Copyrighted material

Copyrighted matsrial

Sogdian Painting

Guitty Azarpay

Sogdian Painting
The

Pictorial

With
A. M.

Epic

contributions

in Oriental

Art

by

Belenitskii, B.

I.

Marshak, and

Mark

J.

Dresden

University of Califemia Press

Berkeley

Los Angeles

London

iiiifiMi
Copy iiyhioa

inaiuiial

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd.

London, England
Copyiig^t

Q 1981 by

The R^ents of tlw

University (^Califijcnia

Printed in the United States of Ameoca

133456789
lifanry of Coi^rm Cataloging in PnMication Data
Azaipay, Guitty.

Sogdian painting.
Includes index.
I.

a.

Mural painting and decoration, Sogdian.

TnnsoadniAnttqtuties. L Tide.

ND2578.3.A9

7S1*7'3'0939<S

78-62849

ISBN 0-520-03765-0

Publication of

tliis

book has been aided by

a grant

from The Millard Meiss Publication Fond of the

College Alt Association of America.

MM

Copyrighted matBrial

Contents

LIST
T

IST

OP TEXT niUSTRATIONS

OF rOI OB

PT

VII

ATM

xiii

PUFFArF

ArKNOWII

xiv

l)f;.MrNTS

ABHHEVIATIONS

xxi

INTBODUCTORY NOTK

by Mark J. Dresden
PABT ONF. THE PATNTTKCS OF "inCDTANA

by A. M.

Bclcnitskii

and B.

1.

TT

Marshak

Principal historic events

Special fcatmcs

The

of the

15

social

order

19

nature of the cultural relations of Sogdiana

26

Archaeological substantiations

of the dates of the Panjikcnt murals

The chronology of the

paintings

from

35
Afrasiab,

Varakhsha and Shahristan

41

Arrangement of the paintings on the walls

of the buildings

The

subject matter

52

of the paintings from A&asiab

The range of subjects of the

Panjikcnt paintings

Characteristics of the style

VKftT

61
65
73

TWO- snr.niAK patkttnc:

THE PICTORIAL

EPIC IN ORIENTAL AHl

22

by Guitty Azarpay
1.

The Backsroutid The

:

Traditions of Early Medieval

Painting in Transoxiana
2.

The Theme:

Secular Imagery

Subject Matter

8l

ami Iconography

in

95

Copyn

Contents

vi

The

origin

and

particular traics

of the continuous
102

The iconography of heroized and

legendary figures

I08

Th**
KfUltmMX
A lib warrinr-wnmati
VT MXl.

Ii6

120

Milicjrv cc^uipincnt

128

The

X lie llVCl

A4imn
d

Nana

ffoddcss

J*

K^UvlvM

tnalr nivitiiti^

ann omer

rclio^ious

themes
XAA
144

Stvle
^^fvin

w ti f>Ti
TIT
'4/

nTn/*

human

Fi&iiral

ficrnrf

T>rrM"f'<isiriri<

<n

1r

<7

cf

I <?

'31

'59

The

6.

use

of color: pigments

Imported pigments

163

Symbolic use of color

165

The

167

sketch

Continuity of TraJition: The So^dian Artistic

Heritage in Muslim Painting

7.

161

Conclusion

170
181

appendix: the classification of socpian painting

Lis

INDEX

20s

Text

1.

Illuscrations

General

map of

Central

trade routes. Prepared

2.

Ana showing

by Vi^inia

the principal sites

Herridc.

Transoxiana showing medieval

principal

sites,

Pr^ared by Virginia Herridc

political boundaries.

on the pie-blamk

modem

cities

and present

12

KgOMS
1.

Plan ofandent town ofPanjikent showing secton excavated before 1973.

2,

living quarters of Panjikent datable to the e^hth century, (i) Entrance

eivSn, (2)

ramp,

second story,

corridor with painting,

(3)

housekeeping

(6)

room on

facilities

the

(S) forge, (9)

street.

Reconstruction by L.L. Gurcvicli.

J.

Main

donors. Reconstruction by L.L. Gurcvich.

4.

Excavations of hving quarters of

and 24 arc narrow

narrow
5.

streets.

6.

7.

6.

Enthroned

century.

main room a( die

story, (7) shops

and work-

22

streets,

and

24

Patijikeiit

XXIIl and XXIV. Rooms

covered with arches with second

stories

21, 4,

above die

god Vcshparkar. Sketch of mural from

Panjikent XXII:i.

30

Sacrificial altars

Panjikent III:

hall, (5)

home of an ordinary dtiaen, (la)

25

Tlic Sogdian

Eighth century.

main

Panjikent home. At bottom, a mural depict]]^ a goddess

liail (A'

first

(4)

of the second

floor in the

shops,

21

on

throne. Sketch of mural

Eighth century'.
deities.

Sketch

hrom

die western wall of

of mural firom Panjikent XXIV: 2. Eighth

32
vii

Copyrighted material

yB
8.

TcacfJlfasMiir

Bnduoned

ceiitucy.

9.

deities.

Deity with the 6gaxe of a cameL

Tena<otU fipom Fan^kent

The Henmtage Museum, LenmgcacL

10.

ca. 500. Period HI: last quarter

of Teivplc

I.

dragon.

13.

I.

A:
II.

goddess on a liou throne

squadrons. Sketch of mural

principal hall

II:

Temple

(?), (4)

Tenipk

II. I:

on the throne with

donors,

goddess on a

(5)

of Ten^k Jit

Bom the norUiem wall of the portico

AZ

at Panjikent. Fifth-sixth centuries.

Four-armed goddess <m a dragon. Sketch of mural fitmi the northern chapel

of TmpU II,
14.

century.

41

Mounted

of die

I: fifth

38

B: The north chapel from the precincts of Temple

of the paintings in the north chapel: (i) goddess

saimuri's, (2) Jouors, (3)

12.

of seventh centocy.

Sdiematic plans of temples from Pinjikcnt.

Sanctuary'

Arrangement

Sixth centucy.

34

Reconstcucdan of the early dty wall of Panjikent. Pdiod

Vcaod U:
tl.

ftom Ptu^kmt XXIV:!}, Eigbdi

Sketch a mntal

33

at

^jikent. Sixdi century.

43

Chariot of Veshpaxkar, harnessed with boars. Sketdi of mural fiom the

southern part of the western wall of the portioo of the principal hall of Temjik I at

Panjikent Sixth century.

15.

century.
if.

XXBI: 26. Seventh cenniry. 46

31

Plan of Paiyikeiit XXL

Rom

19: eivan.

Rooms

Plan c Pta^kent

(i: hall,

Room

1-4 were decorated with murals

room widi heardi-^tar). Ritom

is*

*3' workdiops.

XXIV. Rooms

2-3: corridor, 4: civan).

second story above the

20.

murals fiom die prindpal hall oSPmj^unt

Preparation for die removal

hall, 2: corridor,

19.

wall of Pti^kent 1:41-42. Sixdi

Hunting scene. Sketdi ofmural fiom die southern part of die eastern wall of

XXIV.
t8.

nordm

45

Pa^lkent
17.

44

Sketdi of mtttal fiom the

eiium,

The

iimrals

Vase. Sketch of a detail of mural

century.

prindpal

5a

1-4, 6, 9, 10 arc included in

were situated in

and above Room

(i

7-8% halb widioot pamtmgs.

10.

from the

one dwelling

Room

i-4,

on

the

53
eivan, Panjikent

XXIV.

EightJi

54

Copyrighted material

Text Illustrations

PecKxi ivith diih and vase. Sketch of mueal from die nVAi {Room

i.

Atfi/dBMtfXXTF'.Eig^dicencncy.

Hnman-beaded

a.

biids.

4)

of

S5

55

Donon. Sketdi of mucal fiom the eastern wall of

End of die fifth centtury. 56

33,

of

Skeldi of mural from onnice of e/vAi {Room

Ptu^Aent XXIV. Eigjith centnty.

ix

4)

die nocchem

diapd of

ren^fe Ut at Panjikent.

oflettoration.

24.

Fragment of die same painting as in

25.

Sketch of mural from the southern wall of the portico of the

of Temple

fig.

at Panjikent. Sixth century.

I,

23

in the process

58

Musicians. Sketch of mural firom the cornice of Panjikent VI: 42. Eighth

26.

60

century.

Kneeling figures on the side wall of a niche containing a representation of

27.

Vcshparkar. Sketch of mural from Panjikent XXII:!. Eighth century.

MiVijatii:] siege

2S.

I'-nijikcnt.

irst

machine. Sketch of

Phot(^raph of the same fragment

je.

Diadem with wings and

Fragment of
century

(in the

65

around

ruler's helmet.

Panjikent Hrst quarter of the eighth

at

66

process of restoration).

Arab, winged camel, head of a youth.

First

at Panjikent.

From

left

dcwi:

Nana

on the

is

lion facing the chariot

Eastern wall of Panjikent III:

^aijlipk. Sketch

principal hall

Panjikent

it

66
against

rushes toward her.

68

I,

at Panjikent. Sixth ccntur>'.

69

throne supported by senwtirvs. Sketch of mural from the eastern

wall of the northern chapel

God on

of the sun as

Eighth century.

men

of mural from the northwestern comer of the portico of the

of Temple

Goddew on

6.

to right: an

quarter of the eighth century.

Sketch of fragments of a mural depicting a battle of gods and

j2.

35.

65

as in fig. 28.

crescent being listened

mural from the palace

64

fragment of a mural firom the palace at

Fragments of murals from the palace

ji.

34.

.i

quarter oi the eighth century.

2g,

33.

57

mam biulding

oiTanpk 11, at

Paiijiketit.

Fnd of the

fifth

century.

71

throne vupp(>rted on horses. Sketch of mural from the north wall of

XXVl:i. Eighth century.

72

Copyrighted material

Text Uliatntkms

of a

detail of'a

36.

Sketcli

37.

Lower ornamental

mural from Panjikiin XVI: 10. Eighth century.

border.

reconstruction of a mural

of the portico of Paiijikoi! X. Seventh- eighth centuries.

j8.

Bodhisattva painted

in the

niche to the

75

Great Buddha, Bitmiyan,

left of" l!)e

Afghanistan. Photo courtesy Jt>sephiiie Powell.

jg.

Female donor painted on the vault to the right of the Great Buddha,

Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Photo courtesy Josephine Powell.

40.

Uanquetcrs ilepicted

in the

Balalyk-tepi, fig. 105.

width
49,

figures. Ceatial

7.3 fiset

centuries. Sketch after

hall at

Al baum,

88

Early Sasanian mural

two male

H6

mural on the west wall of the principal

SSR. Sixth-scvciuh

Balalyk-iepe, Uzbekistan

41.

74

from the west wall

&om Ghigha-shahr IV, Kuh-i-Khwaja, Sistan, showing

Asian Antiquities Museum, New Delhi, height s fiset,

Copy after

Stdn, Lmemuut Asia

III, pi.

54.

90

Sogdian mural depicting episodes Scorn die "Riiscam cyde," north wall

of Patg^taa VI: 41 ^ The Hermitage Museum, Lenti^rad. Photo courtesy Josephine

Powell.
4).

96

Sogdian muial depicting episodes from the " Rustam cyde," west and notdi

walls, Patyikent VI:4l. Sketch after Bclcnitskii, in Mawrialy vtorogo soi'cshchaniia

arkhcoloi^ot'

etno^rafov Sralnci Azii, .Akademiia

Nauk SSSR,

im. N.N. Miklukho-Maklaia, Moskva/I eningrad 1959,

44.

11: 41. Sketch after Uelenitskii, in

Sogdian

iiuirai

firom Panjiketu VI:

1971, fig. II.
46.

in

KSIIMK

73, lysy, fig. 35-

heavy armor engaged

Sketch after Bcleuitski, Maishak,

in single

yS

combat,

m Arts Asiatiqucs

XXlll,

Sogdian mural depicting a female waitior engaged in single combat, from

fig, 12.

inArtsA^a^^ XXIII

Sketdi afier Bdeniiski, Maishak,

1971,

107

Detail

of a btde scene from a Sogdian moral

after BeUnitskii,
48.

depicting a warrior

106

Pm^taa VI:

47.

97

Sogdian mural depicting episodes from the "Rustam cycle," north wail,

Pijiijikcnt

43.

Institut eoiografii

fig. 4.

Maishak, in

Scenes of sacrifice at a

5G XXXVI,
fire altar

Panjiketu l:io. Sketch after Ziuvopis\

fit>m Pmjihent

1973, 63.

XXIV. Sketdi

110

and banquet firom a Sc^dian muial from

pL

VII.

iii

Copyrighltxl malenal

Text WustnthHS

4g.

God

with

rayed halo and torch depicted

Sogdiau mural from the

tctrastylc

Copy

XXIII

^0.

after Zhivopis\ pi.

Female participants

ot Ti'inplc

liall

(sec figs. 56, 57).

a procession ot

Al'batim, Zhivopis' Afrasiaba,

^J.

mourning

11, at i'anjikcnt,
1

Paujikcut

U:V.

13

J.

Reconstructed sketch after

from die west wail ot Room

1, at

Samarkand.

Inscripdon identifies the figuie with cap as VaTgoman, ruler of Samarkand,

seventh century. Cbpy.

52.

xi

scene, in the

ri8

fig. lO.

Detail ot a Sogdian mural

the

Cliaghanian emissaries to the Sogdiaii

Room

royal court at Samarkand. Samarkand,

in

mid

119

Rcprcsenution of a delegation of Turks

among

the foreign missions at the

Sogdian court at Samarkand. S<^dian mural finm the west wall of Room
Samaricand. Reconstructed sketch after
53.

Detail

c a Sogdian mural depicting

Sketch after

ZA/V0pi!f', pi.

XXXVI.

Sogdian mural depicting the

S4a.

Arbaum, ZiuwpU* j^asuAa,

a royal banquet, fixtm

fig. 7.

t,

120

Putg&ent Vltt.

121
talc

^s, fix>m PmjikaU XXI:i,

122
Asiatifies XXm, 1971, fig. 14.
golden

of

tlic

Sketch

slaughter of the goose that laid

aftier fielenitiki,

Manhak,

in Arts

5^. S<^dian mural depicting the talc of the clever hare and the lion, from
XXI: i. Sketch after Belenitski, Matihak, in Arts Asiittiqiies XXIII, 1971,

Paajikaa
fig. 15.

S5.

123

Representation of an

unknown

fiiUe in a Sogdian

mural fiom Pm^Qena

VI: 41. Sketch after Belenitskii, in Arldieohgidiedeie nthoty v Taizhikisbme v 1956

124

jMfw,fig. 15.

Sogdian mural dqiictbg a scene of mourning ftom the south wall of the
tetrastyle hall

45.57).
57.

The heads of die

scene,

from

tlu

Zhiuopis', pi.
^S.

of Ten^le

vaulted

11,

Panjikent. Sketdi after

ZHmoj^*,

pi.

XIX (see

figs.

"7
deceased and a motmier, firom a detail

<^ the tnouming

south wall ofthe tetrastyle hall ofT<nnp/eJ7,PUijikent.

XXI (see figs. 49,

$6).

four-armed goddess depicted

room from

Paiijikciii

iskusstvo Peitdzhikmla, 26.

Copy after

128
in a

Sogdian mural from the south wall of a

VI: 26. Sketch after Belenitskii,

MonumtOaVnoe

133

Copyrighted material

xii

Text lausMioHS

^<f.

A Sogdian

from Room

i,

version

An unknown

XXn:i. sketch

Remus legend,

depicted in a mural

Ustnishana. Sketch after Negmatov, in 5^1 3,

Sogdian epic depicted

after Belenitddi,

in a

MomimentaVtioe

Sogdian mural from PmjikaU

idiusstvo Penizhikente, 33.

146

A royal hunt depicted on a Sogdian silver vessel of the early Muslmi period,

61.

in die Hermiiage

pi

I,

14a

1973. fig. 15.

60.

of the Romulus and

(^'a-i Qahqaha

30>

2,

Museum, Leningrad. Sketdi

after

Manhak, SogJ&iAoe saArOt

17a

Manichaean angels ftom a

detail

of a Turfioese

icroll

with a Sogdian

text,

datable to jlp. nindi-tenih century. Museum (UrindisdieKunst, the StateMuseum,

Berlin. Ca. 22

21 cm.

173

63.

Tucftnese mural depicting a Tantric goddess, ca. A.D. nindi centuty.

Hie

Central Asian Antiquities

Powell.
64.

Museum,

New

Delhi. Photo courtesy Josephine

174

Male figure painted on a pillar &om the Ghaznavid palace at Lashkari Bi2ir,

Afghanistan, datable to A.D. eleventh ccnturv'.

The

Archaeological

Kabul. Height of head ca. 18 cm. Photo courtesy Josephine PowelL

Museum,

176

Copyrighted material

Color Plates

1.

The ciudcl of Old

Panjikent showing the remains

residence and the Zarafshan River, Tajikistan

of the Sogdian royal

SSR.

&om Toprak-kala, Uzbekis-

2.

Khwarezir.ian nniral showing a standing figure,

tan

SSR. Third century. Copy.

J.

Detail of a mural depicting a frieze of banqueters from the west wall of the

residential

complex

at Balalyk-tepc,

1.8

northern Tukharistan, in Uzbekistan SSR.

Head of figure,

Sixth to seventh century. Copy.

ca. i8

cm,

total height

of mural

nu
Detail firom a Sogdian mural depicting

the

"Rustam cycle" from

Puyikaa VI: 41. Photo courteiy D. Belous, Moscow.

14-20.

Detail

from

a Sogdian

mural depicting the

"Amazon cyde"

firom

PagihaH XXI: t. Photo coiutiesy D. Bdous, Moscow.

21.
tlie

Detail

of a Sogdian mural depicting members of the Chaghanian mission to

royal court at Samadcand. South wall of Jtoom

j,

Samadcand.

Mid

sevendi

century. Copy.
89.

Detail

of a Sogdian mural depictmg members of the Chaghanian misrion to

Mid

sevendi

the royal residence, the Panjikent

dtadeL

die royal court at Samarkand. South wall of

Room

j,

Samadcand.

century. In situ.
23.

Detail

of a Sogdiau mural from

Early eighth oentary. Photo cDurtesy D. Bebus,

24.

Detail

of a Sogdian mural fixtm

Early eighth century. Photo courtesy

2.5.

laid

Detail

the royal residence, the Panjikent

Patyikettt

dtadd.

D. Belous, Moscow.

of a Sogdian mural depicting the

golden eggs, from

Moscow.

tale

of the slaughter of the goose that

XXI:i. Photo courtesy D. Belous, Moscow.

xiii

zhr

CohrPlales

26.

Sogdian mural depicting male and female

riders,

from

Panjikcnt 111: 17,

Photo courtesy D. Bclous, Moscow.

27.

tour-anncd goddess and donors depicted

northern chapel, in the precincts of Temple

II,

in a

Sogdian mural from the

Panjikcnt. Photo courtesy

D. Bclous,

Moscow.
from

28.

Sogdian mural depicting

2g.

Detail of a Sogdian nuiral depicting a frieze

XVI: 10. Photo

JO.

courtc-sy

a harpist,

Paiijilicnt

7;

J.

of banqueters, from Panjikcnt

D. Belous, Moscow.

Detail ot a Sogdian nuiral depicting a frieze

of banqueters, from Panjikent

XVIiio. Photo courtesy D. Bclous, Moscow.

Copyrighted material

Preface

when the prc-Islamic state of Sogdiana that had flomishcd since the
mounting Arab

AJ}. finally coUapsed under

fifth

century

attacks in the eighth century, the

most serious challenge to the Muslim control of Transoxiana, the mS warn al-nt^
of the Arab

had been crushed.

sources,

Although early Islamic rosmopolitanism

Transoxiana,

it

one term or another, returned

That

valid

literary

and

hrciuglit a

now

cultural orietitation to

failed to suppl;int entirely the pre-lslaiiiic local traditions that,

and viaUe
artistic

earlier

to color the cultural expressions ot the

Mushin

models had prompted the perpetuation of

patterns in Transoxiana

is

substantiated

by

age.

eariier

material evidence

from the pie-Islainic agp in die fiinn of texts, archaeological data and works ofart
In the field of

docuineiited by

art,

the Sogdian pre-Islamic tradition

a rich c<^llccnoii

Asia largely within the past

tlirce

is

now

of wall paintings, excavated

particularly well
in Soviet

Central

decades. Ever since the discovery ot these spec-

tacular murals tiicrc has been a tendency to regard Sogdiana as an original

creative artistic center that generated impulses

beyond

its

and

own immediate cultural

horizons. In asserting the independence of the artistic ccnten of Transoxiana,

it

has

heocHne customary to question or rgect earlier notions that derived the art of

Transoxiana from

West Iranian or

In a brilliant essay
late

M. M. D'iakonov

for the origin

on the
in

I'ersiati

stylistic

sources.

development of the Sogdian paintings, the

1954 Idc^kcd to the earlierartistic trad itit^nscif Transoxiana

of the Islamic miniature paimnig tradition of the Herat iichool of the

fifteenth century.

D'iakonov saw Sogdian painting as an expression of a feudal age

with sodal and ideological patterns that were perpetuated imder similar feudal
conditioiis in Transoxiana

the gap of

moiumiental paintniu and

tions

and eastern Iran

some seven hundred

tlie

in the later

years that separates

Muslim
tlie

age.

Thus

miniature painting school of Heliz.ad, the

were linked, according to D'iakonov, by virtue ot

despite

Sogdian tradition

their similar

two

ot'

tradi-

environmcn-

XV

xvi

tal

Pr^tu
condidons. D'iakonov did not live to develop

their originality

duK hypodieset. Bttt because of

and fir-ieadiing implications Ibr die history of bhnnic

art,

D'iaknnnv's theories deserve to be tested agaiost die archaeologist's qnde and the
results

of current scholarship

As a preliminary

in this field.

to the study

of Sogdian painting, a general outline of the history

and culture of prc-lsiamic Sogdiana

painting

is

provided by

is

Mark

Dresden,

J.

the

in

and a review and assessment of Sogdian

ItUrodHctory Ncte. Soviet excavations

offered in Part One, by Profiasor Alexander M. fielenisdcii, die Academy

of Sciences, budtute of Archaeology, Lenii^d, and Dr. Boris L Maishak, the

Department of Oriental

Antiquities, the State

Hermitage Museum, Leningrad.

Two, inclusive of chapters 1-7 and Appendix, prepared by

Part

seeks to examine:

(1)

medieval period;

in the early

this writer,

the traditions ot wall panning in Central and Western Asia

(2)

the origin

and

distinctive features

of Sogdian

painting; (3) the survival of Sogdian artasnc conventians in blamic an;

classification

These

points arc treated

following order.

as the

and

particulars

identified
stylistic

under

The Sogdian

painting tradition

thrust

patterns

art

is first

considered within the

of Western and Central Asia (chapter

thematic content of Sogdian painting determined the

of that

and analyzed

art,

The

of pigment,

role ot sketch,

provide specific guidelines that

may

4.

and

ally also its specific artistic affinity to a given

artistic intent.

These considerations

in use in the Islannc art

Persian painting

Iranian

from the

world

may

as a

whole. Such

painting, but occasion-

school

pictorial epic represents a special category

was not

bi diapter 5 die

be used to determine the relative position of

means may determine not only the relative age of a given

The

next

analyzed in terms of technique, use of

given painting within the general framework ot the tradition

Persian miniature painting

is

fbnnulaic quality and distinctive

Sogdian painting are disaoaed in chapter

.xrc

i).

stylistic

the subject matter of Sogdian painting

(chapters 2-3).

major categories of Sogdian painting

color, type

the

separate chapter headings organized in die

immediately relevant context of the

Inasmuch

(4)

of Sogdian paintfag.

of themes

that arc peculiar to

thirteenth century. Since the pictorial epic

of the Arab world,

its

genesis and

development

in

be correlated with the rebirth of epic literature in the

after the ninth century.

Like die tradition of epic

literature, the

highly refined and consistent artistic idiom ofdie pictorial epic in Persian miniature
painting prest^iposes the exbtenoe

of eariier

Sasanian and Byzantine traditions had

artistic

modds. Yet

^nored die pictoiial

since

epic, the

both die

fofemnners

Copyrighted material

Pr^ue

of the pktoctal epic in

artistic tradition.

pictorial epic

Hie likelihood of die continuity of the Sogdian

and

specific

Sogdian

artistic

Eivan

is

is

tcaditi<m

patterns in early Islamic art

in diapter 6. Finally, the classification of Sogdian

logical context

xvii

dw early Peman tnimatORs tntut be sought in a difietent

is

of die

disctused

pamting aoo(ding to archaeo-

offered in the Appendix.

the ronianizatioii used

Transcriptions of

mroughout

names of modern

ciues

the text for this architectural feature.

and geographical

locations are given

accordii^ to current usa^ tnually widiout diacritical nuurks. Diacritical points are
gOierally limited to early medieval names.

With the exceptiao ofa few names, cf.

Samarkand (Samarqand), Zacafiban (Zcrafihan, Zeravshan), Bukhara (Bokhara),

which

find several accepted transcriptions, an attempt has

consistent transcriptions

been made to oSex

of geographical locations and names.

GumY AZAIPAY

Copyrighted malBrlal

Acknowledgments

Preliminary research on the history of art of Sogdiana was initiated by the writer
in i96rj

and was made possible by

Society and die Center fer

Angeles.

The

from

grants

present study

the N.uional

travel

f^ts bom the American Philosophical

Near Eastern

Endowment for

Univernty of California, Los

Studies,

was undertaken

in

1970 and

made

possible

by two

the Humanities, awarded the writer in

1970-71, and 1971-72.

I

wish to express niy gratitude to the National Endowment tor the Humanities,

the Center for

Near Eanem

Studies, University

of Cal^bmia, Los Angeles, and

the American Philosophical Society &r their generous support of my reieardi.

special thanks arc

due to coUeagius in the Department of Near Eastern

me of research fi^ilities during

University of California, at Berkeley, for availing

the course
I

am

First

of my work on

indebted to

many

wish to express

this project in

My

Studies, the

1970-72.

individuals tor helptul suggestions and encouragement.

my sincere thanks to I'rotessor A.M. Iklenitskii and Dr. B.I.

Marshak, the excavators of the Sogdian murals from Panjikent, for their nnfeiling
cooperation and their invaluable contribution to this
their sustained interest,

not have reached

Director of the St

ice

book

(Purr One).

am

Iknnit.igc

also grateful to Professor

Museum, Leningrad,

opportunity tor prolonged and repeated study

i>i

H.H.

I'iotrovskii,

for av.iiling

me

ot the

the Sogdian murals ni the State

Hermitage Museum, in Leningrad. The Copyright Agency of the

Moscow, kindly granted permission

prepared by A.

Without

communications and consultation, the project would

(M^ipletion.

USSR,

in

to publish here the text and illustrations

M. fielenitskii and fi.L Marshak, and the color plates prepared by

D. Bclous of Moscow. Among many colleagues in the Soviet Union who have in
one way or another assisted my work on this project, I wish to name Dr. V.A.
Lukonin, Department of Oiientai Antiquities,

I lie

lermitage

Museum,

Professor

B. A. Litvinskii, the Institute ofthe Peoples of Asia, Academy ofSciences, Moscow,

xix

XX

AdtttowledgmtHts

Dr. B.IA.

Staviskii, the Institute for the

Proes90t V. A. Livshits and

E Bendik,

grad, and

Moscow. The

director

various courtesies during

Among

my visit to

at Panjikenc kindly eietended to toe

the site in 1971.

discussed in the present study,

George Dales, Ricliard Ettinghausen, Mark

Katharina Otto-Dom, Alexander C. Soper,
I

Dresden,

have sought

name

wish to

Roman

I'n^tcssors

Ghirshman,

Mattm Sdiwartz and Edwaid H.

the manuOtto-Dom and Soper also read and commented on the first
of my manuscript. Tlie Russian text of the contribution by A. M. Belenitskii

script itsel

and

J.

whose advice
I

wish to eiqpress special dianks to Pio&ssor Dresden for his oontribntion,

latroduttoty Note, to the present study,

draft

Academy of Sdences, Lenin-

colleagues in the United States and Europe

on various matters

Sdia&r.

the

of die library, bsdtate of die Peoples of Asia,

Rudaki Mosenm,

staff of die

Moscow,

Restoration of Antiquities,

A.M. Mandelstam,

B.I.

and ar his helpful comments on

PtofiMOrs

Marshak was translated by

Phyllis

Reed and

notes were edited and translated by Barr)' Jordan.

edited by this writer. Their

The maps of Central

Asia and

Transoxiana were prepared by Virginia He^ridc. The index was prepared by Noel
Siver
I

who also edited the endre manuscript.

my sincere gratitude to

wish to express

University of California Press,

tor,

and

the Editorial Department

of the

in particular to Philip E. Lilienthal, associate direc-

to Phyllis Killen, administrative assistant,

whose

efforts

and cooperation

made this book a reahty. I gratefully acknowledge the subsidy towards the publication

of

this

book afwuded in 1978 by die MiUaid Mdas Pnblicaikm Fund

Conunittee.
Finally, I

remember the interest and warm support of this

only an idea, expressed by

Walter B. Henning.

project,

when

it

was

my late teachers Professors Otto Maenchen-Helfen and

To their memory

the present study

is

dedicated in gratitude.

Gunrr Azaipat
Augut 1978

Copyrighted malBrlal

Abbreviations

AJA

Amefkait Journal of Archaeology

AMI

ArchSologische Miiteiltntgeti

APAW

Abhmidlungen der Preussischen

aiis Invi,

Berlin

AkademU

der

iVisiaudu^m,

Berlin

BSOAS
CAJ

&tlktm of the School of Oriental and Afnum

FANSSSR

FiM Akadenm nadt SSSR

HO

Hmdhuch

Izv.ANTadzhSSR

Izi'otiia Akiideiiai

Central Asian Jmmdt

IsMEO

London

der Orieutalistik, B. Spulcr, cd., Leiden/Kolii

iiiiiik

Istttuto itaiiano

per

il

Tadzhikskoi

SSRt

Otdeletiie

ob-

Dushanbe

sluhcsH'cimykit tiauk,

JAOS
JRAS

Studies,

The Hague/Wesbaden

medio ed estremo Oriciue,

Joumai of the Amerkan

Roma

Oriental Society

Journal of(ftr Jtoju/ Aaatic Society <f Gnat Britain and Inland,

London

KSIA

Kratliie soobshchemia itistiluta arkheologii

KSUMK

Kratkie soobshchemia o dohladaUh

Instituta

istorii

material' noi

kul'tury

AN SSSR, Moskva

poleuykh isslcdovaiiiiakh

AN

SSSR, Moskva/

Leningrad

MDAFA

Mimoires de

la

Di^gatioit

miiMopfte franfaise

en Afghanit-

tan, 'Pant

MIA

Materialy

isdedoimiia po ofkheologli

SSSR, Moskva/

Leningrad

OLZ

Orieutiilistischc Literaturzf!iiiu\i.

SA

Sovciskaia arkhcologiia,

Sovetdtttia etnografia,

StwkfccAflfiHi

Berlin

Moskva

Moskva/Leningrad

Gost^kr^mmogo ^adtaxha, Lenii^nd

xxii

Attmriatwttt

Skul'ptura

A.M.

Belenitskii et aL, Skurptiira

Piatukhikenta,

SPA1V

zhtvopis* thevnego

Moskva 1959

SitsmgdmridOe der Pmissisekm Akademie der Wissensdu^en^

Berlin

TGE
TKhA

Trutly Go<i(il>tr<ti'euii0j^o Lnntttizlut, Ltiiiiigrnd

Trudy

Khonzmskoi

arkhtotogo-t'tiwgrajulicskoi

i'kspcditsii.

Moskva

TTAi,

Trudy

arUwohgklKskoi ikspe^i,

Tadadiikdun

istorii inaterial'noi

kul'tury

VDI

Vestuik

ZDMG

7Aii.<chriJt der Deutschett

ihci'iici istorii,

Instituu

AN SSSR, Modcva/Leningtad

Moskva
Morgeiilandixkai CesellsdtaJttLdfzi^

Wiesbaden
Zhii'opis*

A.IU. lAkubov&kii

ct al., Zhii'opis' drcvncgo Piaiidshikctita,

Moskva 1934

Copy iiyhica

inaiuiial

Introductory

Mark J.

by

For

lust

Note

Dresden, University of Pennsylvania

of knowing what

shoulii not be

We taibe the GMen Road to

James Etrtty

Ftedcer,

The unique
and

The

Hasan, Act V, Sane i

nniral paintings

analysis of

near the end of

known

Smuuhatul.

dut are

at the center

Sogdian painting stand

\\

hat

is

known

of

(if

of Guitty Azarpay's

the prehistoric period

more than

thousand years ol

is

discussion

disregarded)

Soinh.iii history.

paintings were discovered by successive teams of Russian archaeologists in

the period since 1946 at the ancient

Tajikistan

and

Uzbdcijtan (ph

is
i,

situated

map

2).

some

site

of Panjikent. The

forty miles east

and Turknienistan, Panjikent

Sogdian language and

script the

is

akhough

in

two of the five SO<alled

present location docs not

its

located on the Zcrafshan River. In the

name of

die city

PanJ!ikm9{a) or simply pncy representing Panl,

kent and

is

itself is in

being Kazakhstan, Kirgizia

otiier tlircc

exists today,

correspond to that of the older one, and

of Panjikent

of Samaikand, which

Tajikistan and Uzbekistan arc

"Central Asian"' Soviet RepubHes, the

city

is

and die

othen go back to the spelling in Arabic

pncyhnS{h) representing

spellings Panjikaad, Panji-

script

pnjytmd representing

Paiijikmd.

The spectacular results of the excavations at Panjikent arc matched by the equally
revealing discover)' of extensive archival materials written in the Sogdian language.

The

first

specimen was accidentally found

in 1333 at a castle

on Mount Mugli

The tenn "Central Asia" is mostly used in a wider sense so as to include areas fmhcr
east and putt of the Chiiwie provmce of StnkuDg (Chineie Turkestan).
I.

to the

Copyrighted matBrial

Intntfuctory

(Muy) about
the archives

N^te
torty miles cast ot Panjikcnt, also

tumed out to be those of Dew3Sd,

on the Zcratshan River.

the

last

MR'Y 8yuf*&ye "D., the lord of Pan") of Panjtkent before

pncy

area by Arab armies

of the

data provided

They

and administration

by thePanjikent

tor

in the early

the occupation

eigh^

century.'

Sogdian history

bmvccn

the

and early

fifth

eighth centuries and arc testimony of an extensive historical development.

is

Mugh

more, the

The

docunicntation complement each other.

niul Mugl:i

both primary sources

are

In tact,

indigenous ruler (Sogdian

What

documents, contrary to the majority of Sogdian written

documents which (iginate elsewhere, were found in and come firom Sogdian
territory (S(^diana) itsel Hiis area centering

now

Bukhara,

both

upper courses of the

Uzbekistan,

in

is

around the cities of Samarkand and

in Transoxiana,

Amu Dar'ya (Oxus)

and Syr Dar

between the middle and

y.i

(faxartcs) rivers.

further evidence that at least part of the Ferghana Valley,

which

stretches

There

is

through

Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kirgizia over a distance of some 170 miles, and the area

now Mary

near the dty of Merv,

in

Turkmenistan, originally or

at a later

time

can be considered as bdonging to Sogdiana.

"The eatHest montunental and scriptural references to the Sogdians and S<^diana
date from the sixth to fifth ccnturv- b.c.
tatives

from the various

group of Sot^diaiis
apadaiia,

cloth,

on the

parts

Among the many delegations of represen-

of the Achacmcnid empire of Darius and Xerxes

on the

appciirs

east stairway

terrace ot Perscpolis.

They

otier

of the audience

known

as the

vessel,

an animal skin and a pair of rams in homage to the "King of Kings." Their

identification

in the three

seems to

major

rest

lists

on thdr distinctive footwear. As for written evidence,

of satrapies of the Achaemenid empire, drawn up under

Darius in the Old Persian language, Sogdian(a) (Old Persian

as

hall,

cups or some other kind of

an area near Bactria,

Yaglmobi
area, the

is

.<ir(;V<i) is

Khwarezmia and Gandhara. According

a continuation ot cariy

to

mentioned

V.A.

Livsliits,'

medieval Sogdian dialects of the Ustrushana

western part of the Fetghaiu Valley in Uzbekistan, while the Sogdian

literary

language represents the dialect of Samarkand. In die Zoroastrian scriptures

known

as the Avesta,

occurs as snxBa in a

a.

no

list

part of whidi can be dated with certainty, Sogdian(a)

of hmds between

For the publication of the

Matw (Merv)

Mugh documents sec

and Khwarezmia, or

the bibliography at the

end of the

as

Introdtutory

NUr.
3

V. A. Uvthttt.

Namfy Steiul AzU

KtiMsum I (Moskva: Akademiia Nauk

SSSR. 1962),

IJ2.

Copyrighted malBrial

htttoiluctory Nttte

suySa

as the

second best land created by Ahura Mazda. As

is

to be expected, these

written indications give only general and no specific geographical intormation.

The

participation oi a Sogdian detachment in the ill-fated niUitary

mounted by Xetxes
event of lastit^
reverse

against Greece in 480 B.C. olwiously cannot

efiect.

When

in the second half

campaign

be taken as an

of the fbutth oenmcy

b.c. the

happened in the leUtions between Iran and Greece, or rather Macedonia,

and Alexander the Great led his acmiet ^;ainsC lean, the

final resistance offered

by

the Sogdians under Spitamenes in 329-328 B.C. not only had the crucial result of
the destruction oi the Sogdian city of NLiracanda (Samarkand) but also forced

many of

its

directions

and settling permanently

mhabiiaius to leave their homeland. While migrating

in eastern

in the oasis cities across Central Asia

(map

i),

diey continued to pursue the commercial and business interests widi eastern traders

and merdumts that had been esublished earlier. Centuries

tion

later,

the deep penetra-

of the Sogdian presence in Central Asia showed up in a collection of some nine

Sogdian documents,

known

as the

"Ancient Letters." that were found

in a

watch-

tower of the Great Wall of China.* They have been convincingly dated to the
early fourth century ad.,>

and although

their interpretation

is

their contents hint at die political unrest along the "Silk

artery

of communication between the West and die

traders controlled " international " trade

and other

eastern Sogdian merchant said to a colleague in

whidi cook place in

And,

Sir,

the

say

almg whidi Sogdian

l). As one

and commerce (map

Samarkand oonoetnii^ an event

a.d. 311

emperor [of the western Chin dynasty

in

thedlyof Lo-yang] so they

from Saray [Lo-yang] because of the famine. And

fled

[palace]

was

last

East

and fortiOed town were

[destroyed].

far firom completei

Route," die main

$0 Saray

Os)

set

on

fire.

no more.

pfisoner and led into [capdvity]

. . .

The

his fortified residence

residence burnt

down and

by die [MOjiu

town

[HsiungHui].*

In die pos^'AlcMndrian period when the rulers of the eastern

to break

the

Moreover, then the emperor was made

away fiom die control of die Sdeudds,

the chieftain

territories

began

of Bacttia took die

lead in establishing, in the middle of the third century B.C, an independent

Graeco-Bactrian

4.

Hor the

5.

By

kingdom which may have included S<^diana. The

du-

publ:c.<t;iin ol

H.

Herding,

6. Translation

Aiiciciu Lctrcrs sec the

he Date of the

by W.B. Hcnning,

ibid.,

presence

of

bibiioguphy under Rcichcit.

SogfUm AncicntIncn,''55Q<15XU(iM*)>tioi-ei5.
^05.

ighted material

Mnduetory Note
Graeco-Bactrian coinage and pottery

of Afi:asiab near Samarkand can be

in the city

adduced in hvcx of sudi an assumption.

Little

is

century

known about Sogdiana

B.C.

to the

in

beginning ot

Parthian times

t!ie

of the third

the middle

from

Under

third century A.D.

tlic

following

Sasanian dynasty Sogdiana was parr of the empire under a royal governor for

about one century

after a.d. 260. hi the

following centuries

it

under the

fell

among whom were the Hephthalites and Turks.

When blam entered the Iranian plateau in the middle of the seventh century, its

sovereignty of foreign peoples

presence was soon felt

acro<is

came

palities

clncttain

on Mount

in the capture

mained of power and

of his

in use until the present

essential coiutituent

and figurative

iar

and

sutiik)

is,

Middle Persian

art

day

in the

fi>r

desceiui

such local

move

What little

re-

thirteenth

uu of the Sogdian

form of Yaghnobi u Inch

tlie

is

Pamir Mouiuams.

dial the Sogdians represent

light at different sites,

various purposes and genres has been

as

swt^yk representing respectively

of course, an eastern Iranian language

New

to the

members ot

Persian (Farsi)

like the

languages of

the western

group such

and Parthian shows a highly

pronominal and verbal system of distinctive cases, tenses and

moods. The observation has been made

that

Sogdian shares certain

linguistic

with the Old Persian of the Achaemenid inscriptions on the one hand and

with Avcstan, the language 0} the Zoroastrian

futtlicr

death.

wiped out in the

and technique diat have come to

(Pahlavi),

diversified nominal,

features

own

shows beyond doubt

Khwareziiua and Khotan, and contrary

as

his

finally

found. Sogdian {siryByk and other forms such

and

One

as the last ruler oi

of Central Asian civilization. Besides the samples of archie

abundant proof of writing activides

su-/8il;

of time.

area

local princi-

in the early eighth century, a

was

the Yagluiob River valle\ lu the north ul

The evidence mentioned so

tectural

Mugh

residence

colture in Sogdiana

by the Mongol armies under Chingiz-Khan. A

language remains

an

of resistance. Small

efforts

into existence for shorter or longer periods

Panjikent; he took refuge

spoken

its

was Dewistic who has already been mentioned

which ended

century

The Bukhara-Samarkand

the Oxtts River.

experienced both success and defeat in

weighty

however, not

linguistic

fiilly

on the other.

scriptures,

or historical arguments on

tlic

To

base

available evidence

is,

warranted.

ot die notation of die language three main

varieties

of script were devised.

Any one o these three scriptional systems, all of which ultimately go

back to one

or another Semitio-Aramaic alphabet, was used according to the kind of subject

matter (inscriptions, documents, religious

texts,

etc) that the occasion called ot.

Lunduttory Note

They

show, besides the expected variations

also

in individual scribal

hand,

difler-

ences in the shape of single graphs which depend on the {dice and time of composition

of any one sample of writing.'

A short survey of the more important writings in Sogdian, clearly only a small
portion of what once existed, intends tO SCTVC the purpose of further stressing the

high degree of development of

this aspect

of Sogdian

civilization."

categories can be distinguished, secular and religious. In the

tianslaticMis into

form

is

number and length o the

latter

group

of tlic former and for that reason alone the

the basis ot

The

first

tall

main
such

Sogdian of Bttddhist, Maniduean and Christian leligious woiks.

extent hodi in

than that

Two

category

documents and the Uke; in the second group are

materials as coins, inscriptions,

The

first

what

is

group, written

in

of primary importance for

what has been termed

its

historical data.

is

considerably la^er

linguistic data

known of Sogdian gramrnnr and

the

they contain

vocabulary.

Samarkand tvpc of script,

Coins with Sogdian legends have

been found in many locations tnduding Panjikent.' The earliest specimens may have

been mantiictuted
Idndi

as early as the second century a.d. Inscripti(ms <i

<^ materials, among them

ostraca,

have also been discovered at

di&rent

many sites

Two major
of documents, the " Ancient Letters" and the archives of Mount Mugh,

such as Panjikent, Varakhsha, west of Bukhara, and elsewhere.

collections

have already been

legal

The

iiiciitioried.

and LxnnomiL nature

as

with matters of an administrative,

latter deal

shown by

the followin.g quotations:

Mlxyin shall hold these mills for a term of one year; and within one year M^xyan shall
DCwlidS from these three milb, (as) lent &r one year, 460 bapli [Penian

gjve the kjag

kawiSl of flour. ^Document

(I

B 4]

hear that) you do not give (to those) to

you then give

If C^atta decides that she will

fir

whom

instructed

you should not

(give)

you
?

to give grain.

[Document

Would

iS]

not remain as a wiic with Ut-tcgin, but will pan( ?) with him,

she shall leave him. [Document

So

whom

(grain to those) to

Nov. 3]."

only one fragment of nonieligioos literature has turned up.

stn^le between Rustam and

the dews (demons), a

theme which

is

It relates

well

the

known

from Firdausi's Shahnam. The Sogdian fragment is independent from the story as
7.

For

.1

lor.il

alphabet ice V.

,^.

I.iwhitz,

"A

S(>gdi.in

.Mph.ibft

from Panjikant," in W,B,

Heming Akmorial yohtme, edited by M. Boyce and i. Ccrshcvitch (1970), 256-263.

B. For detaib on dieie wdtiBg^ lee the hibliogcafliy.
9. Sec O. I. Stnimova, Kudcg momt t gonAdm PembAAent (1963). Tlieie comi date

firom the

eighth century.
10. Ttnolation

by I. Genihenidi,

Ctrttrel Asian

Jmmti VII (196a). S4, S7, 91.

Copyrighted matBhal

handiuimy Noie 7

bv

told

Firdausi,

however, and,

Akhougli the origin ot

Rustam

is

in addition,

Sogdian story

tiic

paintings firom Panjikent

is

dut die legpadnry

was very much

the protagonist

uniqueness die fneoe deserves quotation in

is

written in

unknown,
cycle

Many

of

its

like the

own.
mural

alive in eastern

ban. Because of its

fiill.*'

Rustam

... magic. (The demons) immediately fled to (the dty).

far as the city-gate.

a stvlc

shows

it

of which the heroic figure of

thus

went

pursuit ai

ni

(demons) died from being trampled (only) a thousand man;

aged to enter the city. They shut the gates. Rustam turned back with great reno\\'n, went
to a good pasture, stopped, took offdie saddle (and)

let (his)

hotse loose on die grass.

He

ate food, was satisfied, ^cead a tog, lay down (and) began to sleep. The
demons stood in consultation in an assembly. The\ s.iid to one another: "It was a great
evil, a great shame on our part, that we thus took refuge in the city because of a single

Unuelf tested,

rider.

Why do we not strike? Either let us all die (and) be finished or let tu exact ven-

geance for our lords " The

I

began to prepare

prc^. t

demgni (those) who bad been left over from the battle-

heavy equipment and strong armor. In great haste thcv opened the

Many archers, many charioteers, many (demons) ridmg elephants, many

titfing .(?).
many riding pigs, many ridmg foxes, many riding dogs> niany riding on
snakes (and) on lizards, many on foot, many who went flying like vultures and .(!).
many upside-down, the head downwards and the feet upwards, (all these demons)
bellowed out a roar, for a great while they raised rain, mow, hail (and) great thunder,
city-gates.
.

dwy opened (their) jawi (and) released fire, flame (and)

the perceptive (?) R,i\' [Rmtair.'s horse] (and)

sleep, quickly donned (his) leopard-skin garment,

of the

valiant Rust.un.

Then

smoke. They departed in seaicfa

came

woke Rustam. Rustam arose out of (his)

.iko

on (his) quiver, mounted Raxs (and) hastened towards die demons. When Rustam
saw from afar the army of the demons, he said to Raxs: "Come, sir, retreat little (by
." RaxJ
little); let us perform (a trick) so that the demons (pursue us) to the forest
tied

agreed. Immediately

Rustam turned

b.ick.

Wiien

the

demons saw,

tiding-animak and the infantr)' quickly hurled themselves forward.

said: "

Now the chief's hope

has been broken;

( ?)

be possible (for him) to

him

escape

evil

punishment (and) harsh torture!" The demons enall

Moreover do not devour him, but take

shouted out together (and)

Rostam. Then Rustam turned back, attacked

prey or a hyena (upon

the) f^ock, like a

snake, and began (to destroy)

1!.

it

let

Never

couraged one another greatly they

nCi,

no more %ill

once both the

we may show him

offer battle with us.

alive that

at

One to anodn they

The Sogdian RiiMam

tiHisii'.b. I'f

two

them

one

demons
(a

hare

set

out in ptusuit of

like a fierce liim

[ ?]

vpaa (its)
upon a

or) a porcupine

story, published

fr,igincnt5,

the

fakon upon

(hini)

by t. Benveniste.

in ihc British

Museum

Ttxtet togiiem BfWwf (1940). 134-

(nritish Library) in

London, the other

as pomtcd out by
Henning. BSOAS XI (1945)1
n. a. Except for one or two minor changes the present
translation it by N. Stms-Wiiliams in Us "The Sogdian R^menti <)f the fititiih library," Iwf^

the Bibliothi^uc nauonalc in Paris; they follow each other without a break

W.B.

Iranian Journal

XVIII (1976), j6-j8.

Copyrighted matsrial

htrodiKUiry Nate

The memben of die communides of Sogdian setden along die " Silk Route'*

many rel^ious texts diat were recovered in die beginniiig

Tur&n oasis in Chinese Turkestan (Sinkiang Province).
oiaterials " arc botli smaller aiul some radier large fragments of

are responsible for die

of

century at the

dlis

Among the Tiirfiii

Uuddliist texts belonging to the teaLliintis ot the

Mahayana or "Great Vehicle"

school anil written in calligraphic Samarkand script; Manichaean fragments

written in a variety of the (Semitic) Palmyrcnian script; and Christian texts of the

Neslotian persuasion written in a script close to the SyriaoEstran^ido alphabet.*^

Theolc^ans,

priests,

representatives

monks,

religious literature. In

many

originals in other languages.

Still is

teachers, scribes

of those three

and the

of

religions, are,

the

official

course, the dirca origin

of the

like, vtrho vircre

instances this literature consists

The

of

cranslatit>ns frcim

identihcation ot the t^riginal text

lias

heen and

almost uidispensable tor the accurate interpretation ot the Sogdian transla-

Sogdian tcanslatois more

made mistakes as is only too

rioo. In dieir desire to render die original precisely, the

than once resorted to unidiomatic Sogdian ; they also

easy to luiderstand given die often

h^hly

technical nature

of the

original. In

the Buddhist materials the originak are mostly of Indian origin; for

the case

the Christian texts originals in the Syriac language served as the example.

Maiucliae.m

ni.iterials are

no complete

In tact,

can(Hiical

text has survived

and very

little

reiuains, tor instance,

works die authorship of which was ascribed to Mani

himself.

odier hand, the Manichaean materials, however small the fragment, are
iinpcirtanoe for the reconstruction

they also retain,

in

some

and other .Manichaean

The

unfortunate]\ the nmsl Ira^nK iUary ot the three groups.

cases, a

leaders

fragments ot popular stones

the

of prime

of die complexities of Manichaean thought;

iin aginative style Mani

measure of the vivul unl

and writers used.

in

of the

On

It is

turtlier

iit

interest that a tew'

parable style have survived; they

testity to the

role of the Manichaean Sogdians as middlemen in the transmission ofstories which

are incorporated in the Indian (Sanskrit) Paikatantra and the Iranian (Persian)
.Kalf/d

wa-Dimna

%tory collections.''* In

summary,

the value of the Sogdian

religious texts lies less in their literary worth than in the linguistic

dau thc)

n o \ J e.
i

Yet they remain an impressive monument to the high Utcracy of thc Sogdian
religious elite.

12.

Sec

W.

Sanmilung,"

Lcntz, " Fiinrzig Jalirc Ar bcii an

den iranisdien Hainkrhrifien der Jeutscfacn Tacfiii^

ZDMG CVl (1956). *3* -*zz*.

For

details

on

14- See

W. B.

Henning, " So^ian Tales," BSOAS

13.

these writings sec the bibliography.

XI (1945). 465^7.

Copyrighted material

IniroJuefory

Two

inscriptions in Sogtlian

in Central

MongoHa and

still

it

have to be mentioned. The hnt k from Bugut

has been dated around A.D. 580.'^

The second was tound

in Qarabalgasun, the capitd of the Uighuts or Eastern Tadcs on the

in Mongolia;

Note

Orkhon River

b tiilingad (Sogdian, Chinew and iHghur Tuddsh) and b from

Both

around Aj>.

inscripticMis

point to the pronunence

of die Sogdian

langiugc among die Uighois. The introduction of the Sogdian

script

kand-Buddhist type to the Uighurs, which then became the

basis for

alphabets in whicb the Uichur language

sixth century seems assured;

and

it is

was recorded,

in

of the Samarone of the

the second half of the

not impossible that the Sogdian language was

nsed as die <^cial one by die early Uighun. Shocdy after a.i>. 565 die fiist rukr

of die Weston Turks, whose realm included Sogdiana, used Sogdiam as hb rcficetentatives to the Sasanian court in Iran

and to Byzantium for the purpose of dis-

cussing coniiiicrcial rclaiidn^. If any such proof

intermediary role ot the Sogdians

clear

is

from such

the Sogdians

n^lected
position

testimonials.

in the vast area

still

needed, the civilizing

Continued investigation of the

and other populations and nations

topic, will turn

were

between Sogdiana and Mongolia

up more confirming

relations

between

Central Asia, so far a

in

ratlicr

evidence fas the eminence of die

of the Sogdians in Central Asia and fiudier east.

Bibliography
Primary
TEXT EDITIONS
E. ]3cnvcni$(c. Textcs so^diais [Misswii Pcliioi

cii

^isk Ceiitrale, seric iii-<juarto

III).

Paris

I{l4a Mainly Buddhist texts widi tnnsladan and glossary.

O. Hansen. "BerSner soghdisdie Tnete

Wmetadu^,

(heceafier

APAW).

I."

AhkmJBin^

ier Preussisdm Akademie der

Berlin 1941. Chiislian text widi translation

and

g!ossar\'.

0.

l.uist n.

" Berline

r soglulisehi.-

Tt xtr

II."

ALiih-mxc der Wissttisdu^ttn

md

IMenthu

(1954). Berlin, 1955. Christian texts with translation.

and V. A.

15. ScT S.d. Klj-ivtonnj

Livm;-.

"T!ic Sni^Ji.m InscTiptinn nf

Oiiciualiii y/iiii^MHi J 10 (Kj);^), (fz-iij^, aiid L. U,iziii, "

I'lnscription
16.

dc Bugut,"

Sec O. Hanten,

gasun," Jmvm/ Je

in

MHmij^ts

"Zur

littguisliques ojierls

luics

ct

Hiigiit

Revised,"

Ada

iogdiciu: lx> ciiscignLinciiti dc

i (unite Beuvetiisie (1975), 37-45-

soghdisdieii Iiuchrifi auf dem drnsptachiecD

Denkmal von Karabal-

h Sudili Emw-on^nmae XLTV (1930^. 3-39.

