools but they can not assist you in real
time, as the music unfolds. Let me suggest an in-the-moment, real-time
listening framework that I have found helpful in my clinical work,
research, and teaching. This is a system called the Improvisation
Assessment Profiles (IAPs), developed by Bruscia (1987). The profiles
were originally created as a client assessment tool. In this chapter, we
will explore the IAPs as a listening guide and a system of description for
both the processes and products of clinical improvisation.
120 Gardstrom

scrapes
Jennifer
on the had
guiro.
become
The sound
the mother
is harshwho
and ignored,
unsettling.
rejected,
The auditory
and
input is
abused
beginning
the innocent
to overwhelm
divineyou.
child
Youwho
dont
simply
knowwanted
what to
to listen
playfor
and, although
to love and
you be
continue
loved.toWe
play,
engaged
you are
in not
musical
sure how
role-playing
to make to
any
kind ofexplore
meaningful
this dynamic.
contribution
I played
her out-of-control mom and she
fight
Youback.
will I find
was moved,
that onehowever,
of the most
to take
difficult,
care of yet
the little
most critical,
girl.
aspectsDuring
of the facilitation
one sessionofwhen
groupJennifer
improvisation
was loathe
is listening,
to listen
the to
focus
herof
this chapter.
little How
girl do
part,
you Iknow
played
whather
to listen
role for?
and Your
during
attention
a vocal
may
wanderimprovisation,
from player to
sang,
player
Youre
or sound
usingto me,
sound,
youasnever
the above
let mevignette
have
suggests.
anySometimes
fun. Jennifer
you may
wasfocus
touched
on your
by my
own
words.
playing,
(p. 315)
sometimes on
music of thefor
group
as a whole.
Vocabulary
Chapter
Seven At certain moments you may be attracted
tempo
the piece. At
times, you may be attracted to a musical
1. of Techniques
of other
Empathy
process, such
accumulation of harmonic tension as time goes by. It
a. as the
imitation
is no wonder
even expert facilitators often feel bombarded by the
b. that synchrony
enormity of
simultaneous
input resulting from group improvisation. And,
c.
mirroring
assuming you
are
able
to
settle
d.
incorporatingin and really listen to one precise feature
of the music,
what
words do you use to label it for yourself and talk
e.
pacing
about it with
f. others?
reflecting
music therapists
audio- or video-record group improvisations
2. SomeStructuring
Techniques
so that they
them
more carefully after their sessions. Some
a. can review
rhythmic
grounding
therapists b.transcribe
the
improvisations
from these recordings using
tonal centering
traditional
or
nontraditional
systems
of
notation. Recording and
3.
transcription
can
be
helpful
tools
but
they
can
not assist you in real
a.
Repeating
time, as the
unfolds. Let me suggest an in-the-moment, real-time
b. musicmodeling
listening framework
that spaces
I have found helpful in my clinical work,
c.
making
research, d.
and teaching.
This is a system called the Improvisation
interjecting
Assessment
Profiles (IAPs),
developed by Bruscia (1987). The profiles
4.
Redirection
Techniques
were originally
created
as
a
assessment tool. In this chapter, we
a.
introducingclient
change
will explore
the
IAPs
as
a
listening
guide
and a system of description for
b.
differentiating
both the processes
and products of clinical improvisation.
c.
modulating
d.
intensifying
5.
Intimacy Techniques
a.
sharing instruments
124 Gardstrom
IAPs 121
improvisation
described inASSESSMENT
Vignette 81, it isPROFILES
impossible (IAPs)
to predict what
IMPROVISATION
features would have emerged as salient to you, the listener. But it is
important
to mention
here that
theprofiles,
absence,and
as well
the presence,
The IAPs
are composed
of six
eachasprofile
exists asofa a
particular
featurehow
mayclients
be what
draws
the listeners
attention
a lack
way
to describe
use,
organize,
manipulate,
and(e.g.,
combine
of musical
or steady
sound
and tension,
musical dynamic
elementscontrast,
in their
solo pulse).
playing and in their
As the intern
in theplayers.
example,
listened
to theare
group
improvise,
improvisations
with other
Asyou
such,
the profiles
a way
for us
and
everything
you
heard
and
noticed
seemed
(or
sounded)
equally
to understand the rhythmic, tonal, textural, dynamic, and timbral
important.
In
other
words,
every
sound
appeared
in
the
foreground,
relationships that are formed through improvisation. The IAPs alsoon
the right
sidesignificant
of the gradient
continuum
(overpowering).
Yousuch
felt your
address
other
connections
created
in improvisation,
as
in many
different
directions
and of
hadthedifficulty
theattention
physical pulled
(relationships
between
the music
and aspects
body),
maintaining
your aural(relationships
focus on anybetween
one aspect
a notable
length of
and
the programmatic
thefor
music
and images,
time. lyrics,
As a etc.).
result, listening and understanding was fragmented. The
stories,
concept
of salience could
have helped
make clients
deliberate
decisions
The relationships
that develop
withinyou
a single
music
are
about
what
aspects
of
the
improvisation
warranted
rigorous
attention,
and
called intramusical relationships (the prefix intra means within), and
how long. that develop between a clients music and the music of
theforrelationships
Think about
the concept
of salience
and how this
other players
are called
intermusical
relationships
(the profile
prefix relates
interto
intramusical
and intermusical relationships in improvisation. At any
means
between).
given time in a group improvisation, either one might dominate your
awareness. As
the listener in the vignette above, were you drawn more to
Intramusical
Relationships
what was happening within each patients improvising or what was
the musical
exchanges
betweenfrom
the Unit
players?
did your
Inoccurring
the aboveinvignette,
as soon
as each patient
FiveOr,
picked
up
vacillate?
Let us
to consider
the possibilities.
anattention
instrument
and began
totake
play,a moment
a relationship
was initiated.
Not only
Asplayer
you listened
to or
Karen,
the disinterested
youitself
were
did each
define her
his relationship
with thewoman,
instrument
primarily
focused
on
the
intramusical
aspects
of
her
improvisation.
You
(evidenced by choosing it, holding it or positioning it relative to the
noticed
that
Karens
playing
was
lively
and
syncopated
(the
music
had
body, and physically manipulating it in a certain way), but in creating
some
rhythmic
vitality),
yet
the
sounds
were
barely
audible
(so
low
sound, she or he began to form ongoing and audible intramusicalin
volume thatAgain,
they could
hardly be
heard) and refer
the tempo
hervarious
playing
relationships.
intramusical
relationships
to howofthe
was erratic.
Without
it, perhaps,
you were
making
some
elements
employed
withinrealizing
the players
music connect
with one
another.
important
the every
relationship
betweenimprovises,
the rhythmic,
This
type of observations
relationship isabout
present
time a person
in
dynamic,
and
temporal
aspects
of
her
creation,
and
you
sensed
that
solo, dyadic, and group improvisations alike. In our example, as Bob
something
was
amiss.
This
player
stood
out
in
your
perceptual
field
created a pulse on the head of a drum, for instance, he simultaneously
because multiple
there waselements:
an odditypulse,
in the
way she
internally
organized
and
employed
tempo,
timbre,
and volume.
What
manipulated
the musical
elements.
were
the evident
relationships
between these components? Pulse and
you chosen
to, youlinkedby
might havedefinition
tuned into
tempo Had
are always
inextricably
youthe
canintermusical
not have
aspects
of the
Karens
playing,
either
place and
of volume?
or in addition
to the
one
without
other,but
what
aboutintempo
Were there
intramusical
relationships
that
you
discerned.
How
did
features
of her
discernable relationships between his tempo and volume? (Often players
playing, specifically pulse, tempo, and dynamics, relate to these same
IAPs 121
IMPROVISATION ASSESSMENT PROFILES (IAPs)

The IAPs are composed of six profiles, and each profile exists as a
way to describe how clients use, organize, manipulate, and combine
sound and musical elements in their solo playing and in their
improvisations with other players. As such, the profiles are a way for us
relationships that are formed through improvisation. The IAPs also
address other significant connections created in improvisation, such as
the physical (relationships between the music and aspects of the body),
and the programmatic (relationships between the music and images,
stories, lyrics, etc.).
The relationships that develop within a single clients music are
the relationships that develop between a clients music and the music of
other players are called intermusical relationships (the prefix inter
means between).
In the above vignette, as soon as each patient from Unit Five picked up
an instrument and began to play, a relationship was initiated. Not only
did each player define her or his relationship with the instrument itself
sound, she or he began to form ongoing and audible intramusical
relationships. Again, intramusical relationships refer to how the various
elements employed within the players music connect with one another.
This type of relationship is present every time a person improvises, in
employed multiple elements: pulse, tempo, timbre, and volume. What
were the evident relationships between these components? Pulse and
tempo are always inextricably linkedby definition you can not have
one without the other,but what about tempo and volume? Were there
122 Gardstrom
will increase the loudness level as the speed of the music increases, for
example.) What about timbre? Were changes in the timbre of Bobs
playing related in any way to changes in tempo and volume? Each of the
Unit Five patients organized and manipulated the elements of sound in
specific ways, forging various types of internal connections. They
formed rhythmic patterns through the use of subdivisions. These
subdivisions existed within a metric structure, which was tied to a pulse,
which had a given tempo, and so on. These intramusical relationships
can be revealed to us through the use of the first five profiles of the IAPs,
Salience, Integration, Variability, Tension, and Congruence, which we
will explore below.
Intermusical Relationships
In the case of dyadic or group improvisation, the potential exists for a
client to make connections with others through music. For purposes of
our discussion, these are, perhaps, the most significant types of
relationships to distinguish. Again, we term these intermusical. I write
that the potential exists for these connections to occur because,
whereas intramusical relationships are a certainty of every improvisation,
intermusical relationships are optional, in a sense. That is, just because a
client is improvising within the context of a group does not mean that she
or he will necessarily connect with the music of the other players. It is
possible for a client to be oblivious to, ignore, and even actively reject
musical relationships with other members. We can use the same five
profiles that we use to make sense of the intramusical features to
understand intermusical features. Bruscia (1987) developed an additional
profile, Autonomy, which applies exclusively to dyadic or group
improvisation, in that it targets role relationships between players,
specifically leader and follower roles during the music-making.
The Profiles
Take a look at Appendix F. Here you will see each of the six profiles and
their corresponding definitions. For each profile, you will note that five
gradients exist. These gradients are essentially a continuum of
classification, from one extreme to the other, used to describe the
122 Gardstrom
IAPs 123
players
will increase
responses
the loudness
within thelevel
profile
as the
being
speed
addressed.
of the music
For example,
increases,infor
theexample.)
Variability
Whatprofile,
about timbre?
RigidWere
refers
changes
to a inplayers
the timbre
persistent
of Bobs
maintenance
playing related
or inrepetition
any way toofchanges
a musical
in tempo
element
and volume?
or anyEach
of ofitsthe
componentsbeyond
Unit Five patients organized
what isandcommonly
manipulatedaccepted
the elements
as of
musically
sound in
meaningful
specific ways,
(Bruscia,
forging
1987,
various
p. 430).
types
At the
of other
internal
extreme,
connections.
Random
They
refers
formed
to arhythmic
total lackpatterns
of preservation
through and
the predictability,
use of subdivisions.
with drastic,
These
frequent,
subdivisions
abrupt,
existed
and within
meaningless
a metricchanges
structure,inwhich
the musical
was tiedmaterials
to a pulse,
(Bruscia,
which had
1987,
a given
p. 431).
tempo,
Specific
and definitions
so on. These
for intramusical
each of the gradients
relationships
in
each
canof
bethe
revealed
six profiles
to us through
can be found
the use
in of
Bruscias
the first book
five profiles
(1987). of
Bethe
aware
IAPs,
that,
Salience,
in clientIntegration,
assessment,Variability,
the extremeTension,
gradientsand
areCongruence,
reserved for which
extremewe
situations,
will explore
andbelow.
when consistently applied to an individuals improvising,
suggesting a tendency, may point to some form of pathology. The
relationship
between
the profiles and gradients will become clearer as we
Intermusical
Relationships
examine each of them in the following sections. Hopefully, the clinical
example
at theofbeginning
the chapter
will help the
us make
senseexists
of these
In the case
dyadic orofgroup
improvisation,
potential
for a
concepts
context.
At the conclusion
each section,
you purposes
will findof
client toinmake
connections
with othersofthrough
music. For
additional
clinical examples
for optional
our discussion,
these are,
perhaps, discussion.
the most significant types of
Competencies
in this section
include
the
thatSALIENCE.
the potential
exists foraddressed
these connections
to occur
because,
ability
to:
LIclient
1
Define
salience.within the context of a group does not mean that she
is
improvising
LIor2 he Determine
whatconnect
elements
will necessarily
withand
the aspects
music ofoftheimprovisation
other players.are
It is
salient
any given
possible
for aatclient
to betime.
oblivious to, ignore, and even actively reject
The
first profile
of the
is termed
Salience,
it emerges features
as one ofto
profiles
that we
useIAPs
to make
sense
of theand
intramusical
theunderstand
most important
to the features.
listener. Strictly
salient means
most
intermusical
Bruscia defined,
(1987) developed
an additional
noticeable
importantwhich
(The New
Oxford
American Dictionary,
p.
profile, or
Autonomy,
applies
exclusively
to dyadic 2001,
or group
1504).
The concept
of salience
extremely essential
all
improvisation,
in that
it targetswill
roleberelationships
between to
players,
subsequent
listening
processes,
it will
as a triage, helping
specifically
leader and
followerbecause
roles during
theact
music-making.
you to discern and focus on the most prominent and influential features
ofThe
an improvisation
at any given time and ignore or postpone attention to
Profiles
other features. As such, it will serve as a way to delimit and make more
manageable
which is heard.
The
thissix
profile
serve
Take a lookthat
at Appendix
F. Here
youfive
willgradients
see eachfor
of the
profiles
and
astheir
a continuum
of prominence,
prominence)
corresponding
definitions.from
For Receding
each profile,(little
you will
note that to
five
Overpowering
prominence).
Withouta hearing
gradients exist. (obliterating
These gradients
are essentially
continuumtheof
122 Gardstrom
IAPs 123
players
will increase
responses
the loudness
within thelevel
profile
as the
being
speed
addressed.
of the music
For example,
increases,infor
theexample.)
Variability
Whatprofile,
about timbre?
RigidWere
refers
changes
to a inplayers
the timbre
persistent
of Bobs
maintenance
playing related
or inrepetition
any way toofchanges
a musical
in tempo
element
and volume?
or anyEach
of ofitsthe
componentsbeyond
Unit Five patients organized
what isandcommonly
manipulatedaccepted
the elements
as of
musically
sound in
meaningful
specific ways,
(Bruscia,
forging
1987,
various
p. 430).
types
At the
of other
internal
extreme,
connections.
Random
They
refers
formed
to arhythmic
total lackpatterns
of preservation
through and
the predictability,
use of subdivisions.
with drastic,
These
frequent,
subdivisions
abrupt,
existed
and within
meaningless
a metricchanges
structure,inwhich
the musical
was tiedmaterials
to a pulse,
(Bruscia,
which had
1987,
a given
p. 431).
tempo,
Specific
and definitions
so on. These
for intramusical
each of the gradients
relationships
in
each
canof
bethe
revealed
six profiles
to us through
can be found
the use
in of
Bruscias
the first book
five profiles
(1987). of
Bethe
aware
IAPs,
that,
Salience,
in clientIntegration,
assessment,Variability,
the extremeTension,
gradientsand
areCongruence,
reserved for which
extremewe
situations,
will explore
andbelow.
when consistently applied to an individuals improvising,
relationship
between
the profiles and gradients will become clearer as we
Intermusical
Relationships
example
at theofbeginning
the chapter
will help the
us make
senseexists
of these
In the case
dyadic orofgroup
improvisation,
potential
for a
concepts
context.
At the conclusion
each section,
you purposes
will findof
client toinmake
connections
with othersofthrough
music. For
additional
clinical examples
for optional
our discussion,
these are,
perhaps, discussion.
the most significant types of
Competencies
in this section
include
the
thatSALIENCE.
the potential
exists foraddressed
these connections
to occur
because,
ability
to:
LIclient
1
Define
salience.within the context of a group does not mean that she
is
improvising
LIor2 he Determine
whatconnect
elements
will necessarily
withand
the aspects
music ofoftheimprovisation
other players.are
It is
salient
any given
possible
for aatclient
to betime.
oblivious to, ignore, and even actively reject
The
first profile
of the
is termed
Salience,
it emerges features
as one ofto
profiles
that we
useIAPs
to make
sense
of theand
intramusical
theunderstand
most important
to the features.
listener. Strictly
salient means
most
intermusical
Bruscia defined,
(1987) developed
an additional
noticeable
importantwhich
(The New
Oxford
p.
profile, or
Autonomy,
applies
exclusively
to dyadic 2001,
or group
1504).
The concept
of salience
extremely essential
all
improvisation,
in that
it targetswill
roleberelationships
between to
players,
subsequent
listening
processes,
it will
as a triage, helping
specifically
leader and
followerbecause
roles during
theact
music-making.
ofThe
an improvisation
at any given time and ignore or postpone attention to
Profiles
manageable
which is heard.
The
thissix
profile
serve
Take a lookthat
at Appendix
F. Here
youfive
willgradients
see eachfor
of the
profiles
and
astheir
a continuum
of prominence,
prominence)
corresponding
definitions.from
For Receding
each profile,(little
you will
note that to
five
Overpowering
prominence).
Withouta hearing
gradients exist. (obliterating
These gradients
are essentially
continuumtheof
IAPs 123
players responses within the profile being addressed. For example, in

the Variability profile, Rigid refers to a players persistent
maintenance or repetition of a musical element or any of its
componentsbeyond what is commonly accepted as musically
meaningful (Bruscia, 1987, p. 430). At the other extreme, Random
refers to a total lack of preservation and predictability, with drastic,
frequent, abrupt, and meaningless changes in the musical materials
(Bruscia, 1987, p. 431). Specific definitions for each of the gradients in
each of the six profiles can be found in Bruscias book (1987). Be aware
that, in client assessment, the extreme gradients are reserved for extreme
situations, and when consistently applied to an individuals improvising,
relationship between the profiles and gradients will become clearer as we
example at the beginning of the chapter will help us make sense of these
concepts in context. At the conclusion of each section, you will find
additional clinical examples for optional discussion.
SALIENCE. Competencies addressed in this section include the
ability to:
LI 1
LI 2
Define salience.
Determine what elements and aspects of improvisation are
salient at any given time.
The first profile of the IAPs is termed Salience, and it emerges as one of
the most important to the listener. Strictly defined, salient means most
noticeable or important (The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001, p.
1504). The concept of salience will be extremely essential to all
subsequent listening processes, because it will act as a triage, helping
of an improvisation at any given time and ignore or postpone attention to
manageable that which is heard. The five gradients for this profile serve
as a continuum of prominence, from Receding (little prominence) to
Overpowering (obliterating prominence). Without hearing the
124 Gardstrom
improvisation described in Vignette 81, it is impossible to predict what

important to mention here that the absence, as well as the presence, of a
particular feature may be what draws the listeners attention (e.g., a lack
of musical tension, dynamic contrast, or steady pulse).
As the intern in the example, you listened to the group improvise,
and everything you heard and noticed seemed (or sounded) equally
important. In other words, every sound appeared in the foreground, on
the right side of the gradient continuum (overpowering). You felt your
attention pulled in many different directions and had difficulty
maintaining your aural focus on any one aspect for a notable length of
time. As a result, listening and understanding was fragmented. The
concept of salience could have helped you make deliberate decisions
about what aspects of the improvisation warranted rigorous attention, and
for how long.
Think about the concept of salience and how this profile relates to
intramusical and intermusical relationships in improvisation. At any
awareness. As the listener in the vignette above, were you drawn more to
occurring in the musical exchanges between the players? Or, did your
attention vacillate? Let us take a moment to consider the possibilities.
As you listened to Karen, the disinterested woman, you were
primarily focused on the intramusical aspects of her improvisation. You
noticed that Karens playing was lively and syncopated (the music had
some rhythmic vitality), yet the sounds were barely audible (so low in
volume that they could hardly be heard) and the tempo of her playing
was erratic. Without realizing it, perhaps, you were making some
important observations about the relationship between the rhythmic,
dynamic, and temporal aspects of her creation, and you sensed that
something was amiss. This player stood out in your perceptual field
because there was an oddity in the way she internally organized and
manipulated the musical elements.
Had you chosen to, you might have tuned into the intermusical
aspects of Karens playing, either in place of or in addition to the
intramusical relationships that you discerned. How did features of her
124 Gardstrom
IAPs 121
improvisation
described inASSESSMENT
Vignette 81, it isPROFILES
impossible (IAPs)
to predict what
IMPROVISATION
important
to mention
here that
theprofiles,
absence,and
as well
the presence,
The IAPs
are composed
of six
eachasprofile
exists asofa a
particular
featurehow
mayclients
be what
draws
the listeners
attention
a lack
way
to describe
use,
organize,
manipulate,
and(e.g.,
combine
of musical
or steady
sound
and tension,
musical dynamic
elementscontrast,
in their
solo pulse).
playing and in their
As the intern
in theplayers.
example,
listened
to theare
group
improvise,
improvisations
with other
Asyou
such,
the profiles
a way
for us
and
everything
you
heard
and
noticed
seemed
(or
sounded)
equally
important.
In
other
words,
every
sound
appeared
in
the
foreground,
relationships that are formed through improvisation. The IAPs alsoon
the right
sidesignificant
of the gradient
continuum
(overpowering).
Yousuch
felt your
address
other
connections
created
in improvisation,
as
in many
different
directions
and of
hadthedifficulty
theattention
physical pulled
(relationships
between
the music
and aspects
body),
maintaining
your aural(relationships
focus on anybetween
one aspect
a notable
length of
and
the programmatic
thefor
music
and images,
time. lyrics,
As a etc.).
result, listening and understanding was fragmented. The
stories,
concept
of salience could
have helped
make clients
deliberate
decisions
The relationships
that develop
withinyou
a single
music
are
about
what
aspects
of
the
improvisation
warranted
rigorous
attention,
and
how long. that develop between a clients music and the music of
theforrelationships
Think about
the concept
of salience
and how this
other players
are called
intermusical
relationships
(the profile
prefix relates
interto
intramusical
and intermusical relationships in improvisation. At any
means
between).
awareness. As
the listener in the vignette above, were you drawn more to
Intramusical
Relationships
the musical
exchanges
betweenfrom
the Unit
players?
did your
Inoccurring
the aboveinvignette,
as soon
as each patient
FiveOr,
picked
up
vacillate?
Let us
to consider
the possibilities.
anattention
instrument
and began
totake
play,a moment
a relationship
was initiated.
Not only
Asplayer
you listened
to or
Karen,
the disinterested
youitself
were
did each
define her
his relationship
with thewoman,
instrument
primarily
focused
on
the
intramusical
aspects
of
her
improvisation.
You
noticed
that
Karens
playing
was
lively
and
syncopated
(the
music
had
some
rhythmic
vitality),
yet
the
sounds
were
barely
audible
(so
low
sound, she or he began to form ongoing and audible intramusicalin
volume thatAgain,
they could
hardly be
heard) and refer
the tempo
hervarious
playing
relationships.
intramusical
relationships
to howofthe
was erratic.
Without
it, perhaps,
you were
making
some
elements
employed
withinrealizing
the players
music connect
with one
another.
important
the every
relationship
betweenimprovises,
the rhythmic,
This
type of observations
relationship isabout
present
time a person
in
dynamic,
and
temporal
aspects
of
her
creation,
and
you
sensed
that
something
was
amiss.
This
player
stood
out
in
your
perceptual
field
because multiple
there waselements:
an odditypulse,
in the
way she
internally
organized
and
employed
tempo,
timbre,
and volume.
What
manipulated
the musical
elements.
were
the evident
relationships
between these components? Pulse and
you chosen
to, youlinkedby
might havedefinition
tuned into
tempo Had
are always
inextricably
youthe
canintermusical
not have
aspects
of the
Karens
playing,
either
place and
of volume?
or in addition
to the
one
without
other,but
what
aboutintempo
Were there
intramusical
relationships
that
you
discerned.
How
did
features
of her
128 Gardstrom
IAPs 125
elements
Overdifferentiated
as created by the
(where
patients
the around
parts her?
are The
highly
pointcontrasted
here is that,
and
although
incompatible).
certain facets of an improvisation may emerge and command
your attention during the listening process, you will need to make
Example: decisions
The therapist
maintains
a constant
beat facets
on the
constant
Additional
and deliberate
to either
remain focused
on these
drum.
At first, theexpand
clientstojoin
this pulse,
playing
orframe
let your
consciousness
takeininwith
additional
facets.
Thesein
identicalare
fashion.
the listening
level of rhythmic
between
decisions
based,At
in this
part,point,
on your
set. Here,integration
listening set
is
the therapists
music
of the clients
would likely
considered
defined
as the sum
totaland
of that
the contextual
information
and be
biases
with
undifferentiated
that the ground
(therapists
playing)
which
you enter the inimprovisational
process.
As a new
intern,and
yourthe
figures set
(clients
arequite
one limitedlet
and the same.
manythat
of the
listening
might playing)
have been
us As
assume
youclients
had
begin
to create
simple
subdividedabout
rhythmic
that lineand
up awith
been
given
only scant
information
eachpatterns
of the patients
briefthe
therapists
andpurpose
tempo, the
level
of rhythmic experience.
integration (again,
notion
of thepulse
clinical
of the
improvisation
Your
with the therapists
playing
case)complete
would move
supervisor,
on the other
hand, in
hadthis
a more
and toward
precise fused
listeningor
integrated.
minutes
of improvising,
some
of these
set.
She wantedAfter
to two
see or
if three
and how
improvisation
might
stimulate
players begin to
fall away
from members
the established
communication
between
certain
of thepulse.
group,Eventually,
members all
whobut
one until
of the
rhythmic
patterns
totally misaligned
have
thisplayers
point been
withdrawn
andare
somewhat
resistant to with
groupthe
therapists playing
that
the other
group interested
members. in
At how
this point
music-making
of any and
kind.
Sheofwas
particularly
Ruth,in
time, and
the another
rhythmicpatient
integration
beone
considered
differentiated
Karen,
would would
relate to
another through
the musicor
overdifferentiated,
classification,
again,
representing
experience.
Her listening this
set was
thus shaped by
her objective
to assessthe
relationshipcommunication;
between the therapists
beat and would
the other
players
interpatient
naturally,steady
her listening
have
an
music. Listening
from the perspective of the majority of players,
intermusical
orientation.
however, the rhythmic integration may be classified differently,
dependingExample:
upon the
degree
of inrhythmic
coincidence
between
Additional
A few
players
the improvisation
group
beat thethe
simultaneously
sounding
parts.obscures
(intermusical)
drums
so loudly that
the volume
all other features present in the
music, such as the syncopated rhythms that one member plays on the
84:
(Experiential
Learning)
agogo Ex
bells
andIntegration
the pentatonic
melody that
another plays on the temple
blocks. In this case, the scale of volume might be considered
Divide the group
One
half will
improvise
on a and
mix of
percussion
overpowering,
and in
thehalf.
other
scales,
rhythmic
figure
melodic,
and be
tonal
instruments.
The(intermusical).
other half will listen. Designate some
might
considered
receding.
listeners to focus on rhythmic integration between the parts and some to
focus
on ittonal
integration
the parts.
Usewith
the gradients
forofthe
Now
is time
for youbetween
to practice
listening
the concept
Integration
profile
descriptions
with specific
examples.
salience
in mind.
Asand
yousupport
work your
through
the following
exercises,
trust
Switch
Repeat several times.
your
firstroles.
instincts.
VARIABILITY. Competencies addressed in this section include the
ability to:
LI 5
Define Variability.
IAPs 125
elements as created by the patients around her? The point here is that,
although certain facets of an improvisation may emerge and command
constant and deliberate decisions to either remain focused on these facets
or let your consciousness expand to take in additional facets. These
decisions are based, in part, on your listening set. Here, listening set is
defined as the sum total of the contextual information and biases with
which you enter the improvisational process. As a new intern, your
listening set might have been quite limitedlet us assume that you had
been given only scant information about each of the patients and a brief
notion of the clinical purpose of the improvisation experience. Your
supervisor, on the other hand, had a more complete and precise listening
set. She wanted to see if and how improvisation might stimulate
communication between certain members of the group, members who
have until this point been withdrawn and somewhat resistant to group
music-making of any kind. She was particularly interested in how Ruth,
Karen, and another patient would relate to one another through the music
experience. Her listening set was thus shaped by her objective to assess
interpatient communication; naturally, her listening would have an
intermusical orientation.
Additional Example: A few players in the improvisation group beat the
drums so loudly that the volume obscures all other features present in the
agogo bells and the pentatonic melody that another plays on the temple
overpowering, and the other scales, rhythmic figure and melodic,
might be considered receding. (intermusical).
Now it is time for you to practice listening with the concept of
salience in mind. As you work through the following exercises, trust
your first instincts.
126 Gardstrom
Ex 81: Salience (Experiential Learning)