Copyrighted matsrial

10 BaMtfftfkg

W.B. Hemung.

StgSta.

London 19^. Textt oo yadous

copies

widi noia.

Mugh Documents. A. A. Freinun, V.A. Lmhtli, M.N. BogoUubov, O.L Smimovi.

So^bUr Mamaitf t Gotj Mt^ VJSL Moaoow 1961-61. WtAi tnndatioii and glomry.
F.W.K. MODer. "Soghdisdie Tezte L" iiAlIT (ipu). BerBn
texts

1913- Mostly Glifistia&

widi tramlation and g^oHary.

F.W.K. Mullcr and W.

Akademie der
ttanilatuHi

Lrntz. "Soghdischc Tcxtc II." Sitzuti<;sheTichle der Pretusischen

IVissetischaJtett

and

(1934). Berlin 1934. Chiistian''

and Buddhist

texts

with

glossaiy.

H. Rddielt. IKe toghibdm HtatdschnfienrtsU des Brlthdm Muenms, I. Die buddtuMncben

Texte, n. Die nicht-buddhistischcn Tcxtc.

n.N. MacKcnzic, The

see

Heiddbe^

Bsidilhist Sof^dian

1928-31. For the Buddhist texts

Texls of the British Library, in Acta Iramn,

With translation and glossary. Volume II contaim

AncKUt Lettnt vnAi txandaikui and glossary.

troisieme serie HI. Teheran-Liege 1976.

die

Secondary
I.

LITERATURE

M. Boycc. "The Manichacan Literature in Middle Iranian," in Handltuch der OrietttalittA,

edited hf B. Spuler, I, iv bmHstlk, 2 LUentur, Lie&iui^ i. LeideiinKSln 1968. 67-76.
Indudes a diacmnon of Matadueain Sogdian texts.

O. Hansen. "Die buddhisdsdic

Sogdier," in

a.

HO

I,

Litcratur der Sogdicr" and

iv bmustik, 2 UUraur, liefenmg

i.

"Die

christlichc Litcratur

Ldden-Kdln

der

1968. 83-90, 91-99.

IAN6VAG8

R, Gauchiot
and

Essai de

grammmn scgMmne,

premiere partic, Phonitique. Paris

914-1923,

Bcnvcnistc, Essai de grammaire sogdiemte, dcuxicme partie, Adoip/Mbjie. syttUixe It

glossaire. Paris

1929. Mostly based

on Buddhist

materials.

L Genhevitcii.i4 GnamiurcfMindAmm Stigiimt. Oxford

W.B. Hduung.

"Mitteliianiich." in

HO

I.

1954.

hr bmusHk, t lu^gwMft.

Leiden-KSh

195S.

20-139.

17. Published and unpublished Christian text* are the $ubje of M. Schwartz, "Studies in the
Texts of the Christian Sogdians," (Ph.D. din., Uairaaitjr of Califimia, BeriBdcy, CaHfecnia,
^967)) which has not yet been fiublishod.

Copy

lyl

uC J

atCI

lal

PART ONE

The

Paintings of Sogdiana

by A,

M,

Belenitskii

and B.

Marshak

Copyrighted material

The

Paintings

of Sogdiana

In the last few doca<3es, ardiaeok^sts have discovered relics of ancient monumental
art in almost all the principal

c^ions of Middle Asia.*

needed that Middle Asia

whole occupies a

as a

place in the ccncra! historv'

Asian art ot

tlic

of Eastern

early middle ages has

dealing with an art that developed

had

ics

No further pnx^is now

compIcccK

special,

now

art. It is

itulcpciulcnt

Middle

quite obvious that the

long history of us own, and that

own

artistic schools,

we

arc

each of which in turn

own special diaracteristics and traditions.

its

These individual sdiools, \i^uch arose and developed

were not, however,

isolated

constant interaction and mutual exchange in Middle Asia

Iran, India.

centers in

China and among the Turks ot the Steppe.

which

at individual centers,

phenomena. They developed under conditions of

nuniuiiK'iu.il in Hiniri'-hcLl

ilic

itself and in

We

now^

Byzantium,

know of three

urriiorv ot Sotrdiana situated in

the central region ot Middle Asia, ilicsc arc Varakiislu, near Bukhara,' Atrasiab
(the

mins of ancient Samarkand, the

capital

dty of Sogdiana) ' and

small dty apfwoximately sixty kilometers east

artistic

of Samarkand

(see

Panjikent, a

map

2).

The

monuments of these centers date to die early middle ages. The most ancient

of them (ccruin paintings from Panjikent) are not earlier dian the
and the

latest

Relics of

fifth century,

not later than the eighth century.

monumental

art

have also been discovered

in the territories adjacent

to Sogdiana. In this period, the Sogdians, an East Iranian people, also lived in

Ustrushana, a prindpality ncmfaeast of Sogdiana. Remarkable paintings of the

dgihth to nindi centuries, discovered at Shahristan, in Ustrushana, are very similar

* Middle

Aria

dut inpUc'd by

nftn

1.

V.A.

2. L.I.

Am whicb encompastei a more extemtve territory than

to Soviet Centnt

the term "Transoxiana."

Two of the prcM-ttt

Am** respectively.
Part

he terms "Tran.>xKiii.i"

study arc equivalent lu

Shishkin, F<ir<iiMi*/w

(Mmkv.i

tlic

Soviet usage of

.iiiJ

"Ci.!ilral

Asia" used

iii

"Middle Asia" and "Central

1963).

Ai'baum. Zhivopoi Ajrasiaha (Tashkent 1975).

13

Copyrighted material

The PidHtu^s of Stg&uu

14

to the att

of Sogdiaiui

proper.) Farther to the east,

we know of the Boddlmt

temples of Semiredi'e,* a region of Sogdian colonization in the northern fbodiills

of Tien Shan, and Ferghana.)

The extensive region of Tukharistan,
was

situated south

Kush mounum

divided into

of Sogdiana, beyond the Hissar

number of small
ridge,

possessions,

and near the Hindu

range. Here were discovered early works datable to a.d.

first

to

fourth centuries, the era of the Kushan kingdom, as well as monumental art

and sculpture of the early middle

renowned monuments
recendy

as

ages.

Mention should be made of sudi long

BSmiyan* and Fundukis^' and die

discovered Dilber)in>tiep^*

BaJalyk-cepe,' Ajina-tepe***

relatively

and Qal'a4

Kafimihan."
In contrast to Tukharistan, the ancient history

ahuost uiikiiown.

city

wall painting, stucco and

^-Kurgan
only

now

day

art of

So

>

The

!i

iti

ura,

ire

with

was discovered

sculpture,

in southern Sogdiana (near Kanhi).**

beginning.

and ancient

temple of the early centuries of the Christian

at the town-site of
The study of this monument is

monumental

prehistory of Sogdian

art

of the early

middle ages is still quite obscure, and the roots of certain ^ecific phenomena o&en

N.N. Negmatov, "O zhivopisi dvonsa afshinov Ustrushany (prcdvaritcrnoc soobshchcnic),"

idem, "mUetna Rima v zhivopisi Ustrushany i drevnevastoehiuia mifblogichokaia

3.

SA

3 (1973);

traditsii-i."

Isv.

AN

TaJsliSSR, vyp.

(yt) (1971);

idem,

"K

voproiu o

N.N.

1975); V. Sokolovskii.

Kalai KaUikakha

"O

(Shakhrbtan, Tadzhikdcaia SSR)," SGte XXXIX (1974)-

L.R. Kj'zlasnv, " Arkliciilogichi:skici'i^lcdov.)iiii;i

Trudy Kirfisfkoi

khram

Vostoka v slozhcnii

Ncgni.itov, "Otkrytic Ustrushany,"

(Modcva
4.

roli

AN TadzhSSR, vyp. (75) (1974); V.L. Voronuia,

Nauka iffce/oi'/ir.<fi'p,- mczUdunaroJnyi tzhfgodnilc (975
zliivopiii Malogo zaia dvonsovogo kompleksa gptodithdu

drevncriniskoi Icgcndamoi traditsii,"

(^l<yf^>-itm^ritpclteskoi

Ak-Btsliimskc<i;ogon->Jisliclia

uktura, skul'ptura, zhivopu

<'fc.</)f</ttH II

(Moskva

ii.i

ai'r^nli'.hchc

Ak-Dcshim

lyitgg.,"

Vtoroi buddiiskii

TX ZcimaP.ylfcfcftM

fcye.'

1971), 96.

V. A. Dulatova, Drrvniaia Kwra (Tashkent 1972). 5I-9J, figs. r3-28.

Y. (indjrcJ, [. Ilackin, Lcs aiitujuiu'f hi<ui!JlHfif^- </c Haniiya}},

j.

v 1953

(Moskva i9J9};L.P.Ziablin.

B. A. Litviiukii.

(Frunze

6. A. G<xlard,

MDAI A

II

(Paris

190^); J. Hackin and J. Carl, Nouvelles retherckes mheologi^es i Bimiyin, aUDAFA Ui (Paru 193});
B. Rowland. CSm<ra/ AsUm Art (Baden-Baden 1971), fla-iii: J. Auboyer, Ajj^imbtm mti seine

Kimst
7. J.

{Vt:\'^:k n/iS).

55-54,

^'>,

Hackin, !< monixiiire iwuiuvr.^u

Aj^hatiistan

twd

seine Kiinsi, 55-56, pis.

Ji

loiiduktitan,

XtDAFA

10. Litviiiskii, Zeiinal',

11. B,

A.

VIII (Paris

19J9); Auboyer,

7S-S4; Rowland, Central Asian Art, 114-121.

LT.

Kcuglikov.i. Ihrh, uhhin {raskopki tfjo-tfji gg,)

9. L.I. ATbaum, B.i!,>!-,'l<-hve (Tashkettt i960).
.

(Moskva

1974).

/li/.:/.r>ii;-i'i ;i(

Litvinskii. "Frcski Kalai-Kai'imigana,"

Voknig sveta $ (1976), 44-46.

R. Sulcimanov ct aL, "Raskopki na gorodididie Er^^ugan," AMieal^gidiedde cAryl^

migo^ (Moskva 1973). S13-514.
12.

Copyrighted material

Uu Pidntings of Scjg^Ma
must be judged bv

The

anal<igv with similar

closing date tor the period studied

which brought to a

close the

is

phenomena

the

monumental

in ncigliboring countries.

Arab conquest

art

15

in the

eighth century

of prc-Islamic Sogdiana.

Pfeinc^ Ifirtoiic EvcnlB

Sogdiana and the Sogdians are mendoaed in the Behistun inscription of Darius

By

(sixth centur)' B.C.).

Sogdiana

time the Sogdians were already governed by die

almost no information on

is

ttiUowing period. Historians of the caiiipaign of Alexander of

in the

Macedon only
or.

this

of the Aehaemcnid dynasty. There

Persian kings

told of the desperate resistance

The Greeks, however,

of the Sogdians against

this

conquer-

did not succeed in establishing any firm audiority over

Sogdiana.*!

The

progress

of the Sogdians

in oi^anizing transcontinental trade along the

Great Silk Route, connecting China with the Near East and Europe, dates from
the

first

centuries a.d.

By

the beginning

of the fourth century

a.d., the

"Ancient

Sogdian Letters" show that Sogdian colonics, which mamtaincd permanent re-

with metropoliun Samarkand, were already flourishing

lations

Turkestan and China.'* In the

Nakhshab

(in

apparently not so

nmch due

of die description

list

ot principalities

is

is difficult

principalities

on Samarkand. Sources of the

Eastern

on the

(close to

and

Ishtikhan, the

modern Shahri-

more complete, but

to the ditiercncc in tlie situation as

itsel" It

of the small Sogdian

in

infi>rmati<i

Kabudanand

Samarkand and, apparently, Kesh

sab/)." In later sources the

tion

Aih gives

ate mentioned Samarkand, Btdchara

southern Sogdiana). Also mentioned are

small possessions near

nature

fifth centory, Pei

whkh

Middle Asian Mates, among

due

this

is

to the detailed

to determine die date of die forma-

which were to a certain extent dependent

third century

and eariicr generally ignore the inter-

nal situation in the established principalities

governed by the gieat State of K'ang-

chu which was headed by nomads.

. V. Zeimal',

Ij. F. Zciinal',

14.
15.

on

the basis of numismatic evidence, determined that

W. B. Helming. "The Date of the Sogdian Andem Lctten." BSOAS XII (ij^g). 3-4.
Ai Aih, dupter 97; A. M. Mandel'shtam, "O slodienti tadzhikdcoi tnrodnoni v

ncaziatskom me^Kblfech'e," S'^l

voin Zciural- und Wcstajien,"

A<fk>iri.<

(/

ilic

tfO.

Sred-

XX (1954), 76-79: A. HLTmatin, "Die altesten cfiiuesischeii Karten

OLZ,

1920, 189; K. Shiratori,

"A

Stud) on Su-ic, or Sogdiana,"

Riiinnh Department of the Toyo Bunko 2 (Tok\ii 1928).

16. Mjndri'shtain,

SA

from the

"'Varvarskic podrazhaniia' kak istorichcskii istochnik," 5Gfi XL (1975),

however, ii of a

difiiaent opinioa, sec

"O slozfaeaii tadThilrikni naiodnotti,"

XX (1954). 83-

Copyrighted material

^ Scgihm

Tlie Piabab^

16

last centuries

before die Chriitian en down to the beginning of the middle ages an

independent coin die exbted in several principalities: at Samarkand, at Bukhara,

and

in southwestern Sogdiana, as well as in a certain area in southern Sogdiana.'^

Therefore, the Sogdian principalities were mainly formed in antiquit)', and the

changes

in tlicir futures

power. Not

all

the

were

many

government by

related only to their

given ruling

other prmcipaUties mentioned for the seventh to eighth

own

centuries,

however, issued coins. While steadily maintainii^

stnictnte,

Sogdiana was es^sed to die influence of die great powers of its

In the diird century, under Shapur

Shash Moimtains.
arc

no

i.e..

to the

I,

its

intecnal

the Sasanians seized Sogdiana up to the

Dzhizak C:Miyon. northeast of Samarkand, but there

data on the establishment of prolonged Iranian rule in Sogdiana.'" in the

second half of the fourth century, nomads captured Sogdiana, killed the Sogdian
ruler,

and founded

^lionites

who

Sasanian Iran
dialites,**

They began

their

own dynasty there. This group may

tribe

whose

their control

of extensive regions

modem

when

About A.D. 509 the Heph*

took possession of Sogdiana.

S<q;diana.

origin remains debatable,

Turkestan from the territory of

The

be identified with die

appeared at that time on die borders of ban, at a time

no longer exercised power in

in

Transoxiana, India and Eastern

R.idakhs.han

in

nortliem Afghanistan.*"

Hephthalites arrived in Sogdiana from the south, after the victory over

Sttanian

hm which was Ibreed to pay them tribute after the deadi of Peroz wino

was killed fightii^ diem (484). The He{didialite garrisons occupied the fbrti of die
Sogdian odes, as indicated by the conversation of the Sogdian ambassadors with
the Byzantine

But
tion,

emperor which

the authors,

who knew

gave information on

indicates that the Hephthalites lived in the cities.

the Hephthalites in the lands

tlicir

of dieir principal habita-

nomadic way of life.

In the $6oi, the Hcphthalite possessions in Middle Asia were divided between the

Sasanian Khusro I and the Ttnrks,

who not

long before had feunded an immense

steppe power, the fint Tudcish khaganate. The struggle between the Turks and die

17.

E.V.

Zciiinl', "Tali-lVir?!nskii kl.ul iiionctiizobrazhcnicm luchnilw,"

73-^5; idem. "Ranncsogdiiskic inoncty

18.

izobia^KHieni CcrakU

V. G. Luknnin, "Zav<ievaiim Sasanidov na

khronologii,"
19. B.I.

Vostoka

VDI

Marshak,

Vonoke

Zcvsa,"

5GfiXXXI'V(i972),

SCE XXXVII (1973),

proUetny kmhan$fcoi abtoKumoi

{196*)).

"K

vopracu o vMtoefai^^ ptattvnikikh Iran*

v.,**

Sumif

nanif

X (Moskva 1971), 6y

20. IL

Emki, "On die Natioaality of die BphduliM,'' MIb^^

r/ Bkmb It (Tokjro 1959).

Copy

lyi

uc J

utCi

lal

The PainUHgs of S^ium

17

Hepiuliaiucs corresponds most probably with the tunc of the social disturbance in

Bokhan which

the Bukhaian aristocracy to areas

resuhed in die emigcatioii

beyond the Syr Dar'ya. With

Ttirldsh support, the latter

chained possessioo of

Bukhara, and close relationships were established between the Turks and die
Sogdians.

The Turkish khagans

officials

and diplomats

nonunal d^ettdeoce
odier local

{arinoes,

T'ang dynasty. In

iii

exerted varj'ing degrees of pressure on Sogdian

Sogdian trade and widely employed Sogdian

rulcn but steadily protected

their service.' ' In the

second half of the seventh century a

WM established between die Samarkand king Vargoman and

among whom were sovereigns of Turkish

descent,

from die

however, Sogdiana succeeded in gaining

this period,

its

inde-

pendence. Archaeological materials show that throughout the seventh century a

genuine flowering of Sogdian

cities

the capital city of Samarkand.

were

took place, evidenced

The mass of copper

issued in this century to serve the needs

of local

powth

in the rapid

coins of
trade.--

of

low denominations

To

this

period also

date the formation of a unified style of ceramics throughout Sogdiana'i and

pr^iess in Sogdian silk weaving

and other handicrafis.

b the seventh to eighth

cenmrics, Middle Asian merchants dominated the northern branch of the flourish-

Route

ing Great Silk

well

as

chat passed along the northern Caucasus. =

<

(sec

map

i) as

the "fur route" that linked the hunters of the northern L'ra! region with the

eastern frontier

and Byzantituii.-" This

is

affirmed on the one hand by the dis-

covery of Sogdian silks in die northern Caucasus, and on the other by die uneardiing of Byzantine and Sasanian silver dishes widi Sogdian and Khwaiezmtan inscriptions in the Urals.
In the seventh to eighth centuries there

the Sogdians.
in

Scnmech'e

It is

was an ethnic and cultural expansion of

to this time that the real flowering

dates.' ^

The

of numerous Sogdian colonies

fact that the coins issued

by the Turkish khagans, the

m^Mde pmktM

SmheiA;^

G. KBaduoniyi, DrnmeAuMde
Ut &fMtiiA p torn
(Moskva is>&|), 7B-I35.
22. O.I. Smimova, Katdog menet t gonJ^Mu Pendzhikent (Motim 1963).
21. s.

2].

fi. I.

Marshak,

"Vliiaiiic t>>rcvtiki

24. A. A. Icniulimskau,

Sndniaia Aziiii
as.

na soeiiii^biiu kcri-iiiku

VD-Vin vckov,"

TGE V(ii^t).

slozhcniiu shkoly khuciozhi-stvcnnogo ihelkotkachcstva v Sogdc,"

adem, " Vclikii shelkovyi put' i Sevemyi Kavkaz," iat the cxhibitioa S^awiduiba idaaOva

Jbwuego fiwM, JCdwibuM

26.

"K

Iran (Leningrad 1972).

Anltrf Axii (Leningrad 1972).

V.L lUipopova, "Aikhcologyhwloe dannye o

logdiiikoi totgDvle,**

KSIA

138 {i9f4i*

81-82.

"Gotidumye izcleliia sog^iitKV Clmidroi

Mie^tgo-itntgr4^idieAM ik^itbm IV (Moikva 1960), 141-163.
27. V.I. Raspopova,

dobiy,** Thiiy ISiffxdm

The PdtttiHgs ef SegdiMU

18

Khw.irrzm kings

ati<)

the njlcrs of

some

of Tukli.instSn and Fcrgliana bear

p.irrs

Sogdiaii jnscnptions indicates the important role played by Sogdians in these

The siniarion dungct) with the coming of the Arabs. In the second half of the
waged individual campaigns and made forays into

seventh century the Aiabs

Sogdiana from the conqtiered Iranian

conquest of Transoxiana
general of Khurasan,

in the first

Qutayba

b.

territory.

The Arabs undertook

planned

The governor-

decades of the eiglnli century.

Muslim, from 706 through 712 conquered Pai-

kent, Bukhara and Samarkand.

The local rulers became vassals of the Arabs. Large

Arab

in

garrisons

were quartered

Bokhara and Sanudcand, and

diis

involved the

emigration of a considerable number of inhaUtants from the cities; light has been

by local sources. The archives

shed on further events, not only by the Arabs, but also

of Sogdian documents found on Mount

Mugh

shan River contain information on events

Devaslitich, ruler of Panjikent,

who had

in the

upper reaches of the Zcrav-

Sogdiana up to 722.'"

in

In

722

taken part in one of the uprisings against

Arab rule, surrendered in a castle situated on Mount Mugh, and was taken captive

by die Arabs in 722. In the 720s and 730s odier uprisings threatened Arab power in
Sogdiana which had been conquered by the Arabs,
actions,

many

cities

and villages

fell

emigration of the Sogdians. Finally,

made peace with

in 739, the

there

was mass
b. Saiyar,

of ncglect and

them

the Sogdians and pardoned

b the course of the military

governor-general, Nasr

into a state

for their tax indebtedness

for their apostasy of the Llaauc religion introduced by the Arabs.

carried out a policy

of unity with the

and

b. Saiyar

local aristocracy.*'

Soon after, however, die situation dianged

ful uprising headed b)

Nasr

the supporter

radically.

As a result of the power-

of the 'Abbisids,

Saiyar was killed, the caliphal dynasty of the

Abu Muslim, Nasr

Umayyads was overthrown, and

authority of the ealiphate passed to the dynasty of the 'Abbasids.

b.

the

Abu Muslim was

supported not only by die Arabs, but also by representatives of the local nations who

began mass ocmvcrnon to Idam at this precise time. With die 'AblMsids, the Middle
Asian, including the Sogdian, aristocracy was enlisted in state secvk%. In the second

half of die eighth to die

CO

first

28.

M.N.

(Moskva
29.

Boeiiliubov, O.I.

many

Sogdians migrated

must be noted

that service to die

half of the ninth century,

Merv, Nishapur, Baghdad and Samarra.

Smimova, V. A.

It

Livshits,

SogSitAk dohmentY

s gory

Mug

I-III

l<X)2-iyf>.)).

O.G.

fiol'shakov.

"Gorod v kontsc

Vlll-nachalc

XUI

v.," in

A.M.

Belenitilcii et al^

SttiatvthwyigtniSnintiAziiiJfAo^yt 1973), 151-134.

Copyrighted matBrial

The
caliph and the otiiLial adoption ot

former cultural

tlieir

traditions.

militaiy lea<len

ciTi incut

of die

hlam

Paintings of Sogdima

For example,

was appaxendy completed only

century one of the

in the niniii

caliphate, the afshm

of UMcushana,

permit the destrucritm of the local temples by Muslims.

Ustrushaiia

19

did not yet indicate a complete break with

after die

The

lefined to

Islamization

execudon of

this

of

^tin

Special Features of the Social Order

Ver)'

little is

known

society

of the seventh and beginning of the e%hth centuries. Reports of Arab and

Chinese authors are very detailed about

tion for the study of the history

hand, they tound

hand,

much

many

that

this period. Scholars

of Middle Asia

two

Islamic period used comparisons with

otiier

Due to the cxcavaMount Mugh we have a better idea c^die

ot the social order of ancient Middle Asia.

tioiu at Fn^ikcnt and die acdiivesfitxn

was similar

who laid the founda-

in order to charaaerizc the pre-

eras in

European

histor)-.

On

the one

Western European feudalism, and on the

to

features resembling the city-states

of ancient Greece. Often the

same historian, on difieient pages c^his work, introduced theseand otheroompariaons.>' Later investigatots

tended to cxptest in absolute terms a specific cmtcept

about Middle Asian society of the pre-Islamic period. For example, S.P. Tolstov

thought that slavc-h<>]ding

city-states existed in

Mandcl'shtam and O.I. Smirnova found

diana."

It is

diese models.

most probable

that

The degree of correspondence bcrwccn

villages often coincided

of distinction in
were

Asia,'* whereas

A.M.
Sog-

111

the societies

fiut tluit die titles

compared need

of die heads of oertaui

with those of the rulers ofwhole districts indicates the lack

the hierarchy

of the Sogdian

surprisingly unstable.

seventh and eighth

two

Middle

developed feudal hierarchy

Sogdian society corresponded to neither one of

not be unnecessarily exaggerated. The

ries

generations. There

is

aristocracy. Furthermore, the dynas-

At Samarkand, throughout the period of the

centuries, there

was no hereditary

succession for

simply no information on the earlier

rulers are known for Panjikcnt but not

more than

rulers.

Three

one of them was the son of the other. There

30. N. Ncgmatov, Uftruduiuvdrcvnosti i rawirm <rr(1ncvehn'\'{Dwhmh(: 1957), 137-1 51.

31. W. Barthold, Twkestm doum to the Mongol Invasion, 2d cd., (London 1958) idem, 5t)i/ii)it'Miij
(Moskva 1963), 238-241 idem, " Ncskol'ki) slov ob ariiskoi kul'curc v Srcdnci Azii," Sochineniia
CcntnA
(London igaj). j.
II:a (Moikv 19A4), i*t~3*Si H. A.R. Gibb, TUe Arab Con^ettt
32. S.P. Tohtoiv, Ormi^ Kkonxm (Moskva 194S), 2(S9-276.
\\. A.M. Miiuicl^htam, "Srcdniau KiKw v VI-VI! vv. n. c.," in htarm Wit/til'dv\j.i mtoiaVi,
;

Am

Book 1 (Moskva

1964), j3-i9: O.I. Smirnova, Ot\ia\ii iz istoni S<^da{M,oskvi 1970), 38-86.

The PdnHi^s of Scgdimu

20
is

evidence that

two of the rders (^Samaricand wete chosen, and in one case it is

was put in office by the people. Not only individual

stated directly that the niler

masters but also urban communities p!a\ cd

Samarkand had no

ruler at the time ot

liirgc role in tlic Iiistory

Arab

of Sogdiana.
near

siege. Paikent,

Buk-

which was of great commcrciai, pohtical and

hara, the "City ot Merchants,"

niihtary iniporuncc,

tlie lirst

was never ruled by a sovereign.

Finally,

from the documents

of Mount Mugh, wc know dnt the people c^Panjikent {rf^, and not Devashtidi,
die ruler of Panjikent, received duty for die use of the bridge.'^ Panjikent had

own income
It

ami

its

own

should be noted that

mians,

was

tlie

word

forciticd,

Persian

among

translated

by usiuvif Sud iAr.>*

iTzfif,

however,

Arabic by

into

tire

Khwarcz-

p'ru'zd rff "the city

hastttiati-l-inadiiialtt,

and into

When die Sogdians listed the dasses included in

diey mentioned die aristocracy

term

the northern iK i;>Iiborsof Sogdiana. the

iff meant "cit\," .md thji the words

were

its

oBctals.

die metdiants and die workers.''

(azati),

in legal et)ntexts

simply meant

free, in contrast to a slave

ij'jS,

The
or a

Wc know that a number of snuU communities were depen-

dependent person.

dent upon larger ones, but there is no information on true vassalage nor on iie> for
service.

llie larg^ aristocracy

small city widi an area

was mainly concentrated

of 13.5

hectares

(fig. i),

in the dtk$.

At

Panjikent, a

the excavated third of the

dty

(about 130 houses) revealed that every dnxd house was once adorned with siqperUy

wood

executed painting and

no

three-storied and had

many rooms, and

miniature palaces

(tig. 2).

similar in structure
difiering

less skilUid

The

&om diem only in

It is possible that there

contained principal

palace of Devashtich, excavated

and arrangement

to the residences

the greater

halls,

of the wealthy

citadel,

is

city dwellers,

number of rooms.

wete a number of reasons for such an abundance of

forced, in 712. to

occupied by the Arabs.

to

resembling

on the

aristocracy at Panjikent. Here, apparently, settled the rich citizens

who were

w ere two-

carving. These houses

Many

of Samarkand
which was

abandon the

central part

houses ot

type, however, had been constructed

this

of

their city

at Panjikent before this period. Despite the conditions created

by such circum-

Documents and Letters. Reading, Translation and Commentaries by V. A. Livshin, in

Seg^skie Jekumenty VL (Moskva 1962), 69.
^s. Ecmvtniic Documents. Reading. Tr.inslution and Commentaries by M.N. Bogobubov and
O.I. Sniicnova, in Sogiudik dckumeiuy 111 (Moskva 1963), 72.
34. Legal

jtf.

L^(d Documents and Lenen in Livdiiti, Sog^iAk dofamunfy,

94-96.

37. Ibid., 17-38.

Copy

lyl

uC J

atCI

lal

The

Figure

Plan of ancient town of Panjikenf showing

i.

Paintings of Sogdiana

21

sectors

excavated before 1973.

stances,

one must acknowledge the predominance

and commercial

aristocracy

in the city

Tj'jS

of the landed

who may be compared with the patricians of medieval

European towns.

large

number of shops and

craftsmen's workshops

were

also discovered at

Panjikcnt along major streets and in special bazaars which have yielded large
quantities

of coins. The handicraft

were thus intended

stalls

as

stores

and shops were of small dimensions and

for single occupancy. These facilities

and

without provision for passage between shops and residences.

that

entire

commercial

well as the wealthy homes, however, were planned and constructed

tlic stalls

and bazaars belonged

to the

It

may

be assumed

owners of the homes and were

leased to

The Paintings of Sogdiana

22

Figure

Living quarters of Paiijiketit datable

2.

century. (/) Etitraiicv civan, {2) ramp,

painting, {4) main

liall,

(^)

ffli

(jf)

to the eighth

corriJm with

room of the second

story,

(6) houskeeping facilities of the second story, (7) shops and

workshops

home of an

{8) forge, (9)

room on

ordinary citizen, {12)

the first floor in the

street.

Reconstruction by

L.L. Gurevich.

craftsmen and small-scale tradesmen J' This assumption

is

borne out by the occur-

rence of lease terms in Sogdian written sources.''*

In contrast to the aristocrats

men

and merchants, the craftsmen and small-scale trades-

lived modestly, altliougli their

38. V.I.

(Moskva

Raspopova, "Odin

iz

homes

also

had two

stories

and

bazarov Pcndzhikcnta VII- VIII w.," Sttany

1971). 72-74-

39. Legal

Documents and

Letters in Livshits, Sogdiisltie dokumenty, 56-63.

several

rooms.

narody Vostoka

The Pmntiti^

Sometimes the architecture of their

principal halls

of the wealthy

on

living quarters imitated,

homes,'**' exempliiied

The

niche firom a modest tendoice.

smaller

by

tlic

honus

use

^ StgHoM

23

a small scale, the

of wall painting

as a ttile

in

had no shops or

workshops. The dty crafbmen sold the products o their work

freely.

Yet die

cf&cave demand br their items was to a considerable extent ensured by the urban
aristocracy with
Cliakirs,

its

numerous

and

retainers,

military detachments

its

of so-calkd

and by "foreign" caravan traders controlled by merchants. Doannents

from Mount

Mugh

and the

rcsints ot

granary excavations show that

of raw materials and commercial gram were

tlie

supplies

at the disposal ot the aristocracy.

Hw basic ttiatificatioii of the wban popidadoii, mth xespect to the way of

life,

did not coincide with the stratification of the aristocracy (feudal lords) and the

A precise boundary

tradesmen and craftsmen.

was

set

down between

the aristo-

rr:.ftsmcn and small*cale

on the one hand, and
tradesmen, included among the "workers" (fVy^'r), on tlie other hand.
The rural areas have not been studied as well as the cities. It is known that the

cracy and the merchants,

rural population

owners of the

was obligated

settlements. It

is

to

there. Several castles of landowners

mountain

village, located

seventh-first quarter

domain

on

of the

in kind

and in service to die

that communities called ii*P

ako

existed

of the fifth to e^hth centuries were studied. A

a liillside at the foot

eightli

of Dev.islitich {ncir

make payment

known

of a

castle

from the end of the

century (Gardan-i-Hissar) in the territory of the

Mount Mugh),*' was completely

excavated.

The

houses of this village were not like the city houses, but resembled the rural dwellings of the mountain Tajiks of the end of the nineteenth century.
ruler,

wealthy dtiaens. The ntuation on the

There

The palace of the

with respect to architecture and decoratioa, resembled the residences of die

is

no doubt diat this entire

plains,

however,

still

remaim undear.

picture does not correspond to the slave-holding

hypothesis but of course in the social relationships of the Sogdian

every one of which was

a focal point ot the

there are ui reality features in

may

common

wealth and

cities,

almost

social lite of "he large state,

with the cicy-statesof antiquity. Whileone

speak of the predominance of feudalistic features in the social order of Sog-

diana of the early middle ages, and this viewpoint

investigators,

found

in the

40. V.I.

it

would be

is

fevorcd by contemporary

inaccurate to designate as feudal Sogdian

home of eadi

lU^opovi. "Kvactal

wealthy aoxen. In spite of the

zfailshch riadovykh

fiict

goroaJun Penddiikcnti

works of art

that there

were

VD-Vm w.," SA

1(1969). 177.
41. lU.

lAkubov, "Gaidaia^Sluacs" AMedagkhedtk

oikryiUa 1974 gfit, 546.

Copyrighted material

24

Ttie Paintings of Sogdiana

Figure J.

Main

hall

of a Panjikent

luviic.

mural depicting a goddess aud donors.

At

bottom, a

Recoiistriictioit

by

L.L. Gurevich.

paintings in

tlic

palaces

of tlic

rulers (but not substantially superior to those in the

private homes), this art belongs primarily to the upper strata of the city.

The polyscmous word,

ij'/3.

meant not only "pcnons," "the people," but

also

the municipal or village community. This word, in addition, also designated family

united by a
42.

common

cult

and

community of

A.G. Pcrikhanian, " Agiiatichcskie gruppy v drevnctn

legal
Iraiic,"

and property

VDI

3 (1968),

interests. *

34-50.

The Pn^nlhtgs of Seg^mu

Fi'^ure 4. Excai'atiofif

XXIII

(Sfui

living

of

XXIV. Rooms

quarters

21,4,

of Panjikent

aud 24

(ire

narrow

streets,

covered with arches with second stories altove the

iimow

streets.

Dependent persons and slaves,

this

?}'/?.

The individual

these subdivisions
since

on

tlie

level

was embodied
17

'j8

of the

as

25

A.G. Perikhanian showed, wexe also tnduded

in

family also constituted a strong nucleus of society. Each

social

of the

organism was to

fainilv, if

in similar rites,

8 of

a certain extent similar to the rest,

tlie at;iKiles

and

tlie

eitv

7]";3,

soti.il

life

holidays and ceremonial meetings. While the city

gacheied at the temples for all ofthese, the membets of the i^'jS of die ruler, i.e.,

Copyrighted matBrial

Uk PudiOiiigt f Sogitmu

26

his relatives

of the

and

die same subject matter

is

met

main

halls

of the palaces, and the members

in the principal halls

of their homes. For this reason,

servants, gathered in the

aristocratic tamiiics

The

present in the murals of all three types of buildings.

dmne of the oanveyanoe of iie in a spedal vessel and its pcesentarion to die image
of the deity,

and sacrifice at the portable altar

3) is pecsistendy repeated.

Yet

the number, sex and clothing of the attendants arc subject to variation.
Tlie special characteristics of the plan of the old city of Panjikcnt, strange at
arc explained

first sight,

by the accelerated development of its

of construction, most striking at Patijikent,

absence of courtyards, dense rows of

is

two or

over whidi were built one or two toon

social life.

Density

demonstrated by the almost complete

three-story houses, covered lanes,

stories*

narrow

stceets

and tiny shops

and workshops (fig. 4). Hie compact dimennons of die domestic and commercial
quarters stand in sharp contrast to the spaciouslayoutof courtyards of temples and

the principal halls of aristocractic dwellings.

Sogdian society was distinguished on the whole by

and culture and

ticm. Sogdian

weak

political

**barharian fiinges"

stale

highly developed

economy

system witli almost complete absence of centraliza-

otgumndoa

fi>llowed the pattetn <^ sodenes along the

of the andent world.*'

It

did not develop along the lines <^

die ancient oriental despotic states. Aldiot^ sndi a peripheral state was susceptible
to impulses generated
baric,"

by iie%hboring empires and

administrative-state instirurions

its

gradually ceased to be "bar-

were weak. The

socio-polirical p.tems

of the primitive communities were not abandoned under

powerful

state,

but were gradually adapted to the needs ot

the pressure of the

a stratified society,

and

thus pieiet v eJ their peculiar identity.

The Nature of the

Cultural Relations of Sogdiana

The

social

order of Sci^Jiana detern-.ined the direction of

its

cultural histor\-.

The

Sogdians were acquainted with the cultural patterns of the neighboring countries,

but gave their own interpretation to adopted concepts and ei^tessioos. This was
manifested in the rdigions history of Sogdiana. The initial paganism, with wotriup

o the general

Iranian and local deities,

was strongly influenced by Zoroastcian>

itnu^ Arab-Persian authors, including such an expert on

43. . Zeinial', "' Varvarskie podrazhaniia'

44. W.fi. Henning,

local beliefi

and customs

kak istoricludtn istochnik," Op. dt., 60-61.

"A Sogdian God." BSOAS XXVlDta (1965). 35a

Copyrighted malBriai

The I^bitings <^ SogtHma 27

as al-Biruni,

"Majus,"

Khwarczmian by

descent, call the Sogdian

and Khwarczmian

priests

Sogdiana, however, along with the

like the priests ot Sasanian Iran. In

temples which archaeologists have not so far succeeded in finding, the sources

fire

mentkm temples fiir idols, apparently similar to diose discomed at Panjikent. The
originality

of tiie acchitectuce of diese tempks and Sogdian idigious ioonagra^y

of orthodox Sasanian Zoioastrianism from SogJiana. The

indicate the absence

official

imperial art of the Snsaiiians

works of art

as well asfrcmi

was known

to the Sogdians through original

Hcphthalite imitations. Such works of art were brought

by emigrants

to Sogdiana as Hcphcluluc booty^^ and

goods and items transported via the trade route.

were assimilated

Sasanian masters
art

in Sogdiana

ilccuig the

Many

on a

monster.

It

is

of the

to create die

model

was transfermed into an informal

ditone, and a king's hunt

hunting scene or into

devices

but the subject matter of Sasanian

was reinterpreted. For exao^le, a king's portrait was used

for a deity

Arabs or tluough

artistic

a mytlioldgical scene depicting the struggle

not by chance chat the Sogdian toreutic

Sasanian patterns did not once portray rulers

on

artists

of a god with a

who

their wares.^''

assimilated

"Royal

life" in

Sogdiaitt wasnot an eicpiesnon of official grandeur but a reflection <ithe boarious

of affluent men.

life

Sogdiana's rdatians widi Iran were implemented mainly tfaroi^ unoflBdal

channels.

The communities <^ the Mnnichaeans and

who had come

proselytes,

the

undoubtedly did nor break

tion

with their cobelievers.

their ties

Manichaeaus and the Christians there were

were books, apparently including

the Nestorian Christians,

from Sasanian Iran and found there many

to Sogdiana as emigrants

artists

illustrated ones. Intensive

of books was probably not limited to

particular, contributed to the arousal

religious

of interest

in

Among

and crattsmcn, and with them

work on

the transla-

works. The Christians, in

Middle Asia

in the

Roman-

Byzantine culmrc, the manifestations of which are particularly nodoeaUe in the

shapes and decoration of the Sogdian silver vessels.

Among

the most interesting narrative paintings of Middle Asia of the eighth

century arc the "Exploits of Rustam,"*" from Panjikent, and "The History of
43.

B.L Marshak.

lA. K. Kiiks. "CSiildcskic dushi."

senhn>{MoAv!i
"Voprosy idciilogii

46. B.I. Marshak, Sogdiidtoe

47.

A.M.

Ik-lcnitikii,

TC X (1969), 77.

IQ71).
kvil'rov Sopd.i (po in.ircri.il.ini

(Moikva 1934), 36-53; A.M.

"Raikopki drcvncgo Pcndzhikcnta," ArMediitpcAdfcfe i(fa^^
khraiiiov)," ZUivopis' Jrcrncgo PiandshikcnM

48. A. Bclcnitsky, Central /IWd (Cc-nrv a i</iS), iSS, piv 136-1)8;

UlPnoe tskusstvo Pcndzhikenta

{Moskvi

pcndzliikciuskikh
Bclcnitskii ct aL,

1974), $15.

A.M. Bdcnitlkii, MnIIMMIH

1973). 47, pis. 7, 9-14.

Copyrighted malBrial

The Pmntit^s of SogMaua

28

Romulus ami Rcimis,

from

"Romulus and Remus" theme

individuals dressed in strange
rarely

found in Sogdian

Wc

alien land.

depicted

in

art,

is

translation

of a Sasanian \vork.^ The

depicted in the murals

from Shahrisun

which indicated

Shalinstan mural and on

tlie

two

infant boys

I'anjikent gold hractcatc (with

Persian origin.

Among

the

an

works of the Middle Asian

a dbh with Christian scenes from the Holy Writ (the

is

figures,

that the artists intended to portray an

was copied from a western model rather than

imitation of the Latin inscription),''

from carved gems of

includes

dothing (exotic for Middle Asia) and naked

note that the subject of the she-wolf and

tlie

toreutic artists

Sogdian fragment of

Shahristaii. Tlic preserved

the Rustaiu legend, incidentally,

Book of

Joshua b. Nun).!' The Panjikent murals also depkt scenes from an Indian epic,

showing

Brahman playing dice with the ruler, a chariot approaching the gates of

and

the palace,

procession of troops with horses and an elephant." This suhjcct

resenihles certain episodes

parvan

').

The

ties

of the MahiiMiar.ita

(Iniin

Book IV

with India arc shown particularly clearly

ot the "Virata-

in the cultural patterns

of St^diana. Buddhism, which obtained wide recognition,*' penetrated Sogdiana

in the first centuries aji. Buddhism took such firm root in Sogdiana that a number
4^ Buddhist terms entered the Sogdian language and \mtc later used by the

Manichaeans
Sogdiana

in

in their

is

that Buddhist

own

religious tcxts.^'

Whence and when liuddhism

not so important for our subject.

communities maintauicd

Its

relations

importance

w ith

their

lies

only

homeland,

arrived

in the fact

India,

and

served as the channel through which Indian literature and art penetrated Sogdiana.

Fore^ religions found die greatest response in the Sogdian colonies. But in die
andent dty communities <^ central Sogdiana the decline of Buddhism b^an not
4y.

Ncgmatov, "imblLiiu Ruiu,

Vottoka,"

ibid, i (75) (1974);

idem,

'

liV TaiizliSSR

(71) (1973);

idem,

"K voprOBU 0 toU

"O ihivopiii dvortsa afiiiiiiQv," SA j (1973), aocKacn, figt.

ij, 16.
50. S.G. Klja$(nm>j,

V. A.

Livfic,

Aauiciiiiaf Sdaiiiarwu Huiit^nriuh

ji.

A.M.

Ik-lcnitskii,

(1951-1953)."
52.

SA

MIA

"The Sogdian

XXVI ;i

"Obihchic

66(l9j8), 135,

fig.

V. P. Darkevicb, B.I. Manbak. "

biscripdon of Bugut Revised,"

AOa Orienu^

(197;), ^4.

rczul'taty

raskopok gorixlishcha drcviicgo I'cndzhikciiu

33:3.

O tak naryvacraom siiiiikom Uiudc iz Pcmnkoi oblasd,"

2 (1974)-

53.

A.M.

ndinitskii ct

a).,

SkuVpttita, pis.

Xl-XVDL

A. Litvinsky, Outlm History of BiuUkism in Cetuni Ada^ Intematkml conference on the

ardueology and cuhufc of Cential Asia in the Kiofaan period. Motoow 1968; Litvinskii.

j4. B.

hittory,

Zcinial', Aihlwu-u-pv, 110-130, 238-2+2.

jj. J. P. Assiiiuiscn, "X^astvaiult," Studies in

MmmluKiiin, Acta Teolagiai Danita VII (Copen-

hagen 196s). 136-1+7.

Copyrighted material

Hu Paintings of SogJimm
later

than the seventh century

adopted

;i

hostile attitude

when

toward Buddhist monks. Not

a sitigle

text has reached us

pertaining to the local Sogdi.ui religion wluch cont^ucrcd Buddhism, but

iconography
depicdoti

preserved

Indra,

found in Sogdian paintings which have not so

of the Buddha. For

its

interpreted.

Indian

is

cultural

and

deities,

the Sogdians.

Mahadcva

(Siva),

with members of their

('^ra>'),

Indra with

a
Vaisravana,

all its

new

Foreign features were invariably re-

and brought along with

adopted the cult of the

Narayana and Vaisravana,

own

Adbag
list

who

its

he yielded a single

rocepttveness to external stimuli, Sogdiana

social patterns.

When Buddhism came

29

the local inhabitants of Sogdiana evidently

identilied the

pantheon. They identified

("SSjSy) and

it

the worship

five gods,
lirst

Brahma with Zrvan

Mahadeva widi Veshparkar

appeared: Zr>nn,

Adb^.

whose iconographies are described

of

Brahma,

three gods

{wyHprkr).

Veshparkar, Nlraya^a and

in a Sogdian text.

The Indian icon-

ogiaphy of Brahma, bidra and ^iva-Mahadeva are repeated: BtahmarZrvan

/7(jrc 5.

The

Jivin I'anjikcnt

Soi;;iiu}ii

XXII

i^oJ

Vx/j/ijri'i/r.

1. ci^luli

century.

Skelcit oj

mural

30

Thf Mnta^s rf Stgma

has a great beard, Indra-Adbag has a third eye, Mahadcva-Vesliparkar

three

The InAiamtei iconography, adopted

fitoes, etc.

has

of Buddhist

in the art

Sogdians outlived the Buddhist leligion that had served as the vehide for
dissemination.

Buddhist

Thus

reaction in

Sogdi.iiia.

rlic

of Panjikcnt and Shahristan continued to model the

artists

Vcshparkar

after the anti-Buddhist

image of the thrce-hcadcd Siva

after the

(fig. 5).

V. A.

the inscription at the fool ot a I'anjikeut figure of the three-headed

god

local

read

l.ivshits

god

its

non-

as u/S^r

(Jar),

and idetitified the Panjikent ddty widi Ved^kar. H. Hnmbadi did not know of
this

reading

when he compared

U^'I (0S0), noting that

of the three-headed

While leaving

of the ct>'mology suggested by

between

tlie

the Sc^dian Vcshparkar with the Bactrian

0S0 was also portrayed on Knshan coins in the fi>rm

Siva.'*

II.

to linguists to

it

hiinb.ich,

we

should

judge the correctness

tjote the

correspondence

iconography and names of the Sogdian and Bactrian gods.

Indian features in the iconography of other Sogdian gods

as the heritage of the

may

also

be regarded

Buddhist period. For example, the Sogdian four-armed

goddess, riding a lion, iconographicaliy goes back to Parvati, Siva's witc.

It

should

be noted that the goddess Nana, worshipped in Middle Asia, and sometimes
portrayed on Kushan coins as ridii^ a lion, was regarded in the Kndian period as
the wife of Ves-iva."

The goddess

depicted near Vcshparkar at Panjikent,

hon

vehicle.

also

Nana

The

on

throne adorned with hens,

he identified with the goddess on the

ottcn-exprcssed theory that the Sogdian goddess

(Nanaia)

>"

may

It is characteristic diat

depicts a throne with

die Sogdians cooognized only

legs in the

able sacrificial fire altats.>9

on

the lion

is

apparently be accepted.

diey probably ascribed distinctive

36.

seated

may

qualities.

form <^ winged

Gods were

H. Hnmbadi, "Vayo, jiva und dcr

dq>iceed

Spiritus

duee male deities to whom

A mural rom
ranis

a house at Panjikent

on which

stand three port-

on the supports of the

sacrificial

Ymm im (Mt^ranueben Syulcretismttt," Ada

ticlow n. 135.
Inmkt, MotmrnentuM H.5. Nyhcrt; I (Leiden 1975),
57. K. V. Trever, "Zolotaia statuctka iz seleniia K]iait(TadzhLkiscan). (K voprosii o Kushanskom

pantconc),"

dmmym

TG II

(i9]8), 14J, fig. 11;

E.V. Zciinal', Kuslumskoc nantvo

;k>

immizmaikUcskim

(Leningnd 1965) (niko|w'), ch. VI, section 2; P. Gardner, Coins of the Greek ami Scythie
mi India ht the BriHsh Muteum (London 1886), pi. XXIII:I; J.M. Roscnfidd, The

Kings cfBactm

DyiiiKtir Arts of the

58.

Srcdnci Azii
59.

Kushans (Bcrkek'\

N.V. D'wkoii.H

(1967); G. Az.irpa;,

"'

M,
C

,'Los

0.1. Siiiirmna.

hi Tyrckhruk.ii.i

Angeles

"K

19II7), 9A-

voprosu o

kiil'tc

N-iny {An.ikhity) v Sogdc,"

SA

Kiginia: kushanskii pcrczhitok v srcdnevekovont jskuutve

Tsenual'tma Aziia v kuslumdeuiu

epMu II (Moskva

1975)-

A.M Belenitilcii, "Ob arkbcolo^cbcskUch rabotakh Pwidrfiilffiitskogo otriada v

1958 g.,"

TmiyhiitiimiiuHikH.A,Dim^MtmletuumA rbMdHrfSSftXXVn(Dtuhaobel96l), 96-98.

Copyright(xl inalenal

The PmnHt^s

Fi(>ure 6. Saaificial altars on a throne.

Jrom

the western wall

altais,

(j/

Panjikent

Saigma

31

Sketch of mural

III :6.

Eighth century.

but diis dqncdon was fairly well preserved on only one of the altar suj^octs

wUch shows Veshparkar, the third member of the principal triad (fig. 6). It would
appear

tliat

the other

two

sacrificial altars

Adbag, the "great god,"

is

whose name was avoided by

of the gods. Sogdian

were

obviously the

the Sogdiaiis.

related to

name

for

He was

Zrvan and Adbag.

Ahura Mazda, the use of

portrayed as Indra, the ruler

painting apparently depicts the equivalent

of India's image.

One of die halls of the palace at Vaiakhsha is distinguished by its unusual architecture and paintings. This is the so-called Red Hall which contains a high platform
for sacrificial fire and a pedestal

preserved.*"

The murals

in the

from

Red

showed

paradise with trees giurded

walking

beasts. Since

tio.

wooden

structure

Hall constituted three

which has nor been

tiers.

by gnthns and die center

The upper
register

tier

showed

Sogdian and Khwarezmian gods were usually depicted on

Shidiltm, VtmlAsIm, S4-S9. i5a^i53>

Copyrighted material

32

The

Figure

XXIV

Paintings oJSogdiana

Enthroned deities. Sketch of mural from Panjikcnt

7.
:

Eighth century.

2.

the backs

of such

beasts arc a

beasts, the animals

mountain goat,

stirrup, a leopard, also

several scenes, in
conflict

with

guided by

with a

which

and a camel. The lowest

rider, dressed in Indian fashion,

and

griffins.

a driver. In this case, the figure

is

Shislikin

depicted here.*'

The

rider

is

of the crowned

seated

rider

is

a lion
tier

the

with

depicted

was shown

in

on an elephant
disproportion-

almost equal to the elephant, whereas the figure of the driver

kept in the correct relative

tions in

stirrup, a griffin

crowned

Among

symbolized the gods.

with a saddle blanket,

lions, tigers, leopards

ately large; he

V.A.

may have

a deer, a tiger

is

scale.

posed the question

as to

whether an epic hero or

god was

On the basis of our present knowledge of Sogdian epic representa-

which the cause and

6i. Ibid., 204-205,

cficct rclationsliip

between adjacent scenes

is

always

Vu h^atit^ of Sog&m

53

Figure S. EndmmedJeitks. ShetA ojmiralfrom P^jikent

XXIV

13.

B^kft cetmy

emphasized,

we can reject

explanation for the scene

murals of the

Red

the

is

first

of these two

possibihtics.

Furthermore, the cult

boine out by the entire context of the architecture and

Hall as well as

by the Indian

attire

of the principal petsoni^

which idendly him

either as

iconography, India,

who is the equivalent of Adbag, would be portrayed on the

elephant.
witli

The

decisive argiimcnt in favor

Adbag would be

the painting

is

an e{HC hero or a deity. In accordance with Indian

of the identification of

this

personage

the presence of the third eye, but unfortunately, the face in

poorly preserved.

On the preserved part of the forehead, however,

dieie are strokes in which it b difficult to see anything other than die ends of lines,

pertaining to a third eye.^

As

for Ztv3n,

gg.).'

whom the Sogdians espedally w<shipped, he apparendy had a

V; V. A. Shishkiii,"Vmldislu(PkcdTarilcrnoeMobdidici^
.S4XXm(i9i5),fig.U.

62. Ibui. pi.

The

34

Paintings of Sogdiaiia

non-Indian iconography, which was evidenced on the Biia-naiman ossuaries from

western Sogdiana.*' Tlie old man, seated on a throne with a hatchet in his hand,

resembled the Indian Brahma only because of his long beard. This iconography

comes from Near Eastern

When

those of their gods for

among

astrological depictions.

they became Bnddhists, the Sogdians included in the Buddhist pantheon

the plaques

whom

they found no Indian equivalents. For example,

made of gilded bronze found in

Buddhist temple of the eighth

century built by Sogdians in Semirech'e (Ak-Beshim),** there are not only depictions

of the Buddha but

also representations

of a

pair

of male and female

deities

depicted with an outstretched hand holding a small image of a camel. This same

Figure g. Deity with the figure of a camel.

from

Paiijihctit.

Terra-cotta

Sixth century. The Hermitage

Museum,

Leningrad.

63. A. I A. Borisov,

"K istolkovitiiiu izobrazhcnii na bita-naimaiuldkh ossuariiakh,"

Vostoka Gomdarstivnnogo firmitazlia II (Leningrad 1940), 43-4J.

64. Kyzlasov, " Arkhcologkbcskic isslcdovaniia na goroduhchc Ak-Bcshun," op.
figj.

29:4.

Trudy

cit.,

otdela

203, 209,

pair

of deities occurs

non-Buddhist context

in a

at Panjikcnt (eighth century)

depicted at

(figs. 7, 8).

Panjikcnt (sixth century)

*7

The Pinth^ ef ScgHami

35

at Afrasiab (sixth ccntun,-)'*'

and

The male
(fig.

deity (without his wife)

and

9),

at

is

Varakhsha (eighth

century)."
After the dedine of Buddhism,

Sogdiana,

tlie

which had never been OMnpletdy domimmt in

Sogdians continued to depict, according to the Indian iconographic

pattern, those of their

gods who were equated by Buddhists with Indian gods. The

Indian iconography, however, was

of the foregoing
influences

and

preserved dieir
tions

study,

it

now

would appear

to the achievements

transferred to the local cuhs.

On

the basis

that despite their rcccptivcness to external

of neighboring dvilizadons,

tlic

Sogdians

own cultural identity, just as they retamed dieir own sodal tradi-

under foreign

rule.

Archaeological Substantiations

of the Dates of tlic Panjikcnt Murals

The problem of dating
characteristics

the wall paintings

rather complex.

is

Many

of the

special

of die paintings, whidi at first appeared to he rdiable duonological

indices, later lost their

duonological value. For example,

it

was thought

^t the

white primeooat and the use of ultramarine were diaracteristics only of paintings

of the seventh an

cialuh centuries.*^

marine was widely used

as early as the

It later

turned out, however, that

Kushan

period,"" and that a white prime-

coat was used in the earlv paintings ot Panjikcnt. In addition

primccoat

is

ultras-

the absence of a

not as a rule a special feature of the technique, but the result of the

extreme erosion of the paindi^. Thus, when die primecoating dissolved, asatesult

of erosion, the layer of paint whidi was partially washed offvrith die primecoat

was still retained

directly

It is also impossible to

on die day coating.

date pauitings according to die presence (or absence) of the

65. Alljamn. Zfiictipu' Afiasiaba, pi. II (pumeshclieilie DQ.

66. A. Bclcnitskii, B. Marsh.ik. " Nisrciinyc rospisi, otkrytvc PiTAl?Ii;l:fnti- v 1071

SC

.X.XXVIl (1973),

fn-<'i2;

kenta," Arklicol&iiulh ikic

67.

A.M. Bckmiuki,

(I9$-I968)," Arts

\.M.

i<iLryli!,i

B.l.

Asiatitjucs

liclcniiskii,

11)72

iii>il,i

Marsluk,

"L'.irt

XXIII (1971).
XIV.

"R.i5kopki

(Mikva

n.i

godii,"

gunxiiihchc drcviu-go I'l-nd^hi-

1973), 4S7.

dc Piandjikcnt i

la

lumkic dcs denudes

fbuillcs

'4-

68. Shishkiii, I'araUislui, pi.

69. P.l. Kostrov, "Tckhjiika zhivopisi

konicrvatsii rospisci drcvncgo PcndzliikcntA," Zliivopis',

173-18S.
70.

1!

A. St.n

i^kii,

Isk'iissti'o

SnrAiri

AzU, Dmmii perioJ, Vlv,in. t-VUl

v. m. e.

(Moskva

1974). 103-107. tigi- So-Si.

Copyrighted malBrial

36

The

Mn^s of Scg^mi

use of plastic modeling.

should be noted that the tonal cHlci of plastic modeling

It

of the

often disappears in the course

destruction

preserves only the linear sketch with remnants

the preliminary

skctcli,

fiagmenrs of murals

applied before the color,

is

d^recs of destruction, and diHcrcnt conditions may cause

arm of a

figure

rule,

preserved

in

however, only

such cases. Thus,

from walls occasionally displayed

Iiad hillcii

th;it

<^ a mural, whidi frequently

of color. As a

whose other arm may

still

different

the loss of color on the

display traces of plastic modeling. Since

lix varied state ofpreservation was very often talnn as an indication ca diftrence
in technique or style,

it

not play the main role

must be agreed

and

stylistic features

should

dating paintings.

in

Although dating from the

tancc, archaeological

that technical

realia depicted in the

murals retains

methods, of which the most rigid

means

is

a certain

im|

'^r

the stratigraphicai

Only

method, remain the most

reliable

among the Sogdian cities,

has the sequence of layers been studied in detail. Since the

ot dating the murals.

walls of the city buildings are made of clay or unfited brick,

it

at Panjikcnt,

would be tnaocurate

to speak of layen in the ordinary sense of die word for Middle Asia These materiab
are easily

washed away by water and

practically eternal if protected

from the

readily yield to alterations, but they are

effects

of iiuMsture.

Many

walls datable to

the fifth through the eighth centuries, were, therefore, preserved at Panjikcnt.

Some of the early

walls even preserved traces of murals.

during repairs and odiers were preserved with

tBually constructed

new

Some

walls

additions.

were broken

New walls were

on die highest level and not on the lower levels ofearlier walls.

A layer between the floors accumulated in time from one construction to the ncxt.
The findings in

this layer,

the terminus post quctn

The

lemitius

atiti-

above the new

and the deposit of the new wall establish for a given wall

(i.e.,

simultaneously the tvrmimh- avtc qm-m for the

qwm may

be established for the

new

first

wall).

wall on the basis of lindmgs

floor.

Among die finduigs in the structures at Panjikcnt were thousands ofcoins, which
made it possible to distinguish, almost thn>i^outtheentirccity,thelayer deposited
in the first decades of the eighth century. Numerous traces of fires were observed
in it. It may he considered, with sufficient substantiatioii. that tliese fires wxre
related to the

well-known campaign

Devashtich, in 722.

The

layer

vaults as a rule lay higher. Still

coins of the

of the Arabs against the Panjikcnt sovereign,

of deposit from the erosion of the walls and the

h^her,

in a

number of houses, was

a layer with

Samarkand king, Turgar, who came to the throne in 738. At diat time

many homes were renovated, and some of die repaired walls and repaired coatings

Uopy iiyhiuo

inaiuiial

Hu Pabah^ <^ Sogihme

of

old walls were decorated.'' In

tlic

Arab

coins, has

some of

the buildings another layer, with

been distinguished. The inscriptions on these coins indicated that

the coins were issued until 770. This layer

is

characterized by the absence of new

painting and traces of the deUberace destruction

renovation of the houses

conciliatory policy

of Nasr

is

of murals of earlier btnldings. The

apparently connected with the above-mentioned

b. Saiyar (about 740),'^

and the

of the population

latter la\ er reflect the Islaniization

It is,

37

in

diaractcristics

the era after

of the

Abu Muslim.

however, impossible to determine the relative dates of those houses in which

the layers are only slightly

marked.

The construction of the buildmgs which burned in 722 was formerly dated to
die seventh century, which was also reflected in the published dates x the accom-

Now, however, it has been possible to reveal dt a very

number of these houses were built approximately ten years before the fire,
and some were still incomplete at the moment of the fire. Coins from the end of

panying wall paindngs.

large

were sometimes found under the walls and

the seventh century

houses and

this

helped to date their construction.

of such

floors

The entire block {sectors III,

VII),

with repeatedly published paintings, as it turned out, was completely rebuilt after
the demoUtion of die earlier stnictuxes aloi% the long axis of the block of the otigi-

ml eastern wall of the city

was founded, became an
still

farther to the east.

signitlcancc, since

Va^oman, who

But oven though

last

it

new

line

of fortifications was erected

w.is inside the cirv,

it

retained a defensive

several times (tig. 10).

The

last

by coins from the scams of the masonry. These arc coins of

ruled in die third quarter

Panjikent ruler, Chakin

Therefore, the

This original wall, constructed when the dty

when

was repaired and renilorced

it

repair can be dated

i).

inner wall

of the seventh

century,

and of the

Chur Bilga, who came to the throne not later dian 690.^*

last (quite

extensive) repair

decades of the seventh century.

of the houses on the freed

of the wall took place no

The demolition of the

territory dates to the period

earlier than the

wall and reconstruction

between the end of the

seventh century and 722. The wall was probably demolished at the beguining of

71. Bclcnitdm,

Manhak. "Nanciinyc

rospisi."

SG XXXVII (1973),

Bclciiirskii, Mdiumetital'iiiv iilttwnv Pendshikciita, pis.

72.

O.C.

(1964),

73.

Bol'sh.ikov,

chasti

XXIV);

61-64. (Sector

23-34 (Sector XXI),

"Otchcr o r.nkopkal;h scvcro-vcntochnoi

etc.

ob"ckta HI,"

MIA

124

16-1 ly.

A.M.

iicicniakii cc

74. V. A. Livshits,
(London 1970^, 237.

"A

al..

"Raskopki v PcndzhikcnK,"

Arklieohgithetkie odtrytm 1974 goJa,

Sogidnii Alphabet fiotn Puilikaiu,'* If-B.

Hamb^

Mtmerial

Vobme

TheMKtb^^^gtmui

38

the eighth century, as

be dismantled
the wall

is

after

it is

its

a.d. 712,

difficult to

completion.

when

bcHcvc that the wall was constructed only to

The most probable

the Sogdians

date for the demolition of

were evicted from the

central part

of

SunadEsnd by die Aiabs. Hie xeuoa for die nmiiltaneout construction odo2eiis
olKMi8es(nuiiy widi

numb and 'wooden scnlptuie) may beattribmed to dietapid

diange in die sitiiation in die country afiier Qntayba's campaign.

IHffin 10. Reconstruction of the early

city

kent. Period 1: ff(h century. Period JJ: ca.

hi<t

wall of Pauji-

^00, Period III

quarter of seventh century.

Therefore,

all

the murals

from

sector III,

tion report to the seventh-begniuing

which were dated

in the initial

of the eighth century/^ should

excava-

now

be

dated no eadier dian die fit quarter of die eighdi century. Hie construction ofdie
palace

on the citadel,

quarter

Coini

^ay

A.

number of reasons, should also be dated from the first

a leoer role dian pottery in the chronology of the

75. 7M'flpis'. pis.

76.

Cbr a

of die eigihth century.'*

Isak.i)v,

pravitclci drcviicgtt

I'ciitlzhikcnta," Siraiiy

" Ruikt>plu dvortsa pravitclci drcvncgo Pcndzhikciija,"

ancient

mrotiy Vo^toka; idem,

SGfiXXXVU (1973).

Tadzhikistaiic XI
v Pcndzhikctuc v

AMutllegiAtdae raboty v

{1971 g.) (Dtuhanbe 1975); Belcnitskii, Marshak, "Nastennye raqni, otkrytyc

1971 godu."

mote

XXIV-XXXIII.

"Dvorcts

57. figi. S. 6.

Copy [iL|[, ted

material

The
paintings, since only a fewcarly coins

be more precisely defined.

were found, and

Ptdntiti^

<^ Sag^giM

39

their dates should themselves

hoard of twcnty-six small

silver coins depicting

aidwr of gceat dgfuSeatta for die duonology of early

an

The hoard

Panjikent.

was unoovered in ont of the embrasures of the original dty wall. Hie embiasuies
were demolished and concealed by a clay coating at the time of the
of the

city wall.

taken

frotti

The coins

fell

the layer of debris deposited

bones and pottery, which date from the

same way. Six

the embrasures ui the

attributable to die period prior to the

first

rebuilding

brickwork unnoticed, along with the earth

into the

when

earliest

the

wall

first

complex

was

in use. Objects,

appeared in

in the city,

complexes are

basic consecutive ceramic

mid seventh oentur) The

.

from the

pottery

of the rooms consttocted after the brickwork of the ernhnmues dates CO the

floors

next ceramic group, complex

II.'^

According to the estimate of E.V. Zeimal', the coins date

EV.

Zeimal' found

issues date to die sixdi

cate that Panjikent

last scries

trom coins with legends written

are

in a script

of die "Ancient Sogdian Letten" (beginning of die fourth

similar id tbe writing

century).

of

to the latest series

archer coins which Iiad been issued for several centuries. These
separated by several typological stages

was

it

possible to assume

oo

diis

basb diat die

and even die seventh century.'* Theiefere, tbe coins

first settled

sometime

after the fourdi century.

uncertainty about the date of the cessation of these coin

issues,

latest

indi-

Because of

of

the upper limit

the possible date of the founding of the city should not depend entirely on numis-

matic evidence. Thus, the

fact that the coins

were iound

context, along with the pottery of complex

I,

m a reliable archaeological

becomes

particularly important.

How then, is die eariy Panjikent pottery to be dated? If similar pottery complexes are combined, they

form

three chronological gtoiqis: complexes I-II,

complexes III-V and complex VI.'* At

archaeologists to each

least a

of the "pottery eras" similar

century

is tisoally

to these groups.

dates are thus proposed for the three complexes in question,

assigned

by

The following

complex VI: seventh

century, complexes V-III: sixth century, and complexes II-I: fifth century. In
itself,

the pottery range ofieis a broad

the dates

duonol^^ framework that a^^ees widi

of other Sogdian setdements, iidiereas the evidence gained from a study

of the typology of the coins lends greater precision and

77.

B.L Marshak, "Gorodskaia

mkhtdt^
ob**e]cle

stcna

{uzisy dokladov konferentsO)

XII za i955-i9<3o gg.,"

MIA

78. Zciinal'. "Tali-Barzinskii kl.ui."

79.

V-VTI

w.

v Pcndzhikcnt.

(Kiev

definition to the

chrono-

," X.^irishie otkrytiia

fovetskilA

115-117; idem, "Oichcc o rabotAh nt

IZ4 (1964) ; Raspopova, "Kvaital zhilidich,"

SCC XXXIV

SA

(1969).

(1972). 74.

Manfaak, "Otchct o raboukh na ob"ckcc XII," op.

cit.,

227-343; Raipopova, "Kvartal

sbiUidi." SA I (19^. fig. 181.

Copyrighted matsrial

The Paiatb^s of Seg^Ma

40

logical

framework.

moie

detailed examination

of die

diflferencc

between die

ceramic oomploces might be eaqpected to yield greater dmuiological prcciskni.

For

this purpose, later layers diat

contained firmly dated coins were studied.

The

degree of difference between the pottery of the layers ofdie middle of the seventh
century and the

quarter of

first

range of c!i;inges over

used for dating

liie

tlic

ciglnli ccnnir>'

of sixty

a pL-riod

was taken

as the

to scvent)' years. If the

earUcr complexes, then complex

II

approximate

same

would be dated

crirenoii

is

to the turn

of the fifUi-sixth oentocies, and complex I to the fif& century.

Despite die use of statistical methods, such computations are

However, the thickness of the

still

inaccurate.

layers that contain early pottery complexes,

and the

many reconstructions of the buildings (particularly up to the seventh century, there

arc five construction periods for the temples

and three or four construction periods

argue against further contraction of die chro-

for various parts of the city walls)

nological range. Consequently, the latest possible date

fixr

die

com hoard on

archaeol<^ical grounds is the second half<^die fifth century. This is also die earfiest
possible date

su^ested by . V. Zeimal' on numismatic grounds. The finmding of

the city took place

complex

the time of

rhe

somewhat earlier,

date not to
its

since bodi the hoard

use.

earliest paintings ot Panjikent,

paintings

ofcoins and the ceramic

thedmcof the cmstruction of the first dty wall but only to

on the

eastern

courtyard of Temple

dated on groiuids of stratigraphy, arc the

and western walls of the

(fig. 1 1).

original nordi

diapd

in

dw

These murals were <overed by die masonry ofa

clay bench along the walls) with the pottery of complex

later

wall and a

The

painting itself consequently, dates to about the end of the fifth-beginning of

fiiffa

(a

II.

the sixth century (but can hardly be any earlier, since the side chapel was constnictcd later than the main building of the temple, and

it,

as far as

no older than die fifih century).

The main building of Temjpte H stood cn a high pbtfiwm.

can be judged,

is

itself

maintained and kept dean. The layer of debris

had almost no reconstruction.

lieretore,

in

it

It

did not build up,

was

carefidly

and the walls

even though here the early murals were

preserved almost uncliangcd up to die beginning of the eighth century,

50.

A.M.

UcK-nitski:, "

Icgichfskif raboiy r

ri

'l'iiit:l:iki<t,iii!

jili

ti.i

it is

gorixlishclic drcvnicgo I'cndzhikcma (T97"g.)," Arkheo-

shcha drcviicgd Pcndzhikcntj v ly/i g.,"

(.Minkv.i ly??), 106-10.H; idem,

Arl:hti^!,\\iu-li,-skif

rabcty v

"R.nkopki gorodi-

radshikistaiif XI,

121-126;

Manhak, "Otchct o rabotakh lu oVcktc XII," MIA 124(1964.), 184-216; idem, "Gorodskaiasttm
V-Vn w. V Penddukente." Mwrnto vdayUia sovttMA mUkteiagov II (1975). 1 1 5-1 17.
51. Bplfnirtkii, Manliak, "Naiiamye tospiii." SC XXXVU (1973), 58-61.

Uopy iiyhiuo

inaiuiial

TIte Paintings of Sogdiaiia

41

l|
1

Stil

(inlury AJt

6th Cnlur *D
7 th Cintury

Figure

u.

Temple
ttorth

II.

AH

Schematic plaits of temples from PaujiUeut. II:

/:

Temple

I.

Sanctuary (i/^Tcmplc

chapel from the precincts

(/Temple

II.

I.

B The
:

Arrangement of

the paintings in the north chapel: [i) goddess on the throne with

scnmurvs,

(2) donors, (j)

goddess on a lion throne (?), {4)

donors, (j) goddess on a dragon.

The

42

Figure

Paintings of Sogdiana

1 2.

Mounted

squadrons. Sketch of mural

from

the

northern wall of the portico of the principal hall of Temple

II,

at Panjikent. Fifth-sixth centuries.

The murals of the main

impossible to give a stratigraphic date to them.

arc dated to the fifth-sixth centuries

on the

basis

of the persons depicted and those from the north chapel which
time.

fifth

century date

is

the

more

somewhat more

ordinary Sogdian script which prevailed after the

was

carried out

no

in the

later

fifth

cenmry

than the sixth century.

It

was

whom

(fig. 12). It

this

must be

renovation

earlier believed that the

the Sogdians

A.IU. lAkubovskii, "Drevnii Pendzhikent," Po sleJam drevnikh

255, 256.

that

archaic script than the

temple has traces of renovation, but

murals from Temple II depicted Turks** with

82.

from

dates

probable, since a Sogdian inscription over

the painting on one of the walls reveals a

noted that the painting

building

of the similarity of the costumes

kul'lur

became ac-

(Moskva

1951), 252,

The Paintings of Sogdiana

Figure 13. Four-armed goddess on a dragon.

mural from the

tiorthcrn chapel 0/* Temple

II.

Sketch

43

of

at Panjikeiil.

Sixth century.

quaintcd only in the sixth century.

individuals
total lack

Sogdian painting* ' has revealed a

of correspondence between the iconography used for the representation

of Turks and

To

The subsequent discovery of representations of

who arc clearly identified as Turks in

chat associated

somewhat

later date

with the figures on the nuirals from Temple

II.

belong the murals from the northern chapel of Temple

These murals came from

passageway

in the

western wall of the northern chapel during the reconstruction of the chapel

in the

II.

fifth

century'*

of Temple

(fig. 13).

/*' (fig. 14),

To

The

same period belong murals from the main portico

from Rooms 41-42 of sector

which were covered by

stratigraphic date

seventh century.

a rectangular niche built into a

the

the

VI{f\g. 15)

masonry of the walls

of these paintings

The costumes,

fabrics

is

no

and from other rooms

in use in the seventh ccntiury.

later

than the

and ornaments depicted

arc vcr>' similar to the realia of the earliest paintings.

We

first

half of the

m them, however,

note the belts with

Sasanian-typc buckles, a particular shape of sword-hilts, three-ply bracelets on an

83.

Arbaum.

Zhivopis' Afrasiaba,

29-H.

VII. IX.

X. XI.

XXXH.

84. Bclcnicskii, Momimattal'noe iskiisstvo Pcndzhikeiita, pis. 1-2, 12-13.

8j. Bdcnitskii,

Marshak, "Nastcnnyc

rospisi,"

SG XXXVII (1973),

53-57,

figs. 3, 4.

44

The

PafittfM^ <^ S^gJituo

Figure 14. Chariot of I'cshparkar, harnessed with hoars.

Sketch of mural from the southern part of the western wall of
the portico o f the principal hall of Temple 1 at Panjikent.

Sixth century.

arm, necklaces
caftan,

The

wide

in the

designs

on the

firaming medallions
addition,

form ot

a twistcJ

cord on the neck, Sasaman ribbons, a shori

trousers tucked iiito high,

fabrics

narrow boots,

etc.

do not yet include die Sasanian

whidi aie 'widespread from die end of the

from the second half of the

Middle Asia changed greatly;

tlie

sixth century the costtnnc

circles

of pearls

sixth centiuy. In

of the peoples of

cahans became longer and narrow boots ceased

to be worn. These particulars are hnnid

in

the dress ot the Son b ins iL picted on a

stone relief from a Chinese tuiicrary nionunicnt of the tlurd ijuartcr ot the sixth

Copyrighted matBrial

The Paintings of Sogdiaiia

century, executed in China after a Sogdiaii sketch.**

They

45

also appear in the

paintings from Afrasiab, datable mainly to the seventh ccnturj-. Therefore, an

analysis

of the

realia

makes

it

possible to give a precise stratigraphic date

and

relate

the Panjikcnt paintings mentioned not to the sixth-seventh centuries but only to

the sixth century.

Painting of the seventh centur)' at Panjikcnt has been studied least of ail.

may attribute

to this period with greatest certainty the paintings with scenes

hunt from the

hall

of one of the dwellings

(fig, 4)

{Room 26 of sector XXIII

One

of the

fig. 16)

Figure 15. Sketch of mural from the northern

wall of

Panjikcnt VI -.^1-42. Sixth century.

86.

G.

Scaglia. "Central Asians

on a Northern Ch'i Gate Shrine," Artibus .isiac XXI/i

(i

958). 9-28.

The

46

Figure

Painlm(>s of SogJiana

1 6.

Hunting

of mural from the southern

scene. Sketch

part of the eastern wall of Panjikcnt

XXIII

26. Seuenth

century.

the walls were covered with paintings, and later on,

when

the

rooms were

planncd, were heaped up with crude masonr)'. After the rcplanning, the

722 occurred

how

in

whicli the entire building

long before 722 the hall was renovated.

painting

was applied

a considerable

ted as to require renovation.

the

was burned down.

more

Its

recent painting lying

It

may

time prior to

lower

frieze

Wc

fire

re-

of

do not know

be noted, however, that the

this repair,

and was so deteriora-

had been completely renewed, with

on the semioblitcrated older

layer.

47

The Pabab^s of Stfgfittta

The Chronology of the Paintings

from Afrasiab, Varakhsha and Shahristan
The

archaeological dates ot the Panjikent paiutuigs help to a certain extent to lend

greater precision to the duonology of odier Middle Asian paintings. Thus wc

may now discuss widi a certain degree ofdetail Sogdian murals from Afrasiab and

Vaiakhsha.

At Afrasiab
halls (if

(in tlic ruins

of ancient Samarkand), paintings were found

centuries.""

unclear whether the ruler's palace was located in this block,

It is still

since the planning

and

detailed stratigraphy

of the

the halls the reception

would be an
found only

in his

Althoi^ in one of

of die ambassadors by the Samarkand rder was depicted,

o the

oversimplification to think that the dqpicdon

own

painting of

have not been

entire section

completely studied. There is nothing specifically palatial here.

The

in several

houses constructed in the aristocratic block datable to the sixth-seventh

ruler could

it

be

palace.

Room

p,*' at Afrasiab,

may

be dated to the sixth ccntur\' by

analogy with the Paiijikcnt paintings. I'hc costume and sword of tlie male deity and

omament nude <^ scalloped

paintiDgs

of die main

Room 41-42 Kjisettor

leaves are quite similar to diose recorded in

buildings

matter, the Afiasiab paintmg

century
(tic;*i.

Rpodis 2 and 13 of

in

7. S).

The male

of Temples I and

VI, at Panjikent

(fig. 15).

(%s.

Yet with

closer to the Panjikent paintings

H'ctor

XXl\\ where

a pair

deity carries a vessel containing the

which was well preserved

22, 14), as

at Panjikent in

Romi

eady

well as of

reqiect to die subject

of gods

of the eighth

is

also depicted

image of a standing camel

ij, sector

A'AVI

',

and, despite

its

filamentary nature, is also definicdy discernible in the Afrasiab painting (tongues

of flame were {ottncdy seen

The paindng of Room

1,

in the vessel

at Afrasiab,

is

shown

on the mural to the reign of the San)arkand

his

rule before 655

later than

Except for

year).

this

his

I,

89. Bclciutdcu,
pi.

XVII;

MIA

Vargoman began

from the T'ang emperor no

For a time after 675 there was no ruler

successor, the other rulers

of the sevendi and beginning of

88. Ibid., pU.

ruler Vargoinan.*"

(he obtained confirmation

immediate

S7. Al'bjimi. Zliivopb'

here).

dated according to the inscription found

^mUkt,

die eighth century

at

of Sogdiana

Samarkand.
at

the

end

were not of Vargoman's

it-14.

U.

Manhak, "NMtennye ro^" SC&XXXVII (1973).

15 (1950),

$5-S<S. fig*.

3,4;2tew|w',

pi. 57.

90. Al'bauin, Zhiiwpis' Afrtuiaba, j2-$6.

Copy [iyt lied

material

48

The

Pittntings

of SogJima

dynasty.'" Tlicreforc,

it is

unlikely that

"memorial"

paintings

would have been

created at a later date to coninicmoratc this ruler. The widespread opinion that

Vargonun

tvied before 696 remains unconfirmed

die S<^dian ruler

who came

to the

origin to an error in translation.'*

of Vargoman.

in the tliird

duone

in

similarly, the

opinion diat

698 was Vargoman's son owes

The paintings of Room

its

1 are datable to the reign

quarter of the seventh century. Paintings wiili limuiiig

scenes, discovereil in the last

few years

two other

in

halls at Afrasiab, date to die

si.Kth-sevcnth centuries.*'

The

of Room

paintings

paindng of die

first

Varakhsha. Difierences arc evident in die

paint,

from die Panjikenc

Afiasiab difier ooonderably

j at

half of the eighth century and Scorn the famous paintings of

heavy contours),

iti

manner of execudon

(a diick layer

of

the characteristic features of the composition, in facial

type and proportions of the stocky figures, and finally in the depiction of the
rcalia.

Without

weapons and costumes, wc note

discassing the

careful depictions

despite the representations in die paintings

there are

no

representations

form of elaborate

rosettes. Silk patterns

silks

the

and

with decoration in die

showing the Sasanian

circles

of pearls

half of the eighth century, however, T'ang

first

with elaborate rosette patterns gained great {xjpularity

silks are

dcsj-iitc

fabrics,

of members of a Chinese embassy,**

of multicolored T'ang

decidedly predominate. In the

silks

that

of the numerous and varied examples of patterned

in Sogdiana.'?'

Such

frequently depicted at Panjikent,*' at Varakhslia (on the cloths of ele-

and

phants)

at Ajina-tepc.**

An even more popular type offabric in Sogdiana of the eighth century was the
monochromatic
double or

with a woven pattern

silk

triple borders.

Such

which was applied more

V, A.

LivNliits,
i

"Pr

problcmy

S( i^il.i

i\

istoni

form of

in the

large rosettes with

murals by a single color

thickly in the patterned areas than in the sections

background. The designs of these

pamuttniki

in the

were depicted

silks

kul'itiry

'ts.iri

silks

of the

resembled the designs of the famous

khunnov'

natodov Vosioka,

kiniskikli Jin.iuiinvkh tUorii," Pii'inennye

IX godicluiaia

nauchnaia

sessiia

LOtV

AN

(ylMMMfMUMf i ImdUf MoMvlKiilto) (Leningrad 1973), 25-26.

9i. Smimova, Ocht rhi iz iV.'<>n'r S>.>i^Jii. 170-171.
93. .SH. S.

aslikhoiizli.iL

94. Al'bauni, Zhifop,.^

"

Rabotv na Atrasiabc," Aikhcok^ickakte omytUii igyj

(S0I7J, pk.

'

1,

,1

IX,

\;odii,

472.

XXXV, X)6cVUI, XXXIX.

Cam Toiqifes, New Researches (Tokyo and

95. T. Akiyania, S. Macsubara, Arts of Cl^; BuMast

Pab Alto 1969), 217-21M, pis. 49. S2-55y6. Bclcnitskii,

AA'ijkm.'i d.m/'iu'i' iskuj<ti'^

97. Shishkin. KuraWw/w, pis.

9S. litvinddi,

Ill,

VU,

ZdmaT, iliMsmMtpe,

/Vndb&ifcmtl, ja, pls. 26, 30.

VIII.

$9.

Copyrighted malBrlal

The IWntii^s <f ScgMma

polychromatic tabrics ot Zaiuiiniji. snadc
often depicted at Paujikcnt during

Kakrak (Afghanistan).

They

''

tlic

49

Sogdiana.'" Tlicsc fabrics were vcr\'

in

ciglith century,"^" at Varakhsha,'*"

and

at

arc absent at Afrasiab.

This difierence in the lealia obviottsly stems not Bom the difietence between the

Samarkand sdiool and the Panjikent school but from the duonological break.

most be noted

tliat

and the thick layer of

compare not

paint. T!io stylo

and

in the use

realia

of the

to the Panjikent murals

first

particularly clearly in the dcsig;ns

half of

of die

tiic

of the seventh ccnrtiry but

eighth century. This can be seen

The Varakhsha murals,

later. The fifiJi-sixdi

fabrics depicted.

fbrmerly dated to the seventh century,

now

centuries, suggested for Balalyk-tcpc,''

may

of the heavy contour

of the paintings of Varakhsha

to the Atrasiab murals ot the third tjuarter

logical find, there

It

the Panjikent fragment of the seventh century paindng (see

above, p. 45) resembles the paintings of Afrasiab

appear to be
also

be too

early. Since the archaeo-

have been no definitive chronological values but the fabrics

depicted there, as demonstrated by A. A. icrusalimskaia, date the Balalyk-tepe

murals to the end of the sixth-seventh centuries.'"*

Neither the stratigraphy nor the

realia depicted olTer

a precise definition to the

dironology of Shahrisnn. Investigators have noted diat the pamtings <rf'the corri-

dor ace similar in

style to the

P^jikent painting of ^e

first

half of the

e^hdi

century, whereas the paintings of the Small Hall at Shahristan, which are quite

from the second

of the

unique

in style, are believed to date

the

decades of the ninth centiury."'* Islam was adopted,

first

dynasty of Ustrushana about 822."* After

this

lialf

ciglith

century or

at least olFicially,

period depictions ot gods

no longer have been permissible in the reception hall of the palace.

If one

by the

would

amuncs

widi O.G. fiol'shakov'*" that Shahristan was not the capital of Ustrushana as N.N.

Negmatov siipposcs,'** it would

liien

be

poaanble to eactend die date

of tbe Small

Hall ot anodier two or three decades tmtil die final Islamisation of the country.
99. lerasalinukaia,
100. Dclciutskii.

"K slozfaenun shkoly," SnJiiUk Aifita I ban, fig.

.'ii':'Mi<.M.>;,M/'ti.'i

101. Shislikin, yatakhsho, pi.

102. Auboyer,
103.

^^^uuriOm

nin/

A\'h3um, Bdhlyh-h-pc,

104. icrusaliinskaij,

"K

ishisfnv

XIV,

figure

PaMAtHta,
on As i^bc

xme Kuut,

pis. 19, ao,

AN

N.N. Ncgmatov,

XXXK.

iz',.

slozhcniiu shkoly," Srediiiaia Aziia

107. Sec Bol'shakov, in Iklcnuskii, Srcilm'vei:(<iyi

loS.

fL

p. 77.

Negmatov, "niblcma Riina," Izv.

TaJzhSSR
diivopiti Malugo zah." GXX3<IX(i974). 51-52.
loti. Neginatov, Ustnahma v ittvmsii, 13S-140.
105.

24.

ai; Zimnpis',

Iran, 34-J8.

I (71) (1973)1 ai-aj; Solcolovildi,

\;crotl Src^hir:

"O

nji.

S.G. Kiunci'nitskii, Srednevekovyi Slmkitrinait (Dushanbe 1966), 191-195.

The Pim^^

50

With all
Still

more

its

Scgibma

shortcomings, the chronological sequence of the Sogdiaii paintings

is

accurate than the chronological schemes proposed for the paintings of

TtAhSrisian and Eastern Turkestan.

few comparisons between the

latter

and

Sogdian painting may be noted briefly. The paintii^s ofDilberjin-tepe in nordiem

A^jbanistan, published

by LT. Kruglikova, which conic from

and the paintings of Kakrak"" are

ries,

the chapels tiear the

of the

city wall,""' are similar in rcalia to the Paiijikcnt paintings

centu-

fiftli-sixtli

close to Panjikent murals ot the Ixrginning

of the eighth century. The paintings of the Cave of the Painters and cave

15 at

Qumtura in Eastern Turkestan lesemUe Panjikent murals of die fifth to die b^innii^
is

6Ac sfacdi century. The dironology obtained firom

independent of developments in theme and

of thematic and

stylistic

style,

aidiaeological

mediods

and permits the determination

changes on the evidence of dated monuments.

Arrangement of the
Paintings on the Walls of the Buildings
hi the Panjikent

tem|^

entrances to die courts

die walls of the colunined porticoes whidi framed the

of die temples, as wdl at diose located in front of the main

halls of die temples (fig.

were decorated widl painting. Hic main

1),

temples were also decorated with pniiuing, as were the portico

sanctuary of side chapels. In wcaltliy lioincs and palaces
ted to the

main

halls

;ind

paintings

tlic

of the

the inner

were

alloca-

halls (fig. 17), to tunnel-vaulted corridors leading to the halls, to

die arched ci'vim and columned porticoes at the entrance to a building, and to die

household sanctuaries widi a heardt^ltar in the form of a fireplace

Sometimes the

living

rooms

in

were decorated with painting

tion

of certain

of the

(fig.

specific subjects

:;).

There were few

rules

rc

guLiting the distribu-

with respect to types of rooms and difTercnt sections

No attention at all was paid

walls.

(figs. 18, 19).

both the first and die second stoty of a given house

of the paintings. Only

to the orientation

the large temples had their open colonnades turned toward the east
possibly connected with the worship

Hie

eiv3ns

of

residential buildings

of Mithra

as die

amphora, containing branches widl flowers and pomcgranaiL s

symbols of Vcshparkar. and the

framed from below by a

109. Kruglikova,

no. Ha&t,

moon

crescent.

which was

god of the dawn

light.

were decorated with mottfr sudi as an

in

One

tlie

form of

tbi-

fhir.

iM

>>t

20), tri^nts,
a

young

eiudn contained the representation

girl

of a

DiVbeAIdH, 54-76, pk. 6-18.

Carl,

MDAPA ID, pli. IXD-LXIV; Aaboyer, ^^kmunm md seine KmM, pi. 77.

Copyrighted malBrial

The Paintings of Soj^diana

51

Figure 17. Preparation for the removal of murals from the

XXIV.

principal hall of Panjikciu

man

standing

with a dish

Pictures of

(fig. 21).

plant ornaments

(fig.

in his

hands with

human-headed
22)

his face

birds with

turned toward the entrance

terminating in tendrils and

were placed along the cornice of this

sentations probably played a magical role;

blessings

tails

and ward off evil

at the

entrance of the house'"

wall or one of the walls of each

room

civau.

in a

given building was generally

1,

opposite the entrance or faced the hearth-altar, was

ndcnitskii,

"Raskupki
(Building

)ia

7).

Marshak, "Nastcnnyc rospisi," SGF.

summon

(fig. 19).

reserved for paintings dcpiaing cult subjects. This wall, which

situated

Such repre-

they were intended to

XXXVII

(1973),

was generally

marked by
54-55;

Bclcnitskii,

gDroduticlic drcvncgo Ceudzlukenu," Arkheologichcsleie otkryiiia igyz goda, pi. Ij

S2

The PuMifi

Sogmu

Figure 18. Plan of Panjikent

deeorated widt

nmtds

{1

XXI. Roonis 1-4 woe

principal haH,

2:

torrider,

4:

twm uridi heofdMibar), Hooms 7-8 hdU widmt paititehnuL. Rooms 13, 22, 23 workshops.
bijgs. Room 19
:

Copyrighltxl malenal

The Pmttb^ 1^ Segfima

S3

'

N-l

N-9

JL

Tentative Reconstruction

L J

mamm Walls of fiist

siory

Wall* of leeood iioiy

till
Figure ig. Plan q/'Panjikcnt

10 are included

dvSn). The

XXIV, Rooms

in oiie dwelling (j

miiraUr

wen

hall,

sitMOed in

2-3:

Room

second story tAove the eiinm, and tAove

1-4, 6, 9,

corridor,

4:

i-4, on the

Room

10.

Copy iiyhica

inaiuiial

54

The J\mi%5 of Segdiana

Figure 20. Vase. Sketch of a

detail

of mitralfrom die exna^

PanjikentXXIV.E^A/llr
aritury.

Copyrighted matsrial

The Pmntmgs of Sogiumg

F^unit.
and vase.
from

55

Person widtsk

Sh^ of nmrttl

the civan

(Room

4)

o/Pa>ijikent XXIV. Eighth

century.

Co(.y

uod material

56

The Mntit^ of SoffHana

projecting

stiffa

or by a

themes were

niclie. Occa'iionally cult

side walls. In the absence

of

a niche, tlic cult scene

also louiul

was placed within

arch supported by painted columns or by the figures of caryatids

F^jikent harpist

[tig.

3J

and

atlantcs [hg. sj).

tkms of gods and wocshippcR widi poctaUe

show

the

famous

Cult scenes always included depi^

sacrificial vessels

PainringS Scorn the nocthetn diapel of Temple

century,

(cf.

on the

a painted

II,

petfiwming

dated to the end of the

rites.

fifth

processions of individuals bearing sacrificial alurs and gifb (a

necklace, a dish) as they approach a goddess

rom both sides (figs.

23, 24).

Figure 23. Donors. Sketch of muralfrom the eastern wall of the

northern chapel of

Temple

il,

at PanjiketU.

End of the fifth

century.

Copy [iyt lied

material

The Paintings of Sogdiana

57

Figure 24. Fragment of the same painting as in fig. 23, in

the process of restoration.

representation of a fire altar

tuar)',
I.

which

In the

was placed

hall

sacrificial altar,

of Temple

who

was portrayed

II

Sogdian temple,

was brought

of the entrance

to the sanc-

as in the Zoroastrian

that contained the sutuc

two

niches of the

of a

deity. In the

Dar-i-Mihr there was no permanent

there in a special sacrificial altar-vessel.'"

in the

of Temple

group of individuals bearing a

appeared to approach the entrance to the sanctuary. Another

group was shown approaching the niche

once stood

in front

originally contained a divine image, in the northern chapel

main

main

hall

and

The

three statues,

fire; it

which

in the sanctuary, indicated that

three gods could have been worshipped in one temple.

Groups of standing individuals or banqueters, sometimes accompanied by

rectangular frames with inscriptions (apparently with their names), were found in
paintings of the sixth century

on

There are

in the

Temple II

also

banquet scenes

(sixth century),

and

the southern wall of the eivan of Temple I (fig. 25).

in

northern eivan of the eastern enclosing wall of

the portico of the northern chapel of Temple I

(beginning of the eighth century). All these individuals

lioiiur

1 1 2.

ofbcing depicted

in the

temples had apparently

who

had attained the

made some sort of contribu-

G. Gropp, " Die Funktioti dcs Fcueitcmpcls der Zoroastricr," AMI, N.F., 2 (1969), 148-149,

164, 172.

58

Uu Mtttbigs

Sogdum

Tin PnaUmgs of SogSam 59

tion to the construction and decoration

to secure

tlic

good

There were no

will

of the

strict rules

of the temples.

well

dcit)' as

Tlieir deeds

as the respect

were intended

of their contemporaries.

for the arrangement of such groups of donors. For

example, the northern wall of the dvAi of Temple

ibc above-mentioned soudiem wall widi

its

I,

which was located opposite

dicee tiers

of small flutes of nttii^

and standing individuak,

was devoted to mythological themes diat were earned

over to the

Other

\\'cstern wall.

the side walls of the

subjects

were

of Temple II

eivaii

also included in representations

(fifth-sixth centuries).

on

These showed

distinguished pilgrims approaching the temple, probably symbolic of the inter-

national prestige

of the temple. The southern wall of the same temple depicted a

procession with nioiinted lulen represented alongside a moantain range.

nofthem vrall showed a procession ynA mounted squadrons (%.

The

la).

In contrast to the religious-cult scenes, themes such as banquets, battles, processions, etc.

had no fixed position

usual horizontal tiers

strips that
tier

of

in the plan

figures appeared

customarily separated

tlic tiers.

of a room. In the

later periods, the

sometimes without the ornamental

In such instances, the lower

was indicated by the ecx of the figure standing on a horizontal

in compositions

whidi were not slanted

edge of the

However,

level.

into tien, distance ras indicated

by

fbnns {daced at the top of die composition, exemplified by the early paintings of
the fiftb-sevendi centuries. 'Whereas in the multitier painting the action took place
in a

continuous frieze along several walls interrupted

compositions that occupied the entire height of

wall. For example, in the

mam

buildmg ot Temple

depict processions, the rear wall has

two

II,

onK

h\

tlic

cult scrnc,

were coiUincd

a wall

to a single

the side wails ot the portico

battle scenes,

and aloi^ die nde walls

ofthe main hall are fimnd scenes dut were mutuaUy related. Hiese were, however,
unrelated to the paintings on

tlic

rear walls of die portico

formed an angle with the side wall. The painting on

representations of donors,

its

its

niche

statuarv*.

interrupts the mythological subject matter

southern and northern walls of the

the

and ofthe hall where they

end waU of the hall, with

and the passage to the sanctuary,

which

is

depicted clockwise

on the

hall.

In accordance widi the spirit of Sogdian odtute, adherence to strict uniformity

is

detiled in nanatives that

right to

the

left

left.

and may be shown holding

Along with
and by

extended

Even the goddess on the

now ftom

lion

tlie

may

left

to t^ht, and

now

sun cither in her right or in her

the distinction given to cult scenes by their assignment to the

allusion to magical formulae

found

fix>m

be turned either to the right or to

at the entrances, the

left

hand.

end walls

Sogdian painter

Copyrighted malBriai

71w AmtfiHff of Segiima

60

Figure 26. Musidaus. Sketdi of mural fiom the eontiee oj

Panjikait
also

VI :42.

Ei^A/A

tetUttry,

emphasized the principal theme ofa paintti^ by its allocation on the wall. The

principal

more)

theme was usually placed within

in height.

Secondary

ranged below the principal

nices

of vaulted rooms. The

frieze in lialk

to the

century) the lower ornamental register

tales,

of about one meter

{01

were

ar-

with wooden ceilings and along the cor-

panitiiigs in the

omamenul, but in four halls (dated

diat depict fairy

large friezes

fiac2cs (ca. thirty-forty centimeters high)

secondary triczcs were as a rule purely

end of the seventh-first halfof the eiglith

was replaced by small panel cmnpositions

&bles, and in one instance pain of conversing couples (diese

may have served as illustrations of love poetry).") In one instance a whole orchescornice (fig. 26}." The allocation of the
tra of Chinese women was placed on
:i

'

paintings sviacests therefore a dear division of themes belonging to major or

nnnor kniJi

ol lueratiire.

II}. Bcicnitski,

Manhak.

"L'art dc Piandjikcnt."

Aru Asiatiques XXUI (1971).

fig. 31.

114. Ibid., fig. 2*.

Copyrighted material

Hu Ptbitti^s tf SegtlUma
The

61

Sulgcct Matter

of tli6 Palwrtwp front Afiaiiab

The evidence firom Panjikent pennits a new interpretation of scenes diat depict a
royal rcc^tion in the nuirals from Varakhsha and Afrasiab. Althot^ animalshaped thrones are associated

witli rova! figures

but a deity wlio was placed on

of Middle

Asia,

was not

it

a ruler

throne with legs shaped Hke winged camels'" at

Varakhsha. The divine identity of

this figure

suggested by the location of the

is

scene and the details of the ritual which correspond fully with those in religious
representatiops

from

Panjikent.

The god with

the "camel-throne"

is

also

known

fr<mi Panjikent.'^' The ruler ofBukhara and hit &tnily ate shown at the fitot of die

dirone; the Panjikent citixens were

ritual scenes

of Dilberjin-tepc

helmet) on the end u

was

also

shown

ui a

.ills

ni

shown

wliicl!

in a similar position.

Also similar arc the

depicted deities (including a goddess in a

sanctuaries."' As noted above, a pair of deities

tin.-

Room g

simulated arch painted on the end wall oi

centuty) at Afrasiab. In JRoom i at

imrebted to the paintings of the

Afr^b,

side

walk

(sixth

the paintings of die end walls

in content.

The bock

were

wall shows an

tmusual composition, the low er part of wliich has survived, approached by a

procession of figures. According to the theory of L.I. Al'baum, the procession

moved toward

the throne ot the Sogilian ruler V'argoman."" 1 he painting itself

bears an inscription

which

states that the ruler

Vargoinan received the ambassadors

from Chaghanian (a district in northeast Tukharistan) and Shash (later Tashkent).'

The composition <^die paindng inchides depictions ofthe representatives ofseveral

from ditferent countries. The same

nations, evidendy intended as embassies

inscription,

however, says that

it

was not the Chaghanian ambassador who approa-

ched Vargoinan. but the ruler himself "approached him." This would be understandable

if

Vartionian

throne, furthermore,
tion

v.

etc passing

by the ambassadors and not

m accordance with custom,

the center of the

sitting

on the

main composi-

of the end wall should have contained the image of the deity and not of the

ruler. If one accepts diis hypothesis,

it

dor, given in the inscription, contain^

only

this address to the ruler

will
in

be dear why dw speech of the ambassa-

addition to die formula for the greetings

of Samarkand: "Be not suspicious of me,

informed on the gods of Samarkand, as well

1 1 J.

as

am

well

on the writing of Samarkand, and

Shishkin, yarMisha, 159-X60.

116. Belcnitddi. Mafsfadc,

117. Knii^liknv

i,

"Nstomye roipisi." 5GXXXVII(i973), 6i-6a.

nirhcrds^hiii, fig^. 37, 41a, 4a, pIs. I4,

l6-l8.

118. Arb.iuii), Zilit'opis' AJrasiaba, 27.

119. Ibid, 55-56.

Copyrighted material

62

The

Mmh^ of St^Maua

will cause

iiiicriptioiii

no

evil to

come

introdnce die Chag^anian

V.A.

to the ruler

undecstands the words

fiudi,

Livshits, after reading the

of die ambassador as a promise not to

and die writing connected widi

it,

into

try (o

Samaiy

"The Sogdians, who by the niidJlc of the seventh century had survived
many religious upheavals and had returned to Mazdaism, had reason to shun the
new intensification of the Buddhist religion, which, judging from archaeological

Icand:

finds, prevailed at that

time in Chaghanian territory.""' At the beginning of the

eighth century Manidiaeiitm played an important role in the Chaghanian domains,

bat TwkhSristin on the whole was a Buddhist country in the seventh century.*"

Buddhism had spread

Buddhism was

also

and in Semitecb'e. la Viwgoman*s time

in Ferg^bana

diampioncd by

tlic

emperors of China. The international

situation obviously required that the Sogdian ruler take measures

demonstrate
religion at

to those

which would

connected with the Sogdian world that the national Sogdian

Samarkand, which had ousted Buddhism from Sogdiana, enjoyed

geneial respect. Therefere, a ^ndiose reception

die gods, delegations biotight

was hdd befie the

ofdie gift-bearers, rulers, and pilgrims, and banquets were depicted in

of the Panjikent temples.

of

the paintings

Men from China and large groups of Turks figure in the

procession of dignitaries depicted in the Afrasiab murals.

representatives

statues

and a banquet took ^aoe. Similar processions

gifts,

of a number of states headed by Turkish

of other nations were also depicted

there.

Hie T'ang

They

apparently were

dynasties.

Ambassadors

delegation, representing the

Chinese emperor, die nominal snzetain of Vargoman, diiecdy approached die

gods widi

shown

gifts.

chatting

Turitish soldien from the retinue of the Chinese ambassador were

on the

side

and awaiting the end of the ceremony.

representatives of Middle Asian territories awaits

turn.

its

V.A.

Livvliits

group of

has kindly

acquainted us with his most recent reading ot the Sogdian mscripnons on these

The first in

line

wears a cap and rich Middle Asian ccstumc decorated with

a sAtNaflV pattern.

On

his

reading of whidi

is

figures.

neck

is

a semieftaoed inscription, the most probable

"Vargoman."

An

inscriptioa

on the second

figure reads

"Chaghanian dapirpat," and another on the clothing of a member of the Chinese

del^ation reads "a Tibetan person." The Sogdian

tkms might have been mistaken about

visitor

their identities.

who

But

it is

left

these inscrip-

doubtful that he

iao.niid.
121. Note h\ V. A. T.ivshitt to the book: Al'baum, Zhivopis' A frasiaba, 55-56, n. 1 55.
122. Belcmtskti, " Vopiosy ukologii i kul'tov Sogda," Zhiuopos', 44-45; Litvtnskii, Zcinui',

AdxUmHtpe, lao-iai.

Copyrighted material

The

would have mistaken

tion for tliat

the

It is

in the

center of the composi-

Vargoman stood with

a necklace in his hand at the head of the procession, before

image

51) (c die fint gi&-bearer before the goddess

(fig.

63

Sogibmu

quite probable that

image of an enthroned king

of a minor individual.

Miitb^

tiie

enthioned dnine

mm the imHiem du^

of Teu^k Hit PanjikeDt). The absence ofa crown shodd not confine wnnoeeven
the Sasanian kings

were not

from the scene of

sacrifice at

four walls of
inscription

Room

Varakhsha was

at Afrasiab

on one of the side

also

without

F.ach

of the

subject.

An

Tliii

was probably a wedding corte^

diat pco-

end waU. This diai^ in die direction of the movement empha-

of any cause and

sizes

the absence

The

relatively large size

and

his subjects

of the

and not to

scenes that pertain to

life in

familiarity

efiect

his relationship to the deity.

different countries.'--*

in the

The

with Chinese works of

Sogdtana. Evidence of such exports

Moshchevaia Gorge

tdatbnship between die compositions.

ruler refers to the relationship

esublished, Chinese painted scrolls

supplement the

walls depict

scenes that deal with

art.

As A.A.

were exported with

is

between the ruler

The other

silk

life

in

lerusaliiiiskaia

fiom ChitM to

known fiom Mount Mugh and fiom

northern Caucasus.'-' Subjects sudl as the reception of

the ambassadors and the bringing of a foreign bride could

artists to

crown.

was decorated with an independent

walls indicates the depiction of a scene ot presentation

of gifb to the roler Vargoman.

ceeded from

China indicate

with crowns."* The Bukhara ruler

alway<; depicted

official

part of the

move

the Sogdian

program of paintings of this type with

an attractive informative rcicrcncc to foreign countries. In view of the fondness displayed for literary themes
painters

of the Afiarnb murals

distant lands similar to

inandent

by Sogdian

relied vnpon

artists,

literary

one may suppose that the

w<k on

die

wooden of

books on the marvds c^India whidi had already appeared

times.

llieRniigeof

The combination of titual

illustrations

scenes, reflecting contcmporar}- reality (fig. 27),

and

of literary works are characteristic themes of the paintings of Panjikent.

Banquets, hunts on horseback, various holiday entertainments and processions

123. E. Hcrzfcld.
I.-.4.

"Khusm ParwaonddCTTiq i Vaio."4JlfflX:a(l93>). pLK.

pis. XXXEH-XXXIX, XIII-XVI.

Al'baum, Zbivoph' Afrasiaba, 60-69. 79-^6,

12$. icrusalinukju, "Vclikii shclkovyi put'," Sokrovidiiht

SHthKiAzu{t9pi^

14.

ufamtM drevne^ bona, Kavkaza

64

ThePahtA^i^SegMmM

npnsmtatim ofVed^adur. Sketth of mural

emlflfl/n; a

Jim ^jikent XXII

i.

Acft

eaaury,

may refer either to specific episodes or they may be general comments on the ideal
of the good life of a wealthy Sogdian citizen. Actual events were lepiesented in die
very &^;mentary murals from the palace ofDevashtich at Panjikent. The mural in
the niche in the end wall
cipal

room

storiiiiiiii;

depicted

<'>t

.i

were depicted scenes

was not preserved

tiarr.itive that

city In

I'lif

lUiiiqiHtiq

The

there.

eastern side wall

of the prin-

included episodes dcalingwiththe siege and the

siege tnacliines (figs. ^H,

2'))

and ladders. Here

ot an execution, ceremonial encounters ot

horsemen and

the ruler (shown tying a diadem widi wings and a half-moon around his

and a conversation hetween a

(fig. 30).

Arab. The
(turbans

recognize here events

of Devasliiich

is

here

ia6. Bclcniukii,

in the

way

cap)

same

in the later miniatures) (fig. 31).

of Sogdiana

Samarkand by

of Dcvashtich's claims

shown

tliis

in the history

sucli as tlie siege ot

tion by the Arabs

The ruler

tall

widi a cap with a diadem, and an

wears a turban, the ends of which are passed under his chin

latter

of Bedouins are also portrayed

One may

ruler

to the

at

the time

the Arabs in 712

of the reign

and the recogni-

Samarkand throne aroiuid

scale as the other figures.

720.'**

Unlike the offidal

"Raskopki gorodishcha drcvncgo Pcndzhikcnta v 1971 g.," Arkhtolagkheskie

Bcknitskii, Manhak. " Nastomye raqHa," SG XXXVn (1973). 57;

oAiyma ifja goda, iao-121 ;

Legal Documents and Lcttcn in Lmhits, Seg^Ukit tUmmenty, 91, 110-112;

istorii Sogiia,

Snumova,

OAeM ix

227.