One group member improvises while the others listen. Stop the player
periodically and check in with the listeners: What is the most dominant,
noticeable, or controlling feature of the improvisation at the moment it
was halted? Is there some consensus among the listeners?
Repeat Ex 81 with multiple players using identical instruments. How is
the experience of listening to one player different from listening to more
than one?
Repeat Ex 81 with multiple players using a variety of percussion and
tonal instruments. How is this experience different from Ex 82?
INTEGRATION. Competencies addressed in this section include
the ability to:
LI 3
LI 4
Define Integration.
Determine levels of integration for rhythmic, tonal, textural,
dynamic, and timbral elements.
The second profile in the IAPs is termed Integration. To integrate means

to combine two or more things together so that they become a whole
(The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001, p. 882). In the context of
improvisation, integration refers to the degree of organization and
alignment that the therapist hears as she or he listens to simultaneous
features of the music. Another way to think of this profile is as the
relationship between all vertical aspects of the improvisation, as laid out
in an orchestral score.
We have already discussed the terms figure and ground as they
apply to rhythmic and tonal elements. Rhythmic and tonal figure-ground
relationships figure prominently in the Integration profile. A rhythmic
figure-ground relationship is evident when subdivisions or rhythmic
126 Gardstrom
IAPs 127
patternsEx(figures)
81: Salience
are linked
(Experiential
to an underlying
Learning)pulse (ground) or metric
system (Bruscia, 1987). Intramusical examples include one player
keeping
One group
a pulse
member
with one
improvises
hand and
while
subdividing
the othersor listen.
improvising
Stop the
figures
player
with
periodically
the other and
(as with
checka inpiano
with accompaniment
the listeners: What
in the
is the
leftmost
handdominant,
and an
improvised
noticeable,melody
or controlling
in the right),
featureorof that
the improvisation
same player maintaining
at the moment
an it
implied
was halted?
or internal
Is there pulse
some consensus
while creating
among subdivisions
the listeners? or rhythmic
patterns. Intermusical examples include one or more players keeping a
pulse and
Ex 82:
others
Salience
creating
(Experiential
subdivisions
Learning)
or patterns, as described in the
beginning of the vignette. Using the Integration profile, and with an
intermusical
Repeat Ex orientation,
81 with multiple
you could
players
listen
using
to and
identical
describe
instruments.
how each of
How
the is
figures
the experience
created byofthe
listening
patientstofitone
with
player
Bobsdifferent
established
fromground.
listening
Totowhat
more
degree
than one?
did the durations of sound in each figure coincide with the pulse?
Chriss playing was described as slightly misaligned. What about the
others?Ex
Were
83:patient
Salience
responses
(Experiential
perfectly
Learning)
aligned, not aligned at all, or
somewhere in the middle, coinciding with the ground about half of the
time?
tonal
Tonal
instruments.
figure-ground
How isrelationships
this experience
have
different
to dofrom
withExmelodic
82? and
harmonic elementsspecifically, the degree to which improvised
melodyINTEGRATION.
and harmony is Competencies
grounded in aaddressed
scale or in
keythis
center
section
(Bruscia,
include
1987).
the ability
Thereto:
were no tonal elements present in the above example.
When there are multiple parts sounding simultaneously as in group
improvisation,
LI 3
Define
you
Integration.
can use the Integration profile to determine the nature
ofLIrhythmic,
4
Determine
tonal, and
levels
textural
of integration
part-whole for
relationships
rhythmic, in
tonal,
addition
textural,
to
figure-ground
dynamic,
relationships
and timbral
(Bruscia,
elements.1987). Each of the individual
rhythmic patterns created by the patients of Unit Five would be
considered
The second
parts
profile
and in
thethe
composite
IAPs is termed
of all patterns
Integration.
would
To be
integrate
considered
means
thetowhole.
combine
To what
two or
extent
moredid
things
eachtogether
part correspond
so that they
withbecome
the other
a whole
parts
and
(The
with
New
theOxford
rhythmic
American
whole? Dictionary,
In the case of
2001,
tonal
p. improvisation,
882). In the context
do theof
lines
improvisation,
function to create
integration
monophony,
refers homophony,
to the degree
or polyphony?
of organization and
alignment
Texturalthat
part-whole
the therapist
relationships
hears as relate
she ortohe
role
listens
functions.
to simultaneous
Back to
our
features
example:
of How
the music.
did each
Another
of the players
way to think
creations
of this
function
profile
relative
is as tothe
therelationship
overall fabric
between
of all
thevertical
piece? aspects
Were there
of the
several
improvisation,
separate grounds,
as laid out
several
in an orchestral
separate figures,
score. one ground and several figures, etc.?
Gradients
We haveinalready
the Integration
discussed profile
the terms
range
figure
from and
Undifferentiated
ground as they
(merged,
apply towhere
rhythmic
the and
figure
tonal
is elements.
the ground
Rhythmic
or the part
and tonal
is thefigure-ground
whole) to
126 Gardstrom
IAPs 127
patternsEx(figures)
81: Salience
are linked
(Experiential
to an underlying
Learning)pulse (ground) or metric
keeping
One group
a pulse
member
with one
improvises
hand and
while
subdividing
the othersor listen.
improvising
Stop the
figures
player
with
periodically
the other and
(as with
checka inpiano
with accompaniment
the listeners: What
in the
is the
leftmost
handdominant,
and an
improvised
noticeable,melody
or controlling
in the right),
featureorof that
the improvisation
same player maintaining
at the moment
an it
implied
was halted?
or internal
Is there pulse
some consensus
while creating
among subdivisions
the listeners? or rhythmic
pulse and
Ex 82:
others
Salience
creating
(Experiential
subdivisions
Learning)
or patterns, as described in the
intermusical
Repeat Ex orientation,
81 with multiple
you could
players
listen
using
to and
identical
describe
instruments.
how each of
How
the is
figures
the experience
created byofthe
listening
patientstofitone
with
player
Bobsdifferent
established
fromground.
listening
Totowhat
more
degree
than one?
did the durations of sound in each figure coincide with the pulse?
others?Ex
Were
83:patient
Salience
responses
(Experiential
perfectly
Learning)
aligned, not aligned at all, or
time?
tonal
Tonal
instruments.
figure-ground
How isrelationships
this experience
have
different
to dofrom
withExmelodic
82? and
melodyINTEGRATION.
and harmony is Competencies
grounded in aaddressed
scale or in
keythis
center
section
(Bruscia,
include
1987).
the ability
Thereto:
were no tonal elements present in the above example.
improvisation,
LI 3
Define
you
Integration.
can use the Integration profile to determine the nature
ofLIrhythmic,
4
Determine
tonal, and
levels
textural
of integration
part-whole for
relationships
rhythmic, in
tonal,
addition
textural,
to
figure-ground
dynamic,
relationships
and timbral
(Bruscia,
elements.1987). Each of the individual
considered
The second
parts
profile
and in
thethe
composite
IAPs is termed
of all patterns
Integration.
would
To be
integrate
considered
means
thetowhole.
combine
To what
two or
extent
moredid
things
eachtogether
part correspond
so that they
withbecome
the other
a whole
parts
and
(The
with
New
theOxford
rhythmic
American
whole? Dictionary,
In the case of
2001,
tonal
p. improvisation,
882). In the context
do theof
lines
improvisation,
function to create
integration
monophony,
refers homophony,
to the degree
or polyphony?
of organization and
alignment
Texturalthat
part-whole
the therapist
relationships
hears as relate
she ortohe
role
listens
functions.
to simultaneous
Back to
our
features
example:
of How
the music.
did each
Another
of the players
way to think
creations
of this
function
profile
relative
is as tothe
therelationship
overall fabric
between
of all
thevertical
piece? aspects
Were there
of the
several
improvisation,
separate grounds,
as laid out
several
in an orchestral
separate figures,
score. one ground and several figures, etc.?
Gradients
We haveinalready
the Integration
discussed profile
the terms
range
figure
from and
Undifferentiated
ground as they
(merged,
apply towhere
rhythmic
the and
figure
tonal
is elements.
the ground
Rhythmic
or the part
and tonal
is thefigure-ground
whole) to
IAPs 127
patterns (figures) are linked to an underlying pulse (ground) or metric

keeping a pulse with one hand and subdividing or improvising figures
with the other (as with a piano accompaniment in the left hand and an
improvised melody in the right), or that same player maintaining an
implied or internal pulse while creating subdivisions or rhythmic
pulse and others creating subdivisions or patterns, as described in the
intermusical orientation, you could listen to and describe how each of the
figures created by the patients fit with Bobs established ground. To what
degree did the durations of sound in each figure coincide with the pulse?
others? Were patient responses perfectly aligned, not aligned at all, or
time?
Tonal figure-ground relationships have to do with melodic and
melody and harmony is grounded in a scale or key center (Bruscia,
1987). There were no tonal elements present in the above example.
improvisation, you can use the Integration profile to determine the nature
of rhythmic, tonal, and textural part-whole relationships in addition to
figure-ground relationships (Bruscia, 1987). Each of the individual
considered parts and the composite of all patterns would be considered
the whole. To what extent did each part correspond with the other parts
and with the rhythmic whole? In the case of tonal improvisation, do the
lines function to create monophony, homophony, or polyphony?
Textural part-whole relationships relate to role functions. Back to
our example: How did each of the players creations function relative to
the overall fabric of the piece? Were there several separate grounds,
several separate figures, one ground and several figures, etc.?
Gradients in the Integration profile range from Undifferentiated
(merged, where the figure is the ground or the part is the whole) to
128 Gardstrom
Overdifferentiated (where the parts are highly contrasted and

incompatible).
Additional Example: The therapist maintains a constant beat on the
frame drum. At first, the clients join in with this pulse, playing in
identical fashion. At this point, the level of rhythmic integration between
the therapists music and that of the clients would likely be considered
undifferentiated in that the ground (therapists playing) and the
figures (clients playing) are one and the same. As many of the clients
begin to create simple subdivided rhythmic patterns that line up with the
therapists pulse and tempo, the level of rhythmic integration (again,
with the therapists playing in this case) would move toward fused or
integrated. After two or three minutes of improvising, some of these
players begin to fall away from the established pulse. Eventually, all but
one of the players rhythmic patterns are totally misaligned with the
therapists playing and that of the other group members. At this point in
time, the rhythmic integration would be considered differentiated or
overdifferentiated, this classification, again, representing the
relationship between the therapists steady beat and the other players
music. Listening from the perspective of the majority of players,
depending upon the degree of rhythmic coincidence between the
simultaneously sounding parts. (intermusical)
Ex 84: Integration (Experiential Learning)
Divide the group in half. One half will improvise on a mix of percussion
and tonal instruments. The other half will listen. Designate some
focus on tonal integration between the parts. Use the gradients for the
Integration profile and support your descriptions with specific examples.
Switch roles. Repeat several times.
ability to:
LI 5
Define Variability.
128 Gardstrom
IAPs 125
elements
Overdifferentiated
as created by the
(where
patients
the around
parts her?
are The
highly
pointcontrasted
here is that,
and
although
incompatible).
certain facets of an improvisation may emerge and command
Example: decisions
The therapist
maintains
a constant
beat facets
on the
constant
Additional
and deliberate
to either
remain focused
on these
drum.
At first, theexpand
clientstojoin
this pulse,
playing
orframe
let your
consciousness
takeininwith
additional
facets.
Thesein
identicalare
fashion.
the listening
level of rhythmic
between
decisions
based,At
in this
part,point,
on your
set. Here,integration
listening set
is
the therapists
music
of the clients
would likely
considered
defined
as the sum
totaland
of that
the contextual
information
and be
biases
with
undifferentiated
that the ground
(therapists
playing)
which
you enter the inimprovisational
process.
As a new
intern,and
yourthe
figures set
(clients
arequite
one limitedlet
and the same.
manythat
of the
listening
might playing)
have been
us As
assume
youclients
had
begin
to create
simple
subdividedabout
rhythmic
that lineand
up awith
been
given
only scant
information
eachpatterns
of the patients
briefthe
therapists
andpurpose
tempo, the
level
of rhythmic experience.
integration (again,
notion
of thepulse
clinical
of the
improvisation
Your
with the therapists
playing
case)complete
would move
supervisor,
on the other
hand, in
hadthis
a more
and toward
precise fused
listeningor
integrated.
minutes
of improvising,
some
of these
set.
She wantedAfter
to two
see or
if three
and how
improvisation
might
stimulate
players begin to
fall away
from members
the established
communication
between
certain
of thepulse.
group,Eventually,
members all
whobut
one until
of the
rhythmic
patterns
totally misaligned
have
thisplayers
point been
withdrawn
andare
somewhat
resistant to with
groupthe
therapists playing
that
the other
group interested
members. in
At how
this point
music-making
of any and
kind.
Sheofwas
particularly
Ruth,in
time, and
the another
rhythmicpatient
integration
beone
considered
differentiated
Karen,
would would
relate to
another through
the musicor
overdifferentiated,
classification,
again,
representing
experience.
Her listening this
set was
thus shaped by
her objective
to assessthe
relationshipcommunication;
between the therapists
beat and would
the other
players
interpatient
naturally,steady
her listening
have
an
music. Listening
from the perspective of the majority of players,
intermusical
orientation.
dependingExample:
upon the
degree
of inrhythmic
coincidence
between
Additional
A few
players
the improvisation
group
beat thethe
simultaneously
sounding
parts.obscures
(intermusical)
drums
so loudly that
the volume
all other features present in the
84:
(Experiential
Learning)
agogo Ex
bells
andIntegration
the pentatonic
melody that
another plays on the temple
Divide the group
One
half will
improvise
on a and
mix of
percussion
overpowering,
and in
thehalf.
other
scales,
rhythmic
figure
melodic,
and be
tonal
instruments.
The(intermusical).
other half will listen. Designate some
might
considered
receding.
focus
on ittonal
integration
the parts.
Usewith
the gradients
forofthe
Now
is time
for youbetween
to practice
listening
the concept
Integration
profile
descriptions
with specific
examples.
salience
in mind.
Asand
yousupport
work your
through
the following
exercises,
trust
Switch
Repeat several times.
your
firstroles.
instincts.
ability to:
LI 5
Define Variability.
132 Gardstrom
IAPs 129
LI 6
Determine
Let us return
levels
to Karen.
of variability
Her playing
in rhythmic,
(lively buttonal,
barelytextural,
audible)
and her
dynamic,
appearance
and timbral
(disinterested
elements.in the entire experience) were at
odds. In this case, there was an obvious discrepancy between what she
Whereas
was playing
Integration
and how
refers
her face
to vertical
and posture
features
appeared
of theasmusic,
she was
Variability
playing it.
refers
Quiteto simply,
horizontal
herfeatures,
animated
andsounds
can be did
defined
not as
match
the degree
her disinterested
to which
something
demeanor.has
How
the would
abilityyou
to classify
be changed
this intramusical
or adapted (The
incongruence?
New Oxford
Was
American
the livelyDictionary,
nature of 2001,
her playing
p. 1870).
congruent
This profile
with is
some
usedfeatures
to determine
but not
theothers?
relationship
Or wasbetween
it completely
sequential
discrepant?
aspects of the music, that is, change
(or lackWere
of change)
there examples
over time
of (Bruscia,
intermusical
1987).
congruence
As statedorabove,
incongruence?
at one
end,
What
the about
gradient
the isfacial
Rigid
expressions
(characterized
of the by
players
persistent
involved
maintenance
in the copy
or
repetition
game? of musical ideas with no changes); on the opposite end of the
continuum, the playing would be considered Random (with severe and
frequent
Additional
changes
Example:
that appear
to of
have
no meaning).
In the above
vignette,
A group
music
students improvise
together
on the
were
there incidents
of anger.
notable intramusical
That
is, did
any
self-selected
referent
Many of thevariability?
players have
angry,
scowling
one
expressions
individuals
on their
playing
faces,
stand
yet their
out as
playing
highlyis rigid
soft with
or highly
a thin texture
random?
and
What
about intermusical
variability?
Were
there After
aspects
of the total
a noticeable
lack of rhythmic
or melodic
tension.
the improvisation,
group
thatdiscuss
remained
Were there
someimprovisation
of the students
how curiously
satisfyingunchanged?
it was to express
their
aspects
that and
changed
abruptly
without
warning?in Or
there a
bitterness
frustration.
Theand
level
of congruence
thiswas
improvisation
balance
would ofprobably
samenessbeandconsidered
change over
polarized
time?
in that the low level of
tension afforded by the musical elements (volume, texture, etc.) stands in
Additional
Example:
stark contrast
to the
facial
expressions,
verbalizations
As referent,
the therapist
and
three groupand
members
gather inof
players.
(intramusical
andeach
intermusical)
thethemusic
therapy
clinic, they
pick up a different instrument and
begin to play. The therapist moves to the conga drum and establishes
Ex 87:
Congruence
(Experiential
duple meter
with
simple accented
rhythmLearning)
patterns. Immediately, two of
the three players switch instruments; one of them switches again within a
As inofthe
previous
divide
group in half.
will
matter
seconds.
The exercise,
third player
addsthe
an instrument
to theOne
one half
he has
improvise
a mix
of percussion
and tonal
The otherThe
half
been
playingon
and
continues
to improvise
on theinstruments.
two simultaneously.
will listen,
and describing
the degree
congruence
between
second
playerattending
switchesto
instruments
abruptly,
and theofthird
player returns
elements
and the until
overall
of the The
piece.
Use the
tomusical
her original
instrument
the feeling
end ofstate
the piece.
therapist
gradients
for conga.
Congruence
support
descriptions
with use
specific
remains
on the
In thisand
scenario,
theyour
therapists
purposeful
of
examples.
Switch roles.
Repeat
several
times.instrument used) would be
timbre
(as produced
by the
specific
musical
considered stable in that there were no changes. In contrast, the
this section
include the
timbralAUTONOMY.
variability Competencies
of the otheraddressed
players inwould
be considered
ability to:
contrasting
or random in that there were frequent changes, a
seeming lack of focus and stability, and resulting fragmentation in the
LI 11 product.
Define (intramusical)
Autonomy
musical
IAPs 129
LI 6
Determine levels of variability in rhythmic, tonal, textural,

Whereas Integration refers to vertical features of the music, Variability

refers to horizontal features, and can be defined as the degree to which
something has the ability to be changed or adapted (The New Oxford
American Dictionary, 2001, p. 1870). This profile is used to determine
the relationship between sequential aspects of the music, that is, change
(or lack of change) over time (Bruscia, 1987). As stated above, at one
end, the gradient is Rigid (characterized by persistent maintenance or
repetition of musical ideas with no changes); on the opposite end of the
frequent changes that appear to have no meaning). In the above vignette,
were there incidents of notable intramusical variability? That is, did any
one individuals playing stand out as highly rigid or highly random?
What about intermusical variability? Were there aspects of the total
group improvisation that remained curiously unchanged? Were there
aspects that changed abruptly and without warning? Or was there a
balance of sameness and change over time?
Additional Example: As the therapist and three group members gather in
the music therapy clinic, they each pick up a different instrument and
duple meter with simple accented rhythm patterns. Immediately, two of
matter of seconds. The third player adds an instrument to the one he has
been playing and continues to improvise on the two simultaneously. The
second player switches instruments abruptly, and the third player returns
to her original instrument until the end of the piece. The therapist
remains on the conga. In this scenario, the therapists purposeful use of
timbre (as produced by the specific musical instrument used) would be
timbral variability of the other players would be considered
contrasting or random in that there were frequent changes, a
musical product. (intramusical)
130 Gardstrom
Ex 85: Variability (Experiential Learning)