Uupyiiyliiea rnatcnal

The

Paintings of SogMaiia

65

Figure 28. Manjaniq sivgv

machitu'. Shclch

of a fragnuiit

of a iiumil from the palace

Paiijikait. First quarter

eighth

-7

)?.;>

af

of the

ceiittiry.

Figure 2g. Photograph of the

same fragment as

in fig. 28,

66

TIte Paintings

of Sogdiana

Figure jo. Diadem with wings and crescent being fastened

around

ruler's

at Paujikent.

Mmet. Fragment of a mural from

the palace

First tjuarter oj the eighth century (;

the

process of restoration).

Figure 31

From

Fragments of murals fmm the palace at Panjikent.

left to

First quarter

right

an Arab, winged camel, head of a youth.

of the eighth century.

The Pahah^ tf SogMmm

royal art of the Sasanians, Sogdian art
specific rulers.

modest

role,

Even

not

in

was not an expression of dynastic claims by

murals from royal

much more

Sogdian ruler assumed a

rcsidc-ncfs, the

pretentious than thai adopted by other Sogdian

of private dweOingy. The powerful Sasanian rulers,

on the other hand* depicted themsdvts as gO(iU m didr 1^
or as epic heroes in scenes of sin^ combat. The ruler was the model of valor and
dtiaseos in the <iiainenution

greatness for his subjects and heirs.

of valor
tlicir

in

Arir

But the Sogdians, who also tried to show models

on modcls pcovidcd by Utesacy becoes rather than by

art, rt lied

contcitiporarics.

The

of epic subjects

diversity

in the painting oi Panjikciu has

prompted the

anon^tian tbat diese innrals depkted die deeds of die ancestors of die owner

^ven hoine.*'' However,

lated iiteraiy works

the existence of poinongs dnt treat sidigects

from trans-

We recognize only epic

would argue ;^ainst dus assumption.

subjects preserved in foreign literary sources, llie remainder

of the Sogdian

epics"* can be "read" solely from the graphic representations for which only

may

approxnnate interpretations
parative folklore.

It is

not the

be offered by submersion

spirit

of feudal pride

tliat

smdy of com-

the

in

dominates Sogdiau painting

but the pathos of heroism. Tales of chivalry in the West, and SlUShaim in the

Eas^ were die tiwmtt reading matter not only in feudal casdes

homes of the

of which

and Room 6 of sector

paltict'y

do not

bttt also

in die

citizens.

Epics, episodes

are depicted in

nnrak from

Panjikent,'-' and in the

III, at

easily lend themselves to interpretation.

Nana and

batdc of gods (Veshparkar,

and the story of Daliliak

in

its

die Sun)

later variant.

the walls

Stiiiill

Hal!

of the temples,

at

the Shahristan

Wc recognize the grandiose

and mortals against dew%^^

According to

diis vetsitm

(fig. 32),

of die

epic,

Pa||^ is no loi^ a dr^on btit a mler widi seipents that glow from his dionldeis'i* (fig. 33).

However, die famous mouming scene remains as unclear as die

127. Suviskii, Iskusstw Stedtiei

is8. Bekninldi,
1

29- Ibid..

AziL Dmmii period, VI

Mommmiutiwt

lslms$tiw

v.

PaihMtm,

do . i.-VUI

v. n. i.,

206, 214.

17-27, 3-34,

"Rsukopld v Peiuldijlcnte,''ilfMe0bj&heAie c^krytik S974

14-15; Bcleiiitddi et

goJa, 535.
130.

Ncgmatov,

Solcolovikii,

"O

"O zhivopisi dvortsa

shivopifi

Malogo

"Otkrytic Ustrndiany." t^utka

afshinov Ustrushany,"

131. ndcnitskii, M.irsh.ik. " N.i^tninvi-

N^matov

is

SC XXXiX

rala,"

dtehvechalvo;

apparently incorrca

-pisi,"

when he defmes

Skdhcittan as dw vkiocy over pd)^ik.

SA

(1973). 185-2OI, figs. I-I4;

(1974). 49^ 51

meaMmundnyi eshei^odmk

Votadiu^

SCAl

XXXVII

Voronina, Negmalov,
197s, fii-fff.

Sf*-^-. fig- 4; N.N.

wooden tympanum from

(197?).

the mocit' of the

68

The PahUb^

^ SegHaui

Figure j2. Sketch offragments of a mural depiaing a battle

ofgods and mea

ogrnnst

AeikarUatfAtam
ofPanjikenc III :6.

scenes related to

as

dSws :

Nm3 bonAeUon facing

U mdief touwd her.

Eastern

waU

Bj^ftftb cetttury.

it.

These depic

:i

re.inne

reel

horse, the destruction

of

a city, a

men leading a saddled red horse and kneeling mdividuals with swords
at tfadr belts. Most readily identifiable are die pictorial Kferences to GAAes and
parables, notewordiy among which are episodes from the PmeaUmtra and the
fables of Aesop.'}* The fact that Sogdian painting was closely related to Hiecafy
procession ot

and textual sources

is

indicated

by the correspondence between the

subject matter

favored by miniarurists

the Pancatantra

of Sogdian painting and themes

(later Kallla

wa-Dimna), Aesop's fables and the

Sl^knama)] (see

Pat Two,

texts into die ccunposition

Of the
most

later

entire range

difficult to

chapter 2), and

of die Sogdian

of subjects, die

talcs

[i.e.,

of pal]d^ak and

by the introduction

Rusum

<ii

(later

apknatocy

miirals.<

depictions

of the

deities

proved to be the

The Chaghanian ambassador was ver)' familiar widi

unfortiinatelv, know very little about them. In addition to

understand.

the Sogiii-in pods. \Vr.

the gods who were ducussed in

tlic

section

on cultural relations, it has been possible

IJ2. Belenitskii, MonuiiKntal'uoc iskusstvo PendzhiktntA, 49.

133.

HwL.

34. 4*. 49i Bekninki.

Maiduk, "L'ait de Piandjikent,'* Arts Aaatifm XXm (1971).

Copyrighted material

The P^iOit^ of SefgMoM

Figure 33.

69

Da^A, Sketch ofmttralfiom ike northwestern

comer of ffce fortico of die principal ludl

^Temple

I,

at

Pmjiketu. Sixdt century.

Copyrighted material

70

The AmtftRjf

ScgMana

to identify certain celestial deities

Zcravshan'^*

(fig. 34).

and apparently, the goddess of the

However, the

identification

of the deities on the

river,

basis

of

dwir ioMiography requixes fortfaer study. The deities depicted on a large scale in die

on the end wall of die jnindpal rooms may be identified as images

of die one or two patron gods favored by the families that occupied the houses.
compositioii

iTiese deities

were Vcshparkar and Nanaia, Nanaia

throne (Verethragna-u'iyM?), the same god with

god on

and

the camel

long-bearded

(Jigs. 7, S), a

others.'^'

These gods

ddty of die

(fig.

35)

of die home, odiec gods and goddesses weie

nustets

god on

alone, the

wife

in a single pandieon since^ in addition to the patron

a throne with horses (not winged!)

were indnded

liis

c oM tegti in die halls

also depicted in various

ofsome private lesidenoes.

S<^djan divine concepts diiFered substantially fiom those k.tu)wn 6com die

The development of mythological

Avcsta.

of the

deities (at least

two

pairs

narratives, reverence for the consorts

of gods are known), and emphasis on divine

harmony (suggested by musical instruments often found in rehgious iconography)

of gods vdio ap-

are traits peoiliar to the Sogdian religion.'*' Animal^ttributes

peared in Sogdian art only in

human brm wplaoed

gods.**' Allusions to the animal attributes

die animal incarnations

of the gods appear

mounts, their zoomorphic thrones and especially the

flying,

in the

winged

of

gQds* animal

creatures with

the protomes of animals (hg. 31) (possibly reflections of the concept of ii^ejam, the

good

fortune, or greatness,

134. Ibid,

speciiic deity).

These ideas were

reflected in

4a^S>

135. Ibid., 9-10; lyiakonora,

Zh:vofb\

of a

Smimova,

"K vopnMUolciirteNany,''S.4

(1967), 80-81, fig. 5;

XXVI-XXVIII; Bclcnit.kii n .iL, .<;W>XMf<i, pls. XX-XXII. XIX; A. M. Belenitskii,

uony v izobraritcl'iiom iskusitvc Srednei Azii." Izv. AN TadzhSSR, vyp. 1 (a8)
i; ideat, Mommentarnoe ukusstvo PcndzhiketUt, 25; ilein, "Rjdcopki tu gocodtdidie

pis.

"Zoouiorftiye
(1962), fig.

drtvncgo Pcndzhikcma," Arkheologicbeskie

"Nastennyc

XXXIX

rospisi,"

(1974). 49:

1978 excavation season

dtariot

animal.

oikrytiia

SGXXXV1I (1973), 6i-*2;

Al'baum, Zhimtpis J^asiah...

at

igjz goJa, 487-48"*:

Sokolovskii,
pi, II;

BilLnit^kii,

Mirshak.

"O zhivopisi Milogo zala," SGC

Shishkin.

VarMsha,

Panjikem uncovered a mural that depicts a

conflict

pis.

XIV, XV. The

bctweeo a god in a

drawn by a pair of boars and a honeman wearing a hdmet decorated widi the ean of an
The go<J in the boar-<lrawn chariot, iho known from tbewcst waUof Tilfqalr/atFailjikent

(fig. 14),

niay be identified

136. Belenitskii,

as a

rcpre^tuation of Vcshparkar.

Mommenuifnoe

iskusslvo Paidthikenia, 30, pi. 4; Belenitskii,

Marshak,

"Na-

SCE XXXVU (1973), 38-59; Shishkin, V^arakhsha. pL XV; Sokolovikii,

zhivopisi Malogo zaia," SCB XXXJX (1974), 49; fielenicsky, Cenlral Asia, fig. 102.
137. Bdinitild. Maeduk, "L'ait de Ka^keott" Am AsMfut XXm (1971), 13-16.

itcnnyc rojpisi,"

**0

Copyrighted material

The PiamA^

Figure 34.

^ SogHim

71

Goddess on throne supporti'd hy scnniurvs.

Sketch of mural from the eastern wall oj the northern chapel

^Temple II,

at

Pmjihnt. End of

Ji^ century.

72

Tlie Paintings of Sogdiaita

Fij^ure 35.

God 011

mural from the

century.

a throne supported

tiorth

011

wall o/Panjikcnt

horses. Sketch

XXVI

i.

of

Eighth

The Pmttii^ of So^Hau

Sogdiau names

like

earliest paintings {eastern wall

century), the throne

of the nor^iem

<^ the goddess

is

duipel

of

Tmpk n, end of the fifth

supported hy the figures <^ seimurvs.

fortune of the dynasty of the Kayanians. Thus he identifies them with

"font

but

of die

kavis." Ttie "fint

it is still

73

Nanaifarni (possessbg ihcjani of Nanaj.'^* In one of the

of die

unclear as to whether

it

was a symbol

kavis*'

tlic

famous

for the Sogdians.'^'

possessed there an iconography that oorr&>

^nded to the iofiMnnatbn offered by al-Birtau. If it possessed diis iconography,

then the goddess widi whom it is associated remains to be identified.
Characteristics of the Style
Since

it

is

not possible to discuss the clevclopnietit of style

lucntion only a tew essential points.

&x many

art, in

Sogdian

etc..

an independent value.'^ Sogdian

of epic
all

will

methods of

Gupta and

borrowings were fused into a unique unified

art these

in paintings

eighth century,

we

altliough prototypes

are readily found in Knshan,

entity with

art achieves

subjects. In paintings that date

the representational devices,

communicating the content of the

illustrated

its grcate<;t

mainly to the

origtnahty

first half

of the

were subordinated to the aim of

work. The

the viewer in die mounting tension of heroic exploits.

reality

in detail here,

tliat

technical devices, iconographic motifs, color schemes,

conveying space, hand gestures,

Sasanian

Wc note lirst ot all

artist

strove to involve

The viewer was to feel die

of the event and recognize die vicissitudes of batde in the Gqiressitm of the

power and vulnerability <^the combatants. Realinn used to convey die equipment

13S. So^Jiiskic

dokwm-niY H,

5^.

On

the font see

(Dushanbe 19^) (with a complete bibliography).

ijjj. Bdenitskil Manhak, "Naslcnnyc rospisi,"
140. Sec tho Isl.mliul

iii.iiuisirijn, r..li,<

B.A. litviuldi, Km^bdsboftmutAti fim

XXXVII

(1973). S^f-SO-

\2]h, .il-Hirilni, The ('hronolM^u's of Ancient

.W/iiih.;,

in

A.B. Kbaliduv. "Dupulncmia k cclutu 'Kiuonolugii' al-Biriiiii pu Iciuttgcadskoi i scautbul'skoi

rakopimm.'' Patadnskii AamA, vyp. 4(07) (Mmkva/Lcningrad 19^9). isMtext), 166 (trantlation).
Scc.iKo Abii Raihan aI-Rirrini(i)73-io4H), sflceti J w.^rks traiislati J bv M. A, SjIV, ItbramyepmzvluAci mention ot Xurisin-xurra
f</4'ww 1 ( 1 ashkcnt 1957), J H- al-M-i*''utli(II,
_j>
on the seal of Khusro II, sec E. Icrzt'cld. AMI IX:2 (193S), IJ?.
I

141. Livdutt. Sogdiiskie dolnunany

142. B.

Rowland gave Sogdun

II,

K7.

painting a high cvakiadon.

Rowland, Cenlml Asian Art, 54-75,

1X6.

Copyrighted matBrial

74

TkePrin^^StgiUm

and

realia (fig. 36)

endows

authenticity

and epic

darity of details in die lepwsentatioa of die

detail

and enhances the sharp

of dioie who

wotmds and

Hie contrast in levds of tension cieaies a oomplex diythm m die narrawhich first accelerates and then slows down in the ccmdniious firieze that

petished.
tive

stretched along the walls. Partly because of

its

unfiiniliar nature

and novelty and

partly because ol the tr.iirnicntary nature oi the p.iintini^s, Scigdian murals had

appeared to early investigators as

restrained canon.

proven diese

The

traits

mannered and anstocratu

ally refined,

with a

suhsequent discovery of great epic cycles, however, has

to be the manifetations of a nnified, diythmical organization

that best corresponded to the heroic spirit

of Sc^dian

art.

The combination of repetition in individual features with compelling originality

of the whole characterizes the murals from Panjikent. Even compositions that

were executed

at the

same time

differed substantially

in

from each

two adjacent houses and depicted

other. There are

no

traces

of

the same gods

the use of any

mechanical methods ofttansferring a prdiminary sketch to the wall (see Part TwOt

Figure

XVI

36.

Sketch

of a detad of a nwrai jiiom Panjikent

10. Eighth century.

Copy iiyhiuo

inaiuiial

Tfic Paintings of Sogdiana

Figure 37.

Lower ornamental

border.

reconstruction

75

of a

mural from the west wall of the portico of Panjikcnt X.

Seventh-eighth centuries.

chapter
readily

5).

Like an epic poet improviscr

remembers

memory

professional

helped

him

epic formulas he has

who

in the specific

could become

command of the
artist easily

subject

found

and

in his

conventional graphic elements, the knowledge of which

to develop his subject rapidly

keen interest

has a

memorized, the

moment,

and

Sogdian

surely.

particularly the

art

never

lost its

moment of danger which

fatal.

Although volume was sometimes conveyed only by means of the sketch, both
lightly

modeled

flat silhouettes.

figures

The

and those completely devoid of modeling never became

figure.

The

and relaxation of tension was expressed

increase

palmctte of an ornament

(fig. 37), in

each fluttering ribbon and in each

development of the forms

that arc often distinguished

by

the bright blue, red or deep black of the background.

each

human

human form

is

strictly logical

from

narrow waist

colors that contrast with

The development of the

rises a

broadening body with

powerful rounded shoulders. The arms, muscular and broad

taper

in

viewer's eye docs not grasp the composition as a whole but traces the

down to light,

mobile hands with finely drawn

fingers.

at the shoulders,

A broad, strong neck

supports a light head with tapered skull.

laterial

The Ariffilmgs

76

SoglSana

Expression was achieved not by the style of execution but by the expressiveness
ot the forms themselves witli their powerful curvings and flaiiiclikc terminations.
distracted

from the development of action, and the subject matter was

directly connected

with the events portrayed. Sometimes the lower e(%e of the

Nothing

register, the

ground

The vigorous

line

on which the

made

figures

achieved

its

figures stand,

was not even

indicated.

the ground line dispensable.

This was Sogdian painting of the

greatest originality.

first

half of the eighth ccntur)', a time

At the end of the

less clearly

manifested. Despite their

hands, and

weak and

less

fifth

when

it

centurv these features were

slender proportions, large heads, large

were depicted

thin legs, the figures that

in early

Sogdian

pani tings had certain merits that were later lost in the endeavor to depict the heroic
naxiative. Less coocetned

much

voted

with die development of action^ the early masters do-

attention to the rendition of spatial depth

complex compositions such

found

as that

in the

and

structured

famous mourning scene

and

(fig. 56).

Sometimes they even showed the ground line in "perspective." indicating the lower
line

of the horizon on which the

figures stood'*^ (fig. 23).

f^ural representations lacked the expressive quality of the

But

the faces,

viewer,

On

die wliole, the

later representations.

with their large eyes and large hands, demanded the attention of die

b developing die fium, die

artists used all

die devices ofmodelii^, darken-

ing die depdis, shading the shadows and marking the projecting
white.

what

The contours may be heavy or

coarse, but they are never flaccid.

achieved

As

less

fine,

The

sccti<Mis

wtdl

broken or unbroken, and often someexprcssivcIK^s ot the early paintings

is

through formal means than through the vigorous brusliwork.

in die wdl4Eiiown paintings

of Toprak-kala and Miran, edioes of dw

eady stage of die devdopment of Sogdian

Hellenistic tradition are present in the

painting which differ

stage

from murals of the

first

half of the eighth cenniry.

The later

of Si>gdian painting, exemplified by the murals from the Small Hn//,

Shahristan. has

its

own

distinctive traits.

By

the time of this later stage (about the

turn of the eighth-ninth centuries), the solemnity and heroic nature of the images

in die representation

is

is

accompanied by the presence ot certain inaccuracies

of realia.

Thb loss, however, was compensated by die subtle

reduced as at Panjikcnt. This

proCessitmal virtuosity in draftsmanship and by an intensification ofthe deliberately

sharpened and distinctive features of personages and events. In the three registers

ofpaintii^ from the Shahristan royal hall which depict the battle of gods and men

I4J. iklcmtskii, Mar^iak.

"NuMcimye

rospbi,"

SCB XXXVII (1973), 60.

Copyrighted matsrial

Vw P/HmiHgs of Sogditm
aguastdewi, the

artist

drew upon

Occasionally, the form

may

a varied

appear

uiiLisii;iI

because of

combination of stcxk elements, yet each tune

by the

artist's

77

repertory of scenes of entertainment.'**

this

tlic

aiiatoinically iiicorrL'ct

apparent inaccuracy isjastitieJ

attempt to sharpen die diaracteristic features peculiar to a given

theme. Such ddibetate deviatioas are latdy found at Panjikent.

masters also proved original in their plication

The

Shahristan

of color, making extensive use of

oquisite combinaticms of green and blue, which were difficult to harmonize, and

unknown
The

at Panjikent.

liistorical

course of the Sogdian nation, which

knew

the oppression of the great monarchies of Asia, fouiul

and dynamic

ait.

Although

its

development was

its

neither the

power nor

expression in a brilliant

tragically interrupted in the

dghdi-nindi oentones, Sogdian art kft its mark on die subsequent txaditions aithe
nations

144.

of Middle Asia.

"O zhivopisi dvonsa afihinov U^tnuhany,"

J {i97j), I95-I961 figl. Ij. I4;
"O zhivopisi Malogo zala," SC XXXIX (1974}, 49-32.

Ncgmatov,

Sokolov&kil,

.^.-l

PART TWO

Sogdian Paintmg

The

Pictorial Epic in Oriental

Art

by Guitty Azarpay

Copyrighted material

The Background: The

I.

Traditions

of Early Medieval Painting in Transoxiana

Tlie cailiest cdfeioice to a tnkUooii

from an observation

attributed

ofwaU paindng m die ban^

by Atlunacus to Chares of Mitylcnc's work en-

titled Xfcrro of Alexander, datable to the lourlh

was

sucli that the Iranians

century before Christ." According

of the Median romantic

to tins stnircr, the popularity

had "picttucs of the story

tale

of Zariadrcs and Odatis

and palaces

ui their temples

and abo in didr private dwellmgs.'** llie nuxtf ofZariadres and Odatis, wbidi was
connected vridi the local Median cult of Aiuhita, has even survived in Persian
sources

hy

virtue

<^ its adhenon to the

Kayanian cyde o epics in

east Iranian

Sasanian times.'

Achaenicnid times of

If Chiires' reference suggests the existence in

tradition

connection with popular

astrian church,

no evidence

The earliest existing

for

it

cilcs

outside the

exists in material

strict

mural

context ol the Zoro-

remains from that period.*

fragments <3( murals horn the Iranian world appear to date

fipom die subsequent Hellenistic period, and these are essentially Gredc in style and

content
I.

(fig. 4.1).)

Adienacus XIII:

3. L.

A more snbstandal body of early murals,

datable to the

Peanon. The Lost Histories ojAkxauder the (Sreat, Philological Muiiugraphs XX (New York:

The Amctkan FhibbBkil Assodatioa, t9((o). 39.

Z.ir.T." RSOA<; XVII;j
3. Mary Boyw. "Zariadn-s
.v.v.\

(p>m). 470fr.

4.

A. Belenillky, Central Asiu, ArLlutologu Muisdi (ClLvclandiNcw York

5.

The

Aurcl

first

35, 575.

earliest painting

Stein,

tic style

excavated

at

Ghagha-shahr, KalM-KhwjJ.i.

I9<5S),

210.

in Irani.-tn Sistan,

by

Sir

now in the Centnl Aaan Antiquities Museum at New Delhi, shows a purely HcUeni^

and subject matter. Stein dates

this painting to die

Parduan or early Sasanian period, see

i^f Rxph^rations in Central Asia, Kan-m muI Hit^lent Irji: II (Oxfurd

pL 54; F.H. Andrews, Catalogue of Wall-Paituinjis from Ancietil Shrines in
58-$9 (Gha. iv). pL III. However, HerzfeM's later discover-

Inmriih'f! .4*M, Detailed Report

1928), 91J-921, fig. 467,

Cmrm/ Asia and ShOn (Delhi 1933), vii,

ies

of Pardiian

tnur.ils at

Kuh-i-K!\waj:i provide local nitcccdeiits

Irjgnient discovcrcJ hs Sloin (tlha.

5Ciu.iti<Mi

sec

I.

of the Dioscuri,

in

iv).

lic il.uc .>t tlic

fiir

the Hcllciiistii: stvlc

rfcciul) ilisinvcrcii iniiril with

northern Atgh.imst.in, will remain unccrt.iin until

KrugUkova's note in Afglunisim,

Historical

and Cuburtd Quarterly

its

thi-

(if

the

rrprf-

fuller publication,

XXV :j

(Kabul

is>7a).

99-100.

81

Copyrighted matBrial

ThePltM^^^ ^kiHOrklltatArt

82

new

tour ccnnirics after Christ, has survived in the east Iranian world where

won control of territories contrtillcil earlier by Hellenistic

nileis. The diaracteristk mode of artistic expression adopted by these new Iranian
Iranian dynasties

mixed one, apdy tenned (^ueeo-baniM by Danid Sdilomberger.'

dynasties was a

Whereas
ples

Hellenistic (and later

were

mto

Graeco-Roman)

retained, the subject matter

accommodate
recede

had

the

demands

ol the

of

the background, those

is

indicated

and iconographic princistyle

new age. Thus while themes

by die

was transformed
o{

to

Greek mythology

of immediate and local signiticancc predominate.

That dynastic legitimacy was a pressing

Iranian states

stylistic

mixed

this

institution

issue for the

newly

of the dynastic

established east

cult in the Parthian,

Kushan and Kfawarezmian slates. The ruler's daims and credentials are graphically
from the shrine and funerary monument

eacpcesied in the stone sculpture

Conimagcnc,
of the

tirst

Anatolia.

at

western forerunner of these dynastic shrines, built around themiddle

century

ts.c.

by the kings of Conmiagcnc,

Dynastic legitimacy

is

at

Nirirud Oagh,

in eastern

here claimed on grounds ol linear descent from

the Achaemenid kings and by virtue of the divine sanction extended to die ruling

house by the major gods of the Iranian pantheon and dieir Semitic and Graeco-

Roman
The

counterparts.

establishment of the cult center in the

a tw-ofold purpose.

It

proclaimed the

his exclusive claim to sovereignty

phenomenon

new

Iranian states apparently served

nilcr's divinely sanctioned success,

on account of

led to the association

his

proper lineage.

of the dynasdc shrine with an

and
1

he

it

laid

latter

ancestral

monument that housed idealized ancestral images. The an<xstral shrines at Commagene and in Khwarezm, furthermore, assumed a dearly funerary function. The
preeminence of the royal portrait and
art

its

association with divine

of the new Iranian dynasties were interpreted bv

indications

and in the
sistently

of the

deitication

of the

ruler."

But

I")a!!iel

imagery in the

Schliimbcrger

the ruler portraits at

east Iranian shrines display strictly

as

Coinmagciic

temporal ambitions. Their per-

worldly message is validated by divine interventioa. The expression ofthe

On< i\t. liic griccliisdu- tinJ w< /.i;rri /n

Kxtis/ aui-crhalb des
Welt (Dadcn-Badcn 1969), 181-189.
am Nymphaios," hianbiiler Forubimgai 23 (Dcrlin 196J);
P.K. DSmer et al.. "Ananda am Nymphaios," ArehaologisthiT Anzeiger (1965), i88; P.K.
Donur. " AiMiiit iti' Nympkiiot," buuMer MItteihmgm 16(19^ i3M56;Sdilumberger, Der
6.

D. Schllimbcrgcr, Dcr

Mittehihrrrtwiiu
7.

-,

hfllaiiiicric

Kiinst dcr

F.K. Damet, T. Goell, "Anajueia

hcUenisicne Orient,
8.

SchhunbeiBer, Der heBaltiale Oriat, 189.

Copyrighted malBrlal

HieBadigmnid 83
nder's inherited rights and personal wortli had to be authenticated by divine
sanction.

Thus the Greek

Sclcucids differed

from

cult of the divini7cd ruler that

new

the

Iranian dynastic cults

Whereas the Sdeodd Idi^ claimed to be a

by posing

stylistic

of the

ventions, the content of Gracco-Iranian art

tlie banian

of divine

as deserving recipients

permeated with Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman

first

rnlen asserted

and iconographic confour centuries was thuS

new

moamnents of die

first

ibur centuries.

The

group was

eariiest

uncovered in the early Kushan palace excavated by G. Pi^achenkova

in

age.

groups of murals have been associated by Schlumbeiger with the east

Iranian dynastic

yan

Though

blessing.'

defined by secular and religious patterns that were peculiar to the

Two

essential pouit.

of the godhead and

personification

derived audiority from his claim ofdivine embodiment,

dieir authority

developed under the

on one

Khalcha-

at

northern Bactria, and the later group was excavated by Ernst Herzfeld in

To

the east Parthian palace at Kuh-i-Klnvaja in Sistan.''

Kushan monuments

Schluinbcrgcr's

of the

list

associated with the Gracco-Iranian artistic style should be

added the murals from the palace and funerary monuments uncovered by S.P.
Tolstov in ancieitt

Khwatezm

dw

in

basin

Amu Dar'ya

of the lower Oxus or

River (see

The

early Kushan, Parthian

and Khwarezmian murals demonstrate,

progressively diminishing scale, the use

the modulated

line,

and proporticMis

the effect

of figures,

of Hellenistic

stylistic features

of plastic modeling, the

and

in

if

on a

e^^fesscd in

relatively realistic postures

the treatment ot draperv.

hc use ot

tiie

three-

quarter view of the head, the soft curled hair and idealized features of Hellenistic
art seen in die murals fim

Khalchayan and Kiih-i-Kbwaja" are distantly recalled

In the strong;jawed and pouting iacesofKJtwareamian art (pi. a).'* Ifthe Hellenistic
9.

G. Azarpay, "Crowns and Some Royal

Iinignia in Early

Inm," iran/M

Ami^ DC (1972),

108-115.
10. E.

HcrzicU,

Iran in

I-II6; idem, Anhaeoli'j^ical

thi:

Amifilt Eos!

I listotf

pnUewf Uitidflzhestratnoi ktil'tury

Kiukhayam (Moskva 1 971), 128.

f bmn

11. S.P. 'Iclstov, Atkhiclo'^kha-fhii

TXXu4

I,

Btditrii

1941), 291-301; idem,

Istmia

ifhtsfti'

87-S)(.

figs.

clth\-{;rahclicsl:ie

rtihi^ty

K'/fpri'CPjiit.ii'

iL'.tprJi!\ii

TKM n (1958), iijf.. figi. 99-100: G. A. Pugadienkova.

Vsbekistaiia c Jrcvtwifhikh vrcnicii

i.-W v.
la

do n.

See above, n.

(/c

.wJiny

deviatnaJtuHort^

iQ-f^

I'M

tg4S,

khottzmAri

L.I.

Rempel',

sk\-.:

u/i<,).

S.P. Tolstov, B.I. Vainbcrg, Koi-krylgm-kala, paiiitMiiik kul'tury drfviu-^o

K.S-K6;

Khomma IV v.

Sh^flma

(Tashkent 1966), 144^133; eadem,

{1952), 40&\, ligs. 28, jo; idem, Afkhtolo^iche^ic eltwgrajitheskie r^Aoty

ihpttBtHi i949-i9S3,

la.

(Loiuior. 1935), 3S.

ttvtmoi

AMI IV,
G. A. Pigarfcmlcmfa, JiAdUdJHM, k

(New York/Oxfoui

n. i.

(Mockva

1967). ai4^aiS> fig> So.

x]. See above, n. ii.

Copyrighted matBrial

84

The KttorUd

style

^m

Oriental Art

and iconography were adopted for the imagery of Iranian gods

in

Graeco-

banian ar^ as indicated by the inscribed Kushan coin tepcesentati<HU of Iranian

gods, die local banian dress and a linear and hieratic style were reserved

royal

finr

portraits.**
It is

unnecessary' to debate ami elaborate here

have been

murals from Kuh-i-Kliwaja.'*

on the chronological problems that

with the Khalchayan palace and the Parthian

raised in connection

may

It

be noted, however, that Schlumberger's

attribution ofdie Ehaldiayan palace and its nuuals to die first century a.d.,

and Ins

ptdGoence for a late Parthian date for the Kiih-i-Kliw^a murals, are moce acceptable

on

stylistic

excavators.

grounds dian die

The

linear

and

earlier dates

proposed for diese

sites

by

dieir

treatment of the figures in the Kuh-i-Kh'wija

flat

murals, and the presence there of specifically Kushan

would argue

artistic devices,

for their association with the Toprak-kala mnrals from the Klnvarczmian palace
that

was destroyed by the Sasanians probably

in the early llurd century.""

Thus

if

die early Kushan murals from the Khalchayan palace represent die eariiest examples

of painting from die new era of the east Iranian dynasties, diose fin Toprak-kala
(and probably Kuh-i-Khwaja) exemplify the
It is

noteworthy

that

latest phase.

whereas the dynastic and secular tradition continued into

the third centurv in the art of Khwarczm and in that of the Parthian world,

it

replaced in Kushan Bactria by Gracco-Buddhist art in the second centur)'."'

development of canonical Buddhist images

the peipetuadon of Graeco-Iraiuan

in

was

The

Gracco-Buddhist art contributed to

stylistic traits

which were soon

lost

or trans-

formed in die early medieval artistic traditions c^Sasanian Peiaia and non^Btiddhist
Transoxiana.

The

earliest

examples of Gracco-lUuklhist wall paintings arc

nordi Bactrian Buddhist cave monastery

14, Sir

Orioiral

Mark Aurel

Striti,

Rtwrd {London

field. Tilt' Dyiiii.(/iV Arts

I j. Scliluiiibcrger,

16.

at

known from

the

Termez, dauble to the second and

"Zoroastrkti Deidei on Indo-Scythkn Coins," Tke

1S87), 155-166; idem, in InJuv; Ai!ti:]uary

(Bombay 18M),

BiA/biAm

8i)ff.;J.

md

RoaOH

of the Kushans (Bcrkcicy/Los Angeles 1969), passim.

Drr hcllenUette Orieni,

$gff.

On the question of Khwarezinian chronology, tet G. Azaipay, "Nine Inicribed CkoRtmian

disandon of the "Bactrian"

traits in the murals from

On Indian features in the art of KIpa ,1(Moskva 1962). zijfT.; and its critique in
G. Azarpay, "The Civilizatkms of Transoxiana in Parddan and Sassankn Times," section on

Bowls,"

Artibtts Asiae igf^. 1K5

Knh-i-Khwuj.i,

si-i'

Srliluinlxrgi-r, [h

rczm, sec S.P. Tolstav, Po

Khwarczm

I,

Da

1963},

'k

'/i

uiMcrri Orit

dmmim M'lain Oksa

C.timhriJ'^f //iV.wj'

17. Sthluinbcrger,

iMu^(New Yoik

20}. For a

of Irjn

heUaiisii-nc

III fin

itt.

sy.

lAknirta

pre).

Onait, iXj-iSg; B. Rowland, 77<f Evoluiion

oj the BtiJdlia

iiC

Copyrighted material

The Background

Figure 38. Bodhisattva painted in the niche

Great Buddha,

Bdmiydn, Afghanistan.

to the lefi

Photo

85

of the

courtesy

Josephine Powell.
early third century, and

The

Gandharan paintings froniHadda ofa slightly later period.'*

relatively realistic proportions

produced by the chiaroscuro

of the

tecliniquc,

figures, the effect

and the

naturalistic

Graeco-Roman

these Gracco-Buddhist paintings perpetuate the

18. B.I A. Staviskii, Kara-tepe, buJJiiskii peshclirmyi inonastyr v i:taroin

1969, 1972), for the

(Moskva

murjU

1972), 63-66, figs,

sec vnl.

on

Ill, pis.

pp. 64, 66.

Central Asia (Ediuoiu d'Ari Albert Skira,

Art," BtcyclopaeJia of World Art Vill

Asia

(New York

IV-V; idem,

On

ihc iimrals

Geneva

(Rome

15)63),

of

"K

plastic

modeling

drapery folds found in

style

which was

TmMf I-FII (Moskva

ig^4,

otkrytiiain na Kara-tcpc," Iskusftvo 7

sec M. Dus.sagli, Painting of

from HaJda,

1963), }6, 124:2;

2-18,

pi. 5;

B.

M.

Halladc, " Indo-Iranian

Rowland, The Art of Central

1974), 36-39.

Cc,.._,

86

Tlie Pictorial Epic in Oriental

Figure Jp. Female

the Crcat

BuMia,

tiotior

Art

painted on the vault to the right of

Bdniiydit, Ajghatiisiati.

Photo courtesy

Josephine Powell.

thence passed to the third century' Buddhist paintings of Miran in Eastern Turkes-

tan." Hellenistic vestiges survived even

images of Central Asia long

later in the archaistic st)'lc

after their disappearance

from the

of the Buddhist

secular arts

of that

area.

The Gracco-Buddhist

tradition

of southern Tukharistan

to Bactria in early medieval times), represented

(figs.

38-39), Kakrak and Fundukistan,= in Afghanistan,

19. Sir

M.irk Aurcl Stein, Serindia: Detailed Report of Explorations

China (Oxford 1921), vol.

idem, Culture

II,

456^., vol. IV,

e civilia deirAsia

pis.

XL-XLV

Cenirak (Tormo 1971), 151

(the

term used to refer

by the cave paintings of Bamiyan

in

is

also

met

in

northern

Central Asia and IVestemmost

Bussagli, Painting of Central Asia,

Rowlajid, The Art of Central Asia,

SfF.

joff.

Tukharistan (along the rigHt bank ot the upper Oxus). However, the

covered in the Buddiusc monastery

nocdwrn TiMStkSa,

at Ajuia-cepe, in the

murak un-

lower Vaklish Valley in

and two-dtmenaonal qudttia

introdtice the stiictly linear

of dw lecalar painting st^ into an otherwise Graeco-Buddliist artistic context.'*

The

and two-dimensional

linear

style also prevailed in die

non-Buddhist art of

soudiem Tbkhartsian, as exemplified by die murals fiom Dukhtar-i-Nushirvan and

Dalverzin."

B.A. Litvinsky and

T.I.

Zcymal have sought

the Buddliist art

the origin

of

northern Tukliiristan, preserved in the murals and sculpture of Ajina-tepe, in

the traditions ofGupta bidia. Bactria (Graeco-Buddhist art), and the non^oddlutt
act

of TukhSristSn.*> Different proportions of the same influences were doubtless

largely responnble for local variations in the Buddhist art

of the various cave

monastries in southern Tukharistan.

The Gracco-Buddhist
ment

in the early

arc

of Tukharistan and Candhara found further develop-

medieval Buddhist art of Scnndia. But

wall pauitmg tradition contributed to

some of

the oasis

of the Tarim

cities

originated in die Buddhist art

horn

tiie

it

a strain of the

development of

tlie

basin,*^ diat strain

of Transoxiana,

must

as exem{dified

Ajinar^qpe^ radier than in the non-Buddhist

and

secular

Sogdian

Buddhist

art

of

surely have

by the

material

schooh of Sogdian

painting.

The carHcst example of the non-Buddhist secular art of the early medieval
in Transoxiana

20.

is

represented by murals uncovered at the

BainiyJn and Kakrak: A. God.ird

ct

.1,.

La

site

period

of Balalyk-tcpc,

MDAFA U
MDAFA III (Paris
MDAFA VIII

nHiujtiMf. boiuidhiqiu-s de BUniiyjn,

(Paris 1928); J. Hackin, J. Carl. Noiwellc:- rcoicrJws arcUeoh^itpm it BtimfSn,

j^^^umOoK (19^-1940),
1933): J. Hackin c( al., Ditwses recherdus MckeologiqueM

(Paris 1959)

York

Buaagli, Painting c f Central Asia,

iiX<(>), idriii,

T'lc

An

;>/'

Ci

tj.'r.i/

j^SfT

B. Rowland, Andmt Art/mm A fghamsian

A-i:i, 70ft. Fimdiiki'.t.in

MDAFA

J.

Hjckin

ct

al.,

(New

Dii'rrtr'.f ri-clierihes

1959); J. Hackin, "The Buddhut

Mnunery of Foodukistan," ThejMmal of the Greater India Sodeiy VII i (Calcutta 194a), t-t4, and

Ofthiologiijftcs

sn A^lumistan {>933-tg4o),

VUI (Pans

Vn:2, 85-91; B. Rowland. "The Bejewelled Buddha in Afghanistan." Artibui Asiae XXIV:r
D. Barrett, "Sculptures of the Shahi Period,"

{1961), 20-24; idem, The Art of Central Asia, 116;

Orimial Art
21.

111:2 (1957), 54-J9.

B. A. litviniky, T.I. Zeymal, Adthiiu-Tepa: ArdUteame,

Anitttiij,

Sadpture (Moikva 1971},

ST-7.
aa. A. Godard

ct al.,

m MDAI A

niaia Baktriu v svcic tiov

Pnfesor Geoi^e Dales

II

(Pji;s

65-74; I.T. Kruglikova, V.I. Sarianidi, "Drev-

kh ackhcologichcskikh ockr^cii,"

for this tcfoence.

23, Litviniky, Zcymal, Adzhina-Tepa, 337-133.

24. Bussagli, Painting of Cmtrd Asia, 48.

SA 4 (1971),

1^4-177.

wisli to ihaiik

88

VuPiOmal^inOrunUdArt

Fi^'Krc ^0.

Ihiiipu'ti-rs dcpictal in fhc (Morj/ i'x the

oj the principal hall at liaiaiyk-upt;

ii>i:<t

Uzhckisiaii

wall

SSR,

Sixth-sevettA century, &ietdt ofierAVbaumt Balalyktcpc,

north ofTermcz,

day Uzbekistan

in the Surkhaii

SSR (fig. 40. pi.

Dar'ya basin,
3,

map

2).

in

northern TukhSristan, in present-

The Sogdian "Bukhara letten" found

on coins from this site, suggest a date from the fifth century** (see Part One, p. 49).
Balalyk-tepc was evidently the
reconstruction tollowing
sixth ccntiiry,

The

%\

lun

its

rlic

site

of a country

nuirals, whicli readied a height

bencii), ilepicted
(pi. 3, fig.
hijiir. s

scat with a fortress th:it uiulorwont

perinj of Hephthahtc rule, after

rcccuieular Lentral

of

liall

tlie

iiuddle of the

was decorated with wall

1.8 ni

from the

fiijja

paintings.

(continuous wall

an array of tnale and female banqueters and didr attendants

40). Placed against a flat patterned

badcground, the reclining and seated

which emphasis

are arranged in groups in a shallow pictorial space in

placed on contrasting areas of

flat

tionship of two-dimensional forms.

color, ornamental pattern,

The

statidani proportions,

and the

f.icia!

features, dress

and groupings enhance the overall coinpusitioiial harmony. Variations

pattern, gesture, orientation

in dress

cAe figures and dieir eye movements punctuate

continuous composition mtti areas of special

interest.

But

is

interrela-

the

these accents ate indi-

cated widi uniform uitensity and without a dramatic emphasis or climax.

As representative murals firom the post-Kushan or the early medieval period in

aj. L.

I.

Al'baain.B/l|]ffc-l(fr,

k iaomnu/ttTU^nmMtturj iitkusttva ToiUru)MM(Tailikeiit 191S0).

Copyright(xl inalenal

The Bed^round 89
Transoxiana, the Balalyk-tcpc paintings appear suddenly with a consistent

and iconographic rcpcnory

stylistic

m which Hellenistic features arc conspicuously absent.

To tecomtruct the pcocesies hy which the Graeoo-Iraman style imderwent ttan^

fbnnadon m die early medieval art of Transoxiana we must turn to comparable
material firom neighboring cultures.

Contemporaneous comparisons are ofieted

both by Central Asian Buddhist paintings and by the secular butfir^mcntarymuraU

from
and

Sasaiiiaii Persia.

Damghan

Murals from the early and middle Sasanian palaces

stricted thematic repertory of the otficial court art, better

If the realization

distinctive dress,

known fromother media.'*

mural tradition with diat at Balalyk-tcpe, die two

maritedly in theme, iomogra^iy and em^iasis.

and the absence of a

I5alalyk-tepe tmirals

from the

central or

The

relatively

st\'le.

distinguish the

and the conventional

Since Sasanian artistic traits

conibuiation with features peculiar to the Balalyk-tcpe murals

earlier Graeco-Iranian artistic style, their later bifurcation

independent internal developments withm the two

the eariier Graeco-Iranian patterns

of Transoxiana

may be

later traditions.

as the narrative

early medieval times. In Transoxiana,

in

dards were not subject to

SOtac diversification of

official

approval

as in

artistic practices in

early medieval period.

Thus whereas
official

and illustrative st^

where

artistic stan-

Sasanian Persia, there appeared

the various

rebted, nevertheless, in the style and content

the

ni

attributed to

were channeled in the direction of an

court style in Sasanian Persia, they crystallized

differ

in&rmal mood,

dominant imago

rigidly formal compositions

iconograjihic rcpcnor\ ot the Sasanian court

in

Susa

of the earlier tendency towards a linear and two-dimensional style

associates die Sasanian

appear

at

preserve an echo ot the Hncar and two-dimensional style and re-

of their art

workshops which were

at the beginning

of the

Thm Graeoo-Roman stylisdc traits whidi were retained in

the non-Buddhist Sogdian paintings of the fifih and sixth centuries from Panjikcnt
reflect the earlier patterns

of Kushan

art that

were abandoned

in

the late sixth

and

eariy sevendi century murals (pi. 3, fig. 40, see Part One, p. 3

26. tot tr.igincms ol

ilic

Sasanian wail paiiinngs, sec R. Ghirshman, Persian An, ilw

I'ariiiuiit

and

B.C.-AD. 6st (New York 1961), iSj, fig. 224 (tfiird to founh century
le&ience to muials (torn Eiwan-i-Kicikha (fourth cctuury). A laie fifth to

SastMiat\ Dyiuiiik's, ^49

mural

firoin Susa), also

sixth cenniry fr-igment

lioih

.1;

7V,'!!'

//(.vM,

h also known from the Sasanian

Diiiitj^liaii

fPliil.uifljilii.i

1937),

palace at

<i7-,1v'*.

dtinciiyioiul style vif tftcsc ^muiiuii inuidU iiniuasis with

Bishapur where tbe Giaeoo-Ronun

west, sec

R. Cihinhman, FouilU f dc

^itylc

ilic

Damghan.
i7-(

E. F. Schmidt, Extava-

I7S. Tlio linc.ir .inj tw>>-

ilutU LCiiiury

Sauii inus^uo truin

was emulated in the wake of Sitapur'c conquests in the

Bkhapcur II, Musfe du Louvie, D^MlKment dcs

Cliapour,

antiquitds orientalcs, titK archculogi(|ue VII (Pahs 1936).

The

90

Pictorial Epic in Oriental

Art

Figure 41. Early Sasaiiittn mural from Ghdgha-shahr IV,

Ktih-i-Khwdja, Sistan, showing two male figures. Central

Asian Antiquities Museum, Neu' Delhi, height 5

width 7.3 feet.

An

Copy

after Stein,

intermediate position between the

and narrative

tradition

of Transoxiana

Sasanian date from Sistan.

by

Sir

is

official

///,

Sasanian court art and the secular

occupied by murals of early and middle

The mural from Ghagha-shahr IV, Kuh-i-Klnvaja, dated

Aurcl Stein to the early Sasanian period, was executed on

constituted a single register that depicted

ful

feet,

Innermost Asia

two male

figures.

Greek type and an older man, were depicted with bare

traces

of broad

soft outlines in red.

band superimposed by

a pattern

Above

of

the figures

Both

mud

plaster,

figures, a

and

youth-

torsos painted pink with

was depicted an acanthus

tied leaves (fig. 41).

The Ghagha-shahr IV

TheBtd^mmd
mural with

irs

Hellenistic

srv'Ic

and iconography stands

Middle Sasanian mural troiu Glugha-shahr I,

shows two superimposed

registers

diadem and

figttre on

tlie

in

Stcin.^ "

lower roister direct

the left nde of die composition.

him

their attentioii

The latter figure wears

like a fir

cone,"

or high ranking

as a royal

a three-headed figure

pose wid> palms opened outwards.

latter

richly patterned garment, relatively large

proportions, and reclining posture distinguish

He is confronted by

The

mud plaster.

tempera on

korymbos composed of **a mass of imhrications

and holds an ox-hcaded mace. His

personage.

in sharp contrast to the

uncovered by

of figures painted

iWe of die (oat figures preserved in

towards a seated

also

91

who stands in

a supplicatory

One of the two figures behind him is crowned

and appean to extend a dish towards die seated figure. The fiutastic and legendary

of this scene led Stem to

quality

Rustam. But

would

identify die seated figure as the Sistanian hero

his ox-headed mace, royal attire, and his tricephalic antagonist

him

sccni to associate

rather with Faridfin.

impious

tricfjihalic Dalihak, acron-jplished

mace,

recorded in

is

its

dramatic

II

F-nridun's

triumph over the

by nu-ans ot the royal hero's ox-lieadcd

moment

in Parthian art,-'' its result

suggested in die later Sistanian mural.

The Gfaagluedidir I maal is

fim die official court art of Sasanian

Persia not only in

in the efiect

of plastic modeling produced by the

fiture<; that distinguish the Sistanian

richer

with

TukhSristini.

is

ofieted

treatment

of die

damaged upper register. The

mural from the Sasanian court art are

artistic

developments

body of comparative material

painting in Tnuisoxiana

dieir

it

perhaps

epic interest, but also

illusionistic

heads, and in the dress of the figures dejHcted in the

ciscly those that associate

its

is

disdnguished

pn^

Transoxiana.

in

for our study ot the secular traduion

by the Buddhist cave

paintings

However, the chronological value of the Buddhist

of

from soudiem

paintings,

with

twofold origin in Gupta India and die Gracco-Buddhist art of Central Asia,

will remain uncertain until the dates

and

fiamiyan, Kakrak and Fundukistan arc

27. Stein, Imtcrmost Asia

11,

913-921,

stylistic

sequence of the paintings from

more fidly and

pi. 54, fig.

definitively established.'^'

468; Andrews, Caialo^it oj tltc IValt-Paituiiigs

fim Andent Shrbus in Cntfnf AHa mid S&dn, vn, 37-5S, heiglit of the muni is 6 ft 4 ins.. In 'width
7 ft.
aS.

A.D.H.

H}.

S- .lUivc,

nivar,
II.

"A

Parthian Amulet."

YoHc
paedia

1946), )5-r4a;idcin.

Huiiiieii in

RSOAS XXX: j

(1967). sta 525.

;o. also n. Rk'aI.ukI, "Tin- Djiint; nt rlic S.is.inian Paintings at n.iiniyan

Uukhlar-i-Nushirvaii," fiu/Zrlm

World Art Vill

ojilic Uaiiian luuituic

The Art efCenlnA Asia,

T^tf.;

(Rome igf-j), ;-iS; \K.

U (Wiesbaden 1967),

Bakirim und Indien

Vl:i-4, VU:i, 1946 (The

AsU

M. HalMe, **Indo-lniiian

Gobi.

Di>ilewiiMM(r

266-267.

xm

Uutituic,

and

New

Ait," Eikjk/i*-

Gududite dtr trmmAtn

ThePittoritl^biOrienl^Art

92

Besides die olsvious dieinadc difierence between die Balalyk-tepe banquet scene

and the religiously in^Mied Buddhist cave tnintings from Tukhamtan, the two axe
closely connected

murals

is

donors

i%ht

by

offered by

vault of the 34

in this scries

side.

iconography.

style atid

is

A striking parallel to the Balalyk-tepe

of donor; represented on tbc rigbt and

files

Buddha

iii

at

Bamiy.in

39-40).'

(t'g^.

The

w alls

left

dressed in the belted jacket with a wide lapel opened

The cropped

hair

of the
male

niajoriry of the

on the

and the round beardless heads of die men shown

three-quarter view, die sleeveless cape

in

of one c the women, and die standardized

and distinctive physiognomy of die figures*' aisodate diese donor portraits widi
the Balalyk-tepe banqueters. Similar

traits

depicted in a mural recently uncovered

in

other media

Central Asian

in

iialalyk-tcpc hgurcs

stemmed cups between

art.'-

diadems and

rings.

u ear bead

DiHcrcnces between

and diumb, and

Bamiyan

The men

twisted torques, ribbons, bracelets,

their capes

sonu of the figures

northern Afghanistan, and

tlie

of the

delicately

gta^ Im^-Jundled

paintings grasp lotus

iMmches or

wear
The women

in the Balalyk-tepe paintings

weapons and

clusters in their ears, discs

by means of

attnluiles

as a sign ot their

Thus whereas die Balalyk-tepe banqueters balance

fbrefii^er

mirrors,'* die Buddhist donors in the

there

also in

and the liamiyan donors may be taken

differing rcUgious orientations.

offer wreadis,

met

are

at Dilberjin. in

belt attachments.

and roundels on neck bands, and

fasten

trailing ;arves passed tlirough ring perforations in their

capes (pi. 3).i* These iconographic details are not exactly duplicated in die Bamiyan

donor portraits. Yet die remarkable overall stylistic and iconc^nphic resemblance

MDAFA U (Paris 192S), pi. 33.

}a Godaid et al.. Les mtiquitis ImMiiques dt BSndyiH,

31.

there

The
from

betrdgd

roiiiui, !>esrd!css

heads of the Dalalyk-tcpc banquet scene are deliberately distinginshcd

die bearded profiles ii-d

profiles,

on the other

type Kpfewnied

among

SkuFptwn Khdduimta,

the

ti

day

.is .1

H vc

Al'baum, Balalyk-tepe, fig. 148. These

by Pugachcnkova with a Bactrian facial
Kushan palace at Khalduyan, see

fabric p.ittcm, sec

Vi-x-.\ .issiK

sculpcuics

i.itcd

from the

early

197. pi. 76.

32. I.T. Kruglikova, V.I. Sarianidi, "Drcvni.ii.i H.iktriia

otkryiii,"

SA

v svctc novykh arklicoio^ichcskikh

4 {1971), 154-177; Al'baum, Balaiyk-iepc, 177; B.IA.

proiiklioodidenii inniiaadinoi setebrianot

duohi

Staviskii,

nobnabeniem veoebaniia

"O

tiaaia,"

datirovkc

5GS XVn

(1960), 67-71.
3},

The long-handled "wand" is clearly a mirror in the hand of the fctnale banqueter in Hephon the silver bowl in the Hennitage, see Staviskii, in SG XVll (i960), 67-71.

thalite dress

The fMtcning device fimind on titt cape* of the women in the BaUyk-tepe mural^
depicted on the Gupta bust of the son god in Hephthalite attire (H. Zimnier, in JmmuH efthe buKm
34.

S,\icty cfOrieiitiil

An

r[C?aIciitta 1937), p. 129, pi.

XV:+),

rLWilIs (lie

Chiticw use nf jade ring fnr

fastening scarves. This device appears in Chinese Buddlust art ai the end ot the tilth century
it

replaces the carUer Central Asian dress associated

Evolutwn of the Buddha

TmpUs

lmai;;e,

23, pi. 40;

with Buddhist images, sec D.

Tenikaai Akiyama et aL, Attt

where

Kowkwd, The

CkaUf Buddhist

Cmw

(Tokyo/Palo Alto 1909), pL ai.

Copyrighted material

TheBcdtgmmi 93
between the two

sets

of pamtmes would argue

tor llicir .issotiation with the artistic

tradidoii of the Hcplithalitc ruling classes ot lukharistan that survived the dov^niall

of Hqvhdialite power ta A.D.

The

survival

royal pcxtraics

557.*'

of Sasanian iconograpliy, noted

HcplitliuHcc royal portrait painted

north ot lianiiyan.'"

The crown

ruler ot Zibulistan,

depicted

models.'''
local

However,

with sotne of the

on the rock-cut niche at Dukhtar-i-Nushirvan,

t)'pc,

rcgaha and posture of the eiglnli century

are delilx-rnte revivals

Ijere.

s>t

on

not the intention of this survey to exi^geiace the importance of the pro-

It is

ofwall painting, dataUe to the sixth

chance survived at Balalyk-tcpe. The intention

relative! V well

of that

The

stj'le

we

earliest

is

to seventh century, that has

in Transitixiana. Ft>r

tl'.e

turn to the Sogdiaii tradition of the fitth to eigluh centuries.

context of Sogdian

art.

and Graeco-Buddhist

of iconographic and

of Tukharistan

secular painting tradition

is

map

stylistic parallels to

ui die

<it (

;andharan

treatment oi drapery in

Sogdian religious imagery, and in the oval, beardless and somewhat

heads of secular f^ures in the

earliest

the

non-Buddhist

to be expected in the

conventions met

The presence

z).

Noteworthy, however, arc the renunisrences

stylistic

late

town of Panjikent on the

ofthe middle Zarafihan River (see Pr/OHe, p. 4of,

in the earliest paintings at Panjikent

first

stage

florescence

Sogdian paintings, datable on archaeological grounds to the

to early sixth century, are those uncovered in die

left bank

by

rather to identify and analyze the

documented examples of wall painting from the formative

developutent of early medieval painting

in the

the

Sasaiuan

earlier

these arc supenniposcd over an architectural setting based

models known fiom Bamiyan, Kakrak and Fundukistan.

vincial school

fifth

tn connection

ammg the donw series from Bami^nn,'* is more pronounoed in the

itkalizied

Panjikent murals. Sudi diflerences between

murals from Transoxiana of the early medieval age thus indicate the

diversity of artistic practices in the earliest workshops. Indeed, despite the consistency

of Sogdian

artistic

norms, differences

may be

observed even within the Sogdian

of the roy.il fiiznns I'apirtfd m the donor ifrics fromBimiySniecillHeplitlialito

crowns of the type shown on tlic couu of iCKuigila, dated to die fifth century, lee GSbl, Dokumaite
35. Tllc crowns

II.

j9tr.

II,

pb. a6:85, 97:a-3*

36. Ibid.
yj.

Divergent views Have been expreneJ on the i^ntification and chronology of thi^

cf. {.;od.ud ct

figs.

B. RowLind,

/.

k'uMUiqw^

,jrtf;,;;(;fJ>

J,

"The Dating of

tlic

','/)

/iJ,i..i_|,J ..
.,

I/-

-1

II,

MUAI A XIU

Saunian Paintings

at

6^ 74.
(Lc Cairc

pl'--

|>;utitiiig,

XLI-XI.III.

ii>48), lij, a. 3;

Bainiyan and Dukbtarid-'Niiihin'm,"

ofilie Iranian Institute VI 1 -4, VH (New York 1 946), 35-42 ; R. Ghjnbiiuii,lVrjji4tf,3lS.

Gobi, Dokumentc I-IV. nos. ^i6, 216a. pis. ji-52, passim.

Bullftiii

38.

.il..

iS ij; R. Ghirshniaii, Lcs Cinomia-HtphiaUii

Copyrighted material

The Pktorial^fk in

94

Oriental Art

schools as exemplified by the later murals from Paujikeiu,

Samarkand and Varakhr

sha.

The Sogdian tradition of wall tMunttng Hike that of TukhanstSn, ym thus built
in part

upon conventions developed

earlier in the

Kiishans and other cast Iranian dynasties of the

But

a pressing

spirit

demand

first

existed also for an art that

of the new age within the

cultural context

Graeoo-Iranian art of the

four centuries after

would adequately

Clirist.

express the

of non-fiuddhist Central Asia.

This SeaiaoA icsnhied in a seaidi tot new stj^tlc and tbemstic standards, and

it

was met in the dioice of a linear and two-dunensional style in wall pamdng and m
the development

of a relevant thematic

tepettocy.

The

principal contrihution

of

Sogdian painting of the early medieval age lies in its exploitation of the potential of
these stylistic objectives,

and

in the

development of a richly narrative and

locally

meaningful subject matter.

Copyrighted material

The Theme: Subject Matter and

2.

Iconography in Secular Imagery

The

Pictorial Epic

The major body of Sogdian

wall painting has been discovered

rooms of private residences (figs.

1-4, 18-19, pi*- 4-20). Scenes

in the principal

of legendary, historic

and popular interest appear etdier as die exchuive onument of die wtUs, ax diey
are disoilmted axoond a divine image fiequendy se^^

dK entrance (fig.

3).

and self-contained compositions

In contrast to the hieratic

(sec

below, chapter

episodes

in

3),

one or more

The importance of the

imagery

in religioas

heroic and epic cycles arc generally depicted as a sequence of

of continuous narration

registers

epic

and

historic

themes

is

(hgs. 42-44, pis. 4-20).

suggested by their allocation to a

medid postdoa on die walk where diey would have been immediaidy and
perceived
scenes,
tives

by

die viewer.

Hie mtmiunental dimensions of

and the use of brilliant

colors, further distinguish epic

from popular themes and

tcleological narratives that

colors and as small isolated con'.positions

frequently relegated to

tlie

lowermost

(pis. 10, 12,

register

3).

die figures in sudi

and

historical narra-

were depicted

in light

.Moreover, the latter were

of the walls

at a level slightly

above

the floor.

The heroic l^end, preserved in die triple rc^ster ofcontinuous narration fixim

Pm^UHt VlzHt represents a rare example ofa narrative sequence br which positive
identification has

depicted

in this

whose legend
Note, p.

7).

is

been ofieted

recorded

in a

W.B. Hcnning, "Sogdian

i

42-44,

pis.

4-1 1).

The

exploits

Sogdian fraenient from Tun-huang'

Moreover, variations between

I.E. Bcnvenistc, Textes Sogdiens

13+fr.;

zaban

(figs.

of the hero

mural were compared by Dclenitskii to those of the hero Rustam

III,

Rusum

SUssion Mtiot en Atie

Talcs,"

Soghdi," Mihr VIll, 406-411;

tiic

BSOAS XI:3

A.M.

(sec Jutroihictory

legend recorded

CeutrA

(Pari* 1940).

(1945). no. a; E. Yarshatcr.

fielcnitskii,

the

fragment 13,

"Rustam

dar

MonwHentaTHoe ukuutvo PetuUhikeuu,

dmn^', slad'plura (Moikva 1973), 47.

95

Copyrighted matBhal

Hie

96

Pictorial

Epic in Oriental Art

mural

Figure 42. Sogdian

" Rustam cycle," north

depicting

tvall o/"

episodes

from

the

Panjikcnt VI: 41, The

Hermitage Museum, Leningrad. Photo courtesy Josephine

Powell.

Sogdian fragment and the

later Persian

Shahnama, suggest the existence

legends in prc-lslamic times.

Rustam

in eastern Iran

was not irrevocably connected

Persian

Rustam,

as well as the

hero of a Saka

mitted from a pre-Christian era.'

T. Noldckc. Das

3.

For an

anal)'sis

iranische

of the

may

of Rustam

attributed earlier to

be seen rather

as a story

to any single or historical personage.

figured in a specific t^'pe of story content in

2.

a separate cycle

The Rustam legend which was

the indigenous pre-Saka literary tradition of Sistan'

that

cycle, recorded in Firdausi's

of

The

C)'cle,
tiie

was an example of a hero

secular

story behind the

The
that

and oral

literature trans-

Rustam

cycle, therefore,

Nathnalepos (Heidelberg 1920), 11.

characteristics

of such

oral epics, sec

A.D. Lord, The Singer of Tales

(Cambridge, Mass, i960), i2of.; M. Doyce, "Some Remarks on the Transmission of the Kayanian
Heroic Cycle," Strta Cantabrigiatsia (Franz Stcincr Vcrlag, Wiesbaden 1954), 51, n. i; cadcm,
"Zariadrcs ajid Zarcr,"

BSOAS XVn:3

(1955), 473-47J;

cadcm, "The Parthian gasan and the

Iranian Minstrel Tradition," JR/IS 1-2 (i9J7), 19.

laterial

7%e Theme:
represented the "script" for

change.

The medium

for

tiic

play

in wliicli

Stdjeet Matter

mid lamegnfky

the dramatis pcrsonae

transiiussion ot this cycle has

were

been souglu

97

subject to
in court-

poetry of odefantion and entertaimnent chatacterktfc of a heioic age/ Such

appatendy flourished in Iran widi unbxoken continuity for about a

liteiature

thousand years fiom the period of the Kayanian cycles in pre-Zoioastrian times

down

to the Sasanian period

the Sogdian

when

it

Rustam fragment was

was first oommitted

to writii^.

The Kt that
may

written in prose, rather than in verse,

suggest a later or post-Islamic date for the versification of

some of

tiic

Iranian

epics.)

Figure 43. Sogdian

"Ruslam

niia

4.

murat depietit^ episodes fiom

cycle," west

Sketch after

ffce

and north walb. Pai^^kettt VI:4X.

Bc/cHif.d-ii, in

Material v vtorogo sovcshcha-

arkheologov i emogralov Srcduei Azii, 19^9, jig. 4.

Boycc,

"Some Remarks on

the Transmission," 46.

On the late date uf the versificarion of the Iranian epics, see G. Lazard, "The Rise of
New Persian Language," The Catitbriilge Huloty oj ban 4 (Cambridge 197^), 62s.

5. Ibid., 52.

ihc

Copyrighted matBrial

98

Hie

Pictorial

Epic

Figure 44. Sogdian

in

Oriailal Art

episodes front

depicting

iimral

the

" Ruslam cycle," north wall, Panjikcnc VI:4i. Sketch

KSIIMK

after Belenitskii, in

7J, 1959,

fg. 35.

Like Greek and Teutonic poetr)', Iranian oral literature was cultivated by the
aristocracy in a society in

ship

was accompanied by

which the breakdown of tribal law and bonds of kin-

new

unrestrained individualism expressed according to

codes of social conduct and expression.

and

spirit

of this

It

was the

aristocracy that defined the style

tradition/'

As Chadwick wrote,
"That which they
feasting

prize

above

all else is

have

the ability to indulge their desires to the

and every form of enjoyment for themselves,

friends, in ferocious %indictivene55

i-xcrcised

on subsequent

towards their foes

rises

by the characters
and sudden
6.

7.

the hold which these

in

of culture,

is

poems

due not only to

of the situations which they depict.

very largely from the extraordinary freedom from restraint enjoyed

in the gratification

vicissitudes

of ihcir

feelings

and

desires

and from the tremendous

of fortune to which they are exposed.'

ijiimh," pssim; H.M. Chjdwick, The //mnr .'t^f (Cambridge 1912),

M.M. Chadwick and N.K. Chadwick, The Growth of Utcratiirr I (Cambridge 1932), 64^.

Boycc, "The Pjrthun

462-463;

ages, in very different stages

their artistic qualities but also to the absorbing interest

This interest

full

unlimited generosity to their

in
.

Chadwick, The Heroic Age, 462-463.

The Vime: &Jgea MOter mi lanugnphy

The worth of such a hero was

99

by an ordeal that demanded courage, endurance, entetpcise and vident action. Hie Iranian pMavm^ no less dian the
Medieval Fiendi duvalter, die Old German heU, the Russian begatyr\ ot die Tatar
batyr,

was regarded

man

who risked their lives

When human foes were lacking,

superior class of men

member of a

honor gained through

in pursuit of

heroic

as a

ccsled

action.

fought against powers of nature or against the more formidable and

unpredictable powers embodied by monsters. Even in the absence of enemies

or dangerous quests, such heroes sought honor through intense action in athletic
contests.'

The hero of sudi literature was a marked man from die start, whose superiority
was connected with his unusual

hirth

ean section was achieved through

draiik

advice given to his father

Z.i!

by the magical

The Armenian Bagdasar and Samsar were conceived

bird Simorgh.

mother

and breeding. Thus Rustam's birth by Cacsar-

tlic

from a magical spring. The Canaanitc A(jhat was born

of Baal

the mtCfCCSSKMl

the su^ceme

god EL Gilgamesh

after their

as a result

wu

of

two-durds

divbe, andhisfriendEnkidttwasmadeofdeiertclay by die goddess Arum.'

The Gadiis of Zoroaster preserve allusions to an age of strife, raids and euds
when such a ruling aristocTac)% the kavis, dominated die vulnerable pastoral
population of eastern Iran. Vistaspa, the patron of Zoroaster, carried the
kavi

in t!ic

sense of "kniv;

'

the (latlias.

However, when

other kavis they referred to hostile princes

who toUowed

title

of

the finrlias iiicntionod

the rival religion ot the

Daevas. In the YaSts die tide ofkavi jnecedes the names of die last ofsuch kmgs

die dynasty that followed the fabulous first kmgs (the FQdadian).** If the rejection

of the

of the

life-style

by the Zoroastrian chuidl led to

kavis

accounts of their martial exploits in Zoroastrian literature,

it

a suppression

of

evidently did not

crush the development of a secular literature of entertainment at the courts of the

aristocracy in Zoroastrian tmies." Iranian epic poetry

Boyce

S.

to an oral Hteratiue

CM.

On

94!'.

the diflFcrent identities of Zoroaster's patron Kavi Vi5tispa and Dariiis' fatiicr

tec . Scnvenisic,

T/w

Vi.stasp.i,

Persian Religion Auordii^ to ike Chief Cttek Texts (Paris 1929), chapter

A.

dirfateiHcn. Let Kafmridts,

s<r

XIX

Mary

Bowr.i, Hfroic Poetry,

10.

thus traced by

Bowra, Meroic Poetry (London 1952), iff., soff.; N.K. Chadvvick, Rutsion Htrok
cadcm, Ora/ ^kf
CeMr^d Asia (Cambridge 1969).
^)X 2)

Poetry (C.iiiibridgc
9.

is

of cnceruinmcut transmitted by court minstrels of

Det hgl.

(Kohcnhivn tgu). :7-35.

IV;

DmAe yideitAtkmes Srlkirak. t^storiskfi^^^dte MedMet-

On die piicstly fimction of the kaivil, Kc G. Widcngicn. Dif

Religiowii Irons (Stutcg.ir( 1965), 2$.

11.

Boyce. "Some Rcmario on dx Tianmussioo,'* 47: eadem. "Zatudret and Zarer," 474f*

Copyrighted matBhal

Tlu FictonW Epk

100

OHenUiAtt

in

northeast Iran from the Kayanian period.'-

Parthian legends

uuo

the

Kayanian cycles

iias

The

absorption of the Saka and

been regarded by that author a& a

common tradition that was perpetuated in a common milieu.'* Transpondom of einsodes and individuab, and anachronisms or chronological discrepancies found in these legends, were thus the consequence

and not necessarily evidence of religious

tion,

In questioning the historicity of the age

mythology have ascribed

figures

from the Iranian

some of the Kayanian

religious

of literary manipuhH

rivalry.'*

of the

kavis,

proponents of comparative

and mythical values to certain legends and

cycles. In support of a mythu-religious interpretation

heroes, Georges

of

Dum^ has stressed the points of resem-

blance between the latter and mythical figures from religious q>ict of other bido-

Europcan speaking peoples." Dumczil has

(i)

That the

fe.its

argument,

stressed four points in his

ittributed to the Iranian kavis

UsaSan and Haosravah follow

standard formula that was used also for the fabulous Iranian

first

kings. (2)

That

12. Miuing dctuU of incidcnul !>tories in OU Iranian litmtuie that have entered the Shaiinama
and the Pahkvi soofcn may have been transmitted ako dmMigh die medium of religious text* that

have

pcri>hrtl. (!(it!vcTsr!'.

under the

fallen

ture,"

JJOIV:i,

rflii.iiiii5

iiiriuciicc ot

i</.S,

In imiv in butli wciSuni :ind

courc poetry, as suggested by

I.

oiistcrr.

have occasionally

Iran .niv

(jcrsiievitth, see

"Old

Iranian Litera-

JSiU.

Boycc, "Zariadrcs and Zaccr," 474-475; I. Gcnhcvitch, "Iranian Litcntures,"

the East, ait Appreciation (London: E.B. Ceadcl, lOSj). 50-73.
14.. Diivcc, "Some Remarks on tlir Tr.iinmission." 51, n. I. Thus the subltitution
13.

mum

(it

LUentwm 4^
in the

Shah-

the hero Riistain for CJarsisp, the Avestan Krsaspa, has been attributed to religious factors,

von

M. Mole, "'(larsha^p ct Ics Sagiar,"LdflMHviJ^Clw3-4(i950. i^^->)8. Sam, who wasadoubleofKcsatpaandthegnad^Kfaer

ofRustam b die SMknima, was regarded by Mole (op. cit.) as a link between two diilerent vertiom
^cc F.

Spii^gcl,

F.rdiiifclii-

Altcrthuniskiinde

(Leipzig 1S71,

izri;

of the older Krsasp.j legend, sec alv>-' I \. S. Nvbert;, " La legcnde de Keresaspa,' Oriental Studies in
Honour of Cmctji Erachji Pavry (London/Oxford 19J}), 336-352; E. Bcnvctuste, L. Rcnou,
VrtM ft Vjmgiu', ^fit dr mfdulogk InJo-Irmiemu, QAkn de U sodetc miati^ III (Patis 1934), M,
71). The Krs.'isp.i legend was seen by Mole as the mythical u>urce ako for die two difietcni cycles of
advemuics th.ii ii;\\>lvcd the heroes Rustaiu and Spandiyad or Isfandi}^. op. cit.; cf. J. Marquart,
"Beiiragc zur GrvhKhtc und Sage von Fran,"
49 ( !l95)i 6438*. Isfandiyar's liberation of his

ZDMG

lister

from the Brazen Hold was regarded by Mole

as a cubemcristic transformation

of an ancient

ochatologicii myth, op. cit, T36.

15.

Georges

Diimi-z:l has provided a

suinmarv of the

literature

iiul

ii.'rij

the historical validit v

of the Kayanian period iti Mythc ci cpiytc 11 (Pans 1971), l+ift". Accordnig to the latter the argument
on the point at which aiiihctuic Iranian history begins after the ineviuble "belles hisroires"

liinges

of the

origins. "C'est

la,

partout," he writes, "qii'unc sorte de faulitc oppose

Hites ct les comparatistcs, les premiers plus disposes a faire credit

plus

&bu]cuK$ des '^6iemcnts'

reels

simplcmcnt cnjolivcs,

dans les mSmet seines des thtmcs si bicn

attcstcs

au

aisemem

tcxtcs, a voir

ct Ics seconds

dans

les spccia-

les seines les

prompts a rcconnaitrc

par aillcurs qu'ib pcnsent pouvoir fairc I'dconomic

del v&ieinents. Liran feuniit i ces d&ati ime liche matiiie.'' See

143^ Hie

hypodiesii fat a

Copyrighted malBriai

The Theme: Stdyea Mater md Uonognfkf

the kavis arc connected with eastern Iran.

have a pre-Zoroastrian form and

(3)

hat the

date. (4) Fnially,

names

101

of at least three kavis

and most uuportatidy, dial die

concordance between die name and character of tlie Iranun Kavi Xhui and die
Indian mythical Kavya Uianas

homonym, came from an

poiut d'apptii

is

nigg^

original

%ure,

that the Iranian

like his

body of Indo-European myths.*'

Vedic

Dump's

the concordance between ihv n uncs and characters of the Avestan

Kavi Usan and the Vedic Usanas which he

borrowing.'' But

if

the Iranian Kavi

chance nor to

.itirilnued luicher to

Usan originated

world

in tlie east Iraiuan

in

prc-Zoroastrian times, as Dumezil has rightly assumed, then his association with
acts

of sorcery and magic would be

easily explained as a

ttSed^on of the eariy

age of die legend. The Iranian account of Kavi Usan must be attributed then to a

more primidve
magic

to

stage in the development

for the reahzation

of

of heroic legends when heroes resorted

their objecdves.**

The

character and activity

of the Vedic Kavva Usanas preserves an impression of

context. Furthermore, the concordance between the

age in the Indian

tliis

names and characters of

the Iranian and Vcdic figures could be attributed to a process of assimilation in

whidi tut and

fiction

were combined

in die accounts

of an ultimately

historical

personage.

Ifthe continuity ofa ttadidon ofvigorous nomdidactic and heroic Uteratuie from

the Kayanian age tt> die Sasanian period

is

seen as a ceflccdon of the values of die

heroic age in the Iranian world, then one might es^cct to meet a

on

in

lated,

sin

other media of expression within the same culcural milieu,

I

believe, that the

Sogdian tradition ot wall painting

mytho-religious interpretation of the Iranian legends was

first

offers a rich

proposed by

F.

hcnomcn-

h may be postu-

von

and graphic

Spiegel, ErSnische

ZDMG

(Leipsig 1871), iio, 734-730; idem, "Awesd und Shihnime,"

45
and by J. Darmcstctcr, "Le Mahabharata et Ic ShSh-mmA," Jovnul asiaiujut X
(1887), 38-75. This hypiifhc^is \v.)< further developed in H. LoihiikI, "Kjvy,> Ucan," Meltm^es 4e
Un^uisliijue offals ^ Citarks Bally (Gcnirvc 1939). 209-214; S. Wilundcr. Vayit I (Uppsala/Lcipzig

AUenhutnthmie

(1891), 187-aO},

"
1941) ; idem, Sur le foods oominun indonranicn dcs cpop&$ de la Perse ct do I'Indc," La nouvttte
3:9; M. Mole, "L'cpopcc iranicnnc .iprc* Firdfni," Li iiciit'ellf Clh V;7-io

Clio 3-4 (1951). 311

(1953), 377ff.

idem,

"Deux

notes sur

Ic

Rimiyaqa,"

ColUclioii Latottitis

XLV, Hommge

1)

Gtorgcs

DKm^2r7(Bnixcllc5 i960). 14016.

Dumdzil, Mytiu

17. Chriflnisen
possibility that

et

epopit U, 216-217.

argued for the historical validity of the Kayanian dynasty contemplated the
to the ptnvcrful Iraiiun Kavi Usjii might have been intrnjmcd iiui^ the

.illusi -ns

IVgvcda, sec Lii Kayaiiidcs, 28,

11.

2. Dutuczil's oiticc objcctioiu tu tJic iJciiuturjtiou

uf the

Ifaiiiall

Kavi Usan
lee

at an Uatoric figure have been aniweied in Boyoe'i study of the Kayanian heroic cydc,
Boyce: 1954, 47, faiiim.

il.

Bowa, Mc

as.

Copyrighted material

102

The Pktcrial

in

documentation of the

Ab

the Sasauiaii period.

OtkuudArt

sniiu-

heroic age that

was perpetuated

in

Transoxiaua into

back country where the heroic age flourished

after

its

dedine in Petsia, Tcansoadana would appear then to have developed die pictorial
epic as a distinctive legional ei^fession
secular murals

of diat age. By far the largest body of the

from Sogdiana depict themes

chat have a primarily narrative

and

heroic interest. Such representations are distinguished by formal conventions and

iconographic formulae that identify tliem

as illustrations

secular literature of entertainment, the Sogdian murals

sional artists
society.

who

of heroic

cycles. Like the

were cultivated by profes-

served the demands and interests of a martial and aristocratic

Whereas the momimental

instmments of religions or

state

wealth of Sogdiana and

arts

of India and of Sasanian Iran served

as

propaganda, Sogdian art served to entertain a

of die heroic age.

society that cherished the values

local patronage, rather

It

was

doubtless the material

than any religious or

cern, that assured the maintenance and development of

its

official

con-

tradition of secular

painting. Chinese sources of the T'ang period clearly attribute the prosperity of the

Sogdians to their mercantile activity. "They (die Sogdians] excel in commerce and
love profit; from the time a

man

prindpalides; wherever one can

people arc skillful merchants;

ing books;

when he

make money

is

is

twenty yean old he goes into ne^hboring

make money

when

tliey

have gone." Again "These

boy reaches the age of five he

begins to understand thcni, he

is

is

sent to study

put to study-

commerce;

to

considered by most of the mhabitauts to be an excellent thing.""

The Origin and Particalar Traits of th

Coatfamoat Pictorial Epic

The continuous pictorial

in

Sogdian Painting

epic in Sogdian painting refers to the use

sequence of individual scenes of secular and epic

interest, in

which

of a continuous

identical persons

appear in episodes or events separated in time. Since the continuous frieze was not

yiewti at once, the background even

viewer

conttmious pictorial epic

is

distinguished

art that depict noa-aarrative

19.J.C1. Mahler,

IiMEO.

if generalized

would appear to change as the

moved from one scene to die next. By definition,

1959), 69,

The

IVaieriiers

dietefiire, the

Sogdian

from the panel composidons of Sasanian

and oottrdy themes.'^ Hie word "epic"

among

tnudatkm from E.

the Figiuiiifs 0J the

Chavaiiiics.

T'aiig

Dynasty of China

is

used

(Roma:

Doameats mt ks TouJaw [Tuns) oaukiitmix

(Ftrit 1942). lii-iiS.

2D. See D'ukonov't objections to the use

of l^aBKniaiia, Zldmfb',

of "pon-Iranist" terminology with reference to the

art

157.

Copyrighted material

The Theme :Sid^AtailerMdkoaegupky

103

according to A.B. Xx>rd's definition which encompasses historical as well as romantic and heroic nanatives.

category hat

little

However, because ofits later date, the romantic nanatiye

of the literature and

relevance br the study

art

of pie-IsUmic

Transoxiana.**
Pictorial narration in

Buddhist

art

and

in the Jcwisli atid Christian arts

Early Christian and Byzantine periods also

by

virtue

of its

religious tlirust

and

diffL-rs

of the

tVoni the Sogdian pictorial epic

teleological concent.

However,

Hellenistic

and

IUnan muiak and fikzes of scul(>tiire diat dqucted continuous {n^^

die exterior or
epic."

The

interior

Hellenistic

wes of walls of Unldingn antedate die Sogdian pictorial

and

Roman

continuous

piccoictal

tfia that evidendy

served as models for botfajewidiand Early Christian pictorial narratives^ >

have inspired the early medieval

artists

may also

of Transoxiana. GraecoRonian

literary

themes, depicted both according to the "monoscenic" and the "cyclic" method

of tendering literary content, are known from the arts of fiactria and Transoxiana
prior to the sixth century.^

The **cyclic" method, found on die outer side of die

Museum, was used to d^Mct scenes from

Stto^noflTsilver howl in die Hermitage

die Sykitt, a But^dean satyr pky about Herades. Two contiguous episodes from
the same story arc there accompanied by a banquet scene which
inserted into the Heracles legend.*'

the

The

same story on the Stroganotf bowl

use of at least

two

is

incongruously

separate episodes

distinguishes the latter

from

from the two other

"Bacttian" vessels that defoct contiguous scenes from difierent Euripidean plays.'*

K. Wdtsmann, who attributed the three bowls to Hellcniaed Oriental wotfcshops

of the Rushan and pott-Kuthan

periods, has

shown a connection between thew

bowls and representations of Gredc drama and

epics

on

Hellenistic

tetnMotta

A.B. Loid. The Singer of Tales (Cambridge. Man. i960), 5-6.

Narration in Hcllcnislic and Roman Art," AJA 6 (1957), 78-83
32. P.H. von BlaiiLkcnli.iiri.:),
K, Wcitzmann, lUusiratiom in Roll and Codex, a Study oj the Origin and Method of Text Illustration
21.

(Prinoecoo 1970), lajf.. 227.

23.

K. Wcitzmann, Greek Mythology

Codex, 228-229; idem,

Byzantine Art (Princeton 1951), iSgf.; idem. Roll and

in

"The Study of Byzantine

Botik Illumination, Past, Present, and Future,"

The Place of Book Illumination in Byzantine Ai^ {Vtixteetoa 1975), jif.

34. For a definituMi of thete terms, see Weitzmann, RtB and ClMfax, laf.
25. The Snoganoff bowl was attributed to a Sogdian workshop and dated to A.D. fiiUi-Kventh
century, on the h.i5ii of style, iconography and cpis^raphy, bv D. Staviskii, "O datirovkc i prois.,"SCE XVII (kXio), f'^j 7 The Sogdian inscription on
Idiozhdcnii crinitazluioi sercbriiani chashi
this bowl was read and dated to a.d. seventh-eighth century by V. A. Livshits .ind V.G. Liikonin,

in

"Stednepetsidskic
aA. X.

sogdiiskic nadpisi na screbrianykh sosudakh."

Wettzmann, "Three

VDl 3 (1964).

'Baccrian' Silver Vessels with lUustrations

i6j, 172, no. 20.

from Eurqpides," Art

104

TkePittmiei^fkmOrietitaJArt

Mcgarian bowls. He derives the development of the expanded narrative cycles

from the incdiuin of hook

painrint? in Hellenistic

papynis

ongitiatcd in

rolls that

'

the iater tlurd century B.C.-'

The

use ot "omission,

tion" observed in the lepgesentarions

wodn of sut

the

West

on

"

"condensauon

by Weitzmann

are atttibuted

to the

pictorial naitaticn in miniature painting." Thus the murals

Dura Europos which di^ay

and

"coiiila-

m some monittnental

and

these bowls

"

devdopment of

from the Synagogue at

these particulars are linked to a tradition

ofJewish

illustrated books.*'

However,

on

the expanded "cyclic"

method

of rendering literar)' content, found

the Megarian bowls, in the toreutic arts and in Early Christian and Byzantine

miniatures and dieir offihoots, must be distii^tiished

tinuous pictorial narratiao in that dass

fiom the method of con-

of monumental works of art

that

had a

strictly architectural origin.^*

St^dian paindng, like certain Hellenistic and Roman

murals and sculptural

was intimately connected with specific

settings. J' Since

friezes,

architectural

Central Asian examples of Gracco-Roman murals with represen-

tations oi pictorial epics arc

unknown,

the link between Western murals and the

Sogdiaii tradition of pamiing remains uncertain. Nevertheless, the uiflucnce of the

Graeco-Roman method of continuons pictorial narration evidenced in

of the Hellenized Orient

arts

traditions

adapted

Graeco-Roman

principles for the expression

Sopdian tradition of wall painting evolved

its

of

die

minor

Western and Sogdian

at least indirectly links the

of

of wall painting. Just as the Buddhist tradition

specific content, the

its

distinctive

pictorial narration

formal and thcmatlC

conventions for the representation of epics of local significance.

As in the oral epic,

large extent

the quality of the pictorial epic in Sogdian art depended to a

on the creator's skill

in fashioning descriptions

of heroes, horses, arms

and encampments. "In them the forward mardi of the story b halted" while the

27. Ibid., iSgf., idem, ftoff

and Cedfx,

26f.: 22$f.:

idem, "Nafration

m Bariy ChfUttodoai,"

in T -vis ftom Ai Kliaiiuin, sec D. Schlumbetg^, P,

C)i (1957), S5. For fragmcms of Muy
Bernard, " Ai Khanoutu," Oulleim de CorrapondmKe HelleiUfte (Paris 1965), 6}0-3i.

AJA

aS.

idem,

For a definition of these Hems* see 'Weitznunii,"NaTraticm in Early Chriiiiendom," 88-99:

R.i/f
Coii'x. yxiwn.

;y. Wciuiii.iiiii, "N.irrjtioii in E.uly Lhristoiuiotn," .SS-89;

Dtua-Eitropi's, Finjj

3a

bottom
?

sec

Report Vlll:i (New H.ivcn

This "cyclic" method

register

On

H.C.

is

of the murals

found

in

in

C. Kraciing, The E.\iM>a/Ums

at

39;f.

the small panel compotitions

somedmei placed along the

Sopdiin painting.

Nco-A^syri.in .ind Phoenit

iineicdi-nts

ofrhc method of continuous pictorial narration,

Giitcrbock, "Narration in Anatolian, Syrian, and Assyrian

An," AJA 61

(1937),

63^.

The Them: SiAjea Matter mi kom^nj^

105

viewer panted and mamled at die tcenei pcesentetLi* Siidi deiee^ve dettfls wete
ornaments that emphasized eidier impcnrtant episodes in a group of diemes or die
hero in a given story. Details of dress, armor and horse are firequently belabored in
scenes that depict a hero about to

embark on

a special

mission." Such elaborations

or ornamentations, furthermore, suggest the progress of the action and

mination. Thus the labors of the Rastam-likc hero troni Panjilient

with the hero's duel against

combat with a

human

cul-

begin

behind odier Sogdian examples of the

picttttial epic,

in the

Hie stories
though frequently unknown

an army of gqat-^boted demons

to us, appear to follow the progress

its

'l:4i

They culminate

reptilian creature (figs. 42-44, pis. 4-1 1).

hero's entanglement with

adversary, and progress to a single-handed

(pi. 11).

of the action or drama which unfolds

in a

seemingly ordcrlv fashion.

The themes adopted by

stylistic

the painter of the pictorial epic arc as predictable as the

formulae used for their expression

(sec

chapter

4).

Scenes

of batde and

banquet (rozw 11 kizm) represent die most recurrent diemes in die Sogdian pictorial
epic.

The journey

to

fulfill

a mission, die mission

fiilfilled,

the preparation

fi>r

batde, the oooflict with natural or unnatural antagonists, and the ceremonial or
casual banquet comprise, in large, the thematic repertory

The

epic.

consistent juxtaposition

of certain

dependence on stones which followed

pite the dearth
literature,
testify'

of evidence about the

the patterns

to the existence

tlicnies,

of the Sogdian

furthermore, suggests a

spccitic

formal and thematic patterns. Des-

existence

of a Sogdian tradition of oral epk

di^yed by die story content of die Sogdian pictorial epic

of such

a literature.

In his description of vivid action, the Sogdian painter

the oral poet, aimed for clarity of expression.

He

of the

achieved

use of a few compositional devices, and by treating a single

interest centered

on

pictorial

this

pictorial epic, like

aim by

mood

or

a selective

effect.

the performance of the protagonists, he concentrated

Since

on the

development of a consistent hmguage of gesture and proportion. Details of dress,

weapons and <nnament were elaborated

scape references.
essenti

lis

The mood of the

of the story. Thus

gain narrative value

at the expense

narrative

battle scenes arc

was

of badtground or landby emphasis on the

established

composed of a few

stock schemes that

and vitahty by the dramatization of critical moments

in

tlie

conflict.

32.

Lord, The Singer of Tales, 86.

The ptcMncc of eubontion at this point and in oonncctioa widi a paiticiilai hero was seen
Lofd at a poibk mrvival fiom tkes ofimtiadioa or dedkatioa, ibid., M-Sjd.

33.
\tf

Copyrighted material

106

The

Pictorial Epic in Oriental

Figure 45. Sogiiian mural depicttug a warrior in heavy armor

engaged

in single combat,

Panjikc-nt

VI

Belcnitski,

Marshak,

from

55. Sketch after

in

Arts

Asiatiqucs XXIII, igyi, jig. 11

Art

TIk Theme :

Sidjeftllibttn

mi bonogn^

107

ThePktorUill^hiOriaaalArt

106

The fiist stage of an

equestrian battle

from Paujikent Vl:4i

is

dramatized by the

oppositkm ofseiiied hones, poised on collision course, in die center of the ccnnpositkm.

The

desperate eye

contrasting colors

movements of the

horses (pi. 4)

and

and

dieir vivid

convey die immediacy of a real contest hy a few simple artistic

devices.

Elsewhere

tlic

excitement of a pitched battle

troop movements and martial

example, die

artist

enlivens die scene

expressionless features

of the

by

his

communicated by an emphasis on
treatment of war casualties, for

commentary on the grimacing and

woonded

ccmtorted filial expresuous o( die

(pis.

is

details, in the

diat contrast vrith die standard

active pardcipants in the battle

(cf.

PmjiUaU XXI: 1)

14-ao). In the single combat, on the other hand, emphasis

gCStttrcS, accoutrements and personal

heroic

mood

and pace of the duel

(cf.

on

of the antagonists

c]ualitics

Panjkent VLss)

(figs.

the eloquent

establishes the

45-46).

Hie Jeomogaifhy of Hciwizcd

and Legendary Figures

With

the exception ot rlu "Rvistani cycle," depicted in the murals

VI:4J, and the

Dahhak

story

from

Piuijikiui / (north

from

wing ofciiwi,

PivijikaU

the

fig. 33).

content of the innumerable heroic epics depicted in Sogdian painting remains

tantalizingly elusive. Deipiie attempted idendfScations,** diese paintnigs

that ctrculaied

of

remain

testimony to a vast body of secuJar and heroic literature of entertainment

silent

amcmg

these legends

is

die Sogdians in pte-Islamic times.

suggested

by

their novelty

The

local significance

and complexir\'. Connections

between the names of known heroes and legends familiar from the Iranian
arc indeed lacking in the

idendficarion

XXII,

one nistance where

of the heroes and

Sogdian inscription

their plight in a

mural from Panjikcnt {Panjikent

principal hall, walls faiikiitg altar, fig. 60). Nevertheless, the heroic

secular interest

of thb mural are conveyed by

epics

otiers positive

its

style

tone and

and die content of

its

inscripdon.
34.

A.M.

Bclenitsky, "Ancient Pictorial

1973, TfuJy ivatsat' pyatogt

a pair of snakes

oi^ lii^

and

mexUuHanAugo

fR^Rientary manl, recently excavated

ilmulJcn.

h.\s

Plastic Arts

and the Slli443nia,"

Dclcnicskii:

koi^resu vcslokmtiav VH (Modcva 1963], 96-101 ;

with die rcprexntation of a nun drawn with

at Panjikent,

Veen

toin:irivrl'.'

idi-nnhcd

as a rcfuTfiicc

to the tyrant

Oahhik

of the Iranian epic, sec A. Bclenitskti, B. Marshak, "Nasleiitiyc to&pisi, otkrytie v Pcndzhikenie
V 1971 gody," SG XXXVII (1973), 56, fig. 4. Ncgmatov Has argued persuasively for the identi-

of the nanative iiieze depicting a she-wolf suckliog two inmts, from

Qahqaha
at lAtioiliaiia, at a icfbieixe to the legoid oClloi^

fication

the readcnce at

(1974). iJ-a9a. fig. IS.

Uopy iiyhiuo

inaiuiial

The Thaiu: SidjeU Matter mi Irnmgn^

Legendary figures and heroized individuals arc frequently

Sogdian murals by means of spedfic madcs,

historic documentaries. Similar

men mny
from

in rich

whose

the start as extraordinary beings

tecisdcs arc

abundance

diem even

divinities diat originally

occasionally involve d

Such notions

in die

and take sides

in a

"splendor"

on aooomic of

its

Gods are

in the hero's struggles.J*

Sogdian murals

w here

tlie

con-

and superior physical cndowinents are

represented according to specific iconographic formulae.^'

idciitiiied

their superior gib.

are translated in graphic terms in the

fixim Panjikent Kf.'^i,

which other

hour of fiitluie or death, and enjoy die favor of

the hero's action

in

of

individuals

physical development and charac-

endowed diem with

cepts of hertnc "splendor," divine blessing

pice

qualities

not those of other men.^^ Such heroes arc enveloped

that tcradiates

cyde,

living individuals

Heroic figures are trccjuciuly

lesser degree.

possess to a

associations diat dis-

&om

means mark the superior gifts of heroic

These individuals possess

in heroic poetry.

or

attributes

diem fiom heroes of popdar diemes and

^aagaoAi

109

identified in the

The "Rustam cycle"

positive identtficatJon

with a hecdc

may be examined (or expressions of sixh notions.

half<oncealed female figure, depicted behind an ambiguously shaped preci(pi. 6), in

an episode from the "Rxistam cycle"

may

be identified as an allusion

cither to a supportive divinity or to a personage that tigured in the Sogdian

"Rustam"

we

The

story.

ambiguous precipice

interpret die

celestial tcgioos.

identification of the figure as a divinin,as

is

only possible

if

a reference to cloud fornutions in the

But the same fermtda was used for the

representation

of rocky

dil& (pis. 9-10). The heroic, or possiUy divine, stature of the halfconcealed figure
is

suggested by her association with a small foliate-skirted figure that

her with
in

necklace. Such foliate-skirted female figures,

connection with

wrestling match

in

shown

flies

of Drdha

Prthiini,

towards

holding wreaths

another Sogdian nuiral

XV'll:i4), find their closest parallels in the art ot Khotan,

tentatively identified as representations

also

[Piuijiki-itt

where they have been

an earth goddess rarely

mentioned in Buddhist literature.** The honorific fimction of this motifin Sogdian

3 5.

On

the qtulitics

of the bcto

in heroic poetry, tee

Bowta. Htrok Aietrjr, 9i

36. Ib:d., 68ff., 86.

37.

G. Aurpjy,

"Sne Intuan konognphic Formulae

XI (1976). 168-177.
38. M. A. Stein, i^MrfntfJCftoMn (Oxford
Klio!i!ii<l-!c

dn

vncsti,

tmakota

o( Khocancsc Pimting,"

slituk

Eaa and

1907),

(Lcningnid lyAo), 39,

H'csi

m Sogiiian Painting," bmkt Antifu

pk XLIII. XLV; N.V.D'iakonova. S.S. Soiddn.

pis.

S-9; J. Willi-itm,

(1973), IJ5-136.

The

I'liiicuuiu

"The

Ininntrr.iphy

of these Egurcs

Sogdian painting oompate 10 those of the hdian supaiQas, garil^, gandharvas and apaaratei, see

Copyrighted matsrial

110

ThePkiorUdl^mCMeiifydAn

Fii^iirc 47.

Detail of a battle scene

XXIV.
SGE XXXVI, 1973,

from
in

I'anjikcnt

painting

is

from a

Sot^tliaii

mural

Sketch after Belenitskii, Marshak,

63.

soggested by di&cences in the fiinctiom of the benefidaries

of this

genius.

The moral tone of the Rustun stoty, or its mood, is reinforced by the artist's
ocmmentadon of detaih that are incidental to the main course ofactitni. The hal&
concealed female figure behind the hero of die '*Rwcam cycle" is counterbalanced
by the remorseful ^nrc of the
prominence
associations

outcome

The

(pis.

9-10).

of the protagonists the

oi the action

may

the positive nnd negative

artist cstablisliLS a

framework

number of ways. In

the

"Rnstam

M.

Jjussagh, C. Siv-iraniamurti,

Hallade,

Cmdharmi

^ooo Years of the Art of India

gifts

is

graphically

cycle" the heco

followed by a small winged and betibboned creature that

Ash (New York

which the

in

be anticipated by the viewer.

notion of the hero's superior and divindy endowed

represented in a

on a rocky

hero's goat-fnoted adversary, perched

Thus by counterbalancing

flutters

(New York,

A<i <J Sorik India mil the Graeto-Buddhisi Trad-.u

-u

>

ti.d.), figs.
/rufia.

is

usually

towards the

76, 222;

M.

Persimmi Cutnl

human forms apparently had a strictly onmncmal

tradition of the Meditenamaik wocM, f A. Gcabar,

1968). ph. 34, 55, 99. Floriatc

functioo in the late Antique and Byzantine

flfasMiMMm/iiiiMikAMditffTkadkito^

ii7,6g. 127.

Copyrighted material

The Theme:

Figure 48. Scenes oj

sacrifice at

a jire altar and

fiom a Sogdian mural from Panjikent

Zhivopis', pi.

(pis. 6, 9).

function in

a large

ban^t

10. Sketih i^er

tlic

Other composite beings, Inrds and animals senre a

number of heroic

Varaklish.i, SattiarkiinJ

by

Ul

Vn,

hero's head

stressed

Suhfect Matter mul /oNMjgMpjky

Paniikcnr.

.iiul

rcprcscntation<i in

The

aerial

similar

Sogdian paintincs from

movement of

these creatures

is

indicatJon ot riuttcrnig ribbons tied to their forelegs or iastened

to a ring held in the beak or

mouth

(figs.

47-48).

Great variation may be observed in the anatomiral oonfiguraticm ofsuch animals

that tango

from the

realistic

different animal specics.J"

head in the "Rustam cycle"

39. Azarpay, in

bird

and bovine to

The composite

iant

u Lomlwiaticns

of several

creature that hovers towards the hero's

is

a Uon-bird, in

bmica Anti^ XI

(1976). 16^1-177.

which a lion's head is combined with

Copyrighted matsrial

Hie PiaorkA Epk

112

in

Orienkd Art

the wings ot a bird and a

creatures serve the

tisli

tail.

same function

in

Despite their anatomical variations

towards heroic figures in moments of conflict,

flight

performance of religious ceremonies before

ornamental motifs and
foliate skirt, for

differ in function

which there

the

sciiiiiun',

fire altars.

and Hephthahte

in

Such beings are not purely

torso on a

of Eastern Turkes-

parallels for the ritit;-bearini; lurd,

identified the

Sogdian flying creature

of hvamtk. The association (^animal

as a graphic reference to the Iranian concept

in the sense

these

banquets and during the

from the honorific half-human

and an anunal-franicd nimbas,

forms with hvamah

at

existed hidian antecedents in the art

tan. In the lic;ht of i'.irtliian

all

Sogdian iconography.*" They arc shown

of royal fortune follows a

Old

familiar

Iranian

pattern firequently noted for the Persian context, bi the Persian context kvanukocsarvcvcJ. the notion

bin

it

of fortune that was

became the

lot

transmitted not only

of particulaily worthy

by one king to another

individuals

and even of a whole

nation.
in I'ersian sources Iwaniah

"bad" or
sense

"evil,"

and

in this

is

sometimes found

compound

it

in

compound with

diis-,

meaning

was interpreted by H. W. Bailey in the

of "having received bad fortune."^' This term appears

as

an epithet of such

negative concepts and beings as ilefoio "fury" and Aitra Maitiyu "the evil spirit."

The

opposition of fortune and

doom

implied by Iwantah and

its

antithesis in the

Persian sources finds a graphic counterpart in the symbols attached to the figure

and

ot the hero

his adversaries in the

the hero's success

is

and

cycle" from Panjikent. Whereas

acknowledged by

his superior gifts

of the beribboned lion-bird towards him. his furious subhuman

the flight

adversaries are accompanied

doom (pi.

"Rustam

there guaranteed

by a vulture diat serves as an omen of their impending

1),

Yet another manifestation of hvamah

tional arts of I'ersia

certain individuals

that

found expression

and Central Asia was the luminous

in the representa-

brilliance that irradiated

and gods. Whereas the rayed aureola or flame halo was there

reserved primarily for solar and flame deities (c the

god with a torch firom Ptu^

was

the usual attribute of odier

kent 7/:B)* (fig. 49), the

nimbus or

disc halo

40. Ibid.
41.

1 1.

W.

Bailey, Zoroastritai Problems in die Ninth Century Books,

ad

ccL (Ozfoid 197a), 3,

4-49. 61.
42.

A. Christensm, L'lran tout

Till- D|,'.'.!.r;.

Irr,

Kuil:,ur:

Its

SasnmiJes (Copenhagtie

licrkclcv

i9]<$),

1 5 7, figs.

6 : d, 2 8

J.

Roscnficid,

Ins Angi-lc- n/17). piv III:5i. 56, 5K, lV:6i, V:*4, 90.

The mvMcnuiu ASHAEiXSHO of the Kushan coins is shown with

Henning. "A Sogdim God," BSOAS XXVm-.z (1965). ^S^^Vh

a radiate halo, see

W.B.

Copyrighted material

Tlie

Fii^urc ^g.

Theme

God

II,

Zhivopis', pi.

radiant and lustrous beings^'

Subject Matter and Iconography

tntiraljrom the tetrastylc hall

Sogdian

at Panjikent, Panjikcnt II :V.

XXIII {secfg.

Copy

after

56, 57).

Haloed individuals

(fig. 45).

113

with a rayed halo and torch depicted iu the

iiwiiniiiig scene, in the

of Temple

in

Kushan

art

were

frequently depicted also with head and shoulder flames that occasionally distinguish

flame deities

symbolism

in

Persian art.*^

Unlike the cautious and selective use of light

in Sasanian representations,

43. G. Azarpay,

"Crowns

aiiJ

Some Royal

Buddhist

Insignia

it)

art

of the post-Kushan age

Early Iran," Iranica Aiuupia

IX

(1972),

Iljff.

44. Christcnscn, L'lttm sous

200-201.

Its

SassaniJes, fig. 6:<1; Roscitiicld.

The Dyimtic Arts of the Kushans,

71k Pktvritd Epir in OnaOtd Art

114

perpetuated the usage of the head and shoulder flames in Central and East

A disdncdon between the world of actuality and that of legend and leligion

is

suggested by subtle diflS:rcticcs in the forms oflight symbolism in Sogdian painting.

Whereas

the simple bain often distinguishes figures of historic and popular interest

(cf. fig. 55),

additional head and shoulder flames arc there the attributes of legen-

dary and epic heroes

Divinities frequently possess,

(fig. 45).

addition to

tlic

nimbtu and shotdder flames, flaming tnandoxlas that serve to iiirtber remove them

fiom secular imagery*' (figs.

58). The exclusive use of head and shoulder

$, 8, 13,

fluna Ibr epic heroes and divinities in Sogdian painting anticipates the usage of die

The devaluation of die

flame halo limited to lepcesentations <tf saintly individuals.

plain halo in Islamic art,
is

where

perhaps another reflection of

Byzantine

art.*"

it

its

becomes

commonplace and ornamental

earlier honorific

and secular usage

But expressions oflight symbolism were not

expressions in Islamic times.^

motif,

in Iranian

and

limited to religious

They were fiirdier elaborated also in the later heroic

poetry of Western and Central Asia, as exemplified in die Georgian poet's eulogy
A. C. Soper, "Aspects of Light Symboiisin m Gandharaii Sculpture," Anibuf Asuic XII:
269f!'., n. 42; P. GranofT, "Tobatsu Bishamoti: Three Japanese Statues m the United States

45.

(1949),

and an Outline of tfac Rise of Hiis Cult

9,

in East Asia." East

md Wat 20:1

(1970),

144C figs. $-6,

17-2546.

TliL-

/.ij/ii 111

Sogdian painting

is

depicted

.1-.

pl iin disi [Paniik-i in

,1

/.

li.irpw).

with multiple

nms {Panjiketu l:io, north wall, lower layer), or with a duteU iutcnor \J>auj^M l:s, VLtj).
AUiaiigh dw floikte hdiaR haloes are absent in die repcnory ftom Pmjikm, die Sogdian typo
find paiaDcb in lodiaD and Central Asia an, cf G. Yazdani. .'l/<inMlV(London/Ncw Ynrk 'Bombay
1955), Caves IX and XVll, pi. XXXVIII. The tlutcd ccmch that frames the hcids ofsjint^ m Byzantine art is based on an architectural feature that is unrelated to the Huted hak)es ot Indian and Central
Asian type, see J. Jkckwidi, itr/y Chruiian and Byzmtine Art, Pelican history of an (London is^},
117; D.V. Ainalov, The Hr^tmsHc Origin ofByztmtineArtfNtnK Jmey 1961), 104-105. 164,207.

fig.

The rinmud
flames

h.ilo

il'iVijiht-ni

sentations

may be omamcntcd with

/-".i

s).

In this form,

of gt>ds and legendary

Kkkt

in aartk nv/i;

is

tlaim- /m/i>,

17

The

light

5i) :ind siirr.Hindcd

which

is

stH^

by

limited to reprewall; I:};

I'l.

lj;

which a{ipean ta tadiate hom the

of fiames that envelop the halo

depicted at smoldering tongues

47. E. KOlne], Die Mitiialunnalerei

4S.

(cf. P,mjiktiit

or in put.

AiftnAilP

Gray.

border

Irtoic lu;ures (cf pMijiknit Vl:it,

VI: nUhe; XXII: ukhe).

AaMea of these mdhriduals

totally

a pearl

ni.u be described as

it

.and

On

(Cleveland

islamistheu Otiatt

^ SokrmwM,

(Bcrlm 1923), 9; R.

I'n

111

S/iii/'Wf-ii/-/vi,T,j,;

HsmmtdM it tbm mazJem

SymMs mi VtAus ia ZmdtMidMism,

i I'Irm
Thriir

Ettiiighauscii,

Arab

1962), S3 (nimbus as a ubiquitous motif): Basil

Edition J'Art Mbcrt Skira.

the survival of the concept ot

/ philoiophie

corps ie

tin

(Clevdmd: Editka d'Ait Albert Skin,

Pcr.-imi Atiufi'iic

(.'/'.

siii'ite

i^:.

iq''o), -<}. in<;

Kl.im, see H. Cv>rbm.

>

::i<ii\i,itirns

-iSjjnpi) (Teheran 1946); idem,

(Con^a

Ttm

daiu

celeste et

i960), passim; J. Dudicsno-Guilleinin,

Survbui and Jtefwrntf (New York and Evansloa 1970),

Ij7-t6a.

Copyrighted material

The Tfime :

of

heroine Ncstan-Darcjaii.

his

"\vc snw

radiant light, in

hght and torincd a

before us.

sun

it

circle

"Once on

middle of

tlie

around

it.

meadow.

And

As a conclusion
Sogdian painting

Sogdian religious

is

115

Awed we approached
saw

\vc

the

sun-taccd rider

hghtning around.

And like the

beams about it"*'

to the foregoing study

it

survived as Jtini {pni)

w midcr

to imu

We gazed at the brilliant ce flasiimg

scattered glistening

Mauer mi konography

Subject

very dark night," wrote Rustavcli.

of the nunifistations of

hvaruali in

proposed that the Old Iranian IMMMMti of bvartwh, which

Sogdian Buddhist sources, was perpetuated

in

heliefs in earK- inedieva! times.''"