As in the previous exercise, divide the group in half. One half will
improvise on a mix of percussion and tonal instruments. The other half
will serve as listeners, attending to either rhythmic, tonal, textural,
dynamic, or timbral variability over the course of the piece. Use the
gradients for Variability and support your descriptions with specific
examples. Switch roles. Repeat several times.
TENSION. Competencies addressed in this section include the
ability to:
LI 7
LI 8
Define Tension
Determine levels of tension in rhythmic, tonal, textural, dynamic,
and timbral elements.
The fourth profile is labeled Tension. Tension refers to a strained state

or conditions resulting from forces acting in opposition to each other
(The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001, pp. 17481749). In an
improvisational context, this profile relates the degree of rhythmic, tonal,
or expressive tension present in the piece, as perceived by the listener
(Bruscia, 1987). On one end, the music is Hypotense (with insufficient
energy to create tension); on the other, it is Hypertense (with
unrelenting and overpowering tension). As the student in the vignette,
you began to sense tension when the rhythmic ground ceased and the
sounds of the various players became out of sync with one another; in
other words, you sensed intermusical tension. Bruscia (1987) notes that
tension is often related to a lack of rhythmic integration, which can occur
in solo, dyadic, and group improvisation. How would you classify the
level of tension at this point? What about the level of timbral tension
when the patient entered with the grating sound of the guiro?
Additional Example: As the group improvises, one of the clients breaks
from the pulse and begins playing an unmetered tremolo on the alto
metallophone. Other players follow his lead; the group rumbles
collectively, increasing the volume gradually. One of the players strikes
130 Gardstrom
IAPs 131
the gong forcefully and all players stop. After a brief period of silence,
someone
Ex begins
85: Variability
a tremolo(Experiential
on the congaLearning)
drum and the crescendo-gong
sequence is repeated. The tension of this excerpt would be considered
cyclic
As in the
in that
previous
energyexercise,
was alternately
divide accumulated
the group inand
half.
released
One half
by the
will
entire
improvise
group.on
(intermusical)
a mix of percussion and tonal instruments. The other half
dynamic,
Ex 86:orTension
timbral(Experiential
variability over
Learning)
the course of the piece. Use the
Asexamples.
in the previous
Switch roles.
exercise,
Repeat
divide
several
thetimes.
group in half. One half will
will serve
TENSION.
as listeners,
Competencies
attending toaddressed
and describing
in this
thesection
degree of
include
tensionthe
inability
the piece.
to: Use the gradients for Tension and support your descriptions
with specific examples. Switch roles. Repeat several times.
LI 7
Define Tension
LI 8CONGRUENCE.
Determine levels
Competencies
of tension inaddressed
rhythmic,intonal,
this textural,
section include
dynamic,
the abilityand
to: timbral elements.
LIThe
9 fourth
Defineprofile
Congruence
is labeled Tension. Tension refers to a strained state
LIor10conditions
Determine
resulting
levels from
of congruence
forces acting
between
in opposition
musical elements
to each other
and
(The New
physical,
Oxford
programmatic,
verbal, and 2001,
interpersonal
pp. 17481749).
features. In an
The
or next
expressive
profile tension
is calledpresent
Congruence.
in the This
piece,
profile
as perceived
is used toby
describe
the listener
the
degree
(Bruscia,
to which
1987).various
On oneelements
end, theare
music
in is
agreement
Hypotense
and (with
harmony
insufficient
(The
New
energy
Oxford
to American
create tension);
Dictionary,
on the
2001,
other,
p. 363),
it ishere,
Hypertense
with levels(with
of
tension
unrelenting
(feeling
andstates)
overpowering
and roletension).
relationships
As theinstudent
the other
in the
elements.
vignette,
Especially
you beganhelpful
to sense
in tension
this profile
whenarethethe
rhythmic
body, program,
ground ceased
verbal,and
andthe
interpersonal
sounds of the
scales.
various
All players
of thesebecame
are included
out of
as sync
a way with
to reflect
one another;
the levelin
ofother
consistency
words, between
you sensed
the intermusical
overall character
tension.
of the
Bruscia
music(1987)
and tension
notes in
that
thetension
relevant
is often
area:
related
the toclients
a lack ofbody
rhythmic
(posture,
integration,
movements,
which can
facial
occur
expressions,
in solo, dyadic,
etc.); and
the group
program
improvisation.
(lyrics, images,
How would
stories,you
etc.);
classify
clientthe
verbalizations
level of tension
(reactions
at thistopoint?
the improvisation);
What about the
andlevel
role relationships
of timbral tension
(the
players
when the
musical
patient
and
entered
nonmusical
with the
connections
grating sound
withofone
theanother)
guiro? (Bruscia,
1987). The continuum for congruence ranges from Uncommitted (the
element
Additional
is neutral
Example:
or indiscernible)
to improvises,
Polarized one
(the of
element
standsbreaks
out
As the group
the clients
asfrom
contradictory
the level
of playing
tension in
improvisation
as a on
whole).
the pulsetoand
begins
anthe
unmetered
tremolo
the alto
130 Gardstrom
IAPs 131
IAPs 131
someone
Ex begins
85: Variability
a tremolo(Experiential
on the congaLearning)
drum and the crescendo-gong
cyclic
As in the
in that
previous
energyexercise,
was alternately
divide accumulated
the group inand
half.
released
One half
by the
will
entire
improvise
group.on
(intermusical)
a mix of percussion and tonal instruments. The other half
dynamic,
Ex 86:orTension
timbral(Experiential
variability over
Learning)
the course of the piece. Use the
Asexamples.
in the previous
Switch roles.
exercise,
Repeat
divide
several
thetimes.
group in half. One half will
will serve
TENSION.
as listeners,
Competencies
attending toaddressed
and describing
in this
thesection
degree of
include
tensionthe
inability
the piece.
to: Use the gradients for Tension and support your descriptions
LI 7
Define Tension
LI 8CONGRUENCE.
Determine levels
Competencies
of tension inaddressed
rhythmic,intonal,
this textural,
section include
dynamic,
the abilityand
to: timbral elements.
someone begins a tremolo on the conga drum and the crescendo-gong
cyclic in that energy was alternately accumulated and released by the
entire group. (intermusical)
LIThe
9 fourth
Defineprofile
Congruence
is labeled Tension. Tension refers to a strained state
LIor10conditions
Determine
resulting
levels from
of congruence
forces acting
between
in opposition
musical elements
to each other
and
(The New
physical,
Oxford
programmatic,
verbal, and 2001,
interpersonal
pp. 17481749).
features. In an
The
or next
expressive
profile tension
is calledpresent
Congruence.
in the This
piece,
profile
as perceived
is used toby
describe
the listener
the
degree
(Bruscia,
to which
1987).various
On oneelements
end, theare
music
in is
agreement
Hypotense
and (with
harmony
insufficient
(The
New
energy
Oxford
to American
create tension);
Dictionary,
on the
2001,
other,
p. 363),
it ishere,
Hypertense
with levels(with
of
tension
unrelenting
(feeling
andstates)
overpowering
and roletension).
relationships
As theinstudent
the other
in the
elements.
vignette,
Especially
you beganhelpful
to sense
in tension
this profile
whenarethethe
rhythmic
body, program,
ground ceased
verbal,and
andthe
interpersonal
sounds of the
scales.
various
All players
of thesebecame
are included
out of
as sync
a way with
to reflect
one another;
the levelin
ofother
consistency
words, between
you sensed
the intermusical
overall character
tension.
of the
Bruscia
music(1987)
and tension
notes in
that
thetension
relevant
is often
area:
related
the toclients
a lack ofbody
rhythmic
(posture,
integration,
movements,
which can
facial
occur
expressions,
in solo, dyadic,
etc.); and
the group
program
improvisation.
(lyrics, images,
How would
stories,you
etc.);
classify
clientthe
verbalizations
level of tension
(reactions
at thistopoint?
the improvisation);
What about the
andlevel
role relationships
of timbral tension
(the
players
when the
musical
patient
and
entered
nonmusical
with the
connections
grating sound
withofone
theanother)
guiro? (Bruscia,
element
Additional
is neutral
Example:
or indiscernible)
to improvises,
Polarized one
(the of
element
standsbreaks
out
As the group
the clients
asfrom
contradictory
the level
of playing
tension in
improvisation
as a on
whole).
the pulsetoand
begins
anthe
unmetered
tremolo
the alto
LI 9
LI 10
Ex 86: Tension (Experiential Learning)

will serve as listeners, attending to and describing the degree of tension
in the piece. Use the gradients for Tension and support your descriptions
CONGRUENCE. Competencies addressed in this section include
the ability to:
Define Congruence
Determine levels of congruence between musical elements and
physical, programmatic, verbal, and interpersonal features.
The next profile is called Congruence. This profile is used to describe the
degree to which various elements are in agreement and harmony (The
New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001, p. 363), here, with levels of
tension (feeling states) and role relationships in the other elements.
Especially helpful in this profile are the body, program, verbal, and
interpersonal scales. All of these are included as a way to reflect the level
of consistency between the overall character of the music and tension in
the relevant area: the clients body (posture, movements, facial
expressions, etc.); the program (lyrics, images, stories, etc.); client
verbalizations (reactions to the improvisation); and role relationships (the
players musical and nonmusical connections with one another) (Bruscia,
element is neutral or indiscernible) to Polarized (the element stands out
as contradictory to the level of tension in the improvisation as a whole).
132 Gardstrom
Let us return to Karen. Her playing (lively but barely audible)

and her appearance (disinterested in the entire experience) were at
was playing and how her face and posture appeared as she was playing it.
Quite simply, her animated sounds did not match her disinterested
demeanor. How would you classify this intramusical incongruence? Was
the lively nature of her playing congruent with some features but not
others? Or was it completely discrepant?
Were there examples of intermusical congruence or incongruence?
What about the facial expressions of the players involved in the copy
game?
Additional Example: A group of music students improvise together on the
self-selected referent anger. Many of the players have angry, scowling
expressions on their faces, yet their playing is soft with a thin texture and
a noticeable lack of rhythmic or melodic tension. After the improvisation,
some of the students discuss how satisfying it was to express their
bitterness and frustration. The level of congruence in this improvisation
would probably be considered polarized in that the low level of
stark contrast to the referent, facial expressions, and verbalizations of
the players. (intramusical and intermusical)
Ex 87: Congruence (Experiential Learning)
will listen, attending to and describing the degree of congruence between
musical elements and the overall feeling state of the piece. Use the
gradients for Congruence and support your descriptions with specific
examples. Switch roles. Repeat several times.
AUTONOMY. Competencies addressed in this section include the
ability to:
LI 11
Define Autonomy
132 Gardstrom
IAPs 129
LI 6
Determine
Let us return
levels
to Karen.
of variability
Her playing
in rhythmic,
(lively buttonal,
barelytextural,
audible)
and her
dynamic,
appearance
and timbral
(disinterested
elements.in the entire experience) were at
Whereas
was playing
Integration
and how
refers
her face
to vertical
and posture
features
appeared
of theasmusic,
she was
Variability
playing it.
refers
Quiteto simply,
horizontal
herfeatures,
animated
andsounds
can be did
defined
not as
match
the degree
her disinterested
to which
something
demeanor.has
How
the would
abilityyou
to classify
be changed
this intramusical
or adapted (The
incongruence?
New Oxford
Was
American
the livelyDictionary,
nature of 2001,
her playing
p. 1870).
congruent
This profile
with is
some
usedfeatures
to determine
but not
theothers?
relationship
Or wasbetween
it completely
sequential
discrepant?
aspects of the music, that is, change
(or lackWere
of change)
there examples
over time
of (Bruscia,
intermusical
1987).
congruence
As statedorabove,
incongruence?
at one
end,
What
the about
gradient
the isfacial
Rigid
expressions
(characterized
of the by
players
persistent
involved
maintenance
in the copy
or
repetition
game? of musical ideas with no changes); on the opposite end of the
frequent
Additional
changes
Example:
that appear
to of
have
no meaning).
In the above
vignette,
A group
music
students improvise
together
on the
were
there incidents
of anger.
notable intramusical
That
is, did
any
self-selected
referent
Many of thevariability?
players have
angry,
scowling
one
expressions
individuals
on their
playing
faces,
stand
yet their
out as
playing
highlyis rigid
soft with
or highly
a thin texture
random?
and
What
about intermusical
variability?
Were
there After
aspects
of the total
a noticeable
lack of rhythmic
or melodic
tension.
the improvisation,
group
thatdiscuss
remained
Were there
someimprovisation
of the students
how curiously
satisfyingunchanged?
it was to express
their
aspects
that and
changed
abruptly
without
warning?in Or
there a
bitterness
frustration.
Theand
level
of congruence
thiswas
improvisation
balance
would ofprobably
samenessbeandconsidered
change over
polarized
time?
in that the low level of
Additional
Example:
stark contrast
to the
facial
expressions,
verbalizations
As referent,
the therapist
and
three groupand
members
gather inof
players.
(intramusical
andeach
intermusical)
thethemusic
therapy
clinic, they
pick up a different instrument and
Ex 87:
Congruence
(Experiential
duple meter
with
simple accented
rhythmLearning)
patterns. Immediately, two of
As inofthe
previous
divide
group in half.
will
matter
seconds.
The exercise,
third player
addsthe
an instrument
to theOne
one half
he has
improvise
a mix
of percussion
and tonal
The otherThe
half
been
playingon
and
continues
to improvise
on theinstruments.
two simultaneously.
will listen,
and describing
the degree
congruence
between
second
playerattending
switchesto
instruments
abruptly,
and theofthird
player returns
elements
and the until
overall
of the The
piece.
Use the
tomusical
her original
instrument
the feeling
end ofstate
the piece.
therapist
gradients
for conga.
Congruence
support
descriptions
with use
specific
remains
on the
In thisand
scenario,
theyour
therapists
purposeful
of
examples.
Switch roles.
Repeat
several
times.instrument used) would be
timbre
(as produced
by the
specific
musical
this section
include the
timbralAUTONOMY.
variability Competencies
of the otheraddressed
players inwould
be considered
ability to:
contrasting
or random in that there were frequent changes, a
LI 11 product.
Define Autonomy
musical
(intramusical)
IAPs 133
LI 12
Determine levels of autonomy

Chapter with
Ninerespect to rhythmic, tonal,
textural, dynamic, and timbral elements.
VERBAL
PROCESSING
One of the most important
profiles
in group improvisation is the
Autonomy profile. Autonomy refers to freedom from external control or
Chapters (The
One New
through
Eight
have had
as their focus
skills
influence
Oxford
American
Dictionary,
2001,those
p. 109).
In used
an
before and during
improvisation.
now turn
our attention
to the
improvisational
context,
it representsLet
theusdegree
to which
the therapist
kinds
of things
thatthe
youroles
mayofneed
to do
the music-making.
TheAs
first
and
players
assume
leader
andafter
follower
(Bruscia, 1987).
thing
you
will
need
to
decide
is
if
the
improvisation
experience
will
such, this profile relates only to the intermusical relationships formedbe
processed
in any way. Gradients in the Autonomy profile range from
during
the improvisation.
Dependent (depicting a player who never leads and always follows) to
To Process
or Not to
Resister
(depicting
a Process
player who continually refuses to follow the
leader by ignoring, withdrawing from, or aggressing toward them).
As the student
music therapist,
you noticed
there wasbyrhythmic
Sometimes
improvisation
experiences
are that
followed
focused
imitation
discussion,
occurring
or what between
is commonly
at least
calledthree
verbal
different
processing.
patients.
You probably
Which
player
was
leading,
andallismodels
this aofconsistent
role improvisation
that she or heinvolve
has
already
know
that not
clinical music
assumed?
Which player
and that
is this
consistent
role thator
verbal processing,
and was
evenfollowing,
among those
do,anot
all experiences
she
or he are
has necessarily
assumed? Ordiscussed.
was thereImprovisation
a balance incan
leadership
and
sessions
be processed
followship
through other
between
modalities,
these three
such
players?
as mandala art, movement, writing, role
playing, etc. However, the skillful use of these modalities requires
Additional
advanced Example:
training, in
my opinion,
whereas
entry-level
facilitatorsthe
can
During
a lengthy
tonal group
improvisation,
learn settle
to effectively
ethically
usesimple
certain
verbal techniques
and, in
clients
into dupleand
meter,
playing
subdivided
melodies based
are expected
to do
so in
accordance
withthethepiece,
AMTA
onfact,
a consistent
implied
pulse.
Two
minutes into
one Professional
of the two
Competencies.
Of course,
your clients
have
theattempt
abilitytoto
therapists
in the group
begins ifaccenting
every do
thirdnot
beat
in an
communicate
verballyTheorco-therapist
through alternative
means,
suchtheasnew
sign
establish
triple meter.
quickly joins
in with
language
or the use
computers,
this issue of
is aneither
here nor there.
meter,
but despite
the of
persistent
exaggeration
new downbeat,
all of If
clients
are verbal,
however,
you will
decide
at someofpoint
theyour
other
players
remain
in duple
meterneed
fortothe
duration
the if
verbal processing
is warranted.
I say at
somethepoint
improvisation.
According
to the Autonomy
profile,
clientsbecause
would bethe
decision may
be madeinbefore
you even
meet the
clients and
together,
considered
resisters
that they
continued
to control
the play
stability
of
it mayaspect
be made
in improvisation,
the spur of theinmoment
to immediate
theormetric
of the
spite of in
theresponse
therapists
attempts
orfollow.
intuitions.
In certain well-functioning, mature groups, the
toobservations
entice them to
(intermusical)
clients themselves may be able to determine whether or not it will be
beneficial
to talk
about what
has occurred.
Ex 88:
Autonomy
(Experiential
Learning)
One of the factors that may influence this decision ahead of the
is the
therapists
philosophy
the role
music
health
and
Asmark
in the
previous
exercise,
divide about
the group
in ofhalf.
Onein half
will
treatment.
if you
operate
from theThephilosophical
improvise
on aFor
mixexample,
of percussion
and tonal
instruments.
other half
perspective that the musical processes and products stemming from
IAPs 133
LI 12
Determine levels of autonomy with respect to rhythmic, tonal,

One of the most important profiles in group improvisation is the

influence (The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001, p. 109). In an
improvisational context, it represents the degree to which the therapist
and players assume the roles of leader and follower (Bruscia, 1987). As
such, this profile relates only to the intermusical relationships formed
during the improvisation. Gradients in the Autonomy profile range from
Resister (depicting a player who continually refuses to follow the
As the student music therapist, you noticed that there was rhythmic
imitation occurring between at least three different patients. Which
player was leading, and is this a consistent role that she or he has
assumed? Which player was following, and is this a consistent role that
she or he has assumed? Or was there a balance in leadership and
followship between these three players?
Additional Example: During a lengthy tonal group improvisation, the
clients settle into duple meter, playing simple subdivided melodies based
on a consistent implied pulse. Two minutes into the piece, one of the two
therapists in the group begins accenting every third beat in an attempt to
establish triple meter. The co-therapist quickly joins in with the new
meter, but despite the persistent exaggeration of a new downbeat, all of
the other players remain in duple meter for the duration of the
improvisation. According to the Autonomy profile, the clients would be
considered resisters in that they continued to control the stability of
the metric aspect of the improvisation, in spite of the therapists attempts
to entice them to follow. (intermusical)
Ex 88: Autonomy (Experiential Learning)
134 Gardstrom
134 Gardstrom
will serve as listeners, attending to and describing the leadership

relationships in the group. Use the gradients for Autonomy and support
your descriptions with specific examples. Switch roles. Repeat several
times.
SUMMARY AND CAVEATS

Music therapists need some kind of system for managing the in-themoment listening challenges that are inherent to group improvisation.
Without some kind of listening framework and without a consistent
vocabulary and nomenclature for description, the actions and materials
resulting from group improvisation can be overwhelming and
meaningless. One system for listening is called the Improvisation
Assessment Profiles (IAPs). The IAPs are composed of six profiles, each
of which centers on a specific musical process. These profiles help us
understand and classify the musical relationships that individual and
multiple players create during improvisation. In this chapter, each of the
profiles has been described and linked to clinical examples.
It is critical that you remember that the IAPs were originally
designed as an assessment tool for use by professionals. In other words,
it is not responsible to use the profiles to make determinations about
client diagnosis or treatment goals without proper training. And, like any
valid assessment tool, the IAPs are intended to be used in conjunction
with other relevant information as gained from the clients personal and
clinical history (Bruscia, 1987).
You must also understand that the IAPs, both as assessment tools
and as in-the-moment listening guides, are designed to help us recognize
tendencies in a clients musical improvisations over time (Bruscia, 1987).
In other words, it is neither accurate nor fair to assume on the basis of
your single observation of the patients of Unit Five that the player whose
syncopated rhythmic patterns were misaligned with the pulse is resistant
to playing in sync with other group members or that he has a motor
planning problem that prevents him from doing so. While both of these
are valid possibilities, you can not know for sure what is happening until
you gather more relevant information and witness musical tendencies
over time.
IAPs 135
will serve for

as Chapter
listeners,Eight
attending to and describing the leadership
Vocabulary
your
specific examples. Switch roles. Repeat several
1. descriptions
Musical with
Elements
times.
2.
Intramusical
3.
Intermusical
4.
Salience SUMMARY AND CAVEATS
5.
Integration
6. therapists
Variability
Music
need some kind of system for managing the in-the7.
Tension challenges that are inherent to group improvisation.
moment
listening
8.
Congruence
Without
some
kind of listening framework and without a consistent
9.
Autonomy
10.
Gradients
resulting
from group improvisation can be overwhelming and
11.
Listening
meaningless.
One Set
system for listening is called the Improvisation
12.
Figure-Ground
Assessment
Profiles (IAPs). The IAPs are composed of six profiles, each
Internalon
Pulse
of13.
which centers
a specific musical process. These profiles help us
14.
Part-Whole
understand
and classify the musical relationships that individual and
over time.
134 Gardstrom
IAPs 135
will serve for

as Chapter
listeners,Eight
attending to and describing the leadership
Vocabulary
your
specific examples. Switch roles. Repeat several
1. descriptions
Musical with
Elements
times.
2.
Intramusical
3.
Intermusical
4.
Salience SUMMARY AND CAVEATS
5.
Integration
6. therapists
Variability
Music
need some kind of system for managing the in-the7.
Tension challenges that are inherent to group improvisation.
moment
listening
8.
Congruence
Without
some
kind of listening framework and without a consistent
9.
Autonomy
10.
Gradients
resulting
from group improvisation can be overwhelming and
11.
Listening
meaningless.
One Set
system for listening is called the Improvisation
12.
Figure-Ground
Assessment
Profiles (IAPs). The IAPs are composed of six profiles, each
Internalon
Pulse
of13.
which centers
a specific musical process. These profiles help us
14.
Part-Whole
understand
and classify the musical relationships that individual and
over time.
IAPs 135
Vocabulary for Chapter Eight

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Musical Elements
Intramusical
Intermusical
Salience
Integration
Variability
Tension
Congruence
Autonomy
Gradients
Listening Set
Figure-Ground
Internal Pulse
Part-Whole
IAPs 133
Chapter Nine
VERBAL PROCESSING
Chapters One through Eight have had as their focus those skills used
before and during improvisation. Let us now turn our attention to the
kinds of things that you may need to do after the music-making. The first
thing you will need to decide is if the improvisation experience will be
processed in any way.
To Process or Not to Process

Sometimes improvisation experiences are followed by focused
discussion, or what is commonly called verbal processing. You probably
already know that not all models of clinical music improvisation involve
verbal processing, and even among those that do, not all experiences or
sessions are necessarily discussed. Improvisation can be processed
through other modalities, such as mandala art, movement, writing, role
advanced training, in my opinion, whereas entry-level facilitators can
learn to effectively and ethically use certain verbal techniques and, in
fact, are expected to do so in accordance with the AMTA Professional
Competencies. Of course, if your clients do not have the ability to
communicate verbally or through alternative means, such as sign
language or the use of computers, this issue is neither here nor there. If
your clients are verbal, however, you will need to decide at some point if
verbal processing is warranted. I say at some point because the
decision may be made before you even meet the clients and play together,
or it may be made in the spur of the moment in response to immediate
observations or intuitions. In certain well-functioning, mature groups, the
beneficial to talk about what has occurred.
mark is the therapists philosophy about the role of music in health and
treatment. For example, if you operate from the philosophical
LI 12
Determine levels of autonomy

Chapter with
Ninerespect to rhythmic, tonal,
VERBAL
PROCESSING
One of the most important
profiles
in group improvisation is the
Chapters (The
One New
through
Eight
have had
as their focus
skills
influence
Oxford
American
Dictionary,
2001,those
p. 109).
In used
an
before and during
improvisation.
now turn
our attention
to the
improvisational
context,
it representsLet
theusdegree
to which
the therapist
kinds
of things
thatthe
youroles
mayofneed
to do
the music-making.
TheAs
first
and
players
assume
leader
andafter
follower
(Bruscia, 1987).
thing
you
will
need
to
decide
is
if
the
improvisation
experience
will
such, this profile relates only to the intermusical relationships formedbe
processed
in any way. Gradients in the Autonomy profile range from
during
the improvisation.
To Process
or Not to
Resister
(depicting
a Process
player who continually refuses to follow the
As the student
music therapist,
you noticed
there wasbyrhythmic
Sometimes
improvisation
experiences
are that
followed
focused
imitation
discussion,
occurring
or what between
is commonly
at least
calledthree
verbal
different
processing.
patients.
You probably
Which
player
was
leading,
andallismodels
this aofconsistent
role improvisation
that she or heinvolve
has
already
know
that not
clinical music
assumed?
Which player
and that
is this
consistent
role thator
verbal processing,
and was
evenfollowing,
among those
do,anot
all experiences
she
or he are
has necessarily
assumed? Ordiscussed.
was thereImprovisation
a balance incan
leadership
and
sessions
be processed
followship
through other
between
modalities,
these three
such
players?
as mandala art, movement, writing, role
Additional
advanced Example:
training, in
my opinion,
whereas
entry-level
facilitatorsthe
can
During
a lengthy
tonal group
improvisation,
learn settle
to effectively
ethically
usesimple
certain
verbal techniques
and, in
clients
into dupleand
meter,
playing
subdivided
melodies based
are expected
to do
so in
accordance
withthethepiece,
AMTA
onfact,
a consistent
implied
pulse.
Two
minutes into
one Professional
of the two
Competencies.
Of course,
your clients
have
theattempt
abilitytoto
therapists
in the group
begins ifaccenting
every do
thirdnot
beat
in an
communicate
verballyTheorco-therapist
through alternative
means,
suchtheasnew
sign
establish
triple meter.
quickly joins
in with
language
or the use
computers,
this issue of
is aneither
here nor there.
meter,
but despite
the of
persistent
exaggeration
new downbeat,
all of If
clients
are verbal,
however,
you will
decide
at someofpoint
theyour
other
players
remain
in duple
meterneed
fortothe
duration
the if
verbal processing
is warranted.
I say at
somethepoint
improvisation.
According
to the Autonomy
profile,
clientsbecause
would bethe
decision may
be madeinbefore
you even
meet the
clients and
together,
considered
resisters
that they
continued
to control
the play
stability
of
it mayaspect
be made
in improvisation,
the spur of theinmoment
to immediate
theormetric
of the
spite of in
theresponse
therapists
attempts
orfollow.
intuitions.
In certain well-functioning, mature groups, the
toobservations
entice them to
(intermusical)
beneficial
to talk
about what
has occurred.
Ex 88:
Autonomy
(Experiential
Learning)
is the
therapists
philosophy
the role
music
health
and
Asmark
in the
previous
exercise,
divide about
the group
in ofhalf.
Onein half
will
treatment.
if you
operate
from theThephilosophical
improvise
on aFor
mixexample,
of percussion
and tonal
instruments.
other half
140 Gardstrom
Verbal Processing 137
improvisation
another clientare
wastransformative
inclined to investigate
in and them
of themselvesthis
more fully. With can
directive
be
referred
leadership,
to as music
the specific
as therapy
focus
(Bruscia,
could 1987,
be determined
1995)there
for may
the be
clients,
no
need
superficial
to talk about
comments
whatmight
has occurred.
be explored
If, on
more
thefully,
otherand
hand,
all you
clients
believe
would
that
be discussing
encouragedwhat
to examine
has happened
their inner
is a prerequisite
experiences for
(intrapersonal)
insight or for
asthe
well
consolidation
as their experiences
of learningmusic
with others in(interpersonal).
therapy (Bruscia,
The 1987,
interpretation
1995)of
then
meaning
verbal from
processing
a particular
will most
theoretical
certainlyorientation
be an indispensable
(e.g., psychodynamic,
feature of
thecognitive,
entire process.
etc.) may enter the process when the therapist takes a directive
approach.
Decisions about verbal processing are also linked to therapeutic aim
in that Be
sometimes
aware, what
however,
you intend
that to nondirective
accomplish may
leadership
only be achieved
does not
and/or
necessarily
demonstrated
imply superficiality;
through group in
discussion.
certain groups,
That is,clients
if an established
can explore
group
issuesgoal
at a meaningful
is to be more
levelforthcoming
without the therapists
verbally about
continuous
improvisation
assistance.
experiences,
Nor does directive
then discourse
leadership
is annecessarily
inevitability.
imply depth; it is possible for a
leader
In addition
to assert
to philosophical
her or his decisive
orientation
authority
and therapeutic
without delving
aim, there
into
aremeaningful
other factors
or fruitful
that influence
verbal processing!
the decision of whether or not to verbally
process improvisation. In fact, at each stage of treatmentassessment,
treatment,
evaluation, and terminationthere may be advantages to
Verbal Techniques
processing. During assessment, verbal processing can help you gather
important
information
thekinds
cognitive,
emotional,thatand
Many authors
have writtenabout
about the
of verbal techniques
are
communicative
functioning
of
the
clients.
For
instance,
if
a clientfeelings,
offers a
useful in helping others to disclose their perceptions, thoughts,
jumbled
account
the series
of 1987;
musical
events
a brief
ideas, values,
andof
opinions
(Bruscia,
Corey
et al.,during
2004; Meier
&
improvisation
started,
whatI rely
happened
in the upon
middle,
Davis, 2001; (e.g.,
Okun,who
2001).
I find that
most heavily
eightwhat
happened
at thetechniques
end?), heasmay
be revealing
memory
or perceptual
distinct verbal
I process
improvisation
experiences.
These
deficits
that paraphrase,
would otherwise
be unapparent.
Or, if a client
has trouble
are probe,
reflection
of feeling, clarification,
checking
out,
describing
her
intrapersonal
experience
without
crying
profusely
every
confrontation, self-disclosure, and summary. My undergraduate students
time
attempts,toshe
may be
revealing
emotional
And
are she
encouraged
practice
using
six of these:
probe,fragility.
reflection
of verbal
feeling,
discourse
may
quickly
expose
or
lend
support
to
musical
manifestations
clarification, checking out, minimal self-disclosure, and summary.
ofAlthough
various roles
relationships
group,these
sometimes
termed
not a and
comprehensive
list,within
in mythe
opinion,
six techniques
group
dynamics.
provide
the beginning facilitator of improvisation most of what she or he
During
treatment,
thediscourse
experiences
of the clients
needs
in order
to guideconversation
effective andabout
ethical
about
can
serve
to
strengthen
rapport
as
the
group
moves
through
various
stages of development (Yalom, 1995). When one member shares her
thoughts and
feelings, understanding
andinclude
compassion
can grow; when
Competencies
addressed herein
the following:
these offerings are verbally accepted and validated by the therapist and
theVPother
trust
deepens
within
theconversation
group. Thoughts,
feelings,
1 members,
Use
probes
to elicit
client
about group
and opinions that improvisation
are shared during
a session can also help the therapist
experiences.
determine the best course of action within the session; in other words,
improvisation are transformative in and of themselvesthis can be

referred to as music as therapy (Bruscia, 1987, 1995)there may be no
need to talk about what has occurred. If, on the other hand, you believe
that discussing what has happened is a prerequisite for insight or for the
consolidation of learningmusic in therapy (Bruscia, 1987, 1995)
then verbal processing will most certainly be an indispensable feature of
the entire process.
in that sometimes what you intend to accomplish may only be achieved
and/or demonstrated through group discussion. That is, if an established
group goal is to be more forthcoming verbally about improvisation
experiences, then discourse is an inevitability.
In addition to philosophical orientation and therapeutic aim, there
are other factors that influence the decision of whether or not to verbally
treatment, evaluation, and terminationthere may be advantages to
important information about the cognitive, emotional, and
communicative functioning of the clients. For instance, if a client offers a
jumbled account of the series of musical events during a brief
improvisation (e.g., who started, what happened in the middle, what
happened at the end?), he may be revealing memory or perceptual
deficits that would otherwise be unapparent. Or, if a client has trouble
describing her intrapersonal experience without crying profusely every
time she attempts, she may be revealing emotional fragility. And verbal
discourse may quickly expose or lend support to musical manifestations
of various roles and relationships within the group, sometimes termed
group dynamics.
During treatment, conversation about the experiences of the clients
can serve to strengthen rapport as the group moves through various
thoughts and feelings, understanding and compassion can grow; when
the other members, trust deepens within the group. Thoughts, feelings,
and opinions that are shared during a session can also help the therapist
138 Gardstrom
what a client talks about in response to an experience can help you make
in-the-moment treatment decisions about what comes next.
Periodic, focused discussion about improvisation processes and
products can assist you in your evaluation of whether specific goals and
objectives are being met. For instance, you may be able to track progress
among clients who have expressive aphasia by noting their ability over
time to label objects and reactions related to the improvisations.
Finally, verbal processing can help you and your clients work
through some of the tasks related to termination, most notably the
expression and exploration of feelings about ending therapy and the
making of a healthy separation (McGuire & Smeltekop, 1994).
There may be times when verbal processing is contraindicated
because it is counterproductive to therapy. For example, certain clients
may repeatedly use words to berate, exploit, or wound themselves or
others; other clients may use verbalization as an intellectual defense
against the exploration of emotional conflict and pain.
Focal Point of Verbal Processing

Once the therapist (or clients) decide to engage in verbal discourse, it is
usually helpful to determine a focus for the discussion. Again, this can be
established ahead of time or in the moment. Let me reiterate that nearly
every decision you make as a therapist revolves around your clinical
intentions! So, if you have made sound choices before and during the
improvisation, the processing after the music-making ought to follow
naturally from these decisions.
Consider for a moment that for any group improvisation experience
or session there are at least four overarching foci for discourse, these
being created by the interface between what happens within the music or
outside of the music and what happens within a single player or between
multiple players. As defined elsewhere in this text, these connections are
called intramusical, intermusical, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Read
the following clinical vignette, which should help illustrate this point.
138 Gardstrom
what
Vignette
a client91
talks about in response to an experience can help you make
You are
Periodic,
workingfocused
with a group
discussion
of four
about
hospitalized
improvisation
adults processes
with mental
and
disorders,
products and
can assist
your you
aim inis your
to provide
evaluation
opportunities
of whether for
specific
and goals
aid the
and
clients
objectives
efforts
aretobeing
makemet.
meaningful
For instance,
and you
empathic
may be
connections
able to track
with
progress
one
another.
among You
clients
have
who
carefully
have expressive
chosen procedural
aphasia byand
noting
relationship
their ability
givens
over
fortime
thetoexperience:
label objectsOne
and reactions
at a time,
related
eachto of
thethe
improvisations.
players selects an
instrument
Finally,
of her
verbal
or his
processing
choice and
canbegins
help toyou
play
and
some
youraspect
clients
of self
work
that
through
she or some
he wishes
of the
to reveal
tasks to
related
the group
to termination,
(a mood, anmost
attribute,
notably
etc.).the
The
expression
other players
and listen
exploration
carefully
of and
feelings
gradually
aboutjoin
ending
in thetherapy
improvisation,
and the
reflecting
making of
asaclosely
healthyas
separation
they can(McGuire
the character
& Smeltekop,
of the soloists
1994). playing.
After each
There improvisation,
may be times you
whenfacilitate
verbal processing
a conversation
is contraindicated
about the
experience.
because itTo
is start
counterproductive
the flow, you might
to therapy.
use a general,
For example,
open-ended
certainprobe
clients
directed
may repeatedly
at the solouse
player,
words
such
to as,
berate,
Talk
exploit,
about that
or wound
experience.
themselves
Moreor
specifically,
others; other
youclients
might ask
mayher
useorverbalization
him What feelings
as an intellectual
do/did youdefense
have
about
against
your
theown
exploration
playing?
of (intrapersonal),
emotional conflict
How
and pain.
did the tempo of your
playing relate to your changes in meter? (intramusical), How well did
theFocal
group
members
reflect
the character of your improvisation?
Point
of Verbal
Processing
(interpersonal), or How did the groups tempo fit with your own?
(intermusical).
Role
of the Therapist
established
ahead of time or in the moment. Let me reiterate that nearly
intentions!
if you have
made
sound
choices of
before
and during
Your
level ofSo,
involvement
in the
verbal
processing
improvisation
canthe
after
to follow
beimprovisation,
conceptualizedthe
as aprocessing
continuum:
On the
one music-making
end you might ought
be completely
naturally from
these decisions.
nondirective,
contributing
to the conversation as an equal member of the
Considerguiding
for a moment
thator
forprocess;
any group
improvisation
experience
group without
the content
on the
other end you
might
session there
are atdetermining
least four overarching
foci for discourse,
beorcompletely
directive,
the focus of discourse,
the lengththese
of
created by
the interface
between
what in
happens
music or
thebeing
processing
session,
and even
the order
whichwithin
groupthe
members
outside
of thethe
music
single
player orwill
between
speak.
Often,
role and
thatwhat
you happens
assume within
duringathe
processing
be
multiple with
players.
elsewhere
in this
these connections
consistent
the As
roledefined
you assumed
during
thetext,
music-making,
but notare
always.
theThe
following
vignette,
shouldtohelp
illustrate
point.
depth clinical
of discussion
canwhich
be related
your
role as this
a therapist.
With nondirective leadership, clients could be allowed to discuss
whatever they choose, and casual comments such as That was great, I
thoroughly enjoyed myself! or That did not turn out the way I had
anticipated! would be taken at face value and left unexplored unless
138 Gardstrom
what
Vignette
a client91
talks about in response to an experience can help you make
You are
Periodic,
workingfocused
with a group
discussion
of four
about
hospitalized
improvisation
adults processes
with mental
and
disorders,
products and
can assist
your you
aim inis your
to provide
evaluation
opportunities
of whether for
specific
and goals
aid the
and
clients
objectives
efforts
aretobeing
makemet.
meaningful
For instance,
and you
empathic
may be
connections
able to track
with
progress
one
another.
among You
clients
have
who
carefully
have expressive
chosen procedural
aphasia byand
noting
relationship
their ability
givens
over
fortime
thetoexperience:
label objectsOne
and reactions
at a time,
related
eachto of
thethe
improvisations.
players selects an
instrument
Finally,
of her
verbal
or his
processing
choice and
canbegins
help to
you
play
and
some
youraspect
clients
of self
work
that
through
she or some
he wishes
of the
to reveal
tasks to
related
the group
to termination,
(a mood, anmost
attribute,
notably
etc.).the
The
expression
other players
and listen
exploration
carefully
of and
feelings
gradually
aboutjoin
ending
in thetherapy
improvisation,
and the
reflecting
making of
asaclosely
healthyas
separation
they can(McGuire
the character
& Smeltekop,
of the soloists
1994). playing.
After each
There improvisation,
may be times you
whenfacilitate
verbal processing
a conversation
is contraindicated
about the
experience.
because itTo
is start
counterproductive
the flow, you might
to therapy.
use a general,
For example,
open-ended
certainprobe
clients
directed
may repeatedly
at the solouse
player,
words
such
to as,
berate,
Talk
exploit,
about that
or wound
experience.
themselves
Moreor
specifically,
others; other
youclients
might may
ask her
useorverbalization
him What feelings
as an intellectual
do/did youdefense
have
about
against
your
theown
exploration
playing?
of (intrapersonal),
emotional conflict
How
and pain.
did the tempo of your
theFocal
group
members
reflect
the character of your improvisation?
Point
of Verbal
Processing
(intermusical).
Role
of the Therapist
established
ahead of time or in the moment. Let me reiterate that nearly
intentions!
if you have
made
sound
choices of
before
and during
Your
level ofSo,
involvement
in the
verbal
processing
improvisation
canthe
after
to follow
beimprovisation,
conceptualizedthe
as aprocessing
continuum:
On the
one music-making
end you might ought
be completely
naturally from
these decisions.
nondirective,
contributing
to the conversation as an equal member of the
Considerguiding
for a moment
thator
forprocess;
any group
improvisation
experience
group without
the content
on the
other end you
might
session there
are atdetermining
least four overarching
foci for discourse,
beorcompletely
directive,
the focus of discourse,
the lengththese
of
created by
the interface
between
what in
happens
music or
thebeing
processing
session,
and even
the order
whichwithin
groupthe
members
outside
of thethe
music
single
player orwill
between
speak.
Often,
role and
thatwhat
you happens
assume within
duringathe
processing
be
multiple with
players.
elsewhere
in this
these connections
consistent
the As
roledefined
you assumed
during
thetext,
music-making,
but notare
always.
theThe
following
vignette,
shouldtohelp
illustrate
point.
depth clinical
of discussion
canwhich
be related
your
role as this
a therapist.
Vignette 91
You are working with a group of four hospitalized adults with mental
disorders, and your aim is to provide opportunities for and aid the
clients efforts to make meaningful and empathic connections with one
another. You have carefully chosen procedural and relationship givens
for the experience: One at a time, each of the players selects an
instrument of her or his choice and begins to play some aspect of self
that she or he wishes to reveal to the group (a mood, an attribute, etc.).
The other players listen carefully and gradually join in the improvisation,
reflecting as closely as they can the character of the soloists playing.
After each improvisation, you facilitate a conversation about the
experience. To start the flow, you might use a general, open-ended probe
directed at the solo player, such as, Talk about that experience. More
specifically, you might ask her or him What feelings do/did you have
about your own playing? (intrapersonal), How did the tempo of your
the group members reflect the character of your improvisation?
(intermusical).
Role of the Therapist

Your level of involvement in the verbal processing of improvisation can
be conceptualized as a continuum: On one end you might be completely
nondirective, contributing to the conversation as an equal member of the
group without guiding the content or process; on the other end you might
be completely directive, determining the focus of discourse, the length of
the processing session, and even the order in which group members
speak. Often, the role that you assume during the processing will be
consistent with the role you assumed during the music-making, but not
always.
The depth of discussion can be related to your role as a therapist.
140 Gardstrom
another client was inclined to investigate them more fully. With directive
leadership, the specific focus could be determined for the clients,
superficial comments might be explored more fully, and all clients would
be encouraged to examine their inner experiences (intrapersonal) as well
as their experiences with others (interpersonal). The interpretation of
meaning from a particular theoretical orientation (e.g., psychodynamic,
cognitive, etc.) may enter the process when the therapist takes a directive
approach.
Be aware, however, that nondirective leadership does not
necessarily imply superficiality; in certain groups, clients can explore
issues at a meaningful level without the therapists continuous assistance.
Nor does directive leadership necessarily imply depth; it is possible for a
leader to assert her or his decisive authority without delving into
meaningful or fruitful verbal processing!
Verbal Techniques
Many authors have written about the kinds of verbal techniques that are
useful in helping others to disclose their perceptions, thoughts, feelings,
ideas, values, and opinions (Bruscia, 1987; Corey et al., 2004; Meier &
Davis, 2001; Okun, 2001). I find that I rely most heavily upon eight
distinct verbal techniques as I process improvisation experiences. These
are probe, paraphrase, reflection of feeling, clarification, checking out,
are encouraged to practice using six of these: probe, reflection of feeling,
Although not a comprehensive list, in my opinion, these six techniques
provide the beginning facilitator of improvisation most of what she or he
needs in order to guide effective and ethical discourse about
Competencies addressed herein include the following:
VP 1
Use probes to elicit client conversation about group

140 Gardstrom
improvisation
another clientare
wastransformative
inclined to investigate
in and them
of themselvesthis
more fully. With can
directive
be
referred
leadership,
to as music
the specific
as therapy
focus
(Bruscia,
could 1987,
be determined
1995)there
for may
the be
clients,
no
need
superficial
to talk about
comments
whatmight
has occurred.
be explored
If, on
more
thefully,
otherand
hand,
all you
clients
believe
would
that
be discussing
encouragedwhat
to examine
has happened
their inner
is a prerequisite
experiences for
(intrapersonal)
insight or for
asthe
well
consolidation
as their experiences
of learningmusic
with others in(interpersonal).
therapy (Bruscia,
The 1987,
interpretation
1995)of
then
meaning
verbal from
processing
a particular
will most
theoretical
certainlyorientation
be an indispensable
(e.g., psychodynamic,
feature of
thecognitive,
entire process.
etc.) may enter the process when the therapist takes a directive
approach.
in that Be
sometimes
aware, what
however,
you intend
that to nondirective
accomplish may
leadership
only be achieved
does not
and/or
necessarily
demonstrated
imply superficiality;
through group in
discussion.
certain groups,
That is,clients
if an established
can explore
group
issuesgoal
at a meaningful
is to be more
levelforthcoming
without the therapists
verbally about
continuous
improvisation
assistance.
experiences,
Nor does directive
then discourse
leadership
is annecessarily
inevitability.
imply depth; it is possible for a
leader
In addition
to assert
to philosophical
her or his decisive
orientation
authority
and therapeutic
without delving
aim, there
into
aremeaningful
other factors
or fruitful
that influence
verbal processing!
the decision of whether or not to verbally
treatment,
evaluation, and terminationthere may be advantages to
Verbal Techniques
important
information
thekinds
cognitive,
emotional,thatand
Many authors
have writtenabout
about the
of verbal techniques
are
communicative
functioning
of
the
clients.
For
instance,
if
a clientfeelings,
offers a
useful in helping others to disclose their perceptions, thoughts,
jumbled
account
the series
of 1987;
musical
events
a brief
ideas, values,
andof
opinions
(Bruscia,
Corey
et al.,during
2004; Meier
&
improvisation
started,
whatI rely
happened
in the upon
middle,
Davis, 2001; (e.g.,
Okun,who
2001).
I find that
most heavily
eightwhat
happened
at thetechniques
end?), heasmay
be revealing
memory
or perceptual
distinct verbal
I process
improvisation
experiences.
These
deficits
that paraphrase,
would otherwise
be unapparent.
Or, if a client
has trouble
are probe,
reflection
of feeling, clarification,
checking
out,
describing
her
intrapersonal
experience
without
crying
profusely
every
time
attempts,toshe
may be
revealing
emotional
And
are she
encouraged
practice
using
six of these:
probe,fragility.
reflection
of verbal
feeling,
discourse
may
quickly
expose
or
lend
support
to
musical
manifestations
ofAlthough
various roles
relationships
group,these
sometimes
termed
not a and
comprehensive
list,within
in mythe
opinion,
six techniques
group
dynamics.
provide
the beginning facilitator of improvisation most of what she or he
During
treatment,
thediscourse
experiences
of the clients
needs
in order
to guideconversation
effective andabout
ethical
about
can
serve
to
strengthen
rapport
as
the
group
moves
through
various
thoughts and
feelings, understanding
andinclude
compassion
can grow; when
Competencies
addressed herein
the following:
theVPother
trust
deepens
within
theconversation
group. Thoughts,
feelings,
1 members,
Use
probes
to elicit
client
about group
and opinions that improvisation
are shared during
a session can also help the therapist
experiences.
144 Gardstrom
VP 2
Use reflection of feeling to demonstrate empathy for the

Ex 92 (Experiential
clients.
Learning)
VP 3
Use clarification to elucidate the clients group
Improvise together.
improvisation
Take turns
experiences.
leading a discussion that uses reflection
VPof4feeling to elicit
Useverbal
checking
sharing
out toand
respond
convey
toempathy.
intuition.
VP 5
Use self-disclosure to build and strengthen intimacy with
Clarification clients.
VP 6
Use summary to close the improvisation experience or
Clarification issession.
one of the simplest verbal techniques that a therapist can
use; the challenge comes in knowing when to use it. The purposes of
In this section
of clear
the chapter,
I will define
each simply,
technique,
givesure
at that
clarification
are to
up confusion
or, more
to be
least
example,
and,correctly
as appropriate,
provide
anthe
exercise
dyadic or to
youone
have
heard and
understood
what
client for
is attempting
group
practice. Before
we move
to theway
specific
techniques,
however,
let
communicate.
The most
common
to clarify
is to use
an approach
ussuch
take aaslook
at
Barbara
Okuns
general
guidelines
for
the
use
of
verbal
I want to be sure that I understand you. Are you saying
techniques
82): scheme of things, it is not terribly important to
that ?(2001,
In thep.grand
always be on the mark; even if you have misunderstood what the client
1. to Phrase
response serves
in the same
vocabulary
that the in the
was trying
say, theyour
clarification
to convey
your interest
client, as well [client]
as youruses.
commitment to her or his treatment. In this way,
2.
Speak
enough can
that the
[client]
the technique
of slowly
clarification
serve
notunderstands
only to each
enhance
word.
communication, but to strengthen rapport.
3.
Use concise rather than rambling statements.
the topic
introduced
by in
thethe
client
to the identified
Client:4.I wish IRelate
had taken
a more
active lead
improvisation.
Instead,
theme
of the most
importance.
I depended on cognitive
others to set
the that
pace,ischange
the loudness,
and all of that.
5. (probe):
TalkHow
directly
the compare
client, notwith
about
himyou
or usually
her.
doestothat
what
do?
Therapist
6.
Send
I
statements
to
own
your
feelings,
and
allow
Client: Usually I have more of a voice. I dont know, but for some reason
the clientno
to drive,
reject,no
accept,
or modify
your messages.
today I had absolutely
motivation
to connect
with anyone in
7. I just
Encourage
theblend
clientin
to to
talk
or her
feelings.
the music.
wanted to
theabout
totalhis
sound
and
let everyone
8.
Time
not block,
else determine
whatyour
was responses
supposed to
tofacilitate,
happen. Its
weird. I feel like my
communication.
mom must have
felt right after my dad died.
Therapist (clarification): Let me see if I understand you. Are you saying
Probe
that your mom lost her will to connect with others after your dad passed
away?
The
probeIm
is used
to elicit
a descriptive
and sometimes
detailed
verbal
Client:
saying
that she
became meek
and dependent,
even
clingy. I
response
fromtothe
often phrased as a question (e.g.,
dont want
be players.
like thatAlthough
What were your reactions to the very end of the improvisation?),

probes also take the form of statements with stems such as Tell us more
about your reactions to. or Share your impression of Notice that
VP 2

clients.
Use checking out to respond to intuition.
clients.
session.
VP 3
VP 4
VP 5
VP 6
In this section of the chapter, I will define each technique, give at

least one example, and, as appropriate, provide an exercise for dyadic or
group practice. Before we move to the specific techniques, however, let
us take a look at Barbara Okuns general guidelines for the use of verbal
techniques (2001, p. 82):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Phrase your response in the same vocabulary that the

[client] uses.
Speak slowly enough that the [client] understands each
word.
Relate the topic introduced by the client to the identified
cognitive theme that is of the most importance.
Talk directly to the client, not about him or her.
Send I statements to own your feelings, and allow
the client to reject, accept, or modify your messages.
Encourage the client to talk about his or her feelings.
Time your responses to facilitate, not block,
communication.
Probe
The probe is used to elicit a descriptive and sometimes detailed verbal
response from the players. Although often phrased as a question (e.g.,
142 Gardstrom
probes, whether delivered as a question or a directive, are phrased in an

open-ended way so that the players feel invited to share description and
detail. Closed-ended probes are those questions that result in a simple
yes or no response. Closed-ended questions are valuable in their own
right, but not as a means of stimulating verbalization. A string of closedended queries can either result in the players feeling barraged or bring
the verbal sharing to a screeching halt. In general, then, try not to begin
probes with phrases like Did you. ?, Were you. ?, and Have
you. ?, and instead use questions that start with How did you. ?,
Why were you. ?, and When have you ? (I sometimes caution
my students about the use of Why in that it can be perceived by some
individuals as having an accusatory tone.)
When music is created in a spontaneous way as in improvisation,
themes or salient issues may emerge and evolve as the music unfolds;
dialogue is necessarily more immediate and dynamic than that used to
process other, more predictable music therapy experiences (Gardstrom,
2001). The possibilities for discussion are thus vast, and you will often
be called upon to think on your feet and talk off the cuff, a style of
facilitation that many people find intimidating. Below are a few generic
conversation starters (probes) that have proven helpful in my work
with verbal adolescents and adults. They must be adapted to fit the
individualized needs of client groups and the situation at hand. (Note that
some of these probes are process oriented and some are product oriented.
Note also that both musical and personal relationships are represented.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Talk about that, please.