Central Asian expressions of

Old

in the

native

However. Sogdian and other

Iranian concepts were shaped by internal de-

veJopments and external lactoxs that were often at variance with diose diat afiected
die oquessions of Sasanian Persia. It is noteworthy that despite legional dilfetences,

of hvamah preserved

the manifiestatiom

their significance in secular

and heroic

of Persia and S<^diana in the early

legends, as well as in the religious belief

Middle Ages.^'
Tlie Warrior-Woman

The

position

women

of women in Sogdian society corresponded

in other societies

In diese societies

women

them by nomadic
functioned both as

of

of die heroic age m

fought

men when

like

"primitive" stage oiht hcfoic age. They

mistresses of domestic

women

their world.''- Like other

sometimes cast as watnots

who

life

and

as active

partidpants

of heroic and "aristocratic'

honor or

their

were

kin

engaged

at stake,

Sogdian

Women

the affairs

who
women were

number ofnarrative

Panjikent

participate in single

combat with male adversaries

Patijikeut VI:33, south tcall (fig. 46)

49

in

societies

or in general melees

in single duels

alongside the men. Such warrior-women are rqnesented in a

friezes fitom

of

sxagjB.

of the old prophetic grandeur accorded

retained relics

societies in the

closely to the status

mature or "aristocratic"

its

Shou Rusuvdi. The IMglu

and the

in the

murals from

southeast wall (unpublished).

in ike PKather's

Skm, ttuaL by V. Unohadzc

The raised

(Tbilisi 1968),

l7i-'7350.

H. W. Bailey, Zoroastrian Prahlcms

51.

Aurpay.

Xljff.; eadctn,

"Ciowm
"Some

in the Ninlli

and Some Royal

Iconographic

Coitury

Biwt., 54fF.

Insignia in Early Iran,"

Formabe

in Sogdian Rimting,"

Irmka Anli^ IX
Inmka Antifia

(197a),

X (i973).

16B-177.
52. Bo\vr.i, Heroic ['oftry, 489!!.

But woim-n did not

ciijo\

the

same

liigli

soci.il

sutus in

all

societies, cf. the position of women in K.i/.ikh nilturc, T.G. Winner, Tht
Ond Art and Uuraam /*the Kax^hs of Rtutim CattrtA Asu (Durham. N.C. 1956), 13-15.

nomadic Central AH.in

Copyrighted material

Pktomd^ in Orient^ Art

TAe

116

sword,

(.lr.iiiiaric

posture and heroic

the south Willi ot

Piiitjikoi!

The involvement

adversary.

scenes that culminate in the death

status generally

may

formidable

less

wartare

is

the

her male

tlian

theme ot the

mam

of batde

oonsdtiites a sequence

of the pcinc^ female ptotagcmist (pU. 14-20).

of thb "amazonomadiy" Bcknitskii

In his discussion

It

no

women in general

ot

from Paajike^ XXI: t whack

nairative &ieze

high

m high) of the woman warrior on

statiirc (2.5

11:33 portray her

recalled references to the

enjoyed by women in Transoxiana

in early

medieval timcs.^i

women in Sogdian
women found in the

be noted, moreover, that the respect accorded to

society corresponded with the general arnrudc towards

"anstocrattic

of women

stage ofheroic societies,

in the "primitive*'

and

tliat

their role

and "proletariat"

was

societies.

ditlerent

Women

trom

that

in Sogdian

society were not pictoied as aoieeresses of primitive and pasnwal sodedes, nor were

they the wise and cautious wives aiid mothers of the "proletariat" stage of the
heroic traditim.

They personified

was, and not as

They

it

who

married the

Warrior-women

tlie

ideals

shared

battle atter she

in Sogdian pamtii^, like dietr

society

had seized Inm by

where

male countetparts, convey the

society as a whole.

the cultivated elite

These were

and the masses

Documentaries,

of the heroic epic

is

narrative frieze that characterizes the representa^

also present in representations

such as the arrival of foreign missions

figs.

really

polenitfy. sucli as those ot the guiiitess

she subdued

worth that were current in Sogdian

<^ a homogeneous

Genre and Folktale

The formula of die continuous

of the

it

common interests and a common oudook.

ffisCotic

tion

as

distorting changes.

him in her leather poudi.<*

the curls and dropped

ideas ofheroic

man

of the heroic world

memories and

distant

powers of the Russian

lack the strange

Nastasya

rather the ideals

was seen through

aristocratic

50-52).

at the

or royal residence excavated

However,

of historical documentaries

Samarkand
at

court, depicted in

Samarkand

in

Room

1966 {pk. 21-22.

the narratives depicted on the side walls arc here different

from those depicted on the end walls. The potnp and pageantry of court life in the
Sogdian capital at the height of its power and q>lendOT are conveyed through a

dear pcogiession of acrion, formulaic gestures and proportions, the use of brilliant

and vivid colors, and descriptive details. According

53. RcU-nitskii,

$4.

Moiiwih

Bowra, Heroic

u!,i!'i!t\

to the interpretation proposed

ishaam PemtdiAaita.

Poetry, 483.

Copyrighted material

Tlie

Theme : Siii^ Matter mdbmifi^

A.M. Bclcnitskii and

fbrtheioception scene by

B.I.

117

Marshak, Part Otw, pp. 61-64,

an eathnnied Sogdian god was depkeed in the center <^the west wall hdag tlie
entrance.

Next to the god stood the niler of Satnaxkand, Vaigoman, who headed

thepfooession*'
tion

The emphasis on

(fig. 51).

of differences

in the

accurate details even in the representa-

physiognomies of the partk^panti has relevance for the

representation of historic documentaries.

The same concern

and

for realistic detail

acciuacy characterizes the representation of the Arab siege of a Sogdian city and

odier murals uncovered in the royal residence at the Panjikcnt citadel

pis. 23-24). llie siege

projectiles

duougb

sv/le,

is

a ballista

of ropes, apparently the Arab

die torsion

refined miniataristic

found

instrument dqiicted in diis mural

monochromatic

palette

and use of

doubtless designed to meet a similar

demand

for accurate

and

2S-3 1,

numjaiiq.**
plastic

and other fragments of murals from the Panjikcnt

in these

(figs.

whidi hurled

The

modeling

citadel

wew

realistic detail.

In Sogdian painting the expression of heroic worth by tokens of splendor and

external dignity

was not limited

to representations

of heroic epics. Such bnnuke

are also attached to representations ofdaily events such as banquet scenes and scenes

of titoal sacrifice. The brilHantly colored

weapons, ornaments and

fabrics,

and rich and detailed references to

utensils celebrate the dignity

of such commonplace

events (cf Paujikeut A'A7F). Thus, the flight of the composite and bcribboncd being

towards the heads of the banqueters [Paujikeut XXIV,

fig.

17) confers

upon

ceremonial and secular scene the dignity accorded royal images {panjikcnt Vlilj
fig. 53)
6,

souA

and

officiants at

the fire altar [Paujikent I:so, north wall^ fig. 48, Varakhsha

iira/l).

If the preferential treatment given to the representatim of heroic and epic

themes in Sogdian paintiiig indicates the relative importance of such themes in the
55. Cf.

On the relationship between

historic

.md heroic patterns

in epic narrative, sec

A.B. Lord,

The Singer of Tides (Cambridge, Maa. i960), 6. The following kings of Samarkand arc known to
have Unoe the titk Mslui, mler of Sogdiana:
A.D.

&IO-660 S^ir (s'y'pyr)

Vaigoinan (firytfiit'it)
NaniiiS {nnyfy^
700-720 Tarxun (trywn)

7lo-n9 Gutak {'tiyrk)

DevnS&iByw'Ityl)

From 738
Sec O.I. Sniiniin

Tkirgai (twryr)
.i,

Of/icrti iz istwH

of such si^
(Cambridge 1970), 831.

56. For a description

^Umi

II

(Mn-ikv;! 1970), 27$f.

instruiitents, sec
J. Parry,

" Warfare," Tlw Cambridge Htsury

Copyrighted matBhal

118

HieKeUaUd^inOHaadArt

Fit^ure ^o. Fcuutle part\dp(mts in

iiitiii

cinis<ivns lo

liie

Samnrkmd, Room

i.

<i

procasioii cf Clui<;;hii-

Sogdiati royij/ court

Recomtmcted

itl

S.iiiuirk'atul.

sketch after

Al baum,

Zhivopis' Afrasiaba,/^. le.

Sogdian
daily

tradition,

lite

fonn in

nlniiidancc inJ

\ ;)ricr)'

ot

tlic

rcprLsciilations

of scenes of

latter as a less serious Htcrary

the Sogdian cultural mi]iea. Like the folktales of other peoples, Sogdian

taks reflect a
legoids.

llie

and tolklorc nidicatc the currency ot the

The

more

pedestrian tone and

characters

li&-st^ than that pictured in herdc

of folktales emerge

as personifications

of theur

fiinctions

Copyrighted matsrial

The Theme: Subject Matter and Iconography

119

Figure 51. Detail of a Sogdiau mural from the west tvall of

Room

at

t,

Samarkand. Insaiption

identifies the figure

with

cap as Vargoman, ruler of Samarkand, mid seventh century.

Copy.

or of special circumstances in the story. Such stories frequently have a miraculous

twist and

The

moraUzing overtones.''

abbreviated and conflated representations of folktales in Sogdian painting

follow distinctive compositional and

found

tliosc

PP- 70, 95f-,

W.B.

57.

Age,

off".,

in the representations
1

standards that are at variance with

historic

and heroic cycles

(see

above,

i6f. pis. 10, 12, 13, 25, figs. 54, 55).

Fknning, "Sogdian Tales."

113.

stylistic

of the

BSOAS

XI 13

(1945), 465-487;

Chadwick, Vie Heroic

120

Hu PiaatUil

n^nH'

in

OrienkiArt

Rcpn'StuttUioii of a dcU'^atioii oj

_)2.

Turks among the

foreign tuissims at the Sogdiait court at Samarkand, Sogdian

nmral Jrm

(fce

west wall of

Room

i,

Smarkaud, Recon-

itruOed sketdt after Al'baumt Zhhropis' Afiasiaba, fig.

Military'

The

7.

Equipment

accurate

and

detailed depiction

of weaponry

in the Sogdian

muiab

ofiers

valuable material for the study of Sogdian military tactics in pre-blamic times.

Copyrighted matsrial

The

Hum

SiAjea Matter and Itomgn^hy

J-

Figme S3' Detail of

hatiijtiet,

pL

a SogJiatt mural depicting a royal

from Panjikoit VI : i. SheUh

^/ier

Zhivopis',

XXXVL

V.I.

die

121

Raspopova has

nomadk

tactics

employed

Turkish and

attributed the

di&rcncc between the military equipment of

and dut of die Sogdians to

Turics
liy

die

basic difierences in die military

two communities. The l^ter weapons dutractemtic of

odier ii**tiM<lir

equestrian wanton were apparendy

des^ned to meet

the need f ir niobilit)' in warfare. Unlike nomadic warriors who fought singly and
relied o\\ their speed

and shooting

close formation and relied

range.

on the

skill,

iinp;ict

The preponderant Sogdian

Sogdian horsemen

(pis. 4,
5)

fought

of tlicir heavily annored lancers

ottcnsjvc torcc consisted

idio carried battle banners in addititn to

lances.

in

at close

of mounted lancers

The Sogdian war-horse was

equipped with sdmpa, fieqnenily a metal cavesson or f^ukut resembling a

muzzle, and a curb-bit i^tlie "severe" ac "rough" type ^Is. 4, 2<S) similar to that
utiliied

j8.

by heavy cavalry in Iran in Panhian and Sasanian

V.L Raspopova,

"S>gdtiildt

122, Afkhfiologieheskoe izuehenie

Moskva

gorod

Sfnhd

kochevaia $tep'

Azii

times.)*

v VII-VUl w.,"

Hie Tudcs and

Ktatkie soobshdieniid

(AN SSSR Ordena tnidovogo Icrasnogo znatneni

Otto Maonclicn-Hcifen, The IVorU of ilw Huns

(fietkeley/Los Angles 1973), 201S. The liistinction drawn by Xenophon between the "flexible"
Iimituta arklieologii,

1970), 86-91

Copyrighted material

122

TkePktonal^iHOHenUdAit

Figure ^40. So^^iau mural depicting the

ter

of the goose

that Uiiil \^olui

lithuitiki,

Sketch

after

xxnj,

197 1, fig.

other cquesrrian

i>

\i<;><,

in

XX

i.

Arts Asiaciqucs

14-

nnnmds

utilized tlic stirrup, but thcv lacked the

of the Sogdiau and Persian

t\

pe.

"rou^h"

<

urlvbit

Turks and other nomadic warriors ot the

and seventh centuries were dressed

mail.

of the slaugh-

talc

from Panjikcnt

Marshak,

in

sixtli

long protective coats of lamellar or chaui

They wore hdmets with cheek-pieces and

carried a small

Toimd

shield

suspended from a loi^ loop across the shoulder. They wore two belts; on one were
diagonally suspended a
filled

bow

with arrows placed

pended

in

carried in a long

an

sword or saber and

upward
dagger.

position.

The

narrow how-cave and a

From

the second belt

lance and axe

were

also

qtliver

were

sus-

sometimes

found among the equipment of the equestrian nomadic warrior.'^ The mail-clad
equestrian royal portrait
and "rough"
>9<^i)'

'

75

bit is

from Taq-i-Bustan shows

diKussed by J.IC Anderson,

Aadem

raveson which has Sasanian and

the ){clIrn:%tiL (xtkh!, sec Anderson, op.

Anderson, probably dates from

tlie

59. Macnchcn-Helfen, op. dt.,

cit.,

Roman

60.

diat the

Taikbh armor of the

Grtek Honmnaufctp (Berkcley/Los Angeles

The

antecedents

was evidently fim usol in

cavcsfon from Suhantepc, dscuned

by

HcUcnistic period.

ajiC, 43S

Copyrighted matBhal

The Theme:
sixth

and seventh ccntunci. was adopted

Sidyeet Matter

aiino&t in

its

entirety

md konegngfky

123

by the later Sasatiwm

in Iran.

The

early Sogdian tetra<ottas

centuries (c Pmjikcut: Temple

military equipment that

is

around the waist, and sword

belt

vertically.

its

late fifth

and

sizdi

precincts, figs. 23-24), depict a type

of

Sasanian period.

cliaracteristic for Persia in the early

This equipment comprised

were suspended

and murals, datable to die

/land

short coat of mail, occasionally Icggin^^s, a belt

about the hips from which

sword and

The replacement of early Sasanian

t)'pcs

quiver

of miUtary

equipment by types that were current among the Eurasian equestrian nomads

appean for die first time in Sogdian murals of the sixdi to the seventh oencncy (c
Pagikctit

1: 10, fig. 48).

Icent paintings cited

Figure

5.^/1.

Sty(y(iian

hare and the

iioii,

Some of the new weapon

types, represented in the Panji-

above and in the Balalyk-tepe murals

riiural Jcpictiu^; tlic talc

of the ch'vcr

XXI :i.

Sketch after

Jrom l^anjikciu

Bdeititsy, Mof^udt, in Arts Asiatiques

XXIII,

(fig.

40), apparently

1971,

Copyrighted matsrial

124

ThePiaortal^^inOriaiulArt

FigUft 55> Rtfrescutatioii

muni fiom

Panjikent

oj

an imknoimJablc in a Sogdian

VI :4i. S^dt

Arkheologicheskie laboty

godu, j^.

Bela^tdm,

Tadzhikistane

in

1956

Jj.

underwent further transformation

from Afrasiab

(figs.

50-51)

in

Sogdiana/ The mid-seventh centurj' murals

testify to the

introduction of the stirrup and compart-

mentalized belts with multiple plaques into Sogdiana.

The

vertically suspended

sword, sword bdt, and curved dagger, however, preserve archaic features that
disappear from Sogdian military' equipment in the later seventh and eighth centuries.

Thus

the later murals

from Panjikenr

of the Turkish-type armor

atul

as well as certain

Varakhsha show the

coat

of lamellar or chain

knees,

was a

mail,

prized item that

which had a

full-scale use

moditicd or additional features.

Sogdian horsemen were more heavily equipped than the

tighter

urks. 1 heir protective

weave and extended below

was occasionally dispatched

the

to die Chinese court.*'

Engraved leather was sometimes used to cover the shoulders and chest of the coat
tio.

K. Otto-Oom, "TaHdscb-islamisches Bildgnt

VI {u)6i-6z), gff.

in

Am

Kgwandiefi van Admhaniat,'*

Anatolia

61. Chavanncs, Documents, 136; Mahler,

The

Westerners, $4.

Copy [iL|[, ted

material

The Theme: StAjed Matter mi km^vfkf

of

and

mail,

warrior

fitted

and jointed chain mail protected the hands and

45, pis. 14, 18,

(tig.

were constructed upon

dieek-and nosefMcces (pis. 4,

hdmet over the

and carried

fitce.

:io,

26).

a metal
18),

Sogdian helmets,

like

feet

many European

125

of the
types,

framework, and were frequently equipped with

or with a diain netsuspendedfiom die rim of the

They used

distiiictive

swords that -were

l<ig

and pomted,

second quiver wi^ a broad upper nm. and arrows placed downward.

Thus while the heavier and more elaborate armor of the Sogdian equestrian
warrior was designed to offer him protection against the archer's arrow, the
"severe" curb-bit and stirrups of

age

in oficnsivc

his

horse ensured him greater control and lever-

warfare fought ui close formation, liie Arab warriors

sequently adopted the military equipment

utilized the

two

horses

were

type.**

The

that they

were

belts,

of die

Persians

who

and Sogdians

bow, bow<ase and quiver of the later Sogdian type;

likewise equipped

,\

ith

stirrups

and the curb-bit of

subalso
dieir

the "severe**

evolution of the dress and equipment of Arab warriors thus suggests

combined the

characteristic

tactics

of the nomadic warrior with modes of warfare that

of Byzantiiun, Persia and Sogdiana.'^^

<S3.

Raspopova, op. dt.; R. Ettin^inen, Arak PdH&i^ 37.

ti3.

Parry, "Wacfane," op. dt,

inS.

Copyrighted malBriai

The Theme: Rehgious Imagery

3-

Most of our mfibnnation on the

native Sogdian celigion prior to die

conquest of Transoxiana has come from written sources

logical evidence.

Thus

it

was on the

the native Sogdian divinities

tion

now hnds support m

of wall

painting.

The

basis

ratlier

of written evidence

Muslim

than from archaeothat the majority

were assumed to he Iranian concepts."

Tliis

of

assump-

the Sogdian representational arts, primarily in the

torm

murab rom Temples I and

11 at

divinities depicted in the

Panjikent, and on the east wall of die

**

tan, Ustrushana, are not of Buddhist,

Manirhaean or Christian origin, but represent

small*' hall in the Sogdian palace at Shahris-

the native Sogdian pantheon that included a large

The Sogdian

number of Iranian

temple

idol \\m^ ll(MJ^cd in a tctrastvlc

divinities.*

with iour free-

ii),

(fig.

standing columns, Hat or lantern roof, cohinnadcd portico and axial sanctuary.

he

plan and elevation of the Sogdian tctrastylc hall tind antecedents in the early Zoroastrian sanctuaries, first attested in a

temple of the fourth century B.C. at Susa.>

Subsequent temples built for divine beings, and

1.

W.B. Hemiing. "A

Sogdian God,"

fiir

the

cuk of the ever-botning

BSOAS XXVni:2 (196s), 242-354.

Prc-Zoroastri.iii are

concepts such as "spine of Earth "(M.inichac.in Z'yyj:pfj(f'mir, "Genius of the E.inh," termed simply
as

"earth" in a Buddhist fragment), Asa vahi&a, preserved

{'rixwii).

as the

Manich^jcm clement

"li^"

Daga as an individtul god, or the appellative baga- "god," and the DaCvas also belong to
Whereas the use of Syij' in the seme of "god" in the onomastica of certain Sogdian

this category.

regions indicitcs the rctLiitUMi ot

tlic

pre-Zi>roastriaii

meaning,

its

use

iii

tin- sliik- '>t

"demon"

in

Sogdian texts is indicative of tlic uiflucucc of Zoroastrian teaching. Tiie Iranian divine beings known
Ahun-maxdSh, Zrvin, Mi9n, Nama(i) die Lady, Varalfrayiu, Naryatanha,

in Sogdiana weret
A;i

ami

tjiihi, I")niv;ispi,

(.iiuijrva.

H.ioin.i, X^.irnii.ih, T:\rr:',

i,

Yinia, "rightcoii'i \vind"(|iiMAr4iMI^,

On rywxi {Rewaxi':) and TaxsU, icc Ikunnig, op. cit., zsi-zsiwho had proposed a Maokhaean origin for the two temples at

2. Belenicdcii,

Maniduean imeipratadon

for

Patijikent, g.ive a

>me of the icooogcaphic formulae in the murals from these

on the other hand, explained the same formulae as

temples, see Zhiwpii'. (HfT, A.IU. lAkubovsldi,

expressions of the niiivc M.zdic.in
}.

K. Schippmaiui, Die

r..-ligiiiii

.ifSngJi.in.i, see Z/.;.".>rih'.

::tiT.

iranischai Peuetheiligtuma, RtligioiisgeschidtdidK

ymuclic unJ

Vorarbtiteti

XXXI (Betlk/New York 1971). 266^274.

126

Copyrighted matsrial

Jhe Uieme: Rdigious Imagerf

Fii^urc 6.

from

SogJian mural depicting a scene of

the south wall

of the

tetrastyle hall

PeatjihenL, Sketch ^ter Zhivopis'.f/.

fire, in

mouma^

Temple

II.

XIX {seeJigs. 49,37).

Iran in Seicucid and Parthian times, evidently followed the plan of the

Achaetnenid temple
period.

of

127

The

at

Susa winch underwent structural changes in the Sasanian

Sasanian square

domed temple with tour arches, described as a

now known as Mflr iSq, developed out of die

guniAai in Zosoastriaii mrridngs,

tetrastyle

4. Ibid.;

ten^le of the Psurdiian period in Iran proper/ But die

M. fioycc, "On

the Zorojitriiii Tcinpic Cult ot fizi:,"

JAOS

essential features

95:3 (1975), 4j6t.,

Copyrighted material

128

Tfie Pictorial Epic in Oriental

Figure

_57.

The heads of the deceased and a wonruer, front

of the

detail

tetrastyle

hall

of

Temple

XXI {see jigs.

Panjikcnt.

II,

wall of the

Copy

after

temple were preserved

in the

Sogdian fayn, or

throughout the pre-Islamic period.'

Ancestral Colt

The murals from Temple

constitute

M. Boycc,

Romtm

"Iconoclasin

Cults, Studies for

satries de Bard-e

XLV

II,

and possibly those from the

first

temple

at Panjikcnt,

themes that apparently pertained to a funerary cult that was linked to the

royal house at Panjikcnt.

5.

soitth

4g, 36).

earlier Persian tetrastyle

tetrastyle temple,

The

from the

tiiourniiig scene,

Zhivopis', pi.

of the

Art

focal point

among

Morton Smith

Nechandeh

(Paris 1976), i84f.

The

et

of the cycle

is

mourning scene rcpre-

the Zoroastrianj," Christianity, Judaism and Other Crecoat

Sixty IV (Leiden 197J), 99;

Masjid-i Solaiinan

I,

R. GhirshmaH,

Terrasses

.Meinoires de la Delegation archeologiqut en Iran

The Theme: Rtlfgbm Imagery

129

scnrcd as a large composition along the entire face of the south wall of the principal
tctrastyle hall ot tlie

Temple

II

complex

(tigs.

49, 56, 57). This

of a youthful crowned personage, whose

fuiicral bier

mortak and gods. The deceased was

banian epic hero Si^vosh,

tentatively identified

his fadaet to

mural depicts the

mourned by both

is

by the excavatois as the

who was the reputed fetmder of the Sogdian dty of

Bukhara. Aocordmg to Nardiakhi, Siyavush, son of

from

dcatli

Iranian king Kaikaib, fled

Tnuisoxiana where he took rdfuge widi die Turanian king

Afrasiyab.
AfrAsiylb treated

gave him

all

him kindly and gave him

daughter for

his

a wife.

had been given in loan to him. So he bdlt the

nsuaOy resided

there.

He was

as

you come from

this

Afriisiyab killed him.

the Eastern gate inside the gate of

Every year before the rising of the sun, on New Year's day,

every pcnon (brings) a COck there and

kills it (in

memory) of him. The people of Bukhara

have lamentations concerning the killing ofSiyftvush which are

to the belabored later accounts

denied the customary funeral after

predicts the ir..inner of his

he

said

of Btikhara and

of the Ghuriyiii. The niagiam of Bukhara for

called the gate

is

that reason esteem diis place.

According

citadel

But when he and AfiasiySb became estranged

buried in n place (located)

the straw-sellers, which

They

Some have

of his domain. Siyivush wanted to leave some memorial of himself in

district vHhidi

own

his

known

all

over.*

of the Siyavush legend, the hero was

execution. In Firdausi's account Siyavush

oe.ith:

will strike off tins guiltless

head of mine.

And lay my adem m my heart's blood.

For me no bier, shroud, grave, or weeping people.
But

A
As the

like

.1

str.uiiier

sftt*

jhall lie in dust,

central figure in

remembered by annual
6.

trunk bclic.ulcJ hy the scimitar.'

tlie

cult ot death

sacrifices

Sec Nanbakbi's account,

traiisl.

1954), aj, 19. For a diiciission

and rcsurreciion, Siyavush was thus

and lamentations song by

by R.N.

of this

idcmiticutioii. firit

A. I. TcFcnodikin, sec Zkivopis' dremego Piaadzhikaua,

of Buk-

the magians

Fryc, The History of Bukhara (Cambridge,

Massadu^

proposed by A.IU. lAkubovskii and

Soobsliclteniia tadzh.

FAN SSSR U (1949),

M. M. D'iakonov, ** Obnz Siiavusha v Siedneamtskoi mifelogiii" ICSWMX'XL (1951), 34^^

7 A.C. Wimcr. E. Warner, 77u' S/iJ/rMifiiia i/r/ri/aiirf II (Londbo 190^ 31 1. Besides the references to Siyavush in the Avcsta and the Pahlavi texts, the l^cnd of Siyavush is preserved in
15;

numerous Muslim sources, cf.

'AM .il-M.i]ik b. Muhammad al-Tha'ahbi, Shahnameh-i-Tlia' alibi Jar

shark-i- Jjw^-i-ieltMat-i-Irin, transl.

by M. Hcdayat (Teheran

Jarfr al-Tabarl, Ta'rifcfc aUrusut wa-al-mMliA U, cd. M.J.

Abu

al-Husiyn 'Ali

1303/1885-6), 97-98;

I'ln

al-Husjyn al-Mas'udi,

Mahuiud

b.

(Ankara 1941), 149-151. 1 with to

above zetevaiCEs.

al-Husap

1949), Saff.;

dc Gocjc (Leiden

A/iini;

al-dhahab

al-Kashgari, Divmii

wa

Abujafar Miihainnini
1

S79),

597-^2

ma'adin al-jawliar

liigat it-tiirk til.

duok Frank Vittor for diawtng my anennoo

<>:i4
I

f>

b.
s

(Cairo

cd. B. Atalay

to

some of die

HiePiami^^inOHenUdArt

130

hara, called

hiti i

Siyauush,

"The

rc venire for Siyavusli."

mourning scene from

figure in the

and O.I. Smimova

as die

i'.uijikent

was

But

later,

the principal

by N.V. D'iakonova

identiticd

son of Sipvush, FurSd^ an account of whose deadi

pieserved in die Persian epic the ShSknSma.* In Firdausi's account FurOd

Turanian champion w hose

him

citadel

was stormed by Iranian troops

hand-to-hand combat. While

in

and destroyed
throne. Later

his

wmmdcd

hero was

m anticipation of the surrender ot the castle to

modier stabbed

herself to death over the

The mourning

scene

&om

similar practices

among

their tresses

on an ivory

the Iranians, Furod's

Panjikent has none of die colorfol detaik

depicted in this composidon appears rather

of mourning on painted

laid

body of her son.

dramas that led to the early deadis of Siyivush and

the customary funerary practice

his

as j reference

in So^diaiia.'-'

ossuaries

who wounded

mother and attendants rent

their valiubles, the mortally

is

is

son FurSd.

to

of the

The

from Khwarezm

ritual

what must have been

The appearance of the same

testifies to

ritual

the curreiu y

of

other Iranian peoples in Transoxiana in early medieval

nmes.'* Explicit demonstradons of mourning, prohibited by the Zoroastrian

8.

N.V. D'iakonova, O.L Smimova,

Isskdnvmiia po

Nauk SSSR,

istorii

9. In fnrdausi's

hero on

"K

vosfxosu ob istoikovanii pcudzhikcotskoi lospisi,"

kurtury narmhv Vottoka, Sbontik v

Otdclcnic istorirhcskikh

:i.uik

(Muskv.i

rhfst' dbidbiifihi

I.

A. Orbeli, Akademiia

Li-nini;r.ul ii/Vi), ['7-i

acxount Furod's weeping mother, J arira, and

'>4.

acteiidaiits laid the mortally'

wounded

m ivory throne and then rem their trenei in sorrow, bi amidpaKkHi of die imnwient

surrcMit^tT

of Furod's

cistK- to '.he

Ir.ini.iii

troops, the hero's

mother then dcstrovfd

the vjliiabic

siablo .ii:J ^l.ibUd hci-n lt'to dc.itli over her son's body. Furod'i dejili was sub1 iir.inuin .ind by f iirod's Iranian kiiiMiuMi who had takcMi part in the
of Furod's castle, sec Tht EpU oj Kings, translated by Reuben Levy (London 1967), 117-118,
D. Mondti-Zadeh, TofOf(rapMstke4ibtwisthe Srudien zum Irmbthtn Nathmlepos, Abhmdltm^ fitr
dk KimJi Ji-.' .lAiri;.
41:; (Wicsbadtil iy->), 191. Ti^lsfov iJenlificd the- da-civd in the
liotsfi ni ihc (.astit

sequently niiilirncd by ihc

siege

'r.'.irri.'i

muurning scene in tlic Patijikent iniiral as a vvoniaii. llus ideiitiiicatioti was made on the baiu of
the presence of wonien's names on inscribed Khwarezmian ottuaries, of the seventh and eighth
centuries, from Tok Kala. Some of the ossuaries bore painted leptescntaiioiu of mouming scene*

comprablc to that shown in the Panjikent mural. However, the royal crown worn by the deceased
in thr Sordi ni nnir.il .ind the assori.iriiMi ot th.ir nuir.ii '.virli
iilt pr.u tiics WOuld argue tor the
idcnciftcatiaii ot the deceased in (he Panjikent mural as male. Sec S.P. Tobtov, V.A. Livsliitz,
"Dedphermcnt and Interpretation of the Khwarezmian Inscriptions fi-om Tok Kala," Aaa Aiai^
'Budapest n/'-l).
ScimUarum HiDHwhac XX
>ivinitics m Sagdiaii Palatini;,'
10. G. Azarpay, "Ir.itn.in
Ada Iriviira, Moiiumenlum H.S.
Nybcr^ I (Lcidcn 1975), 21, fii;. 4. On those parallels, see also K. Jcttmar, "Zur 'Bcwcinungsszcnc'
aitts Pendiikeni," Cetttrai Asiatic Jourtul Vl:4 (1961), 265-2456. A. V. Gudkova, TMttda, Kar<dul^

'

ptkskii filial

ilrn;ioy
drei'iifgo

InidiM

AMrmii timk UzSSR

k'!:or, :>r,:!.

f.u.njru),

(Tashkent 1964). figs. 277ff.; lU.A. Rapoport,

istorii religil
TK'iA^t. VI {t()7\), lOjff.; V, \", MgoJin. T. Khod^luiov,
kn^pof

Mizdakhkaiia, Akadciiuia nauk

istorii,

iazyka

liientuiy im.

N.

Uzbekskoi SSR, Karakalpakskii

tiiul

AN

UzSSR,
laa

Da^dcataeva (Tashkent 1970). plates fidng ppw iia.

Copyrighted matBrial

The

Them : ReUghus hmtgety

131

church, were here comhined with the Zorna^^trian-typc burial in ossuaries." This

mixture of pn -Zoroastn
also in

anci Z(ir(ustrian practices in

iii

Sogdian rciigiuus concepts ol

Hk funerary ritoal as

Ttansoxiana

is

reflected

this time.

it is depicted

in die Panjikent mural

and on die ossuaries

was associated, according to Chinese written sources, with the Sogdian version of

<^ Adonis. Hiis

die cult

cult involved a ritual in

which the goddess NanS, die

Lady, was believed to have joined die mortals in their annual mourning Sac the
dead cod.'= Muslim written refcrencei to cult practices
s\ iithi-sis

of the Sogdian version of

on

ultimately based
central

tlic

Adonis

and

cult

at

the dynastic cults of the earlier Gracco-lraman states.' >

the allied founder

of diat

city,

whose hurial place became

a messianic

die cult center of the

^ure, SijSvush undoubtedly provided a

prototype for some of the heroes of later Iranian apocalyptic

the

literature,

but was he

of all the royal houses of Sogdiana?'' Attempts

also regarded as the ancestor

11.

The

Ggare in the cult of resurrection at Bukhara was identified widi Siyavush,

ma^arn of Bokhara.'^ As

hnk

Bukhara suggest the

a native ancestral cult

name of Siyavush widi citao

wu, given

iji

Chinese sources as the

to

name of

E dimiuKs, Les Ttu-kiue {Tura) oeeHenimix (?am 1942). 132-133. n. 5; c iho die fimenl

of Furod

in

ririijvisi,

noted .ibnvc. A.IU.

"Vk il-rivskti g-ivi-

.1

Znrd.istri.in interpretation

tO tbc

loene to the right ot the central group oriiiouriicrs in die mural from the second cciiiplc at Ranjikent;

of the fiill of siimen from the cinvad bridge, sec Drevm

PidilirAArar, po slcdam drevniiili Liil'uir (Moskva 1951), 256. The falling figures in the Panjikent
muraU however, arc surrounded by fragments of the falling wall and bricks from the ramparts ot
the citadel. The vertical red line that zigzags down the middle of the structure is probably not

which he described

as an illustration

intended to repiesent a bridge at all, but a flash of lightning or an earth tremor, presumably brought
about by the divinities lepictenied in the upper left cottier of the scene. But the same ri^
a-) shown by its representation On a yend,
G.A. Koshclcnko, "Unikal'iiaia vaza iz Merva," ('TStfl

practiced in connection with cremation tvpe buruls,

ptesutnably an ash uni, from Merv, sec

(i9A^, 92-105.
" A Sogdian God," op. cit., 252, n. 67; Chavanncs, Lt-s Tou-kiuc Tuns) occidcntmtx,
Cf the Anatolian myth, noted by Arnobius, which gave the name of Nana to the

12. Henniiig,

IJ2-I J3, n.

5.

daughter of the river Sangarios. modier of Attis.

appuently not associated there v^th a

B&Hadittpie arthealogique et hbtorific
13.

Azarpay, "Iranian Divinities

cult, sec F.

IX

in

Bm as Cumont noted, this Phrygian

.Nana was
Cumont, Fomlles de DouM-Europos {1922-192^),

(Paris 1926), 196. n. 5.

Sogdian Painting," op.

cit.,

20, n. 4.

Sec the account of the history of Bukhara by Narshakhi, in

R.N. Frye, The History 1^

mourning scene (torn Panjikent with a cult in
which the Siyivuih legend wa* synctciiacd widi aitial nodons fbimd in MMiidbaean ftrrtft, lee
14.

Bukhara, 23, nn.

82fr.,

10. Bclenitskii associated the

ZAiMiptf*. 80-Sl.
et tefft

97. lai.

de rismrectioH de tinm

mod&H i Tbm dirite{CatA

i960),

The PktorUi jff

132

OrienUd Art

in

the Sogdiaii ruling fanuly, remain inconclusive.'" But

hem fmni

dead

the IViiijikcur

niiir.il,

who was

necessary center ot a regional tuncrary cull.

midway between Samarkand and

ably

The

it

has

princes of Kushaniyah (presum-

Bukhara),

who

paid daily

doubtless revered an ancestral figure associated with their

Hie Zoroastrian fravtih cu]t.

dcv'.-li^pniciH

The

111

vuggcstctl

Panjikem

religious sigiuticance ot the funerary ritual hi the

the participation

mouming ritual. Three figures in

One

least

for

its

is

four-armed
is

luurul, suggested

ofgods in this odierwise ordinary

relatively large proportions

two of these

group of mortals; the other

Haming

dynasty."

medium

a group to the r^ht of the funeral bier

gods because of their

iconography of at
pantheon.'"

own native

at a

quartets,

Sog^liaiia."*

by its context, is also implied by

identified as

homage

by ancestral images fashioned to honor the

Parthian Iran, cvidcndy found a hospitable

in

clear that this

with painted images of the kings of the four

local pavilion decorated

souh of the dead

become

mortal of royal rank, was the

identifies

them

as

and

may be

attributes.

members of

The

the Iranian

godilcss, represented as standing closest to the

the bent figure of a youdiiul male

god with a

torcii (fig. 49).

The Goddess Nani

Although the

attributes

of the four-armed goddess

are not preserved in the mural

firom the second temple at Panjikent (fig. 56), her identification as Nana is suggested

by

the specific association of that goddess with the funerary cult recorded in the

Other

written sources.

niur.il representations ot tins

goddess,

known from

the

288 n., )U; J. Mad(wart, Welutil

Chavannn, Les Tou-kiue ('i'urcs) ocddaitaux, i}6n.,
m4 ^MHf, UMmuthmigtH tm mfri^sthai tmi gesekkkUcktH LmieAmJk vtm OMinn (Ldden 1938),
150. n. 2. R.N. Fryc, "TarxOn-TiincOii and Central Anan History,'* Htmti Jounui of AsUuie
16.

StuJia 14:1 2 (1951), 127.

rM-kiue^Tims) ouideiitaiix, 145.

"Iconocbtm aaioag the Zoroasiriaiis,"

17. Ch.ivaniiLs, Lij

18.

M.

fioycc,

CliristianiiY,

Sk^

Ropian Cuhs, Anw^m fir ManoH

tl Sixty IV (LciJcii 1975),
astrim Temple Cult o( pjnet" JAOS 9Si3 (1975),
19.

The

OBiidnBed

three other godi leptCKnted to the

left

lozl'.

fmhism and Oiker Grt:

oadcm.

"On

the

Zato>

of the funeral bier (unpubhshcd) apparendy

die fauemy dienic along the south wall of dw main hall of Tmpk 11. tfdie firanvarmed
h rc|x-ritio!i ot the foiir-.irmcd i'luldc";'; on the rii^ht side uf the

divinity in this unpiiblishcci group

.t

Iner, then the scenes represented to the K-tt

it

the bier rcter to

.i

l.itcr

episode ttom the sjiuc narrative

te^ucncc*

Aurpay, "Nana, the Sumcro-AkJudian Goddess of Tiansoxiatia,"

536-542. The foundation of a temple of NanS at Samarkand is attributed to

ao. See above, n. 12, C.

JAOS

96:4 (1976),

Alex.inilLr
Sasaniaii

ii;

.i

Syriac version of the Alex.inder liom.inre, b.iscd on

penod, sec J. A. Boyle, " Alexander and the Turks.'

'

.1

P.ihl.U'! i>rii;i[Kd

of the

Tractata Altaua ^Wiesbaden is>76), 108.

7^ Tlume: RdigUms Inu^

Figure $8.

A four-armed godiess

133

depicted in a Sogdian

mural from the south wall of a vaulted room from Panjikcnt

VI

26. Sketch

tificr

Belenitskii,

Monumenul'noe

iskus-

stvo Pendzliikcnta, 26.

south wall o{

Patijikatt

^nhristan, Ustroshana,

Vl:26

(fig.

show her

58)

and two images from the "small"

seated

on a

hail at

lion throne or astride a lion, with

symbols of the sun and the moon held in two of her four hands.** Representations

of a foup^nned goddess with simihr

attributes

on Khwarezmian

suggest the currency of her worship in Transoxiana as a whole."

21 .

silver dishes

The

discovery

A cup and a scepter arc usually held in die other two hands ofthe same goddess. c the reprc-

of die goddess un silviT i!islu-s, sec below ii. 2::, .uul UMod cimngs, A.M. Bclcoilsku,
MonummuTttet Gkusstvo Pcndzhikaua, Paniiamiki drcvncgo iskusstva (Moskva 197J).
aa. The firar-aimed fenulc divinity on the Khwarezmian diilies was identified earlier by S.P.
Tolitov as a local version of the Iranian goddess Anahiti, see Dnvnei Khorezm, Opyt (sforikoarkkeoiogkheskogo isstedovanm (Moskv<i 1948), 198, 200; G. Azarpay, "Nine Inscribed Chorcsmian
Bowls." Anibus Asiae XXXI 2/3 (ig<39). i86fr. OXSHO was identified by Belenitskii {Zhipopis',
scnOtioQI

69-^0), with the

"Bag-Aid" of "ArdpVakhsh" mentioned

in a Manicfaacan

Penian text

bom

The PktMial Epk

134

in Oriental

An

andpublicatiun of Sogdun coins bearing die

name of Nana, and Sogdian Nanaeo-

of Nana as a major goddess of

Hie feieninner (^the Sogdian goddess was the
whose image and symbob appear on Kushan coins of the second

phoroiis names, farther support the identification

Sogdiana in pre-Istamic

NANA

Kushan

to the fourth centuries.

the Lady,

who was the

tiines.*>

The latter was in

turn similar to the Mcsopotamian Nanai,

iconographic prototype for several female divinities of the

who was

Indo-Iranian pantheon.*^ Thus the Iranian Anahita,

goddess, later assumed

some of the

ultimately a river

and manifestations of the Mesopo-

functions

tamian Nani.*'

The

ancient Mesopotamian Nanaia,

period,

from the

vehicle of Ishtar,

first

combined

which was

latter into the early Sasaniati

whose

colt

is first

noted in the

Ur

III

of Inanna with those of Ishtar. The lion

qualities

as<,u!iK

In Nanaia, survived as an attribute of the

cl

period in Western

Asia.'<^

Old

In an

i3abylonian

Chinc-ic Turkestan, sec W. Hcnning, " Mittcliranischc Manich.iica aiw Chincsisch-Turkcstan 11,"
Sitziingsbcrichtc der Prausischen Akademie der Wissensthaften, Pliilcsophisdi-historisdu Kiasst (Berlin
1933). 303-J05, 361.

Onemal!

dcs;h Siudi

ABX>OXSHO,

On

this identification see also

XXXVI:i(Roma

sec

W.R

M.

1961), 94ff., n. 5.

Bailey, Zonastrim

Bussagli,

"Cusanica

Serica 11," Rivista

But on the difference bcwccn

PnUms

in the

OXSHO and

Nituh-Century Books, Rautibai

(Oxfiml I943)> 6s(. On the connection between this goddess and Khotanese
of a suailar goddess see N.V. D'iakonova, "Matcrialy po kul'tovoi ikonografii

Katralc Lecttnes
rcpre>;cnr.itioiis

Tsentral'noi Azii do intisurmanskogo pcrioda," Kul'tura i ut-wt-fru narodou I'listoka 6, TGE V

between the locil non-Buddhist religions of
Khotan and Sogdiana in which she sees the following similarities (i) A chthonic cult associated with
die ancestors ofthe ruling d\Tiasty (i) the occurrence of a pair of dtvinicics at the head of the pantheon.

(1961), 237-272. This author points to connections

-3, 0.1.

Sinirnova, Kalalc'^ monct

s (^cn^dishclui Pt-iid:l:ikcii!

(Mosk\'.\ t'X>i), nos. 356-363;

W.B.

Hcniiing, So^ica (London 1940), 7; idem, "A Sogdian God," BSOAS XXVllha (196J), aja; D.
Wdier, "Zursogdischen Penonennamen," JiMfefmitMfarAr fr^^
Helta/j (197a), 19S-199.
I

r Jr
.miu'; my attention to the last reference.
wish to thank Professor Martin Schw.irr :
14. Azarpay. "Nan.l, the SunKro-Akk.u!i.m Ciiiddc:>'> of Iraiisoxiana," op. cit., 536-542.
25. The goddess with a lute and a lion vehicle is tentatively identified as SarasvatI, see A. Foucher,
'j

"L'An gr&o-bouddhique du Gandhara

<S(SfF..

T/.T

fig.
;

J40; J.N. Banerjea,

ii'.'ii.'ii'M.

II,"

L'EcoU Jrmfoise d'Exireme-Orieni VI :i (Pans 191 8),

The Devefopmait of Hindu Iconography (Calcutta

j Iranian Rfl>t(ion>.

s.^ff.; S.

fockimis Inoiianioniin Utlcramm Lundaisis

Wikjiidcr, Faicrpricsterin

XL (Lund

1956), 376fF.; Gray,

Kkbmikntmd InUtAttang,

1946), ii3tr.

26. For a review of the literature on the motif of the goddess with a lion vehicle, see H. Mofaius,
"Die Gottin nut dcm Lowcn," Festschriftfur H^i/Ar/jiiJEt/rrj (Wiesbaden 1967), 449-468. H. Iriphoit,
Parthian Seulpbirrfrom Hatra, Memoirs ofthe Comeaicut Academy ofArts and SdemesXW (New Haven
1954), I2fr., 2j, fig. 5, pis, IV:i-3, 5, \V:z (lion throne). The animal thrones and vehicles of the

goddess survive in Tnmsoxiana. Bactiia, and India into dw early medieval period, see B. L Maishak,

"OtchetorabotaUinaob'ekteXn," TTAt,
on

similar tcrra-cottas

from other Sot^dian

[Sredniaia Aziia v drevnosli), Akademiia nauk

die layout

of the mtmh 60m Pm^AtM

MIA I24(i9<i4). i37-a40. fig. 26:9(seeaho240.n. 57.

sites);

B.IA. Suviskii, Miziidu P,miron

SSSR (Moskva

Kaspicm

1966), 94-95 (tentative reconstruction of

yi:s).

Copyrighted matBhal

The Them: Re^gims buggery

hyiim Nanaia

An

s tailicr

is

said to

have elevated her to the position ot

135

supreme

goddess.*'

A Sumero-Akkadian bymn ofdie Late Assynan period gives a desct^on ofthe

goddess under her different names, in various
her different husbands

ui that period.'*

cities

Nana's

and

were those of Istar, daughter of the moon god Sin and

Her

inaniicstations

heavy

breasts in

ranged from a bearded

tetn^Jes,

Iltar in

and the names of

noted

attributes,

in that

hymn,

of the sun god amas.

sister

Babylon to a goddess with

DadunL

la die HeUenistic period Natia

Artemis in Mesopotamia.

was

frequently assimilated widi the Greek

A temple of Artemis-Nanaia was built in the middle of

the city

of Dura Europos in Roman times where a dedicatory inscription identified

Nanaia

as the chief

goddess of that

Images of Aphrodite, winged victory,

city.''

and Tychc or Fortuna which were erected

indicate

dbose

the temple of Nanaia at

in

the celestial Me&opotainiau Nanaia

tliat

combined

tlie

Dura

functions of

all

Gcaeco-Roman divituties.** A moldpmade bust of Nanaia dqpicted inside a

lead patera found in her sanctuary at Dura, and dated to the second or diird
century, shows her with a bejewelcd

crown and

identify her as a goddess of fecundiry and

widespread

in the

survived there as

At

Susa,

Euphrates Valley
late as

where the

27.0.0. Edzard,

29. F.

Cumont,

" Mcsopotainicn, Die Mytholugic dcr Sumcrcr

as

Cmnont,

in the

H.W.

und Alckader,"

iVorterbuch

Hatusig (Stuttgart 1962). 108.

Hymn to tiani," JNES 3 (1975), aai'436; 223, notes die

744 or 734 B.C.

Fouilltf de Dotira-Eiiropos {1921-192}), Dibliotli^ipte archcflloi^iiptc cf historique

(Paris 1926), I96ff.; P. Koschakcr,

30.

and Roman times^' apparendy

worship continued into the Seleucid age when the

Sumero-Akkadian

limmu year for Text C,

a laurel wreath that

of Nanaia which was

of Nana had been introduced from Mesopotamia

ilT Mythdogie I:i, VerJerer Orient, cd.

"A

in Hellenistic

by

cult

the seventh century.'^

cult

third millennium B.C., Nana's

28. . Reiner,

encircled

war." The

"Ausgrabungcn

ri^uiUa dc Doiira-Etirojuys, op.

31. Ibid., 206rt., pi.

cit.,

in DucarEuropos,"

OLZ XXXIU:j

DC

(1930),

lyS-iyy.

LXXXV: I. The pjtc-rj, which measures 8 an

m the Aneims-Njiiai-i sanctuary at Dura.

iii

diameter, was disiovercd in

the "chapel of Aphrodite"

12.J.G. Fcvrier, La ttligm des Ptihnyrhucns (Paris 1931), 99-102; K. Tallquist, AkkaiisAe
Gdtterepitheta, Studia CMmtSii VII ( 1 93 H). 3 5 3 86. On references to Nanai, the Lady, in inscripticms

from

.^ssur, sec J.T. Milik, Dt'dicacfi jaitcs

par dvi diftix

{l\i!'iiyri\ Hutrii.

Tyr)

f!

lia diiahs hnitiques a

I'ipoqM romaine, hulitui /rtmfMs d'mchiologk de Beyrouth, BMiothiifite archeologique

XCn (Paris 197a), 14S, 347. 1

above
33.

to thank Profeaor Matvm Pope for drawing

el

hiaoriipte

my attention to die

lefircnccs.

Nan3 was invoked as htc as a.d. dooinanincaatation text from Nippur, seej. A. Moncgumcry,

Amuk bKmUdm Textsfim NiffHt (Philaddphia 191j), 238.

Copyrighted material

The Piaomd]^ in

136

Oriental Art

goddess was named as die principal deity of that

from

official cult

at

of the Seleudds,

oriental divinities

an early date reappeared

in the official

Thus Nanaia's astral

assumed by Artemis with

whom

not

Midltadates n, issued around

to the syncretic cult

despite her

named on

Sclcucid

position in die

widi whom they were assimilated

pantheon of the city of Susa in the

aspect and her function as a city goddess

Nanaia was assimilated

period. I he rayed halo and polos

dq>icted

is

Whereas Greek gods occupied an exdwiTe

Siua.>>

Parthian period.

However,

city.'*

importance among the native population of Susa, Nanaia

coins

crown of Artemis

were

at Sus.i in the Parthian

represented on coins of

lo b.c. at Susa, thus transferred Nanaia's functious

of Artemis-Nanaia.*'

An

image of Artemis in Greek

dress,

on a tessera from Palmyra, actually identifies the Gtedc huntress goddess

Nanaia (NNY)."

as

Bronze coins of the kings of Elymais. probably

mcnt

issued at Susa alter rlu csrablish-

ot I'arrhian rule at Elymais and at Susa, depict Artcmis-Nanaia as a troncal or

profile

head with a radiate halo or polos, or

as a

complete figure dressed

fiuhion of a Gtedc huntress with or without the radiate halo,

a crescent

by her

side.^*

Nanaia was frequently depicted in her oriental aspect

without reference to her assimilation with Ariem is

in representations

of the second

evidenced by the inscribed stone image of die goddess from

century and

later, as

Hatra

Baghdad museum.

in the

in the

and occasionally widi

The symbols and

attributes

of the early medieval Sogdian and Khwarrzniian

images of Nana, though influenced by Indian formal models, nidieatc

that the

of the iconography of Aitemis-Nanaia at Sum and Eiynuis, kc G.Le

SAudies tt k$ Pm^t tUmofm it k MisoM m^\osi<fw
/nm XXXVm

34. For a detailed analysis

Rider. Suse sous

let

(Paris 1965), 292ff.

35. Ibid., 2SH.

The radiate halo appean about the same time on the coins of Hyspoosinn

36. Ibid.. 296. no. ia{K

of duracene, ibid., no. 409.

37. H. Ingholt al., Reeueit
Biblwiliapif
38.

iirc/(i'ti/<)i;ii/iic

Lc Rider, Sufe

sous

its tesshes Je

Palmyn;

Insiitut fratifais

faithtote^t Je Beyrouth,

liiwriqiic I.VllI (Paris 1955), 40, no. 2H<,.

Us

Seleucides et Its Parthes, op. dt.,

pk

7j:ij-i7. 20-21, 23-24, 36;

74:4r-6(head of Ariemis-Nanaia); 73:26-27, 30-35, 37; 74:1, 7-9(t]ic complete figure of AitemisNajiaia), sec p. 4;S.
39. S. Fiik.ii,
Nan,iia'!> im.igi-

"The
i

s.

.
.

of H.itra md Parthi.m Art." Ea>t and lVc>t VIII (i9f>o), 164, fig. 24.
on a pithos from Assur datable to the second to third century A.D., see

Artifacts

iirs

H. Ingholt, Pmhiati Sfulpturc from Hatra, Memoirs of the Comectku! Acaibmy of Arti and Scienees
XII (New Haven 1954), Jiff., fig. 5. A radiate .ind enthroned iin.ige nf N.inai.i is depicted on the
StOtie relief of Kjmnaskires Orodos of Elymais, at Tang-i-Sarvak, datable to ca. A.l>. 100, sec

W.B.

Henning. "The Monuments and Inscriptions of Taiik-i-Sarvak," Asia Major 11:2 (lyja),

151-15B, pb.

n-OL

Copyrighted matsrlal

The Theme: Re^^oiu bu^etf

goddess preserved both her early Mcsuputaiiiian

atiiliations

137

wiih the sun and the

mooti, and her identily as a love and war ddty. The question

now at issue is why

Nani was accorded

superlative creative

die Mesopotamian

power

an odierwise predominantly Iranian pandieon

ill

medieval Transoxiana,

and

that her qualities

But

of a

the position

since

as in the ancient

Near

East,

^"

were there combined with those of a

Iranian pictorial

postulate

^t in eady

Nana's cult was a syncretic one,

local Iranian goddess.

models were lacking, the Mcsopocamian Nana's

iconography, modified by Indian and Central Asian patterns, prevailed in the

imagery of the syncietized cult image.