What was that like for you?
What would you like to say about that?
What did you hear in/notice about your own or others music?
What did you like/dislike about that?
How immersed were you in your own music-making?
What surprises (pleasant or unpleasant) did you encounter?
How satisfied do you feel?
What thoughts ran through your mind during the improvisation?
What emotions did you experience during the improvisation?
142 Gardstrom
probes,
11. What
whether
images,
delivered
memories,
as a question
or associations
or a directive,
didare
thephrased
experience
in an
open-ended
evoke?way so that the players feel invited to share description and
detail.
12. In
Closed-ended
general, whatprobes
was the
arenature
those questions
of your connection
that resultwith
in a the
simple
other
yes or
players?
no response. Closed-ended questions are valuable in their own
right, but not as a means of stimulating verbalization. A string of closedended
Ex 91
queries
(Experiential
can either Learning)
result in the players feeling barraged or bring
Improvise
probes with
together.
phrases like
TakeDid
turns
you.suggesting
?, Wereprobes
you. ?,
thatand
might
Havebe
appropriate
you. ?, and
for instead
elicitinguseconversation
questions thatabout
start with
various
Howaspects
did you.of?,
the
experience.
individualsofasFeeling
having an accusatory tone.)
Reflection
themes orof salient
may technique
emerge and
evolve asInthe
music Seven,
unfolds;
Reflection
feeling issues
is another
of empathy.
Chapter
necessarily
more
and dynamic
than athat
used to
wedialogue
learnedis that
reflection
is immediate
the term used
to describe
musical
process other,
more whose
predictable
therapy
facilitation
technique
aim music
is to match
theexperiences
underlying (Gardstrom,
emotional
2001). The
possibilities
for discussion
aretothus
vast, understanding.
and you will often
character
of the
clients actions
in order
convey
In
be calledofupon
to think
on your
feet and(with
talk content
off the and
cuff,
a style of
reflection
feeling,
the therapist
represents
expressive
facilitation
many people
find intimidating.
Below
are words.
a few generic
demeanor)
thethat
underlying
emotional
character of the
clients
Take
conversation
starters
(probes)
that
have
proven
helpful
in tomyguide
work
a look at Appendix C. We used this list of emotions previously
with
verbal adolescents
adults. TheyNow
mustthebelistadapted
to as
fitanthe
our
exploration
of referentialand
improvisation.
can serve
individualized
needs list
of client
andreflecting
the situation
at hand.
(Note in
that
emotional
vocabulary
as yougroups
practice
feelings
of others
of these
probeslist
areofprocess
oriented
and some
thesome
group.
(A helpful
categorized
feeling
wordsare
canproduct
also beoriented.
found
also that
both
musicalAand
personalPrimer,
relationships
are 6465.)
represented.)
inNote
Borczon,
Music
Therapy:
Fieldwork
2004, pp.
The initial example (frantic playing in the group) can be used here
1. Talk
about
that,and
please.
to illustrate
how
probe
reflection of feeling can work together to
What was
that like for you?
invite 2.
meaningful
conversation:
3. What would you like to say about that?
Whatwe
didhadnt
you hear
in/notice
about
yourmanner.
own or others music?
played
in such
a frantic
Client:4. I wish
5. (probe):
What didWhat
you like/dislike
about that?
Therapist
about that seemed
frantic?
How
immersed
were
in your
own music-making?
way
we were
allyou
playing
different
rhythms without any
Client:6. The
7.
What
surprises
(pleasant
or
unpleasant)
did you And
encounter?
common beat at the very end. It felt chaotic and undone!
now I feel
8. How satisfied do you feel?
nervous.
9. What
thoughts
through
your
mind during
improvisation?
Therapist
(reflection
of ran
feeling):
The
turmoil
at thethe
end
was nerve10.forWhat
racking
you. emotions did you experience during the improvisation?
Client: Yeah. My hands are sweating
Therapist (probe): What was it like for the rest of you?
142 Gardstrom
probes,
11. What
whether
images,
delivered
memories,
as a question
or associations
or a directive,
didare
thephrased
experience
in an
open-ended
evoke?way so that the players feel invited to share description and
detail.
12. In
Closed-ended
general, whatprobes
was the
arenature
those questions
of your connection
that resultwith
in a the
simple
other
yes or
players?
no response. Closed-ended questions are valuable in their own
right, but not as a means of stimulating verbalization. A string of closedended
Ex 91
queries
(Experiential
can either Learning)
result in the players feeling barraged or bring
Improvise
probes with
together.
phrases like
TakeDid
turns
you.suggesting
?, Wereprobes
you. ?,
thatand
might
Havebe
appropriate
you. ?, and
for instead
elicitinguseconversation
questions thatabout
start with
various
Howaspects
did you.of?,
the
experience.
individualsofasFeeling
having an accusatory tone.)
Reflection
themes orof salient
may technique
emerge and
evolve asInthe
music Seven,
unfolds;
Reflection
feeling issues
is another
of empathy.
Chapter
necessarily
more
and dynamic
than athat
used to
wedialogue
learnedis that
reflection
is immediate
the term used
to describe
musical
process other,
more whose
predictable
therapy
facilitation
technique
aim music
is to match
theexperiences
underlying (Gardstrom,
emotional
2001). The
possibilities
for discussion
aretothus
vast, understanding.
and you will often
character
of the
clients actions
in order
convey
In
be calledofupon
to think
on yourrepresents
feet and(with
talk content
off the and
cuff,
a style of
reflection
feeling,
the therapist
expressive
facilitation
many people
find intimidating.
Below
are words.
a few generic
demeanor)
thethat
underlying
emotional
character of the
clients
Take
conversation
starters
(probes)
that
have
proven
helpful
in tomyguide
work
a look at Appendix C. We used this list of emotions previously
with
verbal adolescents
adults. TheyNow
mustthebelistadapted
to as
fitanthe
our
exploration
of referentialand
improvisation.
can serve
individualized
needs list
of client
andreflecting
the situation
at hand.
(Note in
that
emotional
vocabulary
as yougroups
practice
feelings
of others
of these
probeslist
areofprocess
oriented
and some
thesome
group.
(A helpful
categorized
feeling
wordsare
canproduct
also beoriented.
found
also that
both
musicalAand
personalPrimer,
relationships
are 6465.)
represented.)
inNote
Borczon,
Music
Therapy:
Fieldwork
2004, pp.
1. Talk
about
that,and
please.
to illustrate
how
probe
reflection of feeling can work together to
What was
that like for you?
invite 2.
meaningful
conversation:
3. What would you like to say about that?
Whatwe
didhadnt
you hear
in/notice
about
yourmanner.
own or others music?
played
in such
a frantic
Client:4. I wish
5. (probe):
What didWhat
you like/dislike
about that?
Therapist
about that seemed
frantic?
How
immersed
were
in your
own music-making?
way
we were
allyou
playing
different
rhythms without any
Client:6. The
7.
What
surprises
(pleasant
or
unpleasant)
did you And
encounter?
common beat at the very end. It felt chaotic and undone!
now I feel
8. How satisfied do you feel?
nervous.
9. What
thoughts
through
your
mind during
improvisation?
Therapist
(reflection
of ran
feeling):
The
turmoil
at thethe
end
was nerve10.forWhat
racking
you. emotions did you experience during the improvisation?
11. What images, memories, or associations did the experience

evoke?
12. In general, what was the nature of your connection with the other
players?
Improvise together. Take turns suggesting probes that might be
appropriate for eliciting conversation about various aspects of the
experience.
Reflection of feeling is another technique of empathy. In Chapter Seven,
we learned that reflection is the term used to describe a musical
facilitation technique whose aim is to match the underlying emotional
character of the clients actions in order to convey understanding. In
reflection of feeling, the therapist represents (with content and expressive
demeanor) the underlying emotional character of the clients words. Take
a look at Appendix C. We used this list of emotions previously to guide
our exploration of referential improvisation. Now the list can serve as an
emotional vocabulary list as you practice reflecting feelings of others in
the group. (A helpful list of categorized feeling words can also be found
in Borczon, Music Therapy: A Fieldwork Primer, 2004, pp. 6465.)
to illustrate how probe and reflection of feeling can work together to
invite meaningful conversation:
Client: I wish we hadnt played in such a frantic manner.
Therapist (probe): What about that seemed frantic?
Client: The way we were all playing different rhythms without any
common beat at the very end. It felt chaotic and undone! And now I feel
nervous.
Therapist (reflection of feeling): The turmoil at the end was nerveracking for you.
144 Gardstrom
144 Gardstrom
VP 2
Improvise together. Take turns leading a discussion that uses reflection
of feeling to elicit verbal sharing and convey empathy.
Clarification
Clarification is one of the simplest verbal techniques that a therapist can
clarification are to clear up confusion or, more simply, to be sure that
you have heard and correctly understood what the client is attempting to
communicate. The most common way to clarify is to use an approach
such as I want to be sure that I understand you. Are you saying
that ? In the grand scheme of things, it is not terribly important to
was trying to say, the clarification serves to convey your interest in the
client, as well as your commitment to her or his treatment. In this way,
the technique of clarification can serve not only to enhance
Client: I wish I had taken a more active lead in the improvisation. Instead,
I depended on others to set the pace, change the loudness, and all of that.
Therapist (probe): How does that compare with what you usually do?
today I had absolutely no drive, no motivation to connect with anyone in
the music. I just wanted to blend in to the total sound and let everyone
else determine what was supposed to happen. Its weird. I feel like my
mom must have felt right after my dad died.
away?
Client: Im saying that she became meek and dependent, even clingy. I
dont want to be like that

Ex 92 (Experiential
clients.
Learning)
VP 3
Improvise together.
improvisation
Take turns
experiences.
leading a discussion that uses reflection
VPof4feeling to elicit
Useverbal
checking
sharing
out toand
respond
convey
toempathy.
intuition.
VP 5
Clarification clients.
VP 6
Clarification issession.
one of the simplest verbal techniques that a therapist can
In this section
of clear
the chapter,
I will define
each simply,
technique,
givesure
at that
clarification
are to
up confusion
or, more
to be
least
example,
and,correctly
as appropriate,
provide
anthe
exercise
dyadic or to
youone
have
heard and
understood
what
client for
is attempting
group
practice. Before
we move
to theway
specific
techniques,
however,
let
communicate.
The most
common
to clarify
is to use
an approach
ussuch
take aaslook
at
Barbara
Okuns
general
guidelines
for
the
use
of
verbal
I want to be sure that I understand you. Are you saying
techniques
82): scheme of things, it is not terribly important to
that ?(2001,
In thep.grand
1. to Phrase
response serves
in the same
vocabulary
that the in the
was trying
say, theyour
clarification
to convey
your interest
client, as well [client]
as youruses.
commitment to her or his treatment. In this way,
2.
Speak
enough can
that the
[client]
the technique
of slowly
clarification
serve
notunderstands
only to each
enhance
word.
3.
the topic
introduced
by in
thethe
client
to the identified
Client:4.I wish IRelate
had taken
a more
active lead
improvisation.
Instead,
theme
of the most
importance.
I depended on cognitive
others to set
the that
pace,ischange
the loudness,
and all of that.
5. (probe):
TalkHow
directly
the compare
client, notwith
about
himyou
or usually
her.
doestothat
what
do?
Therapist
6.
Send
I
statements
to
own
your
feelings,
and
allow
the clientno
to drive,
reject,no
accept,
or modify
your messages.
today I had absolutely
motivation
to connect
with anyone in
7. I just
Encourage
theblend
clientin
to to
talk
or her
feelings.
the music.
wanted to
theabout
totalhis
sound
and
let everyone
8.
Time
not block,
else determine
whatyour
was responses
supposed to
tofacilitate,
happen. Its
weird. I feel like my
communication.
mom must have
felt right after my dad died.
Probe
away?
The
probeIm
is used
to elicit
a descriptive
and sometimes
detailed
verbal
Client:
saying
that she
became meek
and dependent,
even
clingy. I
response
fromtothe
often phrased as a question (e.g.,
dont want
be players.
like thatAlthough

Chapter Ten
Improvise together. Take turns leading a discussion, using clarification

CLOSING
as appropriate.

as appropriate.
The primary
Checking
Out purpose of this book has been to address, in a systematic
Checking Out
way, each of the improvisation competencies that I have asserted are

critical out
for istheoften
effective
andforethical
facilitation
of clinical
music
Checking
mistaken
clarification.
Whereas
clarification
improvisation
with
client
groups.
These
competencies
have
been
involves responding to something that has been said outright by the
presented
in a out
sequential
beginning
with those
skills hunch
that are
client,
checking
involvesmanner,
responding
to a therapists
internal
typically
andsaid
usedor,before
improvisation,
Skills.
about
what needed
has been
in some
cases, whatthe
hasPreparatory
not been said.
A I
wouldorlike
to stressmay
the importance
thisnumber
particular
set, in cues
that what
hunch,
intuition,
result fromofany
of skill
nonverbal
as
youincluding
do beforehand
can have
a profound
on theaffect.
overall
success
well,
the clients
posture,
gestures,effect
and facial
Here
again,of
the
improvisation
experience.
The
more
prepared
you
are
before
it is important to recognize that the line between checking out andthe
clients appear
therapy, the more confident and relaxed you are
interpretation
canfor
bemusic
quite thin.
likely
to be when
facilitation
begins.
Witha ahunch
self-assured
and
Common
stems the
for actual
checking
out include
I have
that ,
canIorient
yourif primary
focus
theme
clients
Irelaxed
get thedemeanor,
sense thatyou
,
wonder
, and
It toward
seems to
as
needs
rather
than
your
own and
respond
to intuitions
though
Here
is an
example
of how
checking
out mayasbeyou
usedmove
in
through
the
process.
dialogue:
From Preparatory Skills, we moved to those skills that are needed
and
used
duringtheimprovisation,
theforNonmusical
and Musical
Client: He played
cabasa withoutnamely
stopping
about five minutes,
on
Facilitation
techniques
and
Listening
Skills.
Using
your
body,
gestures,
and on
words, (probe):
music, and
a meaningful
way to enrich the clients
Whatears
wasinyour
response to that?
Therapist
immediate
experiences
the focus
of these
particular
competencies.
Client:
I wondered
why was
he did
that. He
did the
same thing
last time.
We
concluded
with
those
skills
that
are
needed
and
after
Some of the members of the group even told him that they didntused
like the
improvisation,
when
the
music
has
ceased.
Your
toolbox
must
include
harsh sound of the instrument.
Verbal Techniques
suchItasseems
probe,toparaphrase,
of feeling,
etc.,
me that youreflection
are irritated
with him.
Therapist
(checking out):
in
order
for
you
to
facilitate
conversation
about
improvisation
processes
Are you?
and products
and Ithereby
and integrate
Well, yeah,
guess Ihelp
am. verbal
Its justclients
that hearticulate
always talks
over otherthe
Client:
significant
aspects
of their
experience,
insightsthan
andanyone
develop
people
and acts
like what
he has
to say isgain
morenew
important
connections
with
others.
elses opinion.
Undoubtedly,
you encountered
some challenges
alongthat
each
I wonder if theres
another reason
youstep
areof
Therapist
(checking out):
the
way.
I
hope
that
you
were
able
to
overcome
some
of
those
challenges
irritated with him ?
through
practice, discussion, and reflection. Take a moment now to
Client:
I suppose.
respond to the following series of exercises as a way to take stock of
your progress, current status, and future focus.
Checking out is often mistaken for clarification. Whereas clarification

client, checking out involves responding to a therapists internal hunch
about what has been said or, in some cases, what has not been said. A
hunch, or intuition, may result from any number of nonverbal cues as
well, including the clients posture, gestures, and facial affect. Here again,
it is important to recognize that the line between checking out and
interpretation can be quite thin.
Common stems for checking out include I have a hunch that ,
I get the sense that , I wonder if , and It seems to me as
though Here is an example of how checking out may be used in
dialogue:
Client: He played the cabasa without stopping for about five minutes, on
and on
Therapist (probe): What was your response to that?
Client: I wondered why he did that. He did the same thing last time.
Some of the members of the group even told him that they didnt like the
Therapist (checking out): It seems to me that you are irritated with him.
Are you?
Client: Well, yeah, I guess I am. Its just that he always talks over other
people and acts like what he has to say is more important than anyone
elses opinion.
Therapist (checking out): I wonder if theres another reason that you are
Client: I suppose.
146 Gardstrom
Improvise together. Take turns leading a discussion, using checking out
to confirm hunches as appropriate.
Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is a technique whose function is to enhance the helping
relationship and aid in problem solving (Okun, 2001, p. 287). In selfdisclosure, the therapist shares personal information with the client.
Obviously, the technique must be used discreetly and always for the
clients rather than the therapists advantage. An example of effective
and ethical self-disclosure follows:
Client: As we listened to the recording of the improvisation, I could
actually hear the frustration and sadness in my playing. It was a reminder
of how much unhappiness I feel when I am with her.
Therapist (reflection of feeling): of how much sadness you feel in the
relationship
Client: Yes. And even though Im so miserable, I am scared to death to
make any kind of change. I just feel stuck in my own fear. It was all there
in the music. (Crying) I know I need to get out, but I just cant seem to
find the courage to take the first step.
Therapist (self-disclosure): Its difficult, I know. When I am afraid, I
have a hard time seeing beyond the horror to what that first positive step
could be.
Summary
A summary serves four main functions in a clinical session. First, it
affords the therapist an opportunity to highlight the sequential action
taken during the session. Second, it allows the therapist to identify the
main themes to have emerged. Third, the summary provides an
opportunity for the clients to discuss their final reactions to the session.
Finally, the summary is an appropriate time to look ahead to the next
session and, perhaps, make some decisions about what will occur or what
146 Gardstrom
goals will
Ex 94
be addressed.
(Experiential
Summaries
Learning)
can range in length from brief (three
to four sentences) to lengthy (three to four minutes), depending on the
situation
Improvise
andtogether.
the clients
Take
needs.
turns leading a discussion, using checking out
to confirm
Here is hunches
an example
as appropriate.
of a summary from a 45-minute session with a
group of adults with chronic mental illness living in a hospital:
Self-Disclosure
Therapist (summary): Today we began with a brief warm-up on the
drums.
Then we progressed
to anwhose
improvisation
theenhance
group of the
emotions
Self-disclosure
is a technique
function on
is to
helping
that
we often and
labelaidsadness.
Many
of you
talked2001,
openly
aboutInhow
relationship
in problem
solving
(Okun,
p. 287).
selfyour
lives in the
the therapist
hospital are
defined
by loneliness
and,with
in particular,
disclosure,
shares
personal
information
the client.
about
the anger
hopelessness
when you
thatfor
youthe
Obviously,
theand
technique
mustthat
be you
usedfeel
discreetly
andrealize
always
have
been rather
abandoned
family and
friends.An
Does
anyoneofhave
any
clients
than by
theyour
therapists
advantage.
example
effective
further
reactions
to
share?
(patients
talk)
We
discussed
the
need
to
find
and cling to hope, and we talked about the possibility of writing a song
about
hope
our next
session
together.
Howimprovisation,
does that sound
to
Client:
Asduring
we listened
to the
recording
of the
I could
everyone?
Vocabulary
for ChapterofNine
feeling): of how much sadness you feel in the
Therapist (reflection
relationship
1. Yes.
Verbal
Client:
And Processing
even though Im so miserable, I am scared to death to
2. any kind
Group
make
ofDynamics
change. I just feel stuck in my own fear. It was all there
Nondirective
in 3.the music.
(Crying) I know I need to get out, but I just cant seem to
4. the courage
Directive
find
to take the first step.
5.
Probe
Therapist
(self-disclosure): Its difficult, I know. When I am afraid, I
6. a hard
Reflection
of Feeling
have
time seeing
beyond the horror to what that first positive step
7.
Clarification
could be.
8.
Checking Out
9.
Self-Disclosure
Summary
10.
Summary
146 Gardstrom
goals will
Ex 94
be addressed.
(Experiential
Summaries
Learning)
can range in length from brief (three
situation
Improvise
andtogether.
the clients
Take
needs.
turns leading a discussion, using checking out
to confirm
Here is hunches
an example
as appropriate.
of a summary from a 45-minute session with a
goals will be addressed. Summaries can range in length from brief (three
situation and the clients needs.
Here is an example of a summary from a 45-minute session with a
Self-Disclosure
drums.
Then we progressed
to anwhose
improvisation
theenhance
group of the
emotions
Self-disclosure
is a technique
function on
is to
helping
that
we often and
labelaidsadness.
Many
of you
talked2001,
openly
aboutInhow
relationship
in problem
solving
(Okun,
p. 287).
selfyour
lives in the
the therapist
hospital are
defined
by loneliness
and,with
in particular,
disclosure,
shares
personal
information
the client.
about
the anger
hopelessness
when you
thatfor
youthe
Obviously,
theand
technique
mustthat
be you
usedfeel
discreetly
andrealize
always
have
been rather
abandoned
family and
friends.An
Does
anyoneofhave
any
clients
than by
theyour
therapists
advantage.
example
effective
further
reactions
to
share?
(patients
talk)
We
discussed
the
need
to
find
about
hope
our next
session
together.
Howimprovisation,
does that sound
to
Client:
Asduring
we listened
to the
recording
of the
I could
everyone?
Vocabulary
for ChapterofNine
feeling): of how much sadness you feel in the
Therapist (reflection
relationship
1. Yes.
Verbal
Client:
And Processing
even though Im so miserable, I am scared to death to
2. any kind
Group
make
ofDynamics
change. I just feel stuck in my own fear. It was all there
Nondirective
in 3.the music.
(Crying) I know I need to get out, but I just cant seem to
4. the courage
Directive
find
to take the first step.
5.
Probe
Therapist
(self-disclosure): Its difficult, I know. When I am afraid, I
6. a hard
Reflection
of Feeling
have
time seeing
beyond the horror to what that first positive step
7.
Clarification
could be.
8.
Checking Out
9.
Self-Disclosure
Summary
10.
Summary

drums. Then we progressed to an improvisation on the group of emotions
that we often label sadness. Many of you talked openly about how
your lives in the hospital are defined by loneliness and, in particular,
about the anger and hopelessness that you feel when you realize that you
have been abandoned by your family and friends. Does anyone have any
further reactions to share? (patients talk) We discussed the need to find
about hope during our next session together. How does that sound to
everyone?
Vocabulary for Chapter Nine
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Verbal Processing
Group Dynamics
Nondirective
Directive
Probe
Clarification
Checking Out
Self-Disclosure
Summary
Chapter Ten
CLOSING
The primary purpose of this book has been to address, in a systematic
critical for the effective and ethical facilitation of clinical music
improvisation with client groups. These competencies have been
presented in a sequential manner, beginning with those skills that are
typically needed and used before improvisation, the Preparatory Skills. I
would like to stress the importance of this particular skill set, in that what
you do beforehand can have a profound effect on the overall success of
the improvisation experience. The more prepared you are before the
clients appear for music therapy, the more confident and relaxed you are
likely to be when the actual facilitation begins. With a self-assured and
relaxed demeanor, you can orient your primary focus toward the clients
needs rather than your own and respond to intuitions as you move
through the process.
and used during improvisation, namely the Nonmusical and Musical
Facilitation techniques and Listening Skills. Using your body, gestures,
words, music, and ears in a meaningful way to enrich the clients
immediate experiences was the focus of these particular competencies.
We concluded with those skills that are needed and used after
improvisation, when the music has ceased. Your toolbox must include
Verbal Techniques such as probe, paraphrase, reflection of feeling, etc.,
in order for you to facilitate conversation about improvisation processes
and products and thereby help verbal clients articulate and integrate the
significant aspects of their experience, gain new insights and develop
connections with others.
Undoubtedly, you encountered some challenges along each step of
the way. I hope that you were able to overcome some of those challenges
through practice, discussion, and reflection. Take a moment now to
Chapter Ten
CLOSING
as appropriate.
The primary
Checking
Out purpose of this book has been to address, in a systematic
critical out
for istheoften
effective
andforethical
facilitation
of clinical
music
Checking
mistaken
clarification.
Whereas
clarification
improvisation
with
client
groups.
These
competencies
have
been
presented
in a out
sequential
beginning
with those
skills hunch
that are
client,
checking
involvesmanner,
responding
to a therapists
internal
typically
andsaid
usedor,before
improvisation,
Skills.
about
what needed
has been
in some
cases, what the
hasPreparatory
not been said.
A I
wouldorlike
to stressmay
the importance
thisnumber
particular
set, in cues
that what
hunch,
intuition,
result fromofany
of skill
nonverbal
as
youincluding
do beforehand
can have
a profound
on theaffect.
overall
success
well,
the clients
posture,
gestures,effect
and facial
Here
again,of
the
improvisation
experience.
The
more
prepared
you
are
before
it is important to recognize that the line between checking out andthe
clients appear
therapy, the more confident and relaxed you are
interpretation
canfor
bemusic
quite thin.
likely
to be when
facilitation
begins.
Witha ahunch
self-assured
and
Common
stems the
for actual
checking
out include
I have
that ,
canIorient
yourif primary
focus
theme
clients
Irelaxed
get thedemeanor,
sense thatyou
,
wonder
, and
It toward
seems to
as
needs
rather
than
your
own and
respond
to intuitions
though
Here
is an
example
of how
checking
out mayasbeyou
usedmove
in
through
the
process.
dialogue:
and
used
duringtheimprovisation,
theforNonmusical
and Musical
Client: He played
cabasa withoutnamely
stopping
about five minutes,
on
Facilitation
techniques
and
Listening
Skills.
Using
your
body,
gestures,
and on
words, (probe):
music, and
a meaningful
way to enrich the clients
Whatears
wasinyour
response to that?
Therapist
immediate
experiences
the focus
of these
particular
competencies.
Client:
I wondered
why was
he did
that. He
did the
same thing
last time.
We
concluded
with
those
skills
that
are
needed
and
after
Some of the members of the group even told him that they didntused
like the
improvisation,
when
the
music
has
ceased.
Your
toolbox
must
include
Verbal Techniques
suchItasseems
probe,toparaphrase,
of feeling,
etc.,
me that youreflection
are irritated
with him.
Therapist
(checking out):
in
order
for
you
to
facilitate
conversation
about
improvisation
processes
Are you?
and products
and Ithereby
and integrate
Well, yeah,
guess Ihelp
am. verbal
Its justclients
that hearticulate
always talks
over otherthe
Client:
significant
aspects
of their
experience,
insightsthan
andanyone
develop
people
and acts
like what
he has
to say isgain
morenew
important
connections
with
others.
elses opinion.
Undoubtedly,
you encountered
some challenges
alongthat
each
I wonder if theres
another reason
youstep
areof
Therapist
(checking out):
the
way.
I
hope
that
you
were
able
to
overcome
some
of
those
challenges
through
practice, discussion, and reflection. Take a moment now to
Client:
I suppose.
152
Closing 149
Ex 101A (Ind/Exp)
Appendix
Essential Competencies for Clinical Improvisation
Take a moment to reflect (out loud or on paper) on the following
questions.
YouSkills
may (PR)
choose to seek feedback from others about your own
Preparatory
skill development in this area. Of the numerous Preparatory Skills (see
Appendix
___PR 1A):
1. 2 WhichDefine
two orand
three
skills were
easiest
for metoto develop?
___PR
accurately
usethe
terms
relevant
2.
Whichclinical
two ormusic
three improvisation
skills were the(e.g.,
mostmethod,
difficult
for me to
technique,
develop?
referential, nonreferential, etc.)
3. 3 What Identify
specificbysteps
take to continue
to develop my
___PR
namecan
all Iinstruments
in the improvisation
competency
in these difficult areas?
instrumentarium.
___PR 4
Select instruments for the improvisation experience
Ex 102 (Ind/Exp)
based upon knowledge and perception of the players
attributes, needs, and clinical objectives.
Take
a moment
to reflectthe(out
loud or onenvironment
paper) on with
the attention
followingto
___PR
5
Arrange
improvisation
questions. You may
topositioning
seek feedback
from
others about
own
thechoose
relative
of the
instruments,
theyour
players,
skill development and
in this
Of the Nonmusical Facilitation Skills (see
thearea.
leader.
Appendix
___PR 6A):
Present/introduce the instruments to the players in a
1. Which twomanner
or threethat
skills
were their
the easiest
for use.
me to develop?
enables
effective
2. Which
two
or three
skills were
the most
difficult
forin me
to
___PR
7
Identify
the rhythmic
elements
commonly
used
clinical
develop? improvisation.
3. What
specific
stepsandcan
I takepulse
to continue
to ofdevelop
___PR
8
Establish
maintain
in a variety
tempi. my
in theseand
difficult
areas?
___PRcompetency
9
Establish
maintain
subdivisions of the pulse.
___PR 10
Establish duple and triple meters with the use of
Ex 103 (Ind/Exp)
dynamic accents.
___PR 11
Create simple and complex rhythmic patterns in duple
Take a moment and
to reflect
(out loud or on paper) on the following
triple meters.
questions.
choose
to seekrhythmic
feedbackflourishes.
from others about your own
___PR 12You may
Create
effective
skill
development
in this the
area.
Of elements
the Musical
Facilitation
(see
___PR
13
Identify
tonal
commonly
used inSkills
clinical
Appendix A):
improvisation.
1. Which
or three
skills were
easiest
for me to develop?
___PR
14 twoCreate
melodies
in a the
variety
of modalities
and tonalities.
2. Which
two
or threesimple
skillsharmonic
were thestructures.
most difficult for me to
___PR
15
Improvise
___PRdevelop?
16
Memorize and reproduce several harmonic vamps.
3. What
steps
can I take
to continue
develop
my
___PR
17 specific
Identify
the textural
elements
commonlytoused
in clinical
competency
improvisation.
___PR 18
Assume a variety of musical roles to create a variety of
textures.
Closing 149
Ex 101 (Ind/Exp)
questions. You may choose to seek feedback from others about your own
Appendix A):
1.
Which two or three skills were the easiest for me to develop?
2.
Which two or three skills were the most difficult for me to
develop?
3.
What specific steps can I take to continue to develop my
competency in these difficult areas?
Ex 102 (Ind/Exp)
skill development in this area. Of the Nonmusical Facilitation Skills (see
Appendix A):
1. Which two or three skills were the easiest for me to develop?
2. Which two or three skills were the most difficult for me to
develop?
3. What specific steps can I take to continue to develop my
Ex 103 (Ind/Exp)
skill development in this area. Of the Musical Facilitation Skills (see
Appendix A):
develop?
150 Gardstrom
Ex 104 (Ind/Exp)
skill development in this area. Of the Listening Skills (see Appendix A):
develop?
Ex 105 (Ind/Exp)
skill development in this area. Of the Verbal Skills (see Appendix A):
develop?
In the introductory chapter of this book, I wrote that
150 Gardstrom
Closing 151
individuals
Ex 104
believe
(Ind/Exp)
that an improvisation is beautiful or meaningful
if and only if it demonstrates internal structure, technical sophistication,
expressive
Take a moment
fluency, to
broad
reflect
or lasting
(out loud
allure,
or and
on paper)
so forthcriteria
on the following
often
employed
questions.inYou
conventional
may choosemusical
to seek feedback
aesthetics.from
Others
others
believe
about your
that an
own
improvisation
skill development
can be
in this
beautiful
area. Of the
or Listening
meaningful
Skills by
(seevirtue
Appendix
of the
A):
players
1. sincerity
Which two
of expression
or three skills
or were
fidelity
theto
easiest
the task
for me
or referent,
to develop?
even
though2.theWhich
piece itself
two may
or three
not be
skills
technically
were the
complex,
most difficult
eloquent,for
or even
me to
appealing develop?
to the listeners. With this second perspective, I come full circle
to the3.importance
What specific
of authentic
steps can
andI clinically
take to continue
relevant to
musical
develop
self-my
expression;competency
here, ones
in these
abilitydifficult
to create
areas?
and facilitate beautiful and
meaningful improvisations is integrally linked to ones own ability to
play inExa genuine
105 (Ind/Exp)
and intentional manner.
In closing, I hope that the information presented in this text
combined
Take a moment
with yourtodiligence
reflect (out
as a loud
learner
or has
on paper)
helped on
youthe
to become
following
more
questions.
genuine,
You communicative,
may choose to seek
andfeedback
adaptable
frominothers
yourabout
ownyour
group
own
improvisation.
skill development
As you
in this
continue
area. Of
to the
develop
Verbalthese
Skillsfeatures
(see Appendix
and combine
A):
them with
1. Which
clinicaltwo
intentionality,
or three skills
youwere
willthe
be easiest
able to for
effectively
me to develop?
lead your
clients2.to and
Which
through
two the
or journey
three skills
and joy
were
of clinical
the most
music
difficult
improvisation.
for me to
develop?
music therapists who have developed clinical music skills are able
to create music in an authentic, communicative, flexible, and
intentional manner. In this context, authentic means with
genuineness of expression, communicative means with a desire and
ability to make meaningful contact with the other players, flexible
means in a responsive and adaptable manner, and intentional means
with a clear clinical purpose in mind. It is, perhaps, a combination
of these four dimensions that therapists ultimately ought to strive to
achieve in their improvisational work.
With respect to these notions, I would like to encourage you to

consider your personal perspective on how evaluations of beauty and
meaning are made with respect to improvisational products. Some

150 Gardstrom
Closing 151
individuals
Ex 104
believe
(Ind/Exp)
that an improvisation is beautiful or meaningful
expressive
Take a moment
fluency, to
broad
reflect
or lasting
(out loud
allure,
or and
on paper)
so forthcriteria
on the following
often
employed
questions.inYou
conventional
may choosemusical
to seek feedback
aesthetics.from
Others
others
believe
about your
that an
own
improvisation
skill development
can be
in this
beautiful
area. Of the
or Listening
meaningful
Skills by
(seevirtue
Appendix
of the
A):
players
1. sincerity
Which two
of expression
or three skills
or were
fidelity
theto
easiest
the task
for me
or referent,
to develop?
even
though2.theWhich
piece itself
two may
or three
not be
skills
technically
were the
complex,
most difficult
eloquent,for
or even
me to
appealing develop?
to the listeners. With this second perspective, I come full circle
to the3.importance
What specific
of authentic
steps can
andI clinically
take to continue
relevant to
musical
develop
self-my
expression;competency
here, ones
in these
abilitydifficult
to create
areas?
and facilitate beautiful and
play inExa genuine
105 (Ind/Exp)
and intentional manner.
combined
Take a moment
with yourtodiligence
reflect (out
as a loud
learner
or has
on paper)
helped on
youthe
to become
following
more
questions.
genuine,
You communicative,
may choose to seek
andfeedback
adaptable
frominothers
yourabout
ownyour
group
own
improvisation.
skill development
As you
in this
continue
area. Of
to the
develop
Verbalthese
Skillsfeatures
(see Appendix
and combine
A):
them with
1. Which
clinicaltwo
intentionality,
or three skills
youwere
willthe
be easiest
able to for
effectively
me to develop?
lead your
clients2.to and
Which
through
two the
or journey
three skills
and joy
were
of clinical
the most
music
difficult
improvisation.
for me to
develop?
Closing 151
individuals believe that an improvisation is beautiful or meaningful

expressive fluency, broad or lasting allure, and so forthcriteria often
employed in conventional musical aesthetics. Others believe that an
improvisation can be beautiful or meaningful by virtue of the
players sincerity of expression or fidelity to the task or referent, even
though the piece itself may not be technically complex, eloquent, or even
appealing to the listeners. With this second perspective, I come full circle
to the importance of authentic and clinically relevant musical selfexpression; here, ones ability to create and facilitate beautiful and
play in a genuine and intentional manner.
combined with your diligence as a learner has helped you to become
more genuine, communicative, and adaptable in your own group
improvisation. As you continue to develop these features and combine
them with clinical intentionality, you will be able to effectively lead your
clients to and through the journey and joy of clinical music improvisation.
152
152
Appendix A
Preparatory Skills (PR)
___PR 1
___PR 2
___PR 3
___PR 4
___PR 5
___PR 6
___PR 7
___PR 8
___PR 9
___PR 10
___PR 11
___PR 12
___PR 13
___PR 14
___PR 15
___PR 16
___PR 17
___PR 18

Define and accurately use terms relevant to
clinical music improvisation (e.g., method, technique,
Identify by name all instruments in the improvisation
instrumentarium.
Arrange the improvisation environment with attention to
the relative positioning of the instruments, the players,
and the leader.
manner that enables their effective use.
improvisation.
Establish and maintain pulse in a variety of tempi.
Establish and maintain subdivisions of the pulse.
dynamic accents.
and triple meters.
Create effective rhythmic flourishes.
Identify the tonal elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
Create melodies in a variety of modalities and tonalities.
Improvise simple harmonic structures.
Identify the textural elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
textures.
Closing 149
Ex 101A (Ind/Exp)
Appendix
questions.
YouSkills
may (PR)
choose to seek feedback from others about your own
Preparatory
Appendix
___PR 1A):
1. 2 WhichDefine
two orand
three
skills were
easiest
for metoto develop?
___PR
accurately
usethe
terms
relevant
2.
Whichclinical
two ormusic
three improvisation
skills were the(e.g.,
mostmethod,
difficult
for me to
technique,
develop?
3. 3 What Identify
specificbysteps
take to continue
to develop my
___PR
namecan
all Iinstruments
in the improvisation
competency
instrumentarium.
___PR 4
Ex 102 (Ind/Exp)
Take
a moment
to reflectthe(out
loud or onenvironment
paper) on with
the attention
followingto
___PR
5
Arrange
improvisation
questions. You may
topositioning
seek feedback
from
others about
own
thechoose
relative
of the
instruments,
theyour
players,
skill development and
in this
Of the Nonmusical Facilitation Skills (see
thearea.
leader.
Appendix
___PR 6A):
1. Which twomanner
or threethat
skills
were their
the easiest
for use.
me to develop?
enables
effective
2. Which
two
or three
skills were
the most
difficult
forin me
to
___PR
7
Identify
the rhythmic
elements
commonly
used
clinical
develop? improvisation.
3. What
specific
stepsandcan
I takepulse
to continue
to ofdevelop
___PR
8
Establish
maintain
in a variety
tempi. my
in theseand
difficult
areas?
___PRcompetency
9
Establish
maintain
subdivisions of the pulse.
___PR 10
Ex 103 (Ind/Exp)
dynamic accents.
___PR 11
Take a moment and
to reflect
(out loud or on paper) on the following
triple meters.
questions.
choose
to seekrhythmic
feedbackflourishes.
from others about your own
___PR 12You may
Create
effective
skill
development
in this the
area.
Of elements
the Musical
Facilitation
(see
___PR
13
Identify
tonal
commonly
used inSkills
clinical
Appendix A):
improvisation.
1. Which
or three
skills were
easiest
for me to develop?
___PR
14 twoCreate
melodies
in a the
variety
of modalities
and tonalities.
2. Which
two
or threesimple
skillsharmonic
were thestructures.
most difficult for me to
___PR
15
Improvise
___PRdevelop?
16
3. What
steps
can I take
to continue
develop
my
___PR
17 specific
Identify
the textural
elements
commonlytoused
in clinical
competency
improvisation.
___PR 18
textures.
156
153
___PR
Appendix
19 B Demonstrate multiple playing configurations on each
Exercises
instrument.
___PR 20
Identify the dynamic elements commonly used in clinical
Did = Didacticimprovisation.
Learning
___PR
Exp =21Experiential
Create
Learning
gradual and sudden changes in volume.
___PR
Ind =22
Independent
Identify
Skillthe
Development
timbral elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
___PR
Chapter
23 Two Demonstrate multiple timbres on each instrument.
___PR 24 21 (Exp)
Identify suitable
Improvising
structures
staticfor
and
improvisation
dynamic referents.
sessions.
`
___PR 25
Determine(optional)
and present suitable givens and referents for
Chapter Threeimprovisation experiences.
31 (Ind)
Manipulating instruments.
Facilitative32
Skills
(Nonmusical/NM)
(Ind)
Exploring the timbre of instruments.
33 (Exp)
Playing and passing instruments in a circle.
Sorting
instrumentsifinto
categories.
___NM 1 34 (Did)
Start and stop
the the
improvisation
necessary.
Ranking
according
to strength, etc.
___NM 2 35 (Ind)
Communicate
with instruments
players nonverbally
while
36 (Ind)
Ranking instruments according to sound
improvising.
variability
___NM 3
Communicate
with players verbally while improvising.
Selecting
instruments
for while
various
populations.
___NM 4 37 (Exp)
Move within
and around
the group
improvising
for
38 (Exp)
Arranging
and
rearranging the environment.
purposes of
support or
guidance.
Presenting
a sound
vocabulary.
___NM 5 39 (Exp)
Help the players
produce
sound
on the percussion
instruments as necessary (e.g., position the instrument,
Chapter Four hold the instrument, provide hand-over-hand assistance).
41 (Exp)
Feeling the pulse.
Facilitative42
Skills
(Musical/MU)
(Exp)
Internalizing the pulse.
43 (Exp)
Subdividing the pulse.
Using dynamic
___MU 1 44 (Exp)
Imitate a clients
response.accents.
Using
create rhythmic patterns.
___MU 2 45 (Exp)
Synchronize
withlanguage
a clientstoplaying.
Using
songs motif
to explore
___MU 3 46 (Exp)
Incorporate
a musical
of thephrasing.
client into ones
47 (Exp)
Improvising short rhythmic patterns.
improvising.
binary form
to explore
___MU 4 48 (Exp)
Pace onesUsing
improvising
with the
clientsrubato
energyplaying.
level.
various rhythmic
roles
in groupby
___MU 5 49 (Exp)
Reflect theAssuming
moods, attitudes,
and feelings
exhibited
the client. playing.
Exploring
various
scales ground.
and modalities.
___MU 6 410 (Ind)
Establish and
maintain
a rhythmic
Improvising
a partner.
___MU 7 411 (Ind)
Establish and
maintaintonally
a tonalwith
center.
Memorizing
vamps. for the client to respond.
___MU 8 412 (Ind)
Use repetition
as an invitation
Exploring
pitch
register and tessitura.
___MU 9 413 (Exp)
Model desired
musical
responses.
414 (Exp)
Exploring demands of various role relationships.
153
___PR 19
___PR 20
___PR 21
___PR 22
___PR 23
___PR 24
___PR 25
Demonstrate multiple playing configurations on each

instrument.
improvisation.
Create gradual and sudden changes in volume.
Identify the timbral elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
Demonstrate multiple timbres on each instrument.
Identify suitable structures for improvisation sessions.
Determine and present suitable givens and referents for
Facilitative Skills (Nonmusical/NM)

___NM 1
___NM 2
___NM 3
___NM 4
___NM 5
Start and stop the improvisation if necessary.

Communicate with players nonverbally while
improvising.
Communicate with players verbally while improvising.
Move within and around the group while improvising for
Help the players produce sound on the percussion
hold the instrument, provide hand-over-hand assistance).
Facilitative Skills (Musical/MU)

___MU 1
___MU 2
___MU 3
___MU 4
___MU 5
___MU 6
___MU 7
___MU 8
___MU 9
Imitate a clients response.

Synchronize with a clients playing.
Incorporate a musical motif of the client into ones
improvising.
Pace ones improvising with the clients energy level.
Reflect the moods, attitudes, and feelings exhibited by
the client.
Establish and maintain a rhythmic ground.
Establish and maintain a tonal center.
Use repetition as an invitation for the client to respond.
Model desired musical responses.
154
___MU 10
___MU 11
___MU 12
___MU 13
___MU 14
___MU 15
___MU 16
___MU 17
___MU 18
154
Make spaces in ones improvising for the clients

improvising.
Interject music into the spaces made by the client.
Introduce musical change to redirect the clients playing.
Intensify elements within the improvisation.
Assist clients in the sharing of the instruments.
Bond with the client through the creation and repetition
of a musical theme.
Demonstrate the effective use of musical soliloquy.
Recede from playing during a group improvisation.
Improvise to a clients free association.
___VP
___MU
2 10
___VP
___MU
3 11
___MU 12
___VP
___MU
4 13
___VP
___MU
5 14
___MU 15
___VP 6
___MU 16
___MU 17
___MU 18
155
Use
Make
reflection
spacesofinfeeling
ones improvising
to demonstrate
for the
empathy
clients
for the
clients.
improvising.
Use
Interject
clarification
music into
to elucidate
the spaces
themade
clients
by group
the client.
improvisation
Introduce musical
experiences.
change to redirect the clients playing.
Use
Intensify
checking
elements
out to respond
within the
to improvisation.
intuition.
Use
Assist
self-disclosure
clients in the
to sharing
build and
of strengthen
the instruments.
intimacy with
clients.
Use
of summary
a musical to
theme.
close the improvisation experience or
session
Demonstrate
.
the effective use of musical soliloquy.
Facilitative Skills (Listening/LI)
___LI 1
___LI 2
___LI 1
___LI 2
___LI 3
___LI 4
___LI 5
___LI 6
___LI 7
___LI 8
___LI 9
___LI 10
___LI 11
___LI 12
Define salience.
Determine what elements and aspects of improvisation
are salient at any given time.
Define integration.
Determine levels of integration for rhythmic, tonal,
Define variability.
Determine levels of variability in rhythmic, tonal,
Define tension.
Determine levels of tension in rhythmic, tonal, textural,
Define congruence.
Determine levels of congruence between musical
elements and physical, programmatic, verbal, and
interpersonal features.
Define autonomy.
Determine levels of autonomy with respect to rhythmic,
tonal, textural, dynamic, and timbral elements.
___LI 3
___LI 4
___LI 5
___LI 6
___LI 7
___LI 8
___LI 9
___LI 10
___LI 11
___LI 12
Define salience.
Define integration.
Define variability.
Define tension.
Define congruence.
Define autonomy.
Verbal Processing Skills (VP)
___VP 1
___VP 1


154
___VP
___MU
2 10
___VP
___MU
3 11
___MU 12
___VP
___MU
4 13
___VP
___MU
5 14
___MU 15
___VP 6
___MU 16
___MU 17
___MU 18
155
Use
Make
reflection
spacesofinfeeling
ones improvising
to demonstrate
for the
empathy
clients
for the
clients.
improvising.
Use
Interject
clarification
music into
to elucidate
the spaces
themade
clients
by group
the client.
improvisation
Introduce musical
experiences.
change to redirect the clients playing.
Use
Intensify
checking
elements
out to respond
within the
to improvisation.
intuition.
Use
Assist
self-disclosure
clients in the
to sharing
build and
of strengthen
the instruments.
intimacy with
clients.
Use
of summary
a musical to
theme.
close the improvisation experience or
session
Demonstrate
.
the effective use of musical soliloquy.

___LI 1
___LI 2
___LI 3
___LI 4
___LI 5
___LI 6
___LI 7
___LI 8
___LI 9
___LI 10
___LI 11
___LI 12
Define salience.
Define integration.
Define variability.
Define tension.
Define congruence.
Define autonomy.

___VP 1

155
___VP 2
___VP 3
___VP 4
___VP 5
___VP 6

clients.
Use checking out to respond to intuition.
clients.
session.
156
156
Appendix B
Exercises
Did = Didactic Learning
Exp = Experiential Learning
Ind = Independent Skill Development
Chapter Two
21 (Exp)
Chapter Three
31 (Ind)
32 (Ind)
33 (Exp)
34 (Did)
35 (Ind)
36 (Ind)
37 (Exp)
38 (Exp)
39 (Exp)
Chapter Four
41 (Exp)
42 (Exp)
43 (Exp)
44 (Exp)
45 (Exp)
46 (Exp)
47 (Exp)
48 (Exp)
49 (Exp)
410 (Ind)
411 (Ind)
412 (Ind)
413 (Exp)
414 (Exp)
Improvising static and dynamic referents. `

(optional)
Sorting the instruments into categories.
Ranking instruments according to strength, etc.
variability
Selecting instruments for various populations.
Arranging and rearranging the environment.
Presenting a sound vocabulary.
Feeling the pulse.