Nam's
Armaiti,

Iranian counterpart

who was

was the goddess Armaiti, the Avestan ^enta

assigned superlative creative

power

god Ahura. But following

in the

formed

Iranian pantheon. In this pantheon, Armaiti, as earth,

pre-Zoroastrian

a pair

with the sky

the elevation of tlie latter to the rank of supreme

god

the Zoroastrian theology, Armaiti's position declined to that of the daughter

ni

of

diesky god.4<

Whereas the

earfiest

abstract concept

Avestan hymns, die <Hthas, invoke Spenta Armaiti as an

meaning "rightful thought," bodi

post-<jat]iic Zoroastrian

and

non-Zoroastrian Iranian sources refer to Armaiti in the sense of "earth."^^

Pahlavi sources which identify Armaiti as earth describe her as
crrator of cattle, and genius of cultivated land.*^

As

mother of mankind,

earth, Armaiti

sponsible for the spirits of regions, frontiers, stations, settlements

saw to

proper government and administration.*^ Armaiti

their

invested widi chthonic qualities, as

uncharitable

Armaiti,

tiller

"A

is

was

also re-

districts,

and

occasionally

shown by Ahura Mazt&'s judgment diat die

"fall down into the darki / ^
Spenu

of the earth would

down into

Hcnning,

40.

and

the world

of woe, the dismal realm, down into the

liouse

of

S(^dian God," op. dt., 142-354: Azarpay. "Iranian Divinities in Sofdian

Painting," op. cit

41. C'lniy, Tlif

Auording
Ttxts

to tlie

4:1.
;

rf /rjriiirri Rc%ici".v,

I'p. cit.. 47fr.

Chitf (Jrctk Texts (Pahs 1929}, djfT.; H.

TV (Cambtk^

iQi}), 1";

15.1

Fii((ik-/i!f;iiv

ii-lfin,

1961),

"S.ika

n;

kleni,

Zomatrkn

E. Beiiveniste,

ll.iorf'.,

Zadsparam io.3;Bahman Yak 2.8; Sayast-nf-Uyast

Studies, Kliotanese

the NhalhCailHirY Bookt (Oxfiird

ss.iiidrrini.ita," Fi-vrvr/jn/? fur H'i7/ic/.';i F.i'fn

Yasna 3K.1-2, Yasna 4^.3: Vctididad. hargard

The /VrjMU Retigion

W. Baiicy, Iitdo-^cylitiM

PrMem in

fWic^-baJcti I0<)7}, 136-143.

and hargatd XVIII.103

LUmd,^lii5n

13.14, 15.20-as; Saddar 33.2. 45.5'

On the

identificatum a Annaid as eanh in both Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian lootoes. xc H. W. iiailey,

"Iranian Studies V," BSOAS ym-.t (193$). 14a: idem, Saka ijandiSmau.** op. dt.
43.

li^-Hh

Bundaliih 15.1; Zadqianun las; SiyaiMie-nyatt isM-24, 22.5, 23.1; I^distSiMOenig

64,6.

44.

Zidtpanun 23.9-10,

Copyrighted material

The Ptariei Efk

138

hell."*'

The

in

OrieuUdArt

ahstract Gathic qualities

function as a protector of

dithonic aspect which

of Armaiti which survived

was perhaps

a niagian

in

her later

were thus combined with a

Zoro.istrian religion*'''

tiio

of Mesopo-

contribution ultimately

famiaw origin.*'

As eardi, Spenta Annaiti was frequently ootq>)ed with heaven in Zoroastrian

hymns that, nevertheless, identified her as a creature of Ahura Mazda. But in the
pre-Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Iraiuau
eastern Saka, heaven

such as those held by the

enti-

Bountiful earth was particularly venerated by the sedentary Iranian popula-

ties.'*^

tions

bcliets,

and earth represented two equally unportant creative

^at lived beyond die sphere of influence of die Zoroastrian refbcms.

Aldiough intangible,!* Spendaimad, or Spenta Aimaiti, occasionally manifested

herself in the

form of a woman. As proCectoress of the water ri^ts of Inmian

was

lands, Armaiti's manifestation

dressed "in
that

is,

.i

clearly symbolic.

which shone torth

bright robe

And

about two parasmgs.

She appeared

as a

maiden

in all directions for a liafr'> length,

she was girt with a golden girdle which

was

the

Religion of the Mazdayasnians.'*s* Wheteas pictorial repvesenutions of Atmaiti

are laddng in Persian art, diose
fied earth,

depicted

of her Saka eqiwralent, Ssandrimata, the personi-

have been identified by Sir H. W. Bailey.'* The Saka Siandramata

in the I^uddhist art

of Khotan and Tumsuq.

is

Chinese Turkestan, as a

in

finnvarmed cntbconcd goddess," following the formula used iat the representa45. Vcndldad, Farpard Ill.js.
46. YaSt

i.jyflf.,

Dciikard,

47. For other inswnces

nKdium of

<'f

Book

LXisi.iy, 42.10, 43.21, 60.4, 69.i4fF.; Zadspar.ini

1;..:.

the trannnittion of Movopotatnian religious notions to Iranian Kchcfs

"RcUgious Subjeas on Acfaaemenid

Scab," Mtikrak Stupes, ed. J.R. KnnellsfMancheiter 1975), 103-104; idem, "Adidua and Mesoptv

tliiough the

tamia,"

the Magians, see

A.D.H.

fiivar.

ihid., 28(5.

4. Yasna 38.1-2; Vcndidad. Fargard XIX.13.

of the Pontic Scythiatis, see O.G. von Wciendonk,

" Aramati alsaiisdie Erdgotthcit," Ankivfiir Retigwnsimsemck^ XXVD : 1-2 (Leipzig/Berlin 1929).
49. For a discussion of the religious bclicfi

73 <r.; J. Dudiestte-Guillemin,

(New

SynAob end

York'Hvanstoii 1970). 29.

On

Values in S^onastrimim, Tlwir Survbul

the ceUgiou* belie&

of die eawem Saka,

mi JtmMi(

tee Bailey,

"Saka

ssuidianuu," op. dt., 136-153.

50.
51.

^yasMie^yatt 15.3.
Z3dqianm44-6btnmsbledbyILCZaieliner,ZHrim,Zpf^

163.
s::.

Bailey,

Books, op.
53.

"Saka iiindramata," op.

cit.,

cii.,

142; idem, Zeroaitrim

52; idcni, Khotaneft Texts IV, op.

PnAkms

I'ostolia 6,

TC V

(1961),

257 172. l

lus

in

Ae Mnlh-Cnittiry

cit., 12.

For the images of the Saka ^iandrStnata, see N. V. D'iakonova,

in

KuFiura

ishtisstvo

author points to the following ronnections

native non-fiuddbist religions of Rhotan and that of Sogdiuu : (i)

narodov

bL'f.vLL-n

the

A chthonic cult associated with the

anceslon of die ruling dynasty ; (2) the occnmiioe of a pail of dinniiiet at tlx head of

Copyrighted malBrlal

The Them:
tions

of Nana

Nana

in

Khwarczmian and SogHian

arr.'^

RjeUgious

The resemblance

Inu^

139

betAV'ccn the

iinaecs cif Transoxiana and the Sakn Ssandraiiiaca exceeds their tornial ties

with Indian models;

testifies

it

rather to a mutual relationship in the conception

of the two groups of divine images.

Finally, the ascendance

and prevalence of die

cult

of Nana

in early medieval

Transoxiana would be satisfactorily explained if Nanl's fimctions were cqiuted

with those of the

aspects

principal Iranian goddess Armaiti.

The

creative and chthonic

of Armaiti, or Spenta Armaiti, would then have been

regional cult of

with

associacioii

Nana
tlie

in

Transoxiana. This tusuMi

Sogdun

transferred to the

w ould then

explain Nana's

luuerary and dynastic cull, her role ui die native

Sogdian cult ofAdonis,*' and the patallelians between her imagery

in

Transoxiana

and the representations of die Saka Ssandcamata.

It

may

be supposed that the Syncretic cult of Nani-Armaiti was &iily wide-

spread throughout the east Iranian world in early medieval times.

Spenta Armaiti appears

ostraca

from

Nisa.^*

It is

as a

compound among

The name of

theophoric names on Parthian

perhaps likely that the important

Nana

sanctuary which

was reportedly situated at N isa ^ ^ was dedicated not to Anahita, whose name b absent

from die dieophotic names from Nisa, but to the combined cult ofNanS-Armaiti

The goddess represented in

vessels

may

the Sogdian murals and

functions of Armaiti, the earth, and those

war and
54.

on die Khwarezmian silver

of die pte-Zoroastrian

represent, therefore, a conceptual synthesis

of Nana, the Mesopotamian goddess of

tcrtUicy.^*

For examples from Khwjrrzinijii

jj. Hcnning,

"A

Sogdian God," op.

(Paris 194a), I3-I33, n. 5;

art, sec
cit.,

above, n. 22, for Sogdian images, sec above,

2j2; E. Cbavanncs,

La

Toit-kiue

{Tma)

11.

10,

oaidentaux

Azafpay, "Itanian Divinidef in Sogdian Painting** op. dr. The connec-

tion between the guddcsK Nana and the native cult <^f Adonic tound in S;>|^di:it:j rcci'li the Phrvgian
myth of Pcsinontc, reported by Amobuis (V, 6, 12), in whu h Nana is given as the name ot the
dau^tcr of the river Sanganxs, in> iihcr of Attis. But as Cinni uu noted, no cult is known to have

been associated with thb Anatolian N4Um, sec Fouilles dc Dour^-Eunpot, op. dt., 196, n. $.
56. 1.M. D'iakonov, V. A. UMtAt, DtlmmentY <2 Nisy Iv.don^i. (Moskva 1960), 24; idem, in
Sbc^rmk v dial' akadamka /wl. OirMi. bdtdavMHit fo btotS kaFiury nmoiov vooth* (Modcva/
Leningrad i960), 331.
57. Idem, in PmAmmlihoi

(Moskva

1966),

Orieii, op.
58.

M.

cit.,

52, n.

sbonA

II,

Deih^m^

i interpretatsiia

pis'mamostii Jreimego vostoha

M (Na iMa, 1741, aaS, 124}); idem, in sien^ v tkat*

ahtdtaaiit

LA.

329.

Bussagli had argued for the identification

of the fbor-ariDcd godttcn r^vocntcd

in the

&om chc Poitjikcnt mural a* a >yitci<etic being in wiiose imageiy woe combined
ARX>OXSHO and NANA, see "Cosanica et Serica II.*' Rivbta dtgU
XXXVIJ (Ronw 1961), 94!!"., >, Sec also the speculations of R. Ghirshman, "Une

moufuing scene
the

(pialitics

of the Knshan

Siiuli Oriaitiili

coupe

sassaiiidc a

11.

xtac

d'invcstiture,"

W.B. Henning Memorid Kviwne (London

1970). 168-179.

Copy [iyt lied

material

140

ThePictwuJ^utOriaatdArt

The River Goddess

The

attributes ot the Sc^gdian

armed goddess from

Nana

distinguish the rcprcsentatitMis

of

that four-

second goddess, also shown with four arms, depicted

miiraU (from two consecutive building periods of a chapd and

hall)

in

uncovered in

die precincts of the second temple at Panjikent. In the earlier mural, uncovered in

the chapel, the haloed goddess

is

on a golden throne supported on

duplicated on the

the back

now damaged

crown composed of multiple

the headdress

two-armed and

right side

and

discs,

seated,

is

with outspread knees*

of a winged canine that may have been

of the throne (hg.

34).

a lotus-shaped Horal motif,

worn by some high-ranking donors

in the early

She wears

rcmimsccnt of

medieval murals

from Tnklurist3n.i* The goddess wears a loose garment that fills in deep and regu>
lar folds

above an omamental

from her

shoulders.

belt,

and a thin cape diat

shown on her right and a male attendant on

or scepter with ribbons held in her

Om\

fills

in undulating bands

rectangular musical intrument widi bell atuchmcnts

her

left.

r^t hand

is

Her attributes include a crown

and a banner in her

left (see

Part

p. 73).

slightly later

mural from the adjacent

hall

iii

this small

complex

attributes

additional symbols to the

same goddess. Hie haloed goddess here has shoidder

flames, four arms, a fitted

garment and enveloping cape, and a

vdiide
her as a

13, pi. 27).

later version

reptilian

of the

earlier

two-armed goddess whose aquatic function was

suggested bv her lotus-shaped crown.

Her

additional attributes arc in effect formal

rather than subsuntive changes that mdicate the

development of new forms of

Sogdian dress and fixKwear and a m<re emphatic symbolttm. llie

mafcora-like

vehide of the goddess,

artistic influences that

animal

The banner and the aquatic function of the goddess identify

like

fish-tailed

her multiple arms, doubtless edio Indian

reached Sogdiana durii^ the period of die Hephdialite

domination of that r^ion in the early sixth

century.*^"

Although the banner,

musical instrument, and aquatic associations of the goddess clearly depict her as a
river goddess, her exact identity remains tenuuvc.'^'

MDAPA D (Puris 1928), pi. 23.

La

mlifttlh hoiMilfiesieBimtfaH,
J9. Godard et a!..
60, Belenitski. Manliak, in Arts .isuiliqiics XXIII (1971). 5-7.
61.

watercourse and a grove of trees apparently existed within the iminedute vicinity of the

shrines in the northern precincts

of Temple

II at Panjikent. Bclenitskii

and Marshak regarded thctcaj

further tefstence to the aquatic function of the goddess with a banner worshipped in the shrines, tee
ibid.,

and idem,

in

SG XXXVI

973), j stf.

The association of the banner with the two images of

this goddess inii^ht suggest her identification with Anahita, c(. S.

asm md Iran (Lund

1946), 76.

But the

identification

is

WikandcT, FaterfritStn

in

KSdUf

at best Sjpcculativc.

Copyrighted material

71k Theme: ReHpous Inu^ery

Mithra, Male Divinities and Other Religious

The group of immortals

141

Themes

b the mouniing

to the right oT the fbneral bier

scene

fixm the second temple at Panjikent includes a beardless male figure, bent oti

knee

he lowets

as

ami

face, rayt-r! halo

tions ot the

a flatning torch (fig. 49).

lu ad

one

Ik pusture, hoodlike cap, youthful

and slioulder flames of this figure

relate

it

to representa-

god Mithra. wliosc name and imapeappcaron Kushan coinsof

Irnnir!!!

the second to the iourtii centuries.^-

As

the Iranian

god

ot contracts, Mithra

pantheon arc recalled

associations in the earlier Indo-Iranian

solar

in his cpitlict

"en-

light" {hvSraoxJhia-) even in the Zoroastrian context.'*

The

lowered torch of the god in the Sogdian mural from Panjikent, intended

as a

dowed widi own

reference to the funerary significance

formula found

The

of the

scene, appears

w itli

god

the

the Mitliraic imagery and funerary art of the

in

itHMiography ot the Sogdian image ot Mithra. w

ciated

and Kushan

Sasaiuuii

111

hicli differs

thus derived

art, is

peat a femiliar

Roman

west.**

trom

that asso-

from

provuitial

Ronun models that ot^inated in territories to die west of tbe Sasanian empire/^
Another instance ofSogdian adapntion from Roman provincial art is met in the
Remus motif (fig. 59) and legend which
Roman models arc also recalled

Sogdian version of the Romulus and

di&rs from the version adopted in Sasanian art.'^''

62. Bclcnicskii. in Zlim^pis', 69.

The lowered

100.

torch of the

Uiiv5.:i^'li. iti

goj

in tlif

KiVi>w

A-gli Sutdi Orieiiftili

P.mjikcnt mural

Honun

the dadophori in Mithrjic represciit-itions in

is

Mysteria of Mithra

(New York

the torches held by

two mortals in die monming scene from

The

Dyuitsli: Arts oj

63. See the Si^^du n in

Guilleinin.Lo

.1 1

s.miL- ]i-iii>tinp.
thi-

Panjikent for a re&tenoe to the torch

For reptescntatknu of Mitfara in Kushan art, sec

from Mugh, V. A. Livihiis, 5 i

(i 960), 76ff. J.

Duchcsnfr-

Let ancitima rclii^um ttriattala HI (Paris 1962}, 37;

L Gershe-

Mithra (Cambridge 1959), 30, 35ff.

64. M.J. Vcrinascrcii, Corpiu Ittscripiiomim el Monwnaiti^niw Hcligiotiis MithriMM

vitch.

The

Atvsiaii

I9j6), no. 1359, fig.

art, sec

to

j5, passim.

idem. The Legend of Attis

65. Sec .ibovc, n.

in the cult

cult in the

art

GandhSran Sculpture,"

(The Hague

Roman

Greek mi Rmtun An (Leiden 1966), 13-17.

,<s

.1

god

^.ivior

Tbe possibility <^f

was contemplated by

.1

direct link

in Persia proprr, his presence

with the wcsteni

ui Sogdi.in.i w>>uld suggest fainiliarity

Iranian world.

For comparable representations of Attis as totchbeaicr in

in

Sinrr Mithr.i did not fimrtion

of rcsiirrcaion
e.ist

well and Gandhar.in

1961),

Cumont. The

also F.

Kushjiis, 81-82.

igc contract

rclii^iondc I'lraii atuieit.

Hymn

cf.

1956}, uSiT. Busgli evidently mistook Bdcnitskii's reference to

held by the m.ilc divinity in thf

Rosctifield,

XXXVI:II (Koina

here compared to the ge'sture of one of

provincial art,

Mithr.i's savior

between the Mithraic art of the

A.C'. Sopcr. see

Ronun

"Aspects of Light Symbolism in

Artibus Asiae XI[:3 (1949), z(M-z(ti.

66. In the Sogdian version

of the Romulus and liemus motif, the she-wolf has

its

head turned

uifants, cf. a gold bractcatc frutu die Ttmpk

ana, at Panjikent (diaiii.
cm), in A.M. Belcnitskti, "Obshchie reznl'taty raskopok gorodishcln drevnego Penddiikenta
|i>>.
- i>)U
-:.)," MIA (<< f.Mo-ikv.i 'I.cnin^r.id
s, t:;^.
Tl:i' '.i:iu- pmrure is repeated
osS\

towards the suckling

2.3
f

111

tlic

i'

rcprcscntatiun ot the ihe-woit

Negfuatov, **0

.?

N.N.
The more naturalistic

the .V)gdiaii mural iroiu Slulirnun, Ustrushaiia, sec

ifaivopiii dvortta afihinov

Uimtthany," SA 3 (1973}, fig.

15.

Copyrighted matBhal

142

The Piaori(d

Fi^tiir yg.
h-^t
I,

mf.

tii

in OrkttUtl

Art

Sogdiait version of the

piciid in

ii

Romuhts and Remus

mural from Room

i.

Qal'a-i

Qal^aha

SA 3,

1973,jig,

Usirushaiia. Sketch ajtcr Ncginatov, in

of a secondary

in the iconogtapliy

from

Biia-naitnan, in the

deity depicted

Hermitage

treme right side of that ossuary

Mum nm.'

carries a large

on a Sogdian ten-ootta ossuary

T!..

key

fissure

in the

depicted on the ex-

manner of key-bearing

posture n{ the w'oh in the Sogdi.in rcprcsiMU uions mntT.ists with the trcjtmcnt of the motif in
Persian art, sec A.D.H. Bivar, "A Parthiati Amulet," BSOAS XXX:} (1967), 513-535; idem,
CaUdogHe 0/ the Western Asulk Srab in the Briiidi Museum, Simtp Seah II, Tlbf Sastmim Dytuaty
(London tyftij), 17. TA
EA >'!ii><;i!.
i

67. A.IA. Honso%',

twtoliii, (.Viii.iii

,i

"K

i.v.j

isti>lki>vainui izobr.ij^lieriii n.i b:i.in:innanski!ih

I'.riiiihtzli

II

(Leniiijirad i'>4o);

A.M.

ossiuriuUl," irmly

Belenitskii,

"Nakhodka

oltScla

zhclcziiogo

idiudu V Piandzhikcutc," KSUAIK XXIX (1949), 100-105; 13. lA. Staviskii, "Ossuarii iz Biianauiun," TG V, Xtrf mm i itkusslvo tumiw vMotta 6 (Leningrad 1961), 163-176; Belenitskii,
AAMiMtenMl
Idauslvo PendzMtenu, op. dt, 41-^

Copyrighted material

Vu
images of Cautopatcs and Zrvan or Aion
goddess

Tkeme: Rd^ious hmigery

Roman

m.w

key on the Sogdirm ossmr\

witli tlic

with the male

in

divinit)' represented in tlie adjaccui

Mitliraic art/'-

liavc

arch

is

143

That the

been intentionally paired

suggested by the pairing

ofthe divine couple on the kft side of die ossuary.** The attributes of the couple on
the

left recall

Kushan

those of

ARDOXSHO and PHARRO who are similarly paired in

art?" (see also Part One, p. 71).

The faint
may be

echoes of

Roman

art,

noted in the foregoing examples of Sogdian

attributed to the period just prior to the defeat of the Hephthahtcs

art,

by the combined

forces

of tlie Sasanian Persians and the Turks

the native Sogdian artistic style crystallized

toEieS ( It was die artistic

in Transoxiana.

god Vavu,

in

a.d. 557.

When

and early eighth cen-

idioms of Central Asia and Sasanian Persia that prevailed

The three4Kaded god

Shahristan, Ustrushana,

Sogdian god

the seventh

depicted in

and Panjikcnt XXII-.i

IVysprf^r, recently identified

armor

5) bears

in die murals

the attributes

from

of the

by H. Ilunibach with the Iranian wind

the hidian Mahadcva/Siva and the Ocfo oi the

Kushan

coins."'

The

three functions ot IVy'sprkr, creation, preservation and destruction, syinboli/ed

by the

three heads, though alien to orthodox Zoroastnajiism, evidently found

currency in the heterodox east Iranian Zoroastrian world

6S. Vennaseren. Corpus Insaiptionum et

no.

1163:%.

309;

9. Brlciutskii''.

I,

no. T03:

fig. 36,

Mmumaitmim Religionis

no. 312:

fig. 85,

iiliTitiriiMti^Mi iif tJif ivkIlIl'ss

itli

no. 314:

the

k<.-\'

(see Part

fig. 86,

One, pp. 29f ).

II,

no.

1 1

no. 543:

fig.

152.

Mithriacae

10: fig. 28$,

oti the l!ii,i-ii.niii:iii MSsiLiry as

Nan5

is questionable, since the images of NANA on the Kiuhan couis represent her with an animalheaded scepter ndicr than widi a key. For Belenhskii's study, see KSUMK'XXSX. (1949), ioc-i05.
70. Roscnficid, Tik-Dyimtk ATtu->f<hc K'H</u!iif,(ip.dt.,'j7, fig. 3.Forodier|MUrec]iidtiestn Kinh.m

art,

seeiby.. no. 165

71.

(OESHO-NAN). no. i6()(OESHO-OMMO).iw. 13J, lU(MAO-MlIRO).

Spiritus vivens im oidtaaiicfaeii Synkictisanis," Aela

H. Hiunbadi, "Vayu, ^iva tuid dcr

^^iv.mmntum M.S. Nybog I (Leiden

7r<;rik,;.

1975), 40a-^oS.

72. Ibid., 403.

Copyrighted material

Style

4.

A de^ levefcnce for living organisins and a ddig^ in natnte had long piDvided
the Indian ^t7/wi, or pco&ssifnial painter of murals, widi thanes that were capable

of ex^esnng die world about him

adherence to

rlie six

principles

Gupta paintings preserved

at

in

aU

Bagh, and

the Dcccaii, cxctupliiicd by paintings

paintings

The

from

Elioia,

variety and complexity.

in the

is

The general

eviLlcnccd, furthermore, in the

eonteniporancous Vakataka

from the

later caves at

Ajanta,

tlie

art

of

early

and those from Aurangabad and El^umta.*

six prerequisities

proportion, depiction

its

of Iiuliaii painting

of bidian paindng

constituted variety in form, correct

of emotion, infusion of grace,

verisimilitude,

and the effixt

of modeling produced by the mixing of colors.^ Nothing comparable to the opulence of the Indian natural landscape

ground of the

tigures

is

is

found

distmguishcd by

in

Sogdian painting, where the back-

very

modicum of

descriptive detail.

When tiicy appear in Sogdiati pamtmg, landscape elements arc clearly subordinated
to die action of the protagonists

enoes without intrinsic interest.

ality

and

and appear

architecture

as sdiematic

and petfonctoty

refiv-

A progressive tendency towards two-diinensi<m-

hieratic or subjective rendititm

and landscape elements

in

of scale eventually reduces

Sogdian painting to

flat

references to

and decorative

props that mcrclv suggest the setting of figural compositions. Thus clouds and

mounuins

arc expressed

by masses of cuspcd and lobcd

pattcnis, trees

and

foliage

are reduced to limited specimens, and architecture lacks spaaai coherence. If die

cusped douds of Sogdian paindng are derived from the evanescent globular

douds diat define die vaporous upper r^ons in Indian painting,

their systematic

reduction to linear and decorative patterns in Sogdian painting indicates a radical

d^arture from the

I.

C Shratamamuiti,

J. Ill

and die

illusionistic
in

treatment of the same subject in Indian painting.'

M, Buaagli, jMtf Yavs ojAm^ India (New

Iiulian paintiii'.: tnu-.i Ajanta atul frorr. the eighth ceiiturv

Yock, lud.), laa

ji.iii-.tini^s

nmiiJ

m the

Lciliiig

wen pcwdi ol titc KailaMntha temple at ELiora, clouds arc represented ai conglunicrations of

144

Copyrighted material

Styk

145

Likewise, the schematic trees aiul flowers represented in narrative compositions in

Sogdi.m p.umini^ reduce foliage to

^inipk- iorimilac

dccoralU'c toinpositions. Tlie elaborate and uaiuiaj^in

tive

borden and

V.L.

panels in Sogdian paiiuing

Voiroinina preserve the Indian

(tjg. 37),

tli.it

arc not

employed

leal scrolls toiUiJ

lii

in

decora-

treated in a Special study

and Graeco-Roman prototypes more

by

fiitk-

iuUy in seocnidary compositions that lack natiadve or descriptive importance.-*

In the narrative context, trees and foliage arc uniformly simplified as a laurel-

shaped

platit

supported by

broad and smooth, or lightly patterned stem, colored

in a variety ot shades

with the cxcepnoii ot green

dimension of the tree

is

Neidwr

additional branches.

12, tig. 60). Increase in the

(j>l.

indicated by a nuiltiplication ot the laurcl-sliapcd leaf

of Near Eastern

die stylized reeds

in Sasanian art nor the Indian banana tree

and

its

on

art that survived

ramifications in die Buddhist art

of Eastern Turkestan approach the hierogly{^ simplicity oftheSogdianformuIa.^

A comparable

degree of abstraction, however,

inn ot

a fusion ot

Late Antique and Fg\

and Syrian leat-shaped

tree

found

is

in the representation

of a

where the formula may have developed

leaf-shaped tree in Coptic and Syrian art

jni an stylistic

conventions.''

the C'opfic

It

seen as the end result ot devclopincnii based

is

on

cuspcd and globular shapes that arc evanescent along the margins but harden toward the center of
the composition, sec G. Yazdani, Ajiviia
S.

Kramrisck,

v;)pors of

[|u-

II

Yurk HumKiy 1930-1955),

(I.<in<lon,Ncw

pi.

XXX;

A Survey 0/Pmttmg in the Deuaii (London 1937), 7jff., pi. VI. A linear version of the
of these

inodellei) clouds

upper

earlier bidiaii paintings is

ri-;4i<'n^

finmd in die ipatulate douds diat define

dw

nfthc sky on the ceiling of the lodra-Sabha cave, EUon, dated to the

twcllth century, sec Krainrisch, op.

cit., pi.

VII.

4.

V.L. Voronina, "Arkhitcktumyi ornament dicvnego Pianddiikenu," Shd^piur.j, s;

j.

For the Sasanian reed pattern, sec the hunting scene on the stucco plaque (iom Chalur Tarkhan

13s.

Museum, R. Ghinhman, Persian Art, the Parthian and Sassanimt Dynasties

(New Yurk nX'-).
The same iimtit .ippoars -ilsii m the hunting scene ot the

in the Philadelphia

B.C-A.D.

2<fg

6}

Taqw-fiustan stone

relict's, ibid., fig.

236. For the bidian banana tree in the cave paintings

Ajanta, see Madanjcct Singh, Ajanta, Ajanta PaiHting 9

pU. 31-32, and for

A. von
ph.

I.c

a v.iri.tnt in the

Huddhist

.irt

of Central

CiK], Die biuUhisiifihe Spalatitike Miitdasitm

SmtJ and the Sead(ir(New York

Asi.i, sic tlie i.ivc ]\iintings
111,

Dw

bom

1965),

troni Qyzil*

WaiidhuikicHU (Ik-rln

iij;4),

7. 9.

6.

The

simplified trees of Syrian and Coptic art,

of the

fifth

cf.

more

and deuilcd diaii the

the Early Christian ivory diptych of the third cjuartcr

simplified tree in Early Christian art

century, in the Victoria and Albert

is

generally

realistic

Museum, J. Dcckwith, Eiir/}'

Christian andBysantint

Alt (London 1970), 21, pL 38. For Qxxj^ versions, sec A. Grabar. ByzmtmM from dw Death of
TheeJosha fo the Rix ef Islam (London 196^), 185, fig. 200 (mural from Mt. Sinai); K. Weitzmann,
"All Cirlv C.'pto-Araliic Miniature in Lciiinj^raJ," .in /j/,iiiVii X (i<;4j), I19-I34, fii;. l(>. The
Syrian and Coptic type

Evan_^eUar{WKn
dc

is

later aJ^vptcJ

1891), ;itf.. pis.

li,

iV

m the .Arniciaan uiuuaturcs, cf.J. Strzygowski, i&c/mnWziii(identifies

thetrecasacypnis);D.V. Ainalov,

TkeH^enb-

Or^ tfByxmtme An (New Jersey 1961), 97-99, fig. 47.

Copyrighted material

The Pklortd^iH Oriental Att

146

Figm 6o An unhmtm ScgUm epk itpktei in a SegdUm

XXII :i.

mural jrom Panjikcnt

Betatit^,

Sketch

Montunetiurnoe iskiustvo Pendzhikenta,

earlier

Egyptian models,' no snch antiquity oonld be claimed for die

oonTcntion in Sogdian painting.

expression

The Sogdian formula may be

of the general tendency towards

realistic regional

models that were reduced to

bare essentials.

The correspondence between

and those used

in Syrian,

tive

of

artistic

Coptic and

simplification
a single

or^ of this

seen rather as

an

and abstraction of

specimen stripped to the

the Sogdian convention for the tree

later Islamic painting

is

obviously not indica-

borrowing, even if artistic connecticms between early medieval

TkansQxiaiu and Western Asia ate daimed in other instances (see below, chaptertf)
7.

C.E. MoMcnkc, Die

pawim.

in altif^yptischen

Tcxten eru'Shntett BSume

uiid dcren

V'erwa^mng (Leipzig

xSB6},
8.

For the icaf-jbapcd tree in Islamic

fiag^idail,'*/oKnMf 0/ <Ar fPaJIHm Art

Schixil); S. W.il7cr, "Tlic

Wth

Jcr

iskmuchm Kuiut,

Mamluk
cd.

art, sec

ddkry

H. Buchthal, "Early Islamic Miniatures from

V (Baltimore

Illuiniii.itcd

R. Ettinghauscn

Baghdad
wj-Dimna," Am dcr
R. Ettingiuuscn, Arab

1942), figs. 14, 30, 39 (the

Manuvripn of

the

K.ilil.i

(Berlin 1939), 201, fig. 9;

MHths (Gcnevi: BditMin d'Ait Albert Sldn, I9da), 6a.

Copyrighted malBrial

Styk

147

Composition
Four

basic types

and Temple

II

of compositions are found

and

tlieir

with tour thematic categories

figural

pioceakms aaodated

floral bands, aidutectural

and

from Temple I

comprise narrative scenes, religious imagery,

tiiat

"with religkMU images,

and decorative panels of

But

these categories frequently

motifi and leaf scrolls.

appear in comUnatioii. Thus

prcxx^ssions

in the earliest jiaintinps

precincts at Panjikent. These compositions are connected

rel^us images may be cmnected

of donors, or they may be

arcliitcctural motifs are often

includcci in narrative scenes,

used as

textile

to figmal

and decorative

and ornamental patterns in

all

the

compositional categories.

Narrative Scenes

The sequence of scenes

U,

at Panjikent,

depicted

in the principal ci'i'Jh

was prescribed by a

and

bilateral pattern

tctrastyle hall oi

Temple

of movement towards the

entrance of die sanctuary. The decorative pattern found in die Sogdian temple finds

numerous analogies and antecedents

the Mediterranean world.

Appolinarc

Thus

Nuovo in Ravenna
move towaul

walls of the nave

on

id^oiis

the scenes in
the

Simiiariy the scenes in the murals

Europos were arranged

in

structures in

in the sixth coitury

iiii.ige

from

tlie

Westcm

Asia and

Byzantine church of San

mosaic

ot the Virgin

friezes

on the two long

ami ("hnst

the apse.

the tliird century synagogue at

in counterparts that

Dura

converged on the aids of the niche

die rear -wall fining Jerusalem.*

The composition of
{J'emplelvaA Temple
figures

whose posmrcs,

the scene.

9.

R. Wiichnitzcr,

paintings

the south wall

of thetetrastyle

hall in

Temple II

the earlier t)'pc.'" Tiiis composition divides the entire face

T/ic Mvssiaiiic Tliauc

iit ilic Paiittiii';;s

For a comparison of the arrangement of the

midmcum,

^jikcnt

by complicated grouping of interacting

gestures and facial expressions lend dramatic intcnsirv' to

The long composition on

may serve to exemplify

20ff.

the individual scenes in the earlier

II) is characterized

riczes

of the

Dun Synai^oi^KC {Chicago

194S),

i.H,

from the Dura synagogue and those of the

Comtc K. L>u
245-156 aprh J.-C. (Rome 19J9),

the Christian baptbtcr)* and the temple of the Palmyrcne g'xi^. see

Mcsnil du Buisson, La pehibtra de

hi syn.:i^o^t,c

de Dtmtt-Europos,

I47ff".

10. In his stylistic study ot the Sojidian paintings

dtstmguishcd four separate

artistic styles.

The

from Panjikent. D'hikoiiov

earliest style, Style

I,

(Z/iiiM/jn', 127ft.)

according to

this study, is

by the paintingi from the poctioo and utranyle hall of TtmpU II. I )'iakotiov assigned
the fiagment showing a haloed and bearded frontal figure from the lower layer <<f painting on the
ttorllt icflWof Panjikau 1: 10 to a separate styliuic L;rinip S:y!i- II), i:i wlm h he s.nv the iiiHiiencc of
Byzantine art. The large body of the later paintings from Panjikent arc associated by D'iakonov to
\

Copyrighted material

148

The IHcloria!^

in OrienlalArt

of the south wall of the main

hall

of the second teniplc into three groups of ligurcs.

The fijcal pomt of this composition is the central group

bier

figures

body of the deceased (figs.

arranged arotmd a fiinecd

The compact

masses of

on the two ends of the central scene comprise pcrson.igcs whose

relatively

and the

reclining

56, 57).

large scale and attributes suggest divine status. Tlie direction of the bodies and the

diagonal thrust ot the head of the kneeling figure

end of the

die Uer ofibe deceased in die central group.

of the

bier (unpublished) are turned

in the

divine group to the cast

movements of tigurcs that converge around

bier rciniorcc the diagonal

The heads of liie gods to the ivest end

fiwm the

bier towards the entrance

of die

sanctuary and to the small scene that shows figures toppling from the ramparts of a
the south wall of the main hall). Despite

on

stricken fortress (unpublished,

narrative interest, this lateral group

by virtue

is

clearly subordinated to the

ot the distribution o( masses,

central group,

by the convergence of diagonal

and by the subtle use of color

contrasts.

its

mourning scene
lines in the

Thus colors gain

in richness

and intensity around the center of the oomposititni and are muted and dense in the

per^eral

areas.

If the direction of movement of the figures on the south wall of the portico to

the tetra

p.

dl in the

second temple leads to

climax

in the

mourning scene

in

the center ot the south wall of the hall proper, the lateral group of figures on the

west end ot the same wall provide a subtle transition to subsequent representations.

The viewer's attention is also drawn away from die mourning scene to the statuary
that originally stood in die wall niches
Tlic

Lisc

of subtle

transitions

and within the sanctuary.

from one

narrativi-

turthcr developed in later Sogdian paintings

sequences of episodes

Slyk

III

and

Style IV.

woven

otnposition tO anodier

where long

epics

was

were represented

in

into a rhythmic pattern within the horizonul frieze

The mannered gcslurcs and fluent style of these laicr lepitscnucioiu are
nuke such a general stylittic distinction between Styk til and Styk IV
thus rrdiicrd D'ukonov's citcgoric-s t.^ two distinct pli.isrs rrpresnitcd In

sufficicndy siinibr as to

redundant.

Duss^bhas

the earlier paintings {Stylr

centuries {Siyk III and

and

.S'f)7i-

/!

and the

SlyL- II)

'),

sec

M.

later

Bussagh,

ones dated to the seventh and early eighth

/'ijiWr'tii; L</

Cenrra(y4fM (Geneva: Editions d'Art

Albeit Skiia, 196}), 43-51. Folbwiag the sodo-poltdcil expla nation tsually ofiered iti Soviet
Mttorical literature. Buuagli considered die development &om the plasde to the linear and twodimensional style

ill

Sogdian painting

is

lufiioiii itic

ol" a

growing

detacfaniHIt

from

This dcvelupmcnt could be viewed, on the other hand, as the Sogdian artist's iei|wOse to the

r.-.^iiy.

demand

capble of rendeiing the ptinuiiiy

These cilnr contrasts were appaioidy emplu-

for a locally valid, expedient and eloquent artiitic language

secular and narrative Content

of his subject

iiMttL-r.

when the paintings were restored during

oompkx, see Koitiov, in SkuTflttM, 165c
sizcd

tlic

second plusc of painting in the 7onp/r II

Copyrighted material

Styk

(ct.

Panjikent VI:

l,

VI: ij, VI: 41,

pis.

4- 1

14-20,

42-44, 60).

tigs.

bfcaks between compositions -widiin a single cootintiotis frieze

br

149

The presence of
is

duracteristic

some long pictorial que friezes. These bceaks, whkdi ofler the viewer occasion

br pause, suggest the finality

of each episode and permit the viewer

narrative at a definite juncture.

role in determining points

The pause

of stress and omission

in the later narrative friezes

is

to leave the

also iniphcs the narrator-artist's decisive

in a

given narrative. Each episode

composed of a standard compositional scheme

which symmetry and hieratic groupings predominate.* ' Landscapeand aidiitectunl

references that provided descriptive

in die later Sogdian murals in

ground or

figures are placed against a flat back-

in a scttbg in whicli landscape elements are schematic

Human

lizcd.

deuik

whidi

in the earlier paintings are minimized

figures are reduced in

number

and omamenta-

in the later conipositioiis

and are

standardized according to a consistent repertor\' of dress. oriiaiiiLnt. gesture and

posmrc. Facial expressions arc replaced by bodiK gestures, but the simple orna-

ments and limited dress cat^ories of the

earlier paintings are

omsiderably expan-

ded in the later period. Thus, whereas the narrower range ofcompositional schemes
in the later Sogdian paintings assured effective control of dramatic intensity, the

reduction of figures and their expression through

standard formal language

provided for an explicit and eloquent expression of the narrative.

Since formulas were the

artist's

of formulas corresponded

to his thematic repertory.

character of the pictorial epic,

way. Individual

means ot expressing the theme, an

artist's

stock

Yet despite the fbtmnlaic

no two compositi<is are treated in exaaly the same

styles indicate die presence

of dikrent hands, artistic sensibilities,

and levels of skill (see bdow, chapter 5, The sketdi). Each example <^ die pictorial
epic is a unique expression created by an artist who was capable of communicating
a

new

or familiar idea or tlicnie according to

the poet of the oral epic, the

clast

artist

but a traditional creative

of the

his

own

system of tunventions. Like

pictorial epic

was not

a conscious icono-

ardst.**

A second type of composition is firand in connection widi secondary narradve

panels.

These depict scenes of daily

narrow

frieze

life

and folklore and are sometimes found in a

along the lower edge of walls

Panjikent (cf Pmijiheiit 111:-, VI:.ft,

XXI:

in

1.

some of the

figs.

residential quarters at

54, 55. pis. to, 12. 13, 25). In

contrast to the rhytlunic flow ot the compositional sequences in the continuous

1 1

For

.)

detailed analysis

of

the composkional idieme in

Pm^fkem 111:% we Koatrov. in

Skul'ptura, i52fF.

la. Cf.

A.B. Lord. The

Sh^

/*

Tdes (Cambcklge, Man.

1960),

The Pktomd Ejptc

150

narrativCt these

in

OneattI Art

narrower

registers arc divided into small rectangular panels

with

independent and often synoptic compositions, expressed in a teise and sketdiy

style,

with a minimum ofcolor. The eloquent gestures, expressed with rematkaUe

economy, and the rapid transition of the thematic sequence

in the

abbreviated and

conflated compositions are well suited to the content of these small panel compositions (sec above, pp. 1 1 8-1 19).

The Hnmsn Figure

The

representation

of the human form

Sogdian paintii^, ngardless of

in

thematic content, followed current aesthetic norms that offer a key to die

of the paintings.

classification

If the use

the licad, plastic iiiodclinc, softly

and

of

profile

tlic

waved brown

its

Stylistic

and three-quarter views of

hair, beardless

ova! face, reeular

fine features ot the figures in the earliest Scimlian piiitititigs innii I'-injikcnt

(D'iakonov's Slytc

I) recall traits

peculiar to the earlier Graeco-lranian style, the

slender proportions, tapered limhs

them with

human

56, 57). Tlie

more,

of die

figures

in relatively

figure in the earliest Sogdian paintings

v. irl-

varied facial expressions

Sogdian paintings (D lakonov's

the proportions of the

fitdal features

dieir

iconography associate

(cf. figs.
is

23, 24, 34, 49,

represented, further-

varied and unconventional poses accompanied by complicated

gestures and frequcnthIn the later

and

of painting

a distinctive early medieval school

Styles

(cf. figs.

//iand

49, 56, 57).

II

see above, n. 10),

human figwc are fiurther abstracted and attenuated, and the

and gestures are generally standardized

(cf. figs.

45, 46, 53, pi. 28).

The idealized iicads of the latex Sogdian paintings are diaractcrized by an oval fitce,
elongated and narrow eyes, thin and often angular nose placed close to a small

mouth, and

sniootli black hair defined

by a sharp and angular hairline and dangling

sidcltK'ks or tresses (pi. 28).

Men

of mature age arc rarely bearded

in the later

usually depicted with a thin drooping moustadie

indicated

by

vertical black strokes

SofUy curled hair found

"Rustam cycle"
Pwijikoi!

I'l: ij,

earliest layer

in coinicction

{Puiijikriit

VI: 41,

pi. 9),

at P>mjikait

53).

The

layered treatment of

with certain figures, such

I.ioP.

r\'pe

recorded

111

hero of the

mural from the

iakonov tentatively

painting as a separate st)dc {Style II), of possibly Byzantine or

tion. Indeed, die treatment

as the

and the red-haired female head from

apparently revives an earlier

of painting

Sogdian paintings. They arc

and a suggestion of fiidal hair

on the chin (fig.

classified that

Armenian

of the biyered hair and beard of die

fixmtal

Pmjikent ItioP ediocs die sofily curled hair of the Graeco-lranian

style.

inspira-

head in

But diat

Copyrighted material

Styk

Style survived also in archaizing representations in various

art into the early

depicted in

medieval period

PuiijiL'cnt

XVI:

"

(cf.

lO, tig. 36).

the hair of the Figures

Tims Central

Asi.ni

151

media in Central Asian

on the metal

vessels

antecedents existed for

die layered ircacuicnc of tlic hair and beard of the personage represented in Paujikait I: ioP,

which may have

in the later layer

coded hak;

in torn inspired the

of paintings from Paijikatt 1: 10,

nortft

Although die expression of emotion in human

treated as a flat mass,

and east

walls.

Sogdian

figures in die later

paintings

is

generally limited to a conventional language of gestures, extreme

emotions

in

connection with

expressed by

of the
walls

facial

"Rusum

wounded or dying" and demoniac

contortions

(pis.

14-19).

Thus the

cycle," Patijikciit I7.</;

of the small palace

1),

Qahqaha

at Qal'a-i

figures are often

bestial adversaries of the

hero

and die dancing demons on the

in Ustiudiana, are exceptionally

I,

depicted with unoontroUed and fiantic fidal contortions that contrast with the

calm demeanor and sundardized ttdai expressions of their human

adversaries.

Elsewhere where historical accuracy was demanded by the subject matter, as

in scenes

of

documentary nature, the painter emphasized

type, gesture,

mode of dress and accoutrement

physiognomy and

lian

plaited hair

from die residence at Samadcand,

The

the same mural.

and shar^vfeatured

of the men,

'

Thus

the

Mongomural

identified as Turks, in the

fixim the Sogdians in

transformation of die ideal ficial type

from die wide-eyed,

type

serve to distuiguish

(fig. j<S)

to die

sli^dy Mongoloid

53) suggests the introduction

in the seventh and eighth centuries

Sogdian cities.

differences in ethnic

22, fig. 52).

diem

earlier

Sogdian painting (fig.

(pi.

when

the

later

type in

of new aesthetic norms adopted

Turks were

politically active in

The cliaiige in Sogdian military equipment (sec above, pp. 1 20- 125)

and the popularity of the cross-legged position of seated aristocratic individuals

later
13.

Sogdian art may also be attributed to the same influence*'

in

(cf. fig. 52).

See tbe early medieval (pre-idaink) bronse figure of a boneman fiom dw Verkhny Tby
r^ioo, in the tlrrmitapc Mtisciim, A. Bcli-nitskv, Cni!r.!l Afia, Arch-icologi,! Mundi

v.i!k'y. Pltjii

{Clcvclaild/Ncw York 1968), hi\. ^H. Ihc sann; liauitylc otturs in a more linear version on the
Sogdian lemi^octa ossuary from Biia-nainun, sec A. A. Pocapov, "Rcrcfy drcvnei Sogdiany, kak
litoriclietkii

V, Kurtun
sioii
1

be

inochnik,"
I

VDl 2 (1938),

iskmstvo luimhv votioka

r'lc 'Aiv.indcd

14.

127-137; B.iA. Siaviskii, "Ouuarii iz Biia-nainun,"

TGB

(1961), 162-176.

and dying figures are exccpcioiudly leptesenlcd with comotied fidal

O^RI-

5.

ail

" Amazonomachy," Panjikent

tlic
XXi:i.
D'iakonov eomidefed the standard physiogwmiy depicted in dw Luer Sogdian paintings to
exaggerated vcrtion of liw eadkc type and tfani icflecdoa of die native SogdiaB idaal of

beauty, sec Zhii^pis', 129,

16.

Although the I riw-U-ggcd posture of seated princely individuals

murals (cf. Panjikent, Tmpic

II,

appc.irs in the earlier

civSn murals cx)cavatcd in 1970), the fvcvalcnce

Sogdian

of this poituiie in

Hie mortal

152

bt Oriemal Art

Among the foreigners depicted m the murals from Samarkand were men whose
MoagoUan features and mode of dress identify them as membets oa Chinese
mission. The historical documentaries, more recently uncovered among the murals

from the

ruler's palace at Panjikctit,

descriptive detail.
similar to the drc>s
in the

site"

manner of
(figs. 28,

It would

29,

an

^imiIa^ly

The men who handle

worn hy

turbaned

noteworthy

for their accuracy

man

with

sword

belt

worn on

the Arabs depicted in another mural fragment

3

of

the siege engine are dressed in long shirts

a shoulder

from the same

left).

1 ;

appear then, that in the representation ofthe human form, the S<^dian

painters strove towards a refinement of basic traits diat were already formulated in

the earliest paintings fix>m Panjikent.

physiognomy and proportion

is

The tcndcncv towards the standardization of

accompanied by the development of a conMstent

repertory of gestures and postures that generally replace

gestures and facial expressions as

means

for the

tin*

use ot unconventuMial

communication ot emotion.

Gttmdi^ or unconventional faces and ethnic dtstinctiom were thus introduced to

achieve either a dramatic eSkct (c pi. 1 1) or realism in the context of the historical

documentary {6g.

52).

Proportion

The formal
ing

is

inspiration tor the representation ot the

human model

derived from the living

human body

rather than

in

Sogdian paint-

from a mcuphoric

refer-

ence to abstract concepts and organic forms in nature. Furthermore, unlike Indian
art where divine images established the models for the aesthetic and ethical qualities

embodied

in the

human form,

prototype for divine

iiiiagcr\-.'

ture aiul posture ui Sogdian

in

Sogdian painting the

human form provides die

The crystallization of a consistent language of ges-

paiiumg was accompanied by the development of

canons ut proportion according to which a ratio of 1 :6 to 1:8 was established bc-

thc later paintings suggests

popularity in

its

tlic

seventh and cigluli centuries.

On the

Turkish origin

of die cron-kgg^

seated posture assodated with princely individuals in the Ftajilcent murals, see
K. Otto-Dorn. "Tflrkisch-blainiichcs Hildput in c)cn Figurcn reliefs von Aclithanur," Anah^lia
VI (1961-62), iff., no. 7. I wish to tlimk Protlss^^r K. Otto-Dorn tor Jriwiiu; iny attciiULHi to this
detail. In

tbc Chinese pilgriiti

Hmh- i-t vuii^'s report

of wooden leaa by the Turks,

a rchijious cxploiiution

sec H. Beat's translation

of Hui-ii.

is

given for the avoidance

Tk Life 0/ Hmn-Tsimg (London

191 1). 43.

17. Deloiiitskii.
iK.

Marshak.

Sin Ciunasinghc, La

in

5C XXXVII

tcchniifut

SUlh c Guitnct, Biblwilic^ i'hiiet

BMdAa Jnu^ (New Yock 1963),

(1973), 57 sS.
lei lextes du Silpa, Auuitt in
Rowland, Tke BfokOoK
Ae

de la peiitlutc inJienne d'apris

IXR (Plam

1957}, igff.; B.

14.

Copyrighted matBhal

Styk

tween the length of the

produced perhaps by means of a plumb Hnc, and

postures,
ble,

153

and that of the body."' The adoption of standard

face

of the pnncipic ot torcshortcnmg, suggest

tlic use,

a taniiharity

on

tliougli negligi-

part ot

tlie

tlic

Sogdiau painter widi Indian techniques o painting.** According to die Indian

seventh centuiy

The

,'/.'i7(j,;).='

the VffmMmnottarat %ntative composition

tteatise,

two fimdamental

ceived according to

of proportion

rules

that served to

and pose

guide the Indian painter

in his

of the human form consisted of a balance of specific measurements (^i.Jhj)

detinition

given for various parts of the bo^^Y.-- According rn the

figure

was con-

principles: proportion {pranuau)

was

earliest sources, tl;c

to be expressed according to the particular characteristics ot Us

nent parts,

ix.,

head, chin, torso,

human form in
measurement

die pictorial

of the hand

nuddling

which

"

By the sevendi century the dimensions of the

am were already codified according to a system of

a basic unit rqiresented

w.is b<

was the

(tdhi),-^

ten chisscs of

on

that relied

to chin). This unit,

etc.

human

compo-

by the length of the

face (scalp

vcd to correspond with the lei^th of the palm

lii

basis for the

meastucment of the proportions of sotnc

images that were further assigned to the subdivisions of "superior."

and

"inferior " proportions.

Thus supreme

deities,

such as Siva, Visiiu

and Brahma, were depicted according to the "superior" measurements

daia-tSla)t that consisted

(uttMiu-

of 124 a^las, whik "middling" and "in&cior" images

measured 120 and 116 tmgulat

respectively.**

Dlakonov, in Zkh^t', 139.

20t The references to the 'i;tuu1lMriiifllt(n\i pvcn here

These measurements, however^

19.

tation

of tlie

icxi ortcied

huol&rcd 3 nuinhcr oi
dxlexttscc

S.

by Sin

Cr .iiiiiiiighc.

revi>.nins of

Kramnsch.

Tin-

carhcr

La

are baseJ

on die cotninciitary .md iiucrprewhich the author

Uciiiiujuf dc la pcinUire mdii imi; in

tr.insl.irions .intl interpretations.

For c.irhcr tninslationtof

'ifmuiluirmotiaram (Calcutta University Press 1914); A.K.Cooinaias-

"Visnudharniottara, Chapter XLl," J AOS 52:1 (1932), 13-21.

21. On the incaninG; of these terms, see Gunasinghc, op. cit., 20, n.

wamy,

2.

22. Indian canom of proponion designate the sum total of the measuienKnu of the various paru
of the body as an estimate determined by the real constitution of die body. Piaorial measurements,
on rhc other hand, were reg.irdcd .is an .ipproxiin.ition of reahtv .md were thin iddHzcd and con-

ventionalized .iccording to the

Coomaraswaniy,
J.

7Vi<-

artist's

conception of beauty, sec (amasinghc, op.

Transformation of

NOure

in

Art (Harvard University

cit.,

Pk

40; A.K.

I934), IsfiC;

Auboycr. Arts el styles de I'Inde (Paris: Librairic Laroussc, 1951), i61f.

2}. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, Tilamma or Icofwmetry, Memoirs of the ArthaeologUal Survey of India

(Calcutta 1920), 35ff.

Z4.

The

prescribed cncaturcmcnts

face (ilia) and the

iiiiiK>loi;\

body was

that the actual ratio

between the measurements of the

usually at variance with die numerical implications

Thu>.

t!n:^^.

show

tlic !cnL;t!i

f che

iiffiirri,i-i/iJ.<ij-fiT/ii

class

is

1.:+

of Sanskrit
hut

.Jfi.;ir.'ri%,

tei^

its rj/ii

13I (j(,;i,';(.'.js wliich yields a total of only 9 t3lai ior these uiugcs. In other words, de rauo between
the face and the body is one to mne instead of one to ten as implied by the etymology.
total of
IS

eight tSlm
children

is

of human being$ and

Gopinadu Rao, op. cit., 36, 42.

picscribcd for repmentatioiis

and dwarfs,

sec

six to seven /ifas for

imag^ of

Copyrighted material

7%e PtclonW ^tc in Orieau! An

154

were apparently

to change aooording to the tute

subject

and

practice

of

different artistic schools.^'

According

of images was dctcr-

to the Vifuudharmoitura, tlic posture {sthdita)

nuned by the guidelines ofp&Mf6 /Aieandj!piiesftMliefiir^(''incieaseand diminution").

A plumb Ime pfobably defined the vertical axis ofeadi figure by means ofa flexible
and t^vo fixed

inrJKil

lateral lines.