Using dynamic accents.
Using language to create rhythmic patterns.
Using songs to explore phrasing.
Using binary form to explore rubato playing.
Assuming various rhythmic roles in group
playing.
Exploring various scales and modalities.
Improvising tonally with a partner.
Memorizing vamps.
Exploring pitch register and tessitura.
153
___PR
Appendix
19 B Demonstrate multiple playing configurations on each
Exercises
instrument.
___PR 20
Did = Didacticimprovisation.
Learning
___PR
Exp =21Experiential
Create
Learning
gradual and sudden changes in volume.
___PR
Ind =22
Independent
Identify
Skillthe
Development
timbral elements commonly used in clinical
improvisation.
___PR
Chapter
23 Two Demonstrate multiple timbres on each instrument.
___PR 24 21 (Exp)
Identify suitable
Improvising
structures
staticfor
and
improvisation
dynamic referents.
sessions.
`
___PR 25
Determine(optional)
and present suitable givens and referents for
Chapter Threeimprovisation experiences.
31 (Ind)
Facilitative32
Skills
(Nonmusical/NM)
(Ind)
33 (Exp)
Sorting
instrumentsifinto
categories.
___NM 1 34 (Did)
Start and stop
the the
improvisation
necessary.
Ranking
according
to strength, etc.
___NM 2 35 (Ind)
Communicate
with instruments
players nonverbally
while
36 (Ind)
improvising.
variability
___NM 3
Communicate
with players verbally while improvising.
Selecting
instruments
for while
various
populations.
___NM 4 37 (Exp)
Move within
and around
the group
improvising
for
38 (Exp)
Arranging
and
rearranging the environment.
purposes of
support or
guidance.
Presenting
a sound
vocabulary.
___NM 5 39 (Exp)
Help the players
produce
sound
on the percussion
Chapter Four hold the instrument, provide hand-over-hand assistance).
41 (Exp)
Feeling the pulse.
Facilitative42
Skills
(Musical/MU)
(Exp)
43 (Exp)
Using dynamic
___MU 1 44 (Exp)
Imitate a clients
response.accents.
Using
create rhythmic patterns.
___MU 2 45 (Exp)
Synchronize
withlanguage
a clientstoplaying.
Using
songs motif
to explore
___MU 3 46 (Exp)
Incorporate
a musical
of thephrasing.
client into ones
47 (Exp)
improvising.
binary form
to explore
___MU 4 48 (Exp)
Pace onesUsing
improvising
with the
clientsrubato
energyplaying.
level.
various rhythmic
roles
in groupby
___MU 5 49 (Exp)
Reflect theAssuming
moods, attitudes,
and feelings
exhibited
the client. playing.
Exploring
various
scales ground.
and modalities.
___MU 6 410 (Ind)
Establish and
maintain
a rhythmic
Improvising
a partner.
___MU 7 411 (Ind)
Establish and
maintaintonally
a tonalwith
center.
Memorizing
vamps. for the client to respond.
___MU 8 412 (Ind)
Use repetition
as an invitation
Exploring
pitch
register and tessitura.
___MU 9 413 (Exp)
Model desired
musical
responses.
414 (Exp)
160
Cowardly
415 (Ind)
Edgy 416 (Ind)
Fearful417 (Exp)
Fretful418 (Exp)
Horrified
419 (Exp)
Nervous
Chapter
Five
Ambivalent
51 (Did)
Cautious
Changeable
Erratic52 (Did)
Fickle
Hesitant
53 (Did)
Inconsistent
Indecisive
54 (Exp)
Irresolute
55 (Exp)
Tentative
Uncertain
Chapter
Six
Unpredictable
61
(Exp)
Unsure
62
Vacillating (Exp)
63 (Exp)
Wavering
Wishy-washy
64 (Exp)
157
Panicky
Traumatized
Scared
Using various playing
configurations (tonal).
Petrified
Timid
stiff
Using various playing configurations (rhythmic).
Shocked
Uneasy
Creating gradual crescendi and decrescendo.
Startled
Worried and release tension.
Using volume to accumulate
Tense
Worried to
Exploring timbre in nonreferential
Terrified
death
157
415 (Ind)
416 (Ind)
417 (Exp)
418 (Exp)
419 (Exp)
improvisations.
Confused
Selecting session structures
Baffled for various
populations.
Bamboozled
Determining factors
that influence given
Befuddled
Bewildered
selection.
Selecting givens toConfounded
address client
needs/objectives. Dazed
Disorientedselected givens.
Improvising and evaluating
Mystified
Determining referents based on verbal check-in.
Overcome
Perplexed
Puzzled
Starting improvisations.
At a complete loss
Stopping improvisations.
In a fog
Using gesture to conduct expressive features.

Conversing while improvising.
65 (Exp)
Moving around the group while improvising.
66 (Exp)
Providing physical assistance to another player.
Static 67
and Dynamic
Referents:
Events
andassistance
Processes of another player.
(Exp)
Employing
physical
1. SevenBirth
Chapter
2. 71 (Exp)
Birthday Party
Practicing imitation (rhythmic).
3. 72 (Exp)
Breaking Up
Practicing imitation (nonrhythmic).
4. 73 (Exp)
Circus/Theme
Park as a co-therapist.
Imitating
5. 74 (Exp)
City StreetSynchronizing with a partners music.
6. 75 (Exp)
Dawn
Synchronizing as a co-therapist.
7. 76 (Exp)
Death
Incorporating a partners musical themes.
8. 77 (Exp)
Divorce Matching a players intensity, speed, and
9.
Dream phrasing.
10.78 (Exp)
Dusk
Reflecting the character of a players music.
11.79 (Exp)
EmotionalServing
Abuse as a rhythmic ground.
12.710 (Exp)
Family Meal
Serving as a rhythmic ground with adversity.
13.711 (Exp)
Fight
Serving as a tonal center.
Chapter Five
51 (Did)
Using various playing configurations (tonal).

Using volume to accumulate and release tension.
improvisations.
54 (Exp)
55 (Exp)
Selecting session structures for various

populations.
Determining factors that influence given
selection.
Selecting givens to address client
needs/objectives.
Improvising and evaluating selected givens.
Chapter Six
61 (Exp)
62 (Exp)
63 (Exp)
64 (Exp)
65 (Exp)
66 (Exp)
67 (Exp)
Employing physical assistance of another player.
52 (Did)
53 (Did)
Chapter Seven
71 (Exp)
72 (Exp)
73 (Exp)
74 (Exp)
75 (Exp)
76 (Exp)
77 (Exp)
78 (Exp)
79 (Exp)
710 (Exp)
711 (Exp)

Imitating as a co-therapist.
Synchronizing with a partners music.
Matching a players intensity, speed, and
phrasing.
Serving as a rhythmic ground.
158
158
712 (Exp)
713 (Exp)
714 (Exp)
715 (Exp)
716 (Exp)
717 (Exp)
718 (Exp)
719 (Exp)
720 (Exp)
Chapter Eight
81 (Exp)
82 (Exp)
83 (Exp)
84 (Exp)
85 (Exp)
86 (Exp)
87 (Exp)
88 (Exp)
Practicing elicitation.
Modeling a desired response.
Making spaces and interjecting.
Introducing new musical material.
Intensifying various musical aspects.
Sharing various instruments.
Improvising a soliloquy.
Practice receding from improvisation.
Improvising to a players free associations.
Determining salience (one player).

Determining salience (multiple players).
Determining salience (multiple players).
Determining and describing rhythmic
integration.
Determining and describing variability.
Determining and describing tension.
Determining and describing congruence.
Determining and describing autonomy.
Chapter Nine
91 (Exp)
92 (Exp)
93 (Exp)
94 (Exp)
95 (Exp)
96 (Exp)
Using probe.
Using reflection of feeling.
Using clarification.
Using checking out.
Using self-disclosure.
Using summary.
Chapter Ten
101 (Ind/Exp)
102 (Ind/Exp)
103 (Ind/Exp)
104 (Ind/Exp)
105 (Ind/Exp)
Evaluating preparatory skills.

Evaluating listening skills.
Evaluating nonmusical facilitation skills.
Evaluating musical facilitation skills.
Evaluating verbal skills.
159
Appendix C
712 (Exp)
Referents 713
for Clinical
Improvisation
(Exp) Music
Modeling
a desired response.
714 (Exp)
Static and 715
Dynamic
Emotions
(Exp)Referents:
Introducing
new musical material.
(Note: With
children,
mad,
sad,musical
glad, and
scared
716
(Exp) the words,
Intensifying
various
aspects.
serve as helpful
summariesSharing
of four various
main categories
of feelings with
717 (Exp)
instruments.
which they718
can identify.
each of athese
categories below, related
(Exp) Under
Improvising
soliloquy.
terms appear.
final words
in each
category
areimprovisation.
slang expressions
719The
(Exp)
Practice
receding
from
used to describe
the feeling.
Because human
emotionfree
is subjective,
there
720 (Exp)
Improvising
to a players
associations.
may be differences of opinion about the category in which a descriptor
belongs.
ChapterNotice
Eight that some words appear multiple times; this is an
indication 81
of the
complexity
of human emotion.
(Exp)
Determining
salience For
(oneexample,
player). betrayal
may feel like
mixture of Determining
anger and sadness.
The(multiple
fifth andplayers).
sixth
82a(Exp)
salience
categories,83
Ambivalent,
and Confused,
appear
on the following
(Exp)
Determining
salience
(multiple
players).
page.)
84 (Exp)
integration.
85 (Exp)
Jolly
Negative
Mad
86 (Exp) Hopping
Determining and
describing tension.
Joyful
Neglected
Abused 87 (Exp) mad" Determining and
describing congruence.
Lucky
Shamed
be
Agitated 88 (Exp) Fit to Determining
and describing autonomy.
Peaceful
Somber
tied
Angry
Positive
Vacant
Teed off
Annoyed
Chapter Nine
Relieved
Down in the
Betrayed
Sad
Using probe. dumps
Satisfied
Bothered 91 (Exp) Abandoned
92 (Exp) Anguished
Using reflection
of feeling.
Secure
Down
in the
Cross
Thankful
mouth
Enraged 93 (Exp) Betrayed
Using checking out.
Thrilled
Exasperated94 (Exp) Depressed
Pleased as
Exploited 95 (Exp) Disappointed
Glad
punch
Blissful
Horrified 96 (Exp) DismalUsing summary.
Happy as a
Carefree
Empty
Humiliated
lark
Certain
Forsaken
Frustrated
Chapter Ten
Cheerful
Gloomy
Furious
101 (Ind/Exp) Evaluating preparatory skills.
Comforted
Grieving
Scared
Incensed
skills.
Abused
Confident
Grim Evaluating listening
Irritated 102 (Ind/Exp)
103 (Ind/Exp)
Evaluating nonmusical
skills.
Content facilitation Afraid
Heartbroken
Irate
104 (Ind/Exp)
Evaluating musical
facilitation skills.
Agitated
Delighted
Humiliated
Livid
Evaluating verbal
skills.
Alarmed
Ecstatic
Isolated
Perturbed 105 (Ind/Exp)
Anxious
Fortunate
Lonely
Riled
ApprehenGratified
Lost
Seething
sive
Happy
Miserable
Upset
158
159
Appendix C
712 (Exp)
Referents 713
for Clinical
Improvisation
(Exp) Music
Modeling
a desired response.
714 (Exp)
Static and 715
Dynamic
Emotions
(Exp)Referents:
Introducing
new musical material.
(Note: With
children,
mad,
sad,musical
glad, and
scared
716
(Exp) the words,
Intensifying
various
aspects.
serve as helpful
summariesSharing
of four various
main categories
of feelings with
717 (Exp)
instruments.
which they718
can identify.
each of athese
categories below, related
(Exp) Under
Improvising
soliloquy.
terms appear.
final words
in each
category
areimprovisation.
slang expressions
719The
(Exp)
Practice
receding
from
used to describe
the feeling.
Because human
emotionfree
is subjective,
there
720 (Exp)
Improvising
to a players
associations.
belongs.
ChapterNotice
Eight that some words appear multiple times; this is an
indication 81
of the
complexity
of human emotion.
(Exp)
Determining
salience For
(oneexample,
player). betrayal
may feel like
mixture of Determining
anger and sadness.
The(multiple
fifth andplayers).
sixth
82a(Exp)
salience
categories,83
Ambivalent,
and Confused,
appear
on the following
(Exp)
Determining
salience
(multiple
players).
page.)
84 (Exp)
integration.
85 (Exp)
Jolly
Negative
Mad
86 (Exp) Hopping
Determining and
describing tension.
Joyful
Neglected
Abused 87 (Exp) mad" Determining and
describing congruence.
Lucky
Shamed
be
Agitated 88 (Exp) Fit to Determining
and describing autonomy.
Peaceful
Somber
tied
Angry
Positive
Vacant
Teed off
Annoyed
Chapter Nine
Relieved
Down in the
Betrayed
Sad
Using probe. dumps
Satisfied
Bothered 91 (Exp) Abandoned
92 (Exp) Anguished
Using reflection
of feeling.
Secure
Down
in the
Cross
Thankful
mouth
Enraged 93 (Exp) Betrayed
Using checking out.
Thrilled
Exasperated94 (Exp) Depressed
Pleased as
Exploited 95 (Exp) Disappointed
Glad
punch
Blissful
Horrified 96 (Exp) DismalUsing summary.
Happy as a
Carefree
Empty
Humiliated
lark
Certain
Forsaken
Frustrated
Chapter Ten
Cheerful
Gloomy
Furious
101 (Ind/Exp) Evaluating preparatory skills.
Comforted
Grieving
Scared
Incensed
skills.
Abused
Confident
Grim Evaluating listening
Irritated 102 (Ind/Exp)
103 (Ind/Exp)
Evaluating nonmusical
skills.
Content facilitation Afraid
Heartbroken
Irate
104 (Ind/Exp)
Evaluating musical
facilitation skills.
Agitated
Delighted
Humiliated
Livid
Evaluating verbal
skills.
Alarmed
Ecstatic
Isolated
Perturbed 105 (Ind/Exp)
Anxious
Fortunate
Lonely
Riled
ApprehenGratified
Lost
Seething
sive
Happy
Miserable
Upset
159
Appendix C
Referents for Clinical Music Improvisation
Static and Dynamic Referents: Emotions
(Note: With children, the words, mad, sad, glad, and scared
serve as helpful summaries of four main categories of feelings with
which they can identify. Under each of these categories below, related
terms appear. The final words in each category are slang expressions
used to describe the feeling. Because human emotion is subjective, there
belongs. Notice that some words appear multiple times; this is an
indication of the complexity of human emotion. For example, betrayal
may feel like a mixture of anger and sadness. The fifth and sixth
categories, Ambivalent, and Confused, appear on the following
page.)
Mad
Abused
Agitated
Angry
Annoyed
Betrayed
Bothered
Cross
Enraged
Exasperated
Exploited
Horrified
Humiliated
Frustrated
Furious
Incensed
Irritated
Irate
Livid
Perturbed
Riled
Seething
Upset
Hopping
mad"
Fit to be
tied
Teed off
Sad
Abandoned
Anguished
Betrayed
Depressed
Disappointed
Dismal
Empty
Forsaken
Gloomy
Grieving
Grim
Heartbroken
Humiliated
Isolated
Lonely
Lost
Miserable
Negative
Neglected
Shamed
Somber
Vacant
Down in the
dumps
Down in the
mouth
Glad
Blissful
Carefree
Certain
Cheerful
Comforted
Confident
Content
Delighted
Ecstatic
Fortunate
Gratified
Happy
Jolly
Joyful
Lucky
Peaceful
Positive
Relieved
Satisfied
Secure
Thankful
Thrilled
Pleased as
punch
Happy as a
lark
Scared
Abused
Afraid
Agitated
Alarmed
Anxious
Apprehensive
160
160
Cowardly
Edgy
Fearful
Fretful
Horrified
Nervous
Panicky
Petrified
Shocked
Startled
Tense
Terrified
Ambivalent
Cautious
Changeable
Erratic
Fickle
Hesitant
Inconsistent
Indecisive
Irresolute
Tentative
Uncertain
Unpredictable
Unsure
Vacillating
Wavering
Wishy-washy
Traumatized
Timid
Uneasy
Worried
Worried to
death
Confused
Baffled
Bamboozled
Befuddled
Bewildered
Confounded
Dazed
Disoriented
Mystified
Overcome
Perplexed
Puzzled
At a complete loss
In a fog
Static and Dynamic Referents: Events and Processes

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Birth
Birthday Party
Breaking Up
Circus/Theme Park
City Street
Dawn
Death
Divorce
Dream
Dusk
Emotional Abuse
Family Meal
Fight
Scared
stiff
Cowardly
415 (Ind)
Edgy 416 (Ind)
Fearful417 (Exp)
Fretful418 (Exp)
Horrified
419 (Exp)
Nervous
Chapter
Five
Ambivalent
51 (Did)
Cautious
Changeable
Erratic52 (Did)
Fickle
Hesitant
53 (Did)
Inconsistent
Indecisive
54 (Exp)
Irresolute
55 (Exp)
Tentative
Uncertain
Chapter
Six
Unpredictable
61
(Exp)
Unsure
62
Vacillating (Exp)
63 (Exp)
Wavering
Wishy-washy
64 (Exp)
157
Panicky
Traumatized
Scared
Using various playing
configurations (tonal).
Petrified
Timid
stiff
Shocked
Uneasy
Startled
Worried and release tension.
Using volume to accumulate
Tense
Worried to
Terrified
death
improvisations.
Confused
Selecting session structures

Baffled for various
populations.
Bamboozled
Determining factors
that influence given
Befuddled
Bewildered
selection.
Selecting givens toConfounded
address client
needs/objectives. Dazed
Disorientedselected givens.
Improvising and evaluating
Mystified
Overcome
Perplexed
Puzzled
At a complete loss
In a fog

65 (Exp)
66 (Exp)
Static 67
and Dynamic
Referents:
Events
andassistance
Processes of another player.
(Exp)
Employing
physical
1. SevenBirth
Chapter
2. 71 (Exp)
Birthday Party
3. 72 (Exp)
Breaking Up
4. 73 (Exp)
Circus/Theme
Park as a co-therapist.
Imitating
5. 74 (Exp)
City StreetSynchronizing with a partners music.
6. 75 (Exp)
Dawn
7. 76 (Exp)
Death
8. 77 (Exp)
Divorce Matching a players intensity, speed, and
9.
Dream phrasing.
10.78 (Exp)
Dusk
11.79 (Exp)
EmotionalServing
Abuse as a rhythmic ground.
12.710 (Exp)
Family Meal
13.711 (Exp)
Fight
164
161
14.10.
15.11.
16.12.
17.13.
18.14.
19.15.
20.16.
21.17.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
Goodness
to Badness
Finding
Myself/Ourselves
Finishing
Hate to Love
a Task
Shame to Pride
Funeral
UnrealDrunk
to Real
Getting
War toSick
Peace
Getting
Resistance
to Surrender
Giving
Up/Quitting
Sickness
Health
Going
for atoWalk
Young to Old
Graduation
Growing Old
Holidays
Illness
Imagery
Joining a New Group
Losing Weight
Lovemaking
Marriage
Moving Away
Physical Abuse
Putting on Weight
Rainstorm
Recovery
Relapse
Returning Home
Sexual Abuse
Taking a Trip
Talking to God
Treatment
Typical Day
Verbal Abuse
Static and Dynamic Referents: Interpersonal and Intrapersonal

Relationships
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
My/Our Mother(s)
My/Our Father(s)
My/Our Sister(s)
My/Our Brother(s)
My/Our Grandmother(s)
161
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
Finding Myself/Ourselves
Finishing a Task
Funeral
Getting Drunk
Getting Sick
Giving Up/Quitting
Going for a Walk
Graduation
Growing Old
Holidays
Illness
Imagery
Joining a New Group
Losing Weight
Lovemaking
Marriage
Moving Away
Physical Abuse
Putting on Weight
Rainstorm
Recovery
Relapse
Returning Home
Sexual Abuse
Taking a Trip
Talking to God
Treatment
Typical Day
Verbal Abuse

Relationships
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
My/Our Mother(s)
My/Our Father(s)
My/Our Sister(s)
My/Our Brother(s)
162
162
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
My/Our Grandfather(s)
My/Our Uncle(s)
My/Our Aunt(s)
My/Our Cousin(s)
My/Our Pet(s)
My/Our Family/Families
My/Our Spouse(s)/Partner(s)
My/Our Child/Children
My/Our Teacher(s)
My/Our Boss(es)
My/Our Coworker(s)
My/Our Employee(s)
My/Our Mentor(s)
My/Our Friend(s)
My/Our Pastor(s)
My/Our God(s)
My/Our Doctor(s)
My/Our Therapist(s)
My/Our Anima (Female)
My/Our Animus (Male)
My/Our Shadow
My/Our Real Self
My/Our Ideal Self
My/Our Id
My/Our Ego
My/Our Superego
My/Our Group
Static and Dynamic Referents: Expressions and Figures of Speech

(Metaphors and Similes)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Against the grain

All or nothing
Back to square one
Better safe than sorry
Between a rock and a hard place
Business as usual
Calm before the storm
163
My/Our
Grandfather(s)
8. 6.
Can
of worms
9. 7.
Dead
My/Our
in theUncle(s)
water
My/Our
10.8.
Divide
andAunt(s)
conquer
My/Our
Cousin(s)
11.9.
Dog
eat dog
My/Our
12.10. Easy
come,Pet(s)
easy go
My/Our
13.11. Easy
does Family/Families
it
My/Our
Spouse(s)/Partner(s)
14.12. Fight
fire with
fire
My/Our
15.13. First
thingsChild/Children
first
My/Our
Teacher(s)
16.14. Home
away
from home
My/Our
Boss(es)
17.15. Left
high and
dry
My/Our
Coworker(s)
18.16. Lesser
of two
evils
My/Our
19.17. Light
at theEmployee(s)
end of the tunnel
My/Our
Mentor(s)
20.18. Like
a dream
come true
My/Our
21.19. Like
a fishFriend(s)
out of water
My/Our to
Pastor(s)
22.20. Marching
a different drummer
My/Oursee,
God(s)
23.21. Monkey
monkey do
Doctor(s)
24.22. NoMy/Our
way, Jos
Therapist(s)
25.23. OnMy/Our
the sunny
side of the street
26.24. Once
My/Our
bitten,
Anima
twice(Female)
shy
27.25. One
My/Our
day atAnimus
a time (Male)
28.26. Sink
or swim
My/Our
Shadow
29.27. Survival
the fittest
My/OurofReal
Self
30.28. UpMy/Our
the creek
without
Ideal
Self a paddle
29.
My/Our Id
30.
My/Our Ego
Continuum
31. Referents
My/Our Superego
(Note:32.
For each
of the following,
the order may be reversed, depending
My/Our
Group
upon the clinical objective.)
(Metaphors
and Similes)
1.
Alone
to Together
2.
Anxious to Calm
Against
the grain
3. 1.
Anger
to Acceptance
All ortonothing
4. 2.
Blame
Forgiveness
Back to square
one
5. 3.
Confusion
to Clarity
Better safe
than sorry
6. 4.
Darkness
to Light
Between
a rock and a hard place
7. 5.
Death
to Immortality
Business
as usual
8. 6.
Denial
to Acceptance
Calm before the
storm
9. 7.
Fragmentation
to Wholeness
162
163
My/Our
Grandfather(s)
8. 6.
Can
of worms
9. 7.
Dead
My/Our
in theUncle(s)
water
My/Our
10.8.
Divide
andAunt(s)
conquer
My/Our
Cousin(s)
11.9.
Dog
eat dog
My/Our
12.10. Easy
come,Pet(s)
easy go
My/Our
13.11. Easy
does Family/Families
it
My/Our
Spouse(s)/Partner(s)
14.12. Fight
fire with
fire
My/Our
15.13. First
thingsChild/Children
first
My/Our
Teacher(s)
16.14. Home
away
from home
My/Our
Boss(es)
17.15. Left
high and
dry
My/Our
Coworker(s)
18.16. Lesser
of two
evils
My/Our
19.17. Light
at theEmployee(s)
end of the tunnel
My/Our
Mentor(s)
20.18. Like
a dream
come true
My/Our
21.19. Like
a fishFriend(s)
out of water
My/Our to
Pastor(s)
22.20. Marching
a different drummer
My/Oursee,
God(s)
23.21. Monkey
monkey do
Doctor(s)
24.22. NoMy/Our
way, Jos
Therapist(s)
25.23. OnMy/Our
the sunny
side of the street
26.24. Once
My/Our
bitten,
Anima
twice(Female)
shy
27.25. One
My/Our
day atAnimus
a time (Male)
28.26. Sink
or swim
My/Our
Shadow
29.27. Survival
the fittest
My/OurofReal
Self
30.28. UpMy/Our
the creek
without
Ideal
Self a paddle
29.
My/Our Id
30.
My/Our Ego
Continuum
31. Referents
My/Our Superego
(Note:32.
For each
of the following,
the order may be reversed, depending
My/Our
Group
(Metaphors
and Similes)
1.
Alone
to Together
2.
Anxious to Calm
Against
the grain
3. 1.
Anger
to Acceptance
All ortonothing
4. 2.
Blame
Forgiveness
Back to square
one
5. 3.
Confusion
to Clarity
Better safe
than sorry
6. 4.
Darkness
to Light
Between
a rock and a hard place
7. 5.
Death
to Immortality
Business
as usual
8. 6.
Denial
to Acceptance
Calm before the
storm
9. 7.
Fragmentation
to Wholeness
163
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Can of worms
Dead in the water
Divide and conquer
Dog eat dog
Easy come, easy go
Easy does it
Fight fire with fire
First things first
Home away from home
Left high and dry
Lesser of two evils
Light at the end of the tunnel
Like a dream come true
Like a fish out of water
Marching to a different drummer
Monkey see, monkey do
No way, Jos
On the sunny side of the street
Once bitten, twice shy
One day at a time
Sink or swim
Survival of the fittest
Up the creek without a paddle
Continuum Referents
(Note: For each of the following, the order may be reversed, depending
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Alone to Together
Anxious to Calm
Anger to Acceptance
Blame to Forgiveness
Confusion to Clarity
Darkness to Light
Death to Immortality
Denial to Acceptance
Fragmentation to Wholeness
164
164
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Goodness to Badness
Hate to Love
Shame to Pride
Unreal to Real
War to Peace
Resistance to Surrender
Sickness to Health
Young to Old
161
14.10.
15.11.
16.12.
17.13.
18.14.
19.15.
20.16.
21.17.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
Goodness
to Badness
Finding
Myself/Ourselves
Finishing
Hate to Love
a Task
Shame to Pride
Funeral
UnrealDrunk
to Real
Getting
War toSick
Peace
Getting
Resistance
to Surrender
Giving
Up/Quitting
Sickness
Health
Going
for atoWalk
Young to Old
Graduation
Growing Old
Holidays
Illness
Imagery
Joining a New Group
Losing Weight
Lovemaking
Marriage
Moving Away
Physical Abuse
Putting on Weight
Rainstorm
Recovery
Relapse
Returning Home
Sexual Abuse
Taking a Trip
Talking to God
Treatment
Typical Day
Verbal Abuse

Relationships
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
My/Our Mother(s)
My/Our Father(s)
My/Our Sister(s)
My/Our Brother(s)
168
165
165
7. D
Harmony (the 12-bar blues is used as the structure for a vocal
Appendix
Harmonic Progressions/Vamps
improvisation)
Major:
____________________________________________________
1.
IV(7)
or triple
8. (duple
Timbre
(only meter)
the bell-like instruments are provided for use)
Appendix D
1.
IV(7)
(duple or triple meter)
2.
IIV
____________________________________________________
9. Texture (players are instructed to play two instruments
IbVII
(duple
or triple meter)
simultaneously
throughout the improvisation)
2.
IIV
3.
IbVII
IviIVV(7)
____________________________________________________
(50s Rock, duple meter)
10. Referential (players are instructed to play dawn to dusk)
IviiiV(7)
(Heart
and Soul, duple meter)
____________________________________________________
4.
IviIVV(7)
5.
IviiiV(7)
(Heart and Soul, duple meter)
11.iiV(7)Ivi
Referential (players are instructed to play grief)
(40s Swing, duple meter)
____________________________________________________
7.
IbIIbIIIbII
(Spanish,
triple
meter) when or how long certain events take place)
Procedural
Givens
(stipulate
6.
iiV(7)Ivi
7.
IbIIbIIIbII
(Spanish, triple meter)
8.
8.
IVviiiiIVIIVV(7)
(Canon in D, duple meter)
9.
I(7)IV(7)I(7)I(7)
IV(7)IV(7)I(7)I(7)
V(7)IV(7)I(7)V(7)
(12-Bar Blues, duple meter)
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.
1. IVviiiiIVIIVV(7)
One person start and the rest of us will join in gradually.
____________________________________________________
I(7)IV(7)I(7)I(7)
2. IV(7)IV(7)I(7)I(7)
Lets start at pp and crescendo to the end.
V(7)IV(7)I(7)V(7)
(12-Bar
Blues, duple meter)
____________________________________________________
Major:
Minor:3. Focus first on your own sounds, then bring your attention to the
Minor:
1.
1.
iV(7)
center of the group.
iV(7)
166
166
2.
iv
3.
ibVIIbVIV(7)
(Hit the Road, Jack, duple meter)
167
Appendix E
2.
iv
Givens/Parameters
3.
ibVIIbVIV(7)
Vocabulary
Givens (stipulate what takes place)
1. Instruments (only the hand drums are provided for use)
____________________________________________________
2. Volume (players are directed to improvise at a fortissimo level)
____________________________________________________
3. Tempo (the leader begins the improvisation at a very slow tempo
and does not waver)
____________________________________________________
4. Meter (players are instructed to play in 6/8 meter)
____________________________________________________
5. Rhythm (players are directed to explore dotted and syncopated
rhythmic figures throughout the improvisation)
____________________________________________________
6. Tonality (the melodic instruments are set up in a Chinese
pentatonic scale)
____________________________________________________
166
167
167
Appendix E
2.
iv
Givens/Parameters
Appendix E
Givens/Parameters
3.
ibVIIbVIV(7)
Vocabulary
Givens (stipulate what takes place)
Vocabulary Givens (stipulate what takes place)
____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
and does not waver)
and does not waver)
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
pentatonic scale)
pentatonic scale)
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
168
168
7. Harmony (the 12-bar blues is used as the structure for a vocal

improvisation)
____________________________________________________
8. Timbre (only the bell-like instruments are provided for use)
____________________________________________________
7. D
Harmony (the 12-bar blues is used as the structure for a vocal
Appendix
improvisation)
Major:
____________________________________________________
1.
IV(7)
or triple
8. (duple
Timbre
(only meter)
the bell-like instruments are provided for use)
2.

3.
simultaneously throughout the improvisation)
____________________________________________________
4.

5.
____________________________________________________
11. Referential (players are instructed to play grief)
____________________________________________________
Procedural Givens (stipulate when or how long certain events take place)
1. One person start and the rest of us will join in gradually.
165
IIV
____________________________________________________
IbVII
(duple
or triple meter)
simultaneously
throughout the improvisation)
IviIVV(7)
____________________________________________________
IviiiV(7)
(Heart
and Soul, duple meter)
____________________________________________________
6.
11.iiV(7)Ivi
Referential (players are instructed to play grief)
____________________________________________________
7.
IbIIbIIIbII
(Spanish,
triple
meter) when or how long certain events take place)
Procedural
Givens
(stipulate
8.
____________________________________________________
1. IVviiiiIVIIVV(7)
One person start and the rest of us will join in gradually.
____________________________________________________
I(7)IV(7)I(7)I(7)
2. IV(7)IV(7)I(7)I(7)
Lets start at pp and crescendo to the end.
V(7)IV(7)I(7)V(7)
(12-Bar
Blues, duple meter)
____________________________________________________
3. Focus first on your own sounds, then bring your attention to the
Minor:3. Focus first on your own sounds, then bring your attention to the
____________________________________________________
9.
2. Lets start at pp and crescendo to the end.
1.
iV(7)
172
169
Integration
____________________________________________________
RHY
4. INT
Lets have
Rhythmic
the drums
Integration
alternate playing
(Figure-Ground
with the and
xylophones
Part-Whole)
for
MEL INT
Melodic Integration (Figure-Ground and Part-Whole)
HAR INT
approximately
Harmonic
30 seconds
Integration
each.(Figure-Ground)
TEX INT
Textural Integration (Part-Whole and Register &
____________________________________________________
Configurations)
PHR INT
Phrasing Integration
TIM
Timbre
Integration
5. INT
Each of you
needs
to play at least three instruments; begin and
VOL INT
Volume Integration
end the piece with the same instrument.
Variability
____________________________________________________
TEM VAR
Tempo Variability
MET VAR Givens
Meter
Variability
Interpersonal
(stipulate
who will be relating to whom and in what
RHY VAR
Rhythmic Figure Variability
MEL VAR
Melodic Figure Variability
manner)
TON VAR
Tonal Ground Variability (Modality & Tonality)
HAR
Harmonic
Variability
1. VAR
Take turns
improvising
alone.
TEX VAR
Texture Variability (Overall, Roles, Register, and
Configurations)
____________________________________________________
STY VAR
Style Variability
PHR
Phrasing
2. VAR
Imitate the
leader.Variability
TIM VAR
Timbre Variability
VOL VAR
Volume Variability
____________________________________________________
Tension
3. Play in one dyad, then the other.
RHY TEN
Rhythmic Tension (Figure-Ground and Rhythmic
____________________________________________________
Figure)
TON
Tonalthe
Tension
4. TEN
Move around
room while playing, and make eye contact
MEL TEN
Melodic Tension
HAR TEN
Harmonic
Tension
with at least
two other
people.
TEX TEN
Textural Tension
PHR TEN
Phrasing Tension
____________________________________________________
VOL TEN
Volume Tension
TIM TEN
Timbral Tension
169
____________________________________________________
4. Lets have the drums alternate playing with the xylophones for
approximately 30 seconds each.
____________________________________________________
5. Each of you needs to play at least three instruments; begin and
____________________________________________________
Interpersonal Givens (stipulate who will be relating to whom and in what
manner)
1. Take turns improvising alone.
____________________________________________________
2. Imitate the leader.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
4. Move around the room while playing, and make eye contact
with at least two other people.
____________________________________________________
170
170
5. Ignore the person in the group with whom you have the most
171
conflict.
5. F
Ignore the person in the group with whom you have the most
Appendix
IAP Profiles and Scales (adapted from Bruscia, 1987)
conflict.
____________________________________________________
Profiles: ____________________________________________________
1. Salience. This profile deals with how certain musical elements are
given more prominence and control than others. The five gradients are:
Receding/Conforming/Contributing/Controlling/Overpowering
2. Integration. This profile deals with how simultaneous aspects of the
music are organized. The five gradients are:
Undifferentiated/Fused/Integrated/Differentiated/Overdifferentiated
3. Variability. This profile deals with how sequential aspects of the
music are organized and related. The five gradients are:
Rigid/Stable/Variable/Contrasting/Random
4. Tension. This profile deals with how much tension is created within
and through various aspects of the music. The five gradients are:
Hypotense/Calm/Cyclic/Tense/Hypertense
5. Congruence. This profile deals with the extent to which simultaneous
feeling states and role relationships are congruent. The five gradients are:
Uncommitted/Congruent/Centered/Incongruent/Polarized
6. Autonomy. This profile deals with the kinds of role relationships
formed between the improvisers. The five gradients are:
Dependent/Follower/Partner/Leader/Resister
170
171
171
5. F
Ignore the person in the group with whom you have the most
Appendix
conflict.
Appendix F
Profiles: ____________________________________________________
Profiles:








172
172
Integration
RHY INT
MEL INT
HAR INT
TEX INT
PHR INT
TIM INT
VOL INT
Integration
____________________________________________________
Rhythmic Integration (Figure-Ground and Part-Whole)
Harmonic Integration (Figure-Ground)
Configurations)
Timbre Integration
Volume Integration
Variability
TEM VAR
MET VAR
RHY VAR
MEL VAR
TON VAR
HAR VAR
TEX VAR
STY VAR
PHR VAR
TIM VAR
VOL VAR
Tempo Variability
Meter Variability
Harmonic Variability
Configurations)
Style Variability
Phrasing Variability
Timbre Variability
Volume Variability
Tension
RHY TEN
TON TEN
MEL TEN
HAR TEN
TEX TEN
PHR TEN
VOL TEN
TIM TEN
169
RHY
4. INT
Lets have
Rhythmic
the drums
Integration
alternate playing
(Figure-Ground
with the and
xylophones
Part-Whole)
for
MEL INT
HAR INT
approximately
Harmonic
30 seconds
Integration
each.(Figure-Ground)
TEX INT
____________________________________________________
Configurations)
PHR INT
TIM
Timbre
Integration
5. INT
Each of you
needs
to play at least three instruments; begin and
VOL INT
Volume Integration
Variability
____________________________________________________
TEM VAR
Tempo Variability
MET VAR Givens
Meter
Variability
Interpersonal
(stipulate
who will be relating to whom and in what
RHY VAR
MEL VAR
manner)
TON VAR
HAR
Harmonic
Variability
1. VAR
Take turns
improvising
alone.
TEX VAR
Configurations)
____________________________________________________
STY VAR
Style Variability
PHR
Phrasing
2. VAR
Imitate the
leader.Variability
TIM VAR
Timbre Variability
VOL VAR
Volume Variability
____________________________________________________
Tension

Figure)
Tonal Tension
Melodic Tension
Harmonic Tension
Textural Tension
Phrasing Tension
Volume Tension
Timbral Tension
RHY TEN
____________________________________________________
Figure)
TON
Tonalthe
Tension
4. TEN
Move around
room while playing, and make eye contact
MEL TEN
Melodic Tension
HAR TEN
Harmonic
Tension
with at least
two other
people.
TEX TEN
Textural Tension
PHR TEN
Phrasing Tension
____________________________________________________
VOL TEN
Volume Tension
TIM TEN
Timbral Tension
176
173
Kowski,
J. (2003). Growing up alone: Analytical music therapy with children
Congruence
of parents treated with a drug and substance abuse program. In S. Hadley
(Ed.),
Psychodynamic
music
therapy: Case studies (pp. 87104). Gilsum,
RHY
CON
Rhythmic
Congruence
NH:CON
Barcelona.
TON
Tonal Congruence
TEX CON
Textural Congruence
Loth,
H.CON
(2002). Theres
noCongruence
getting away from anything in here: A music
PHR
Phrasing
therapy
within anCongruence
inpatient programme for adults with eating
VOL
CONgroup Volume
disorders.
and M. Jenkyns (Eds.), Music therapy and group
TIM
CON In A.Davies
Timbral Congruence
workCON
(pp. 90104).
Jessica Kingsley.
BOD
BodyLondon:
Congruence
PRO CON
Program Congruence
McGuire,
M., & Smeltekop,
R. (1994) Termination in music therapy I:
VER CON
Verbal Congruence
Theory
applications.
Music Therapy Perspectives, 12(1), 20
INT
CONand clinical
Interpersonal
Congruence
27.
Autonomy
McGuire, M., & Smeltekop, R. (1994) Termination in music therapy II: A
RHY
AUT
Rhythmic
Autonomy
(Ground
andPerspectives,
Figure)
model
and clinical
applications.
Music
Therapy
12(1), 28
TON
Tonal Autonomy
34. AUT
MEL AUT
Melodic Autonomy
HARH.AUT
Harmonic
Autonomytherapy: The experience of one man
Miller,
(1991). Group
improvisation
TEX
Textural
Autonomy
withAUT
schizophrenia.
In K.
Bruscia (Ed.), Case studies in music therapy
PHR
Autonomy
(pp.AUT
417431).Phrasing
Phoenixville,
PA: Barcelona.
VOL AUT
Volume Autonomy
TIMS.,
AUT
Autonomy
Meier,
& Davis,Timbre
S. (2001).
The elements of counseling (4th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson.
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Congruence
RHY CON
TON CON
TEX CON
PHR CON
VOL CON
TIM CON
BOD CON
PRO CON
VER CON
INT CON
Rhythmic Congruence
Tonal Congruence
Textural Congruence
Phrasing Congruence
Volume Congruence
Timbral Congruence
Body Congruence
Program Congruence
Verbal Congruence
Interpersonal Congruence
Autonomy
RHY AUT
TON AUT
MEL AUT
HAR AUT
TEX AUT
PHR AUT
VOL AUT
TIM AUT
Rhythmic Autonomy (Ground and Figure)

Tonal Autonomy
Melodic Autonomy
Harmonic Autonomy
Textural Autonomy
Phrasing Autonomy
Volume Autonomy
Timbre Autonomy
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noCongruence
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BodyLondon:
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M., & Smeltekop,
R. (1994) Termination in music therapy I:
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Theory
applications.
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INT
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RHY
AUT
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Figure)
model
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applications.
Music
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1, F.
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E., &
Abate,
Robbins,
Clive,Oxford
1, 14, 95
New York:
Press.
Russell, J., 140
Smeijsters,
H., 109,
110 music to therapeutic attachment: Psychodynamic
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P. (2003).
Through
Smeltekop,
R., 138
music psychotherapy
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Stephens,
69,Psychodynamic
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Hadley G.,
(Ed.),
music therapy: Case studies (pp. 319
Towse,
E., 43 NH: Barcelona.
338).Gilsum,
Yalom, I., 137
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Nordoff,
P.,B.,
and96Robbins, C. (1977). Creative music therapy: Individualized
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T., 3,
102, 115 child. New York: John Day.
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178
179
Stephens, G. (1984). Group supervision

music therapy. Music Therapy,
AUTHORinINDEX
4(1), 2938.
Aigen, K., 71
Stephens,
Alvin,
J., 17G. (1985). Answers to a Questionnaire by Kenneth Bruscia.
Unpublished
data. In K. Bruscia, Improvisational models of music
Amir, D.,
110
Austin,therapy
D., 115(p. 338). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Borczon, R., 143
Towse,
& Roberts,C. (2002). Supervising a music therapy group: A
Boxill,
E.,E.112
seriously
non-musical problem. In A. Davies and M. Jenkyns (Eds.),
Boyd, B.,
59
Music
and19,
group
work
249261).
London:
Jessica120,
Kingsley.
Bruscia,
K., 1,therapy
8, 1417,
20, 45,
52,(pp.
95104,
106, 108,
110116,
122,
123, 126, 127, 129131, 133, 134, 137, 140
Wheeler,P.,B.140
(2003). A psychotherapeutic classification of music therapy
Callanan,
practices:
Corey, G., 140 A continuum of procedures. Music Therapy Perspectives, 1, 8
Corey, 16.
M., 140
Darnley-Smith, R., 6, 96, 100, 105, 106
Wigram,
Improvisation: Methods and techniques for music therapy
Davies,
A., T.
43,(2004).
47
educators, and students. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Davis, clinicians,
S., 140
Dvorkin, J., 77
Yalom, M.,
I. (1975).
Forinash,
100 The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York:
Basic
Books.
Gardstrom, S., 17, 35, 142
Gonzalez, D., 100
Hadsell, N., 69
Henderson, H., 91
Hiller, J., 2, 7, 12, 13
Hull, A., 21
Jenkyns, M., 43, 47
Kowski, J., 115
Loth, H., 47
McGuire, M., 138
Meier, S., 140
Meyer, L., 16
Miller, H., 104
Montello, L., 108, 116
Murow, E., 46
Nolan, P., 97, 109
Nordoff, P., 14, 71
Okun, B., 140, 141, 146
Patey, H., 6, 96, 105, 106
178
179
Stephens, G. (1984). Group supervision

music therapy. Music Therapy,
AUTHORinINDEX
4(1), 2938.
Aigen, K., 71
Stephens,
Alvin,
J., 17G. (1985). Answers to a Questionnaire by Kenneth Bruscia.
Unpublished
data. In K. Bruscia, Improvisational models of music
Amir, D.,
110
Austin,therapy
D., 115(p. 338). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Borczon, R., 143
Towse,
& Roberts,C. (2002). Supervising a music therapy group: A
Boxill,
E.,E.112
seriously
non-musical problem. In A. Davies and M. Jenkyns (Eds.),
Boyd, B.,
59
Music
and19,
group
work
249261).
London:
Jessica120,
Kingsley.
Bruscia,
K., 1,therapy
8, 1417,
20, 45,
52,(pp.
95104,
106, 108,
110116,
122,
123, 126, 127, 129131, 133, 134, 137, 140
Wheeler,P.,B.140
(2003). A psychotherapeutic classification of music therapy
Callanan,
practices:
Corey, G., 140 A continuum of procedures. Music Therapy Perspectives, 1, 8
Corey, 16.
M., 140
Darnley-Smith, R., 6, 96, 100, 105, 106
Wigram,
Improvisation: Methods and techniques for music therapy
Davies,
A., T.
43,(2004).
47
educators, and students. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Davis, clinicians,
S., 140
Dvorkin, J., 77
Yalom, M.,
I. (1975).
Forinash,
100 The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York:
Basic
Books.
Gardstrom, S., 17, 35, 142
Gonzalez, D., 100
Hadsell, N., 69
Henderson, H., 91
Hiller, J., 2, 7, 12, 13
Hull, A., 21
Jenkyns, M., 43, 47
Kowski, J., 115
Loth, H., 47
McGuire, M., 138
Meier, S., 140
Meyer, L., 16
Miller, H., 104
Murow, E., 46
Nolan, P., 97, 109
Nordoff, P., 14, 71
Okun, B., 140, 141, 146
Patey, H., 6, 96, 105, 106
179
AUTHOR INDEX
Aigen, K., 71
Alvin, J., 17
Amir, D., 110
Austin, D., 115
Borczon, R., 143
Boxill, E., 112
Boyd, B., 59
Bruscia, K., 1, 8, 1417, 19, 20, 45, 52, 95104, 106, 108, 110116, 120, 122,
123, 126, 127, 129131, 133, 134, 137, 140
Callanan, P., 140
Corey, G., 140
Corey, M., 140
Darnley-Smith, R., 6, 96, 100, 105, 106
Davies, A., 43, 47
Davis, S., 140
Dvorkin, J., 77
Forinash, M., 100
Gardstrom, S., 17, 35, 142
Gonzalez, D., 100
Hadsell, N., 69
Henderson, H., 91
Hiller, J., 2, 7, 12, 13
Hull, A., 21
Jenkyns, M., 43, 47
Kowski, J., 115
Loth, H., 47
McGuire, M., 138
Meier, S., 140
Meyer, L., 16
Miller, H., 104
Murow, E., 46
Nolan, P., 97, 109
Nordoff, P., 14, 71
Okun, B., 140, 141, 146
Patey, H., 6, 96, 105, 106
180
Pavlicevic, M., 95
Priestley, M., 14, 17, 77, 114
Robarts, J., 107, 113
Roberts, C., 43
Robbins, Carol, 1, 95
Robbins, Clive, 1, 14, 95
Russell, J., 140
Smeijsters, H., 109, 110
Smeltekop, R., 138
Stephens, G., 69, 72
Towse, E., 43
Yalom, I., 137
Wheeler, B., 96
Wigram, T., 3, 20, 95, 102, 115
180
177
Pavlicevic,
M., 95Working as a music therapist in Mexico. Voices: A World
Murow,
E. (2002).
Priestley,
Forum M.,
for Music
14, 17,Therapy.
77, 114 Retrieved December 25, 2006, from
Robarts,
J., 107, 113
Roberts, C., 43
Robbins,
Carol,
1, F.
95 (Eds.). (2001). The new Oxford American dictionary
Jewell,
E., &
Abate,
Robbins,
Clive,Oxford
1, 14, 95
New York:
Press.
Russell, J., 140
Smeijsters,
H., 109,
110 music to therapeutic attachment: Psychodynamic
Nolan,
P. (2003).
Through
Smeltekop,
R., 138
music psychotherapy
with a musician with dysthmymic disorder. In S.
Stephens,
69,Psychodynamic
72
Hadley G.,
(Ed.),
music therapy: Case studies (pp. 319
Towse,
E., 43 NH: Barcelona.
338).Gilsum,
Yalom, I., 137
Wheeler,
Nordoff,
P.,B.,
and96Robbins, C. (1977). Creative music therapy: Individualized
Wigram,
T., 3,
102, 115 child. New York: John Day.
treatment
for20,
the95,
handicapped
Barcelona.

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Music Therapy Improvisation for Groups:

Essential Leadership Competencies

ISBN 13: 978-1-891278-49-5

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CHAPTER TEN: Closing

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

CHAPTER TWO: Terms and Nomenclature of Improvisation

CHAPTER THREE: Instruments of Improvisation

CHAPTER THREE: Instruments of Improvisation

CHAPTER FOUR: Musical Elements of Improvisation

CHAPTER FOUR: Musical Elements of Improvisation

CHAPTER FIVE: Structures for Improvisation

CHAPTER SIX: Nonmusical Facilitation Skills

CHAPTER SEVEN: Musical Facilitation Skills

CHAPTER EIGHT: Making Sense of What We Hear:

CHAPTER NINE: Verbal Skills

CHAPTER TEN: Closing

Appendix AEssential Competencies for

Appendix CReferents for Clinical Music Improvisation

Appendix DHarmonic Progressions/Vamps

Appendix FIAP Profiles and Scales

CHAPTER TEN: Closing

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

CHAPTER THREE: Instruments of Improvisation

CHAPTER FOUR: Musical Elements of Improvisation

healthcare insurers and treatment

perhaps the most thoroughly archived of all models of clinical

resources we had acquired from our own training, including course

healthcare insurers and treatment agencies. Another reason is that many

healthcare insurers and treatment

definitions of clinical music improvisation and music improvisation

heavily upon several of the facilitation techniques that appear in

TERMS AND NOMENCLATURE OF

This book contains 80 exercises designed to reinforce competency in the

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THIS BOOK

engaged in music-making. This role also affords the group an

advanced percussionists to help me keep the instruments tuned and in

Vocabulary for Chapter One

Nordoff & Robbins Music Therapy (Creative Music Therapy)

TERMS AND NOMENCLATURE OF

Define clinical music improvisation.

An adapted version of Hillers (2006) definition of clinical music

TERMS AND NOMENCLATURE OF

This book contains 80 exercises designed to reinforce competency in the

Terms and Nomenclature 13

Terms and Nomenclature 13

intent is most often to produce a musical product of aesthetic

tonal instruments can be employed in a percussive fashion; in fact, the

Terms and Nomenclature 15

Terms and Nomenclature 15

Terms and Nomenclature 15

Method, Procedure, and Technique

piano and barred instruments are considered percussion instruments.

Let us begin this section with a discussion of the terms method,

improvisation, (4) determine whether the improvisation will be solo

Referential and Nonreferential Improvisations

Terms and Nomenclature 13

Terms and Nomenclature 17

Terms and Nomenclature 17