The

central points

of the body were localized

along the medial line which swayed the directiim of the body by
of foreshortening

priiinril'

{l:sayai'nWii)

hue towards

deflection ot the medial

otic ot the fixed lateral lines.

line

was moved

side

of the figure and increased on the

to the

object irrespective

left,

of its

then the

tield

relative scale

its

motion. The

operated according to the degree of

Thus

if the

medial

of vision w ould he reduced on the

right.'*'

left

This principle was applied to each

or spattal pontion in a given compodtifm.

Such canonical principles which permitted oidy a limited repertory of postures

and

their

combinations

in the representation

and

rigidly observed in earlier Buddhist art-'

According

to the Vipiuiiliarmottarti, the

borrowed from

of divine images were endoitty

in

less

Indian secular imagers'.-'

language of gestures

the arts of dancing, music and song.-'

was

hidian art

in

By comparison with

the

fidle grace and complex symbolism of gestures found in Indian art die Sogdian

language of gestures

is

strikingly abrupt and e3q>licit.

representation also contrasts with the Indian in

stantive significance.

its

The Sog^dian ideal in figural

formal expression and

Thus the conceptual and two-dimensional

figures

its

sub-

of

later

Sogdian painting, the simple and mannered gestures, the narrow oval heads and
distinctive facial features

of the Sogdian type represent an ideal that is fundamentally

the supple-bodied, full-Upped and exophthalmic Indian type.

diflferent fix)m

Furthermore, the representation 4^ die

coherence and importance by

of the

painting,

and not by

Gopinatha Rao, op.

25.

26. Giin.)sing|ie,

27.

Ibitl.,

cit.,

Opk dt.,

its

its

human

fi>tm in Sogdian painting gains

televanoe to die diematic substance

symbolism. If the Sogdian

artist

ami oontent

adopted Indian

42.

25ff.

32.

28. Ibid., 30.

Ibid., 22.

;<j,

mcdi

The iiucrrcl uiiiiHhip between the expressive devices used

b evideiieed by the

from Aj

int

provides

i.

symbolic

of India.

in the v.irious

and symbolic gestures ot the tigures

Indian artistic

in die paintings

symbolic language of gesnitcs in Indian drama, therefore,

key to the intctpcetarioo ofthe action of human fignret in Indiaa paintingi Thcripiifirant

posture, gestures
iiiately

histrionic postures

familiarity witfa the

and eye movements of human figures in Buddbist

langw^ of gestures that had

art aie thus

based on an vAor-

developed in the theater and repieseatatioinl ait

Styk

principles

of posture and proportion

artistic trciuls aiui

painter thus

used them towards the refinement of local

with dificrciu objectives.

lies in his

The achievement of

and consistent

the Sogdian

artistic sty le

expressed

of die human fonn. Hie selective

lediiction

creation ot an original

primarily dirough his nuntpulation

of die human form

lie

15S

to standard fbnnulae in Sogdian pamting above

all

serves to

heighten and clarify the nairadve impact of the oomposirion.

Religious Imagery

The two-armed enthroned

goddess, represented on

northern precincts ot Temple //at Panjikcnt(hg.

perhaps the

this,

position

earliest,

of the image,

its

to the essential attributes

imagery
the

in

donor

34),

chapel wall from the

tlic

dominates the composition

in

example of M^all painting from Panjikcnt, The central

hieratic scale

and die reduction of bad^round elements

of die goddess

establish a precedent for

Sogdian painting. The use of the same ground

figure, the subtle spatial interrelationship

hter religious

line for the

goddess and

between the two figures

suggested by a slight overlap, and the small difference in the relative scale of the

two hgurcs
Panjikent

arc

st)'listic traits

that are peculiar to die earliest compositions

Panjikent the donor figures

become

from

of divinities

north wall). In the later representations

(cf. Panjikettt

increasingly dtminuttve in scale

(fig. 3),

at

and

the spatial teUtionship between die divine image and the donor becomes progressively conceptual

and inconsistent, cf. Pay&tent VI: 26, smdi wall (%. 58), Pmyikettt

XXIV: 2, 3

7.8).

{figs.

The two-armed goddess from

Panjikent

(fig.

34),

is

from the Temple

the chapel wall,

II precincts at

represented with the head in three-quarter view, frontal

body, symmetrically raised arms and parted knees. If the distinctive stance,
cally

modeled fine, flying ribbons, regularly spaced drapery

animal support of die dirone associate

axtistie

this composition

indicate a departure

from those

its

distinctive dress

earlier models.'"

plasti-

and the vringed

with Kushan and Sasanian

conventions, and ultimately with the Gracco-Iranian

attenuated proportions of the figure, and

lels,

folds,

artistic style,

the

and iconography

The Kushan and

Sasanian paral-

nevertheless, confirm the tifth to sixth century' date determined for the Sogdian

painting

goddess

on archaeological grounds.
(fig.

13}

P^jikent {Panfikent

30. Belenitskii.

In the representation

from the subsequent building

II: northern predtuts, uidie in

Manhak,

in

SC XXXVI (1973),

of the fuur-armcd

of Temgh II at
wdl oflu^, photic

in the precincts

58-61.

ffte

western

i56

The PiaorbdEpk

modeling and

hi Oriental Art

illusionistic

drapery

replaced by sharply contrasting

effects arc

colors chat suggest spatial depth in the drapery folds that edge the scarves tied to

the ankles of the goddess.

similar scalloped treatment of drapery

seen

is

on

om-mncd goddess dqiicted at the east end o die mouxning scene (fig. $6) found
in fiugikait

HtV,

tetrastyk hall (soudi wall).

Hk fitted gaxment, the patterned

U

enveloping shawl and iconogcapfay of the four-anned image fi:om the Temple

predncts indicate furdier departures from the representations of the two-armed

goddess on the

earlier chapel wall in the Panjikcnt Titiipk II precincts.

the cosnimc ol the tour-armed goddess appcirs to tollow the fashion

drcis Lurrcin in

Sogdiana

(cf.

Panjikcnt

XXI: i,

wall facing

tlic altar),

Whereas

of feminine

the four

arms

of die goddess and her fishrtailed animal vdiide si^gest ultimately Indian iconographic models. Similarly, the use ofdie Indian ioonogta|te fincmda in die multi-

armed

divinities in the

(south wall)

mourning scene

would appear

(fig.

56)

from PanjikeiU Ii:V, Mnutyfe fudt

to suggest the adoptiaii

of Indian

artistic

conventions

that arc grafted onto the earlier Gracco-Iranian survivals noted in the representation

of the two-armed goddess from

tlie

chapel wall from the precincts of Temple

il at Panjikcnt.

The

representations

of divine images

fceqnendy preserve the aidiaistic drapery

VI:26, souA

wdU

fig.

in the later paintings

fiilds

from Panjikcnt

of die earlier images

58 four-armed goddess uncovered

;

(cf.

in 1971 in the

PaiyikeiU

Small Hall

Ustmshana) which are there combined with the contemporary

at Shahiittan,

Sogdian canons of proportion and posture.*' The use of plastic modeling was also
occasionally revived in later Sogdian paintings that
realistic effects as in

demanded

accurate details or

the representation of historical documenurics (c helmeted

heads in a baked pbster fiagment uncovered in 1971 at the Panjikent

citadel).

Hoiwevn. die modeled naked body of die Uue god in Rmjikeut Vl:$t norA imiS
the blue

dam

in - e

nd represented

in the

niche

divinities such as that represented in the nnira!

(tig. s)

suggest the resumption ot cont.iLl w

in PiUijikciit

'll,

from the niche

ith artistic

at

and thrcc-hcadcd
Panjikait

Indian origin in Sogdian painting ot the seventh and eighth centuries.

ence ofdieBoddhist an ofCentral Asia h notable

XXII: 1

conventions of ultimately

The mtlu-

m the n^Rsencati^

eyed demons and the fbaiHarmed firontal goddess uncovered in die Small Hall at
Shahristan in
31.

The

Willi ihiist

Ustmshana

stylistic

'V.ud

in 1970.

The

total firontality

of the goddess firom

and iconographic particnlan of these later muiali from PaiyikBOt cuiicipo iiJ
Khw.inziiii.iii iiKv r Imwl J.uablc to the late seventh cciuury,aeeG. Azaipay,
.1

"Nine Inscnbcd Chorcunian Bowk,"

Ariibus Asiae

XXXI :2/3

(i9<^). pi. 4:b.

Copyrighted material

Styk

Ustrushana, exceptional
as

Sogdinn

in

c-xrmplihcd by the figure ot

Museum,

in die National

pninrincr. fiiuls analogies in

lariti

New

157

Klmtancse murals,

from tarhad Beg-Yailaglii,

troni Shrine Xll,

Delhi.^'

The later religious imagery from Panjikent generally displays a mote pronounscale, and a pnigtessive vgectkm of a oohecenc qncial lelatioin-

ced use of biecatic

diip between the divine

levels

image and donor figuies that may be

inserted at different

within die same composition (c PaigAent XXIV: 2, vaulted room,

fig. 7).

Figural Processions

A procession of male donors,

^the dispel in die

represented in a horizontal register on the cast wall

TetnpU' II precincts at Panjikent,

was doubdess connected to

the representation ofthe two*anned divinity before the loss ofa connecting section

ofdie mural. The entite width of the horizontal register on die east wall b occupied

by the five preserved figures ofstanding donors represented frontally with heads in
profile view above a decorative accordion band (figs. 23. 24). The uniform dress
of the ilnnors, their slightly overlapping bodies, isoccphaly and splayfooted stance
recall stylistic

Gandharan

conventions found

art.}>

The

in the

Sasanian rock,

reliefs

and

in

Kushan and

overlapping frontal bodies, profile heads and general

proportions of diese figures are repeated in the early murals excavated in 1971, in
the soudi wing of the eivm
sentation
ttorlh wall.

of Temple I at Panjikcn^ md in the fragmentary repr^

of the three male

figures that

&ee a haloed personage

in

the I'anjikent Temple

characterizes the

donor

triczc

from

II,

and f.J* The

the north chapel

in die scale and posture of the figures. Tlie frontal

ted with die earlier dotux

Pnsvigli,
33.

PiiiWi'fi^j

R. GhinhriLin,

ficicze

of Cnurcil Auti,

/Vr.niiii

Art,

//

is

regularity that

strict

here reduced by variations

body and foot

recurs in the group

position associa^

of donors represented on die

S4.

Parthian and Sasf<vi\vi Dynanu's, figs. i</)(truiinph

Bishapur), 253 (ir.vcstniirc of Alclasliirn,"I3^^BC3stin);

Kitsbms (BcrkclcyyLos Angpks 1967),

York

in Pattjtkent J:

Their dress and splayfooted stance connect them also with donor figures

represented

figS> S9t

J.M.

ofShapur I,

Roicnficlci, Tin- Dynaslic Arts of the

"2; H. Inghok, CamBOrm Art

in

PakisUm

(New

1957). figs. 24, 303.

34. Tlu' st.iiidnig in.ilf

fiiiiircv tli;u

were found

llic

w.i'N

entrance to the

t1,it;kiHi

sanctuary in (he tctrascylc hall of ieniple II at Panjikent were interpreted as tlgurcs of guards in the
earlier

images

puUicatHnn. Comparison with repreienittioas of donors in eonneetiom with the divine

in the "clwjx-l" and "hall" in the prccinets of Temple II, liowcvcr, suggests tlieir reititcrprc-

tation as donors or otticiating attendants, sec Belemtski, Marsliak, in .Arts .isiatiftes

The dress of these donor figures is

in the earliest layer

apparently similar to that

of painting excavated

in the eirin

worn by

of Tempir

//,

the sealed

XXUl (1971),

8.

^uiei lepKKnted

in 1971.

Copyrighted material

The Pittetui E^c

158

in Oriental Art

north wall of the hall that contained the representation of the four-anncd goddess
in die northern precincts

grouping and

of Tempk

spatial interrelationship

(pi. 27).

of die

earlier

Here, however, the compact

donor frieze are replaced by a

and isobted donor

loosely arranged composition,

vaiiom

figures dressed in

styles.

progressive rejection of realistic spatial values and a tendency towards the

donor proccs-

use of hieratic scale characterize later compositions that represent

sicms in Sogdian painting. If die

eadkr donor

register

wall of the nidie with the divine image at PaHjUeetU

is

VU,

preserved

on

die htetal

vatiatimis in dimension

and dress and the kneeUng postures are diaracteristic features of Sogdan cmnposidons of the seventh and eighth centuries." The
kneeling donors into

sinall

tlie

insertion

cetural coinposirion In

rlu-

of additi(5nal figures of
niche

Ponjikt

in

iit

'll,

tiirthcrmore, anticipates the use ot increasingly diiiunjtive ligures ot donors that

are placed at various levels in the composition in later Sogdian divine imager)' (see

above, pp. 155-137)-

An emphasis 00 die reUtive social rank ofdie donors is suggested not only by die
use of hieratic scale, but also

by variations tn

die principal donor in the frieze from

religious sacrifice,

ornamented

is

their dress, position

\nr,hhsha:6, cast wall,

disdnguished hy his relatively larg?

and action.Thus

who

scale,

performs the

halo and richly

dress.

The partially preserved procession of animals and fimtasdc creatures in

fineze

fiom the Red Hall

at Varatdulu:ii is characterized

by

the upper

symmctcical

grouping ofoonvetging files of animals whose r^ular gait and symbolic trappings
suggest their religious significance. This composition

of animals, uncovered

QaVa-i Qahqaha
J5.

The dancing

1,

in a trieze aLiove the portal

Ustrushana, that

figure

may have had

of the blue divinity and donors

is

of the

recalled in the striding file

Siiuil! I loll

of the Palace at

similar religious counoutions.

in Panjihitit I'll are

dated

t;> tlu-

seventh

century on the basis of stylistic conncctioiu with the fiaUlyk<4cpc murals, see Belcnitski. Marshak,
in Arts AsuOfut

XXm (1971). 9-

Copyrighted matsrial

Materials and Techniques of

5.

Sogdiaii Painting

PtepMrtion of ifae

Gwwmd

Jn thdr techniques and use of materials Sogdian painters diq>]ay a cmsistOKy that
is less

a result

of design or preexisting

artistic patterns

than a response to materials

The meticulous

inmicdiatcly available to thciu in their physical environment.

technical analysis

of the Sogdian murals from Panjikcnt by

P.I.

Koscrov has shown

that die macab vtcic generally eaceciited <hi will smfines <^onlialEed bdck covered

with two coats of nrad plaster

(loess

composed of bodi

alluvial

and pulveriaed

mm thidc) was totigher and sometimes

lacked the straw admixture or contained pebbles. The second or top coat (4-5 mm
straw. The first ooat(fr-25

rode) mixed

til

il

k)

was

a fine

mud

not directly on

plaster firmly

The

solubility in water.
tlic

majorir\'

mud

bonded

lower coat by virnic of

to the

of the paintings from Panjskent

plaster top coat, but

on

gypsum

its

executed

piaster

pnmccoat

C'ganch") widi a possible admixture of kaolin that prodticed a smooth and white
"alabaster" suifiue.*

bi the murals from the eivm and central tetrastyle

at Panjikcnt, the

pigments

may have been

hall in the

applied dicectly

Temple II complex

on

the trud plaster

top coat, since traces of ibe white plaster primecoat were not obscrv'cti utuler the
original layer

of painting-

white plaster primecoat

relative age

is

(sec l\nt

One,

The presence or absence

p.

in itself insutTicicni

ground

ofthe mwaU, since eiqposnie to moisture tended tocaose disintegration

of d primecoat The presoioe a the plaster ^tmecoat may be seen,

reflection

I.

oi the

for the determination of the

radier, as a

of the level dTartistic standards adopted within a given workshop.) The

P.L Kostrov. "Tekhnika diivopoi

koniervalsBa rospisci drcvnego Pianddiikcnta." in

Zhii'flpif' , irtiff.
, lUii!., i(>4if.

may throw
{Minting

Technical analyut ot the niuraU discovered in the northern prccinctt of Tvmple II

addlitiainal

from

l%kt on

dx

composidon of die

plaster coat

m the eadiat esamplcs of

Panjikott.

3. IliiiL, 184.

159

Copyrighted malBrial

160

The PfcttvM/Ejptr in Oriental Art

use of the sinoodi and durable white plaster prunccoat oiicrcd

artist a

tlic

far

brighter siic&ce fer ^e development ofhis colon than oonld be obtained from the

mud plastergiound. Indeed, in tfaealteiationsand repainmade on the first layer of

paintingson

:!i

ill

.\

and

tiVJfj

painters introduced patclies

luster to the repainted areas.''

earlier date

and tctrastylchall

of white

in

Ttmp/f

plaster priniccoat that

77,

added

the later Sogdian

new

brightness

This evidence alone would sceni to argue for an

of the pauuings executed

(or apparently executed)

on

mud

plaster

groond m die Temple IT complex at Panjikent.^ However, die two meduids aosodated with the preparation of the ground in die Panjikent murals coexisted from
the very

b^inning of the development of the sdhool of wall painting at Panjikent

where the

use

of the brighter and more durable pbster primeooat

became

later

predominant/'
Antecedents tor the contemporaneous use of the two methods

of the ground are

known from murals excavated

also

ni tlic

in other Central

preparation

Asian

sites.

Whereas the Khwaiezmian painters ofthe murals atKoi-Krylgan-kala andToprakkala utilized the white

gypsum

plaster primecoat,' the Sistanian artists at

Khvraja applied thdr pigments directly on die cheaper and

plaster top coat."

The

use

of the white

the early mediL val Buddhist murals

shown by
lik.'

The

analyses ot the paintmgs

plaster

ground, how

from Tukharistan and castLrn

Kuh4-

durable

less

mud

loniinates in
i

urkestan as

from Hamiyan, Ajnia-tepe, Qyzyl and Bazak-

use of the white plaster priinecoat wliich extended as far east as Eastern

Mongolia, as demonstrated by the murals of die eleventh century from ChingLing,

4.

was uncommon

in China.

The murals from

the Buddhist temple of Hua

Ibid

RovHand was evidently unacquainted with Kostrov't technical analysis of the paintings from
//, at PaigikcDt, when he quc<^tioncd the chronological soqui'iicc proposed on stylistic aiul
pounds by D'ijkonov, see b. Rowland, 77ii /!rf i/CiWw//Lw(Ncw York, 1974), s^tf.
Rowland's source of information niay have been M. Hallade's review of IJ'iakonov's cli iptk-r in
5.

Tfinplf

technical

Zhiv^b'{iee Arts Asiatiques

(1953], 76-79). Hallade's review omitted mention of the technical
of the paintings written by Kostrov for the same volume. For Kostrov's additional remarks,

analysts
sec

Slrji/'/i/iiM.

6.

ifisff

Technical aiulysis of the plaster from the earliest murals of the north chapel

m tbc precincts of

Tmpk 11 HulicaKS the ate of a white phder primecoat.

chapter

i,

note It.

See above, tliapler

I,

notes

7. Set- .ihovc,
8.

g. Bimiyiiti:

ll.J.

Gcttcns,

5,

"The

27

Materials in the Wall Paintings of Hamiyan, Afghanistan,"

Tethmtal Siudks Wlij (1938), 18(^193. AjituHepe-. Litvinsky. Zeynul, Adzkiiu-Tepa, 326. Qyzyl:

R.J. Gettent,

"The Matetiab in

die

Wall Paimiiigs from Kial m Chineac Ttorkotan." Teduied

YanusakiKaiao, infijpilm Anilt)w 112(1960), I35-I37n. 5.

SlMffe* VI:4(i93B). 281-294. BieAiilifc:

Copyrighttxl material

Yen

Ssu

at

Maleruds mui Tethiifies

161

I-Ch'ang, Tun-huang, and from Ping-Yang Fu, Sliansi Provinoe,

were

executed on

top coat of hne

The addition
dry gypsiun

mud

plaster

ot adlicsivc substances to

plaster,

composed

of kaolin.'"

pigments prior to

tlicir

application to the

known as die "Jkseo seeto " or iemftra tedinique^ disringiiishes

the Sogdian method ofpointing from odien found in India and the Meditetranean

The analysis of Indian murals from Ajanta has substantiated the reference
made in the Indian ilpa texts to the use of yellow undcrpainting comparable to the

world.

terrc vertc

of medieval

pigments and plaster

murals." The use of adhesive substances

Italian

in

both

prescribed in the Indian manuals on painting

(ititoiuico)

as well as the true fresco technique ('Jnsco buoiio"), in

which water soluble

pigments were bonded to a moist plaster ground, have not been detected in

Sogdian paintmg.

The Use of Color: Pigments

Technical analysis of the pigments applied to the walls of the cium and tetrastylc
hall

of Temple II

the execution

at I'anjikcnt has revealed three

of those murals.

To

the

or

first

chronologically different stages in

earliest stage (stage

I)

of painting

belongs the entire decorative idieme <^ die walls of the portico and principal
hall

o Tmpk

U which centered around a funerary scene depicted on wall V of

the principal hall. This mural as well as those from walls .4, G, D, and

and the poorly preserved fragments from walls

partially repaintetl

/},

and

and restored during the seccnul stage

H (published)

(unpublished)

(stage

II)

were

painting, at

which dmc patches of white plaster primecoat were introduced and new pigments

were added to some d[ die

whereas
(stage

I).

painted
10.

To

on

R.J.

(i93li)f

its lateral

figures

oompoaitions were

the last period

CL-ttriis,

99-101

"Pigments

in

cit.,

11. n.

hall

left

was

extensively repainted (stage

more or

of painting, or stage

the lower wall of the hall

.i

11),

less

m their original condition

III,

bclotips a single

fragment

(G and D) over an earlier deooradve border.

W.ill Painting frnni Ccntrjl China,"

Ti\'li>iit:.il SiiiJii f

VII:

Yainazaki Kazua, in Bijutsu keiikyu 212 (i960), 13$-I37. Kaolin was also used as a

primenrat in die Japanne mutab in the

op.

m the major scenes. TIhis die mourning scene

of the central

on wall

represented

.ind in Bijursti

Rowland,

Gdden Hall of die HSryiiji temple, tee Yamaziki Kamo,

kcnkyu 162:2 (1952). 2

7Vic

An

ami

3.

Arcliilcrliirc uj liitlij:

liiMtiil, Hindu. Jain

(London

1953), Ij8;

Madanjcct Singh, Ajaiila Paiiiliiii^ d/ iliv StKreJ and the Smtlar{^cw York 1965), 64.
12. Madaujcct Sui|;h, AJaniA, 61. The tliscovciy of the uuc fresco teduiiijue in tlae laural* ftmn
Siltanvisa] indicates

knowledge of diis teduiiqne in Indn prior to its notice in the twdfili eentuty
Gunasinghc, La lixlitiique dc }a peitUiire indienne d'i^iii la ttxttl

Ahhilafitartliacitiiatnani, sec Siri

du iilpa, Aittutki du Musee Guimet, Bibliotheque d hudes LXIl (Paris igyj), 83-89.

The PktmhdEfk

162

in Oriental Art

This fiagment is dated towards the end of the period ofartistic activity at Panjikcnt
prior to die abandonment

of the temple

Arab conquest*'

after the

The relative dmmdogy of this border pattern is indicated by

painted over an earlier geometric pattern that

period of the restoration of the murals

muted warm pigments used

the

pamting

latest layer ot

at

is

the

fiict

that it

is

cbtcd to the second stage or the

in the Taiiplc II

complex. In contrast to

in the earliest stage, the leaf scroll depicted in the

Temple

is

sharply outlined with line grey black

lines,

and brightened by the tne of ind^ htut over lenion<yenow oipimcnt, cadmium
ted,

and rose brown,

The

first

two

length of time
rich

over a white plaster primecoat.

of painting were apparently

stages

when

and bright

tqij^ied

appreciable progress

Whereas

palette.

separated

by a considerable

was made cowards the development of a

the nuirals of the

first

stage arc characterized

pure colors and muted

by

warm

their simple

and

tones, those

of the second stage are distinguished by more conirasluig colors and

bfilliant tones

restricted color srheiv.r limited to

achieved

by

the use

of the white

plaster primecoat

painted areas. During the second stag^ natural ultramarine

available to the Sogdian painters as

Part One, p. 35),

The

it

was added

to their repertory

introduction of indigo blue,

its

under die re-

was evidendy made

ofpigments (see

admixture to orpimcnt, and

in

the use of

at Panjikcnt (represented

by the leaf

the resulting greyish green color represent further dcvclopnTcnts

pigments during the third sugc of painting

scroll

from Temple

II, hall

The pigments used

wall

G and D).

in the paintings

from

Panjikent,

and apparendy those from

other major Sogdian sdiools of patnttng. were derived almost exclusively from
minerals.'^ These pigments

were bonded to the dry plaster by means of a

glue that served as both solvent and adhesive agent.

prescribed

was used

to

the

'iftiudharmoitara, differed

The

i^ctable

Indian use ot adiiesives.

from the Sogdian

in that

vegetable glue

bond only vegetable pigments, and animal glue was reserved

as the

adhesive agent in mineral pigments.'*

The colon

associated

ate principally primary

widi the

first

stage

of painting

in the Temple

warm tones that included yellow, orange,

red,

purple violet, derived from namral ferric earths found in abundance

boring mountains.

U complex
browns and

the neigh-

A vornullion red (altered by heat and exposure), derived from

13. Kostrov, Zhivagit*, 175.

14. Ibid., 161 if.

iS< Gtnuiinglie,

La tedm^ 4e U pantm tniame,

53-34-

Copyrighted material

md TtAm^

MtttrUds

cinnabar,'*

was

found

also

in

ihc earliest paintiiigs.

greyish white color derived trom gypsum, and a

During the mgodcI phase of painting

at the

warm

The

163

latter also included a

black produced by bone ash.

Tmtpfe If complex at Panjikcnt, in

addhko to a muted white p^nunt (kriired fiwm kaol^

white was used hoth as pigment and plaster. Odier addttims to die palette weie

lemon yellow orpiment, ocangc

natural ultiamaxine bine,

realgar,

and a grey

black color derived frotn vegetable soot.

The introduction ot the vegetable pigment, indigo

orpiment, and the resulting green color,
third and htest phase

blue,

and

its

admixture with

noted above, arc associated with

stxatigraphic grounds, thus characterizes painting

the second and third stages -when

in

addition to experimentation with

in

the paintings in Temple II at Panjikent and those

from

Temple I suggest an early date f or Panjikent /; j, and Panjikent I: lo, east wall

of painting) which correspond roughly widi

Tcwip/e 11.

mUt),

stage

in the

(first

sequence from

The sacrificial scene depiaed in Temple I {Panjikent l:io,

(escdusive

of

mixed

Comparative

in the fint stage, lapis lazuh blue finds extensive use.

study of the pigments used

layer

tlic

of painting at Panjikent.** A seaidi for a moie oon^kx and

enriched palette, attested

colon used

as

east

mid norA

ofrestored details), and l^ui^ieiU LmoA would seem to occt^ a

between stage I and stage II in xhc same sequence. The tv. ct-

transitional position

armcd goddess and donor figures represented on

of Temple

precincts

II date

Panjikent, whereas the tour-armed goddess

and wall of the north

the chapel wall

from the northern

from the very hegmning of the school

hall, also

ot painting at

and attendants represented

in the

finm the northern predncn of Tmplc

11,

niche

corrc-

^ond with suge I of die paintings fim the portico and central hall of Tatyle U.
The remainder of die painting* from Panjikent, as wdl as those from Samarkand,
Varakhsha, and Shahristan, display the later and more complex palette associated
with stage n and stage HI in the Temple

U nuitals.

lu^rted Pigmenta
Compared to the palette of die Indian artist, diat of the Sogdian painter is remarkably consistent in its limitation to primarily mmeral jngments. Only two pigments
used by the Sogdtanpainteisarecertainly known to have been of foreign origin.
16.

The

(ciVdn),

mimWv

aiitl

fuuitJ

Koitrov, Zldvopis',

\
111
1

cllfw-rcd color found on the jacket of the front figure in PaiijiknU

uilicr caiiy

64,

scctium o( the murals froui Teutpk

at Paiijikcnt,

II:

noted in

WIS later ihinm to be dmubar red.

17. Kostrov, Zhivopis't ito*

18. Ibid., 172.

Copyrighted matsrial

TliePklorhiEpkhiOrietadArt

164
Tlie
in

mined

the durable and brilliant blue pigment derived from lapis lazuli

first is

Badakhshan,

in :lie

upper Oxus region, and the second

is

the duller and

perishable indigo blue, of vegeuble origin, probably mtroduccd

If access to die

la^ lanili mines in Badakhsliin

marine bhie in die paintings

bom

from

more

India.

eiqdains die lavish use

of ultxa-

Bamiyin, and odier early medieval

sites

in

TUkhatistin, fictocs odier than geographic proixifnity must have played a tole in

die extensive ose and wide distribution of this mineral

Asia in early medieval
in the valley

Oxus.
die

tinics.'^

we follow

Al Khamim

plain

tlie

other parts of Central

Badakhshan were situated

left

bank of the upper

ancient ajid medieval sources that place

in Sogdian radier dian

of ultnonaxine in Sogdiana fim die

sixdi

may reflect die leestaUidimenc of die older Sogdian frontien after the fall

of die Hephthalites.** Thus

economic conditions, no

political as well as

aesthetic considerations, probably led to the spread

hand

in

and die Badakhdign mountains

Bactrian territoiy, then ihe lavish use

century

mines

lapis lazuli

of the upper and middle Kokcha and on the

with Paul Bernard

It

The

in

to India, and on the other, to

more

alter the

die result of die wars in

mid nindi centory

Ulghur times

this

The
is

less

than

pigment on the one

distant centers such as

fan'* in Serindia after the fifth century A.D.

Tmfiui painting

of

Qyzyl-' and Tur-

paucity of lapis lazuli pigment in

regarded by Albert von Le Coq as

that disrupted the lines

of communication

\idth the western source <^diis mineraL*' Afore specifically, die interruption in die

eastward flow of precious commodities from the

perhaps

tlie

direct rcsiJt

patterns produced

and ninth

of the disturbance of

v.

cstem pact of Central

earlier

Ana is

economic and commercial

by the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana and Sisun

in the

eighth

centuries.

In contrast to die ubiquity of natural ultramarine in later Sogdian painting,

ind^ blue is notable only because ofits rarity.** In Sogdian painting, indigo blue
Gettem. "Hie MaKmb in die WaB Fainlingf of BSndySn. A^umflan,'* Tedbmtf
VI:3 (193S), iS6-r9i; Rowlnni The AttrfOtntrjl A'.i^i, 107.

19. R.J.
Smrftfi

20. P. Bernard, "Ntitc sur

l.i

signitu .ition historiquc

dc

I.1

trouvaille," Rei'ut: tiumismaluiue, 6c

XVll (Paris 1975), 67-69.

G. Yazdaiii,i4/4ntt IV (London/New York/Bombay 19$$), 106; R.J. Gcttens, "The Materials
in die Wall Paiorii^ from Kiiil in Cbtaeie Tkidcotan," ndnioil StwAa VI:i (tpjS), 281-1294.
22. A. von Le Q>q, Die hidiUiAAe ^fMui^ m iSttelttia m, Dk WmdrnJefOm (Bafo
i&ic,

21.

1924). 8. 18.

2]. Ibid.
24.

A grcsish green has been found on the fr ignu-iit from Panjikait 11: G mid D, border above the

and in some of the details from the imirak trom Paiijiltetu VI: 1, sec Kostrov, SkuTftiaa, 161.
of inietat diat the green pigment used in the tnurals of the "small" hall at Shahiistan, Uttnisfaana, was not a mixed color, btu malachite, which was evidently aooesibk in diis eastern Sogdian
provinGe, see N. N. Ncgtiutov, "O zhhropisi dvortta afilmiOT Umuhany," SA } (i973) 1>Sfuffa,

It is

Copyrighted material

MalerUds wul

appears only

of the color green

is

1(5

mixture with lemon ycllt^w orpimcnt that yields the grey erccn

in

color occasionally found in

^uJuistan)

Tedmi^

some of the

in the paintings

later

&x

pannings. Hlscwhcrc,

from Panjikcnt (but present

tor;il

abseticc

m the murals trom

couipcmatedby diesubdejuxupoddcmofotfaerooloisofcoiitiasting

and varied satoiarion. The c&cdwnm of thu type of sobstitatbn is evidenoed by

the very avoidance of die mixed green derived

evidendy availahlc

in

&om ind^

blue which

was

S<^diana in raffidendy laige quantities as to have been

exported to China.
In hidia,

on the other hand, indigo bhic

ultramarine {rajdvarta) was

[nila)

rather than the precious natural

general use. Sogdian painters generally repeated an

Indian ptactice in their use of a mixed green. In bidian painting green was a

secondary color dbat was obtained from dw admixture ofind^ blue and a yellow

odor

<piment

(pnte), osiially

palette

was also subject to the

(fiarit^).** Despite its variety, the Indian painter s

limitations

of local resources. Thus blue is altogether

excluded from the eight colors of Singhalese painting from Sigiriya

sixth centuries).

The

richer color range

iti

(ca. fifth to

the paintings troin Badanii and Ajanta

included a scries of greens, blues and a violet. In the Bagh paintings lapi^ lazuh

Uue was used more extensivdy than at i^anta. In the Jaina paintings from SittattvSsal a

muted green was added

to

dK usual palette.*'

Symbolic Use of Color

In at least three instances in the murals from Panjikcnt

used to define exposed

In

all

three instances, the color blue

attributes

and iotmography

where blue pigment

is

color can be said to have served a symbolic function.

flesh,

is

associated

widi the flesh ot individuals whose

indicate dieir supernatural status.

Pa^ikaa VI: 8,

nordi

mdlt preserves part ofa knee, hip and torso ofa naked male figure colored blue and
represented in a dancing potttion.

pen painted

also represents the figure

of

a blue

and an animal skin around the

six

second mural,

&om Pa$yihentVn, niche,

male dancer shown wearing

hips. l\viiil'ciit

XXII:

i,

arms

(see

above, p.

29f.).

The

strings

of

bells

nidie (fig. 5). contains a

Sogdian god Wysprkr depicted

partially preserved torso ot the

widi three heads and

25. In

Near the image are figures of kneeling worthy

in naturalistic flesh tones.

m armor and shown

leonine and demoniac lefr

717 the rulers of Sanurkand reportedly sent quantities of indigo blue pigment to China,

sccE.H. Schafcr,

TV GvUm AMikf ^ SiaNdba^

1963), ao8, aia.

a6. Gimasinghe,
27. J.

La techdqu Je

Auboycr, Arts

Sir John Marshall

la

peimm iu&im, 47-49.

ct styh-: dc I'lud,- (Paris:

al..

Librairic

LarooUC, 1951), 109-110; J.P. Vogd, ta

Tiu Bagh Caves (London 1927), 48.

Copyrighted material

The PiOtiUi

166

head of

^ de bi OrieatdlArt

this figure

is

colored blue. In

U intOH

three insunces the color blue

all

tiondly used to describe a lymbolic property of die

dhrinit)' depicted.

Bdenhddi

has associated the blue flesh color <^ diese images with Saivite and Tanttic ioonographic formulae which were ultimately developed
first

two murals noted above

of doubdcss supcniatuni!

the blue flesh color

is

in India.^*

Whereas in the

with a

associated

human

example the blue color

qualities, in the third

only for die demoniac head on the tricephalic god whose

human

is

figure

reserved

heads are colored

in a natural light flesh tone, hi this instance, therefore, generally demoniac quahtics

are eaqtressed

by the use of die blue flesh coin.

The symbolic use of the blue flesh color and

pany

it

in

influence

the three murals

of Indian

at least to the

from Panjikcnt

above

when Hharata enumerated

fourth century

die scnuinenis in die Ndfyasastra.-'^

definite flesh color in

the icom^raphic traits diat accomcited

testify to the

ultimate

may

be dated

the symbolic use of color

artistic nioJels. In India

The

the

(niventioiial colors

expression of sentiment

Indnn pouiting followed the

[rasa)

of

by a

establi^d in Indian

practice

drama where cosmetic colors {pnutara) conveyed die spediic emotional states ofthe
actors.

The Vifnu&anaoaara demanded dut the painter ocpress die nine sentiments

used in drama [iiavanatyarasa) to convey corresponding emotions in the representational arts.'

ones.

The Nalya'sastra defines eight sentiments derived from

The four "original"

sentiments, e.g.,

erotic,

furious,

four "original"

heroic,

and

odious,

produce respective comic, pathetic, marvelous, and terrible sentiments. These

sentiments ate exjnessed

by definite colon and associated widi specific (presiding)

dddcs in die following order: >*

fitrtic:

Uoe (fySnui^,^ uaodated with '^^900.

Ctmic: white,

.issoci.ntcd

with the Pramathas.

Furhus: red, associated with Rudra.

anodaied with Yanuu

Pahetic: grey {kapota),

Hmic: yellomsh white, luminous (gum),"

28.

KSIA

A.M.

liclcnmkn. "Iz

istorii

kul'tuniykh

associated

svi.>7ci Srctlnci

Azii

widi bdra.

ludii

v riniieni srcdiicvcko'c,"

98 (1964), 37f-

39. The Netyaiistra, a

Tnahse on Anaait

buUm

Drmutturgy

md l&trioHia AsaAed

to

&maUf

Mmi I. trails], by Manotnohan Gboih. ad ed. (Calottta 1967). 38

30. Gunaunghc, La trclmiipie it U ftilritUt bt^ome, SO.

dt

31.

The NStyaiistta, op.

}3.

The tcnn iytma here

h primirr

cit.

indienne, 48. It

refers to

blue which

is

cf.

La tcdmlfite
mixed color in the Indian

a primary color, see Gunasinghc,

should not be tnuulatcd

as

green which

Manomdun Ghodi, T%e NStyaiSstra, 108,

3}. Gunaiingjic L ttdadfte Jk U pdMtm hiikime, S9* 1^

context quoted,

is

no. VI 142.

Copyrighted matBrial

MatauJs and Tedmi^us

Mari'clous: yellow, associated

167

with Brahmft.

Odious: blue, associated with Siva.

Terrible: blade, asiociated -with Ksi*.

The earliest example of the symbolic use of bloe for flesh color to Indian painting
is

preserved in the

green shade

Badaini"

is

Bagh

used for

paintings dated to die fifth or sixth century.)*

flc^h tints in certain individuals in

and an ultramarine blue

(sixth century),

is

used as a

twelfth ccntur)' Indra-Sabha temple (cave 33), at Ellora.'*

flesh tints

on

stone images

convention in Indian
i|ioradic

the use

is

abandoned

arbitrary and

is

combined widi nuances of dress

a specific ethnic typc.^^

unaccompanied by variations

The use of the

color in the

use of symbolic

late date.*'

But

this descriptive

murals from Qyzyl where difTcrcnccs

in the

flesh

The

shrines testifies to the currency of this

of die blue body color

and ornament that suggest

color

bluish

even if the examples preserved in bidian painting are

art,

and of relatively

At BSmiySn

from Indian

the paintings from

hi dress

mc

in flesh

of flesh

color ate

and ornament."

blue Hesh color in the three murals from Panjikent, cited above,

is

neidier descriptive nor ornamental. It is rather a reference to the divine or demmi-

ac quality of the image and

is

baaed on the symbolic use of color diat had been

developed in Indian painting.*^

The Sketch
In Sogdian painting, as in other traditions of Asian

art, the quality

of the sketch or

oudine to a large extent determines the ultimate merit of the work of art. In the
list

of die

stylistic criteria

34. Sir Jobn Maishall ct aL,

of Indian

art

TheBt^h Caivs

of die seventh century recorded

in the

Gwalhr SMfr (Loodoo

1917),

in die

pL B.

Kramrisch, "Paintings at Badaini."/oHrmi/ of the Indian Society of Oriental An IV:i (CaU

OJtta 1936), 58; Auboycr, Arts et styks de Vlnde, 109-110. For the dates of Badami 1, 2 and J,
35. S.

sec

W.

3ti.

Spink, Ajanta

to Ellora

(Bombay,

n.d.),

4-10.

Stuvty of PaitUb^ in the Decern (London 1937), 81; D.V. Thomsoin, "PreNotes on Some Early Hindu Painting at Ellon," Rupam 26 (1928), 48.
T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Elements cf lluidu hciuvraphy I:l (Madras 1916). 52-54.

Kramrisch,

liauittry
37.

38. J. Hackin, J. Carl, Nouvelles redterches archeologi^tes i Bamiyan,

ia-13,
391.

MDAFA

III (Paris

1933),

pk XVMCVII, figs. i7-i<.

Ibid.

40. For a diflBrBntweof color symbolism in Zoroastiian and ManSchaean cosmologies, sec H.S.

Nybcrg, "QucidollS dc cosmogonie ct cosmologic m^vAccncs," fmnuil Asialiijtie 219 (t93l),

The rainmaker of the Sogdian magical text from tJic Stein Cuitcctiun in the Bridih

218-220.

MtMcum addresses the wind as one bcdcrkcd in red, sec E. Deuveimtc Ttxta segSaa lU, iStsion
Asir Caitrale (Paris 1940), tfo; e W.B. Hcmitig. "His Sogdiui Tons oirPut^" BSOA5
PeUiot
< ft

XI:4(i946). 713-740.

Copyrighted matBrial

168

JliePlaoHdEpkbtCMeM^Art

VipmdliarmottaTa die role ot

tlic skctcli is

accorded lughcsc pnonty." In Sogdian

was executed in two s^tate stages. A pieltminary sketch

defined the outUnes of die fiunu and dieir inner detaifa dkecdy on die plaster to
the dcetdi

paititiiig

which the
outlines

local colors

and

were then added; and

entered slight alterations

a final sketch reasserted the original

of the forms over the

linear details

as seen

The

local colors.

which

the final outlines

between the two layers of contours,

artist

sometimes

are revealed by discrepancies

on the fragment showing two heads

represented in profile found in a heap of plaster

on die floor in Png'ikaa VI: 13,

Sogdian painters evidendy sketched widiout recourse to mechanical devices

for the duplication of figures.

The repetition of stock

scenes

and

figures,

that prescribed in the Indian Silpa texts and found in the paintings

was probably not demanded of

secular

and varied

interests

sectarian concerns ot a religious comnnuiity.

in

brown and

is

to

41.

is

by

final

contoun are varied

in intensity according to die

which they give definidon. Thus the blade contours of a

brush strokes. Thus

tlv.-

showing

a hare toot

on

in

texture are also conveyed

in the detail

end

in

by the

from the north wall oi Panji-

patterned rug, the quality of the sharp and

continuous outline ot the toot contrasts clearly witli the thni,

Strokes that

the final contour

in

may he interrupted by lighter outlines of csofOscA flesh or die filmy

modulation ot
kent HI: 7

strengthened

black pigments.*'* In the later Sogdian paintings the colors of

of delicate blossoms.*' Variations

silhouette

even in

art

sketch in the earlier group of paintings from Panjikent

of the form

heavy &bric

Buddhist

in

Caves of die Hiousand Buddhas, at Tun-huai^/)

brown pigment which

both the prdiminary and

texture

pounced drawing, prc-

use ot

Sogdian painting.

The preliminary
painted in a watery

darker

The

on painting** and current

areas as distant firom bidia as the

not recorded

catered to the primarily

of the Sogdian feudal aristocracy rather than to the

sctihed in the Indian manuals

is

who

the Sogdian artist

sudi as

from Ajanta^

siiort

and transparent

compact dots of pigment in the white network pattern on the

Gunastn^. La ttdmtque Je

la

peUume inikmte, 39.

42. Ibid., 36, 38, n. 2; Madanjcct Singh, Ajanta, 6i.

Andrews, Catalogue oj Wall-Paintings from Ancient Shrines

43. F.H.

in Centrat

Asia and SislSa

The prdimBMry sketch in Panjikent III: it w.ii incised on the plaster (see
manner that has little to do with pounced drawings in which dots,
punched duough the pper drawing im die planer wall, provide guiddines fiir the nepiodaaion of

(Ddlli 193

?). vi. pi. I.

Z!kh>ap$', 182-183) in a Uncar

the dnwini;

in

44. Kottrov,

4$.

Unin

pigmmts.
ill

Zhivopis'. iSjtT.

164. 176.

Copyrighted material

Ataeri^ and Tedmiqaes

169

tug.*' RiEtfaenn(ne, a hacmony between the thematic content ofa g;iven scene and
its

fi>nal expression

may be intentionally produced by purely linear means even

within a single cycle of paintings. Thus the graceful figure of the harpist, depicted

of the divine image on the south wall of Panjiheut VI:

as an attendant

(pi. 28), is

delineated in meandering and curvilinear outlines that atrrnct and hold the atten-

of

tion

tlic

By

viewer.

battle scenes, as

and angular outlines ot the following

contrast, the sharp

observed by Kostrov, provide for a rapid tranhuiou of the eye to

the subsequent episode in the continuous band of interacting figures around die
walls.*'

OccasionaUy die hand of a great draftsman imparts extraordinary

force to even

minor and

incidental forms.

on the

Horiatc duck, depicted as a textile pattern

so-called

"Amazon"

from

cycle

Thus

Punjikaii

diis

The

and

of the

dress ot a fallen warrior in the

XXI: 1,

(pi.

convey the cxua-

14),

ordinaiy boldness and flourish that distinguish the hand of the

grandly staged cyde of combat scenes.

vitality

the sweeping outlines

fluent brush

and

maner of this
forms of

expressive

master are particularly striking in die smaller panel compositions arranged at

the hasc

of the main

frieze in

dus CycIe (fig.

54).**

by the small rectangular frame, and the restricted

that enhance the narrative clarity

very diticrciu

and dramatic

artistic sensibility is

scene fix>m Pat^keta

XXIV,

in

The

spatial limitations

palette,

become

expressed in the

which die

imposed

positive ^KtOtS

niteiisiiy ot the scenes.

artist builds

monumental banquet

up

his shapes in short,

irr^ular and overly refined strokes (fig. 17). Details such as the blossoms, sprouting
branches and

&dal

color and intensity.

features

emerge

The groping

fironi

outline

a mass of modulated strokes of varied

and exquisite delicacy of the brush of this

painter contrast sharply with the incisive and vigorous strokes ot the master of the

"Amazon"
these

two

cycle in the murals

masters,

painting at Panjikent, are thus

tive

from Panjikcut XXI: 1

(pis.

14-20). In the

who may well have been contemporaries in

met two very di&rent realizations of the

and exptaavc potential of the oudtne.

46. IblJ.

47. Ibid,,

works of

the later school of

i52flr.

48. Bcknitski, Manfaak, in Arts Asiatiqm

XXIll

(1971}. 24^.. figi. i4-i5>

descrip-

Continuity of Tradition:

6.

The Sogdian

Muslim Painting

in

In

Artistic Heritage

absence

tlic

<.)f

cx.unplcs of Islamic biH)k

paiiuiiiu;

datable

ti)

the

first

centuries

of the Muslim era, investigators have often turned to textual references and remote
tomparanJh for a leconstracdon of the genesis of Arab minunirc painting.

As an

of die dwory of Byzantine and Sasanian origins of Arab

Thomas Amold looked to East Christian book painting from Syria

early advocate

painting. Sir

and Manichacan miniatures from Turfan

for the vehicles

through which Late

Antique and Persian influences were transmitted to Muslim painting.' However,

chronological discrepancies and subsequent iconographic studies have weakened
the early argunioits for Syrian Jacobite and Manichaean influences

on

early Is-

lamic miniature painting.' Nevertheless, the unsettled qucsticm of the

stylistic

influence

of Manidiacan miniattuxs from Turfiui on Ishunic painting haunts die

hisC(ian

of Islamic paintii^ even in current studies.^

Thomas

W.

Arnold, Sumwals of Sasanian and Manichaean Art in Persian Painting (Oxford

1924); idem, Pidnthig bt blam, a Study 0/ the Piace of Pktmid Art in Mudim Culture (Oxford 1928).
1. Sir

2d cd.

(New York: Dover PubUcadom,

Inc., i9<S5), szff.;

Muslim R(7!s;u>Mite, Schwckh Lciturcs nf tlic

Piccorial

597; idem,
/Vi

(f iif

L.

Britisli

TV CM mi New Testamtmin

liyzaiuinisclit-

(t ,<rK|n:i

l!J32);

iJcin/'Thc

Zdiuhrijt jo (1929-jo), 595-

The Origin,'* A Sanwf tf Penkm Art fiwn Mdsiorte TIma

A. U. Pope (London/New Yiirk iqjq). iHfxi -iRig.

"Bode

in, cd.

idem,

Ai.uJkiin |iy;S

Art of die Jacobite and Ncsturun Cliurchcs,"

Fainting.

Binyon, J.V.S. Wilkitison, B. Gray, Persian Miniature

Dcscriptivt Catalogue oj the Miniatures

ExkAUed

Paintin^^,

to

Imliidiiig Critical

Ae
and

Burlington House, January- March tgjt, London

York: Dover Publicatioa*, bic, I97i)i 23 : H. Huchthal, " The Painting of the
Relation to Byxaniine and Islamic Art," Syria XX (1939), 13^150; idem,
ukni,
"Hellenistic MinMt.ms in Early IsLimic M.inusmpti," Ars hhmiia VW.i (i<j.jo), i.-v-i
"Early Islamic Mmuturcs fnmi iV.i^\\A:iA" Journal oj llic Wallers Art Gallery V (IJaltimnrc 194.1),
i933,

2d

cd (New

Syri;in Jacobites in Its

I6-3J>.
3. F.

Cumont, "Mini cc

Ics

origincs dc

la

minianirc pcrsanc," Reime Archeologi<]ue XXIII (1913),

8a-86; B. Dcnike, Zhhopis' Iratu (Moskva 1938), ajif.; U. Monncret dc Villard,

Survey
Vtmm AH UI, l8ao-i8aS; B. KOhnd,

Manidiaan Rdatnni,"

"Book Painting.

hBmMmdaa

im

170

Copyrighted matBhal

CembaitfefTiaiMoH

The present chapter addresses

bbnic

oontributtms to

the question

painting in light

of the

so-called

of new

Manichacan

eviilenoe obtained

171

stylistic

from die

Sogdua mnrali.
Arnold's theory of

connectkm between Islamic

a st)'1istic

painting rested on the siniilariry between

the

Muslim niimatures and

someof the

those considered peculiar to the

datable to about the nuith ccntiuy, discovered

peditioii to (lie

art

and Manichacan

conventions found in

artistic

Manichacan miniatures,

by the German archaeological cx-

Ttai&i otBS in Eaatmi lWkeitan.4 lliae oonventioDS oinflM^

a locus>4haped moti( and a distinctive tieattnent of diapeiy folds.'

modf has

Since Arnold's study, die lotus-ahi^wd flond

related

Islamic times.*

of a

been noted in vaiioos

forms in the minor arts of Central Asia where they were pcipctiiatird mto

version

ruler represented

on

of this motif is depicted

a

Sogdian

Museum,

ninth century, in the Hermitage

composition of

diis plate

silver plate,

in the

now

rug pattern on the throne

attributable to the eighth or

in Leningrad.^ Despite

shows a letum Co dte Sasanian

its late

tiietne

date, the

of the royal

banquet by Sogdian artists ofthe early Mtnltm age. Hiis trend is observed in other
Sogdian works of art of this period as demonstrated by
plate in the

Hermitage

royal hunt*

Museum

second Sogdian

that repeats the familiar Sasanian

silver

theme of the

These two Sogdian representations contain, lurthermorc,

(fig. 6i).

which Arnold had

the second stylistic convention

attributed to the tradition

of

Manichacan painting known from Tur^.*

The garments of die figoces dqncted on these post-Sasantan Sogdian dishes

show a capelike collar diat is draped over die shoulders and chest in heavy Iblds
that terminate in dcnible spiral shapes. The same S(Mral folds arc found on the hemlines

of the jacket and on the skirts of the

Idmtseheu Orient (Bcrlui

Gray,
4.

iinrc

A.

von

T.c

6.

Coa,

C.lmtfihcy,

fiatil

1961), 14-15.
r.!.V!,';ii'u

- If

'ir./.'rr.jjit

i!

i'rr imVi].'p^'iVi'ii

FiinJi' J< r

kdnigltch preusfiMliat Expfdition nach Turfan in ost-Turkcstan, Ergebnisse der kgl, preussischen

3kf||IiA9ciUpmK (Bcdin 1913);

tdim ifMlMrcR
5.

on the two dishes. The cape and

idem, Parsische Miniatumukni (Berlin 1939). 7-8;

Pmum Paimitij^ (Editions d*Art Albeit Sfcira

See abovr,

tram

19123), iSfil;

figures

idciii,

Dfe hudHMsdie S/AntfAr

in Mtttdatlat VL,

Die mmtehii-

(Berlin 1933).

Arnold, Survivab of Sasmim and Maaithaewt Art in Persian Painlir^, xiff.

B.l. Marsliak, Sot^diiskoe senbro, odieHd po vostochuoi toreviike, Kul'tura narodov Vostoka,

Akademiia nauk SSSR, Oldelenie

(Moikva

1971). cf. pattern

118-121, Tji, (ig.ao.

8. Ibid..

118-121, T30.

9. Ainold,

AirWvdk

|f

inorii

on die Sogdian

7. Ibid.,

imdtut Vostokovcdcinu i;usudantveniiyi nnitadi

on %. ijfT.

silver didietifaoini

Jlfimfcli^

ViePktfirid^iHOtietttidArt

172

Figure

6u Awftilkimtd^ieiedmaScjgiimsihwvesselof

the earty

Muslim period, in dte Hermitage Museum, Lenin-

grad. Sketdt /ler Marshak, Sogdiidcoe seibco,

double-spiral felds

blamic

aic

pLso.

of the figittes on the Sogdian

of St^diana

exein[dified

dishes are anticipated in die pte-

by a Sogdian pand ocmposition from

Pai^keHt Vltii (g. 55). These Sogdian conventions arc ultimately derived from
the

more

idiom of

naturalistic

basis for the trcatnicnt

Panjikcnt

(cf.

rlic

Gracco-Iranian

of drapt-ry

the ovcrblousc and

its

ni

artistic st)'lc that

II, at

^njikent,

douUe-^al Iblds and die cape appear for die first time in
at

trom

two-armed goddess with

regular folds on the

a banner, from the northern pcedncts of Temple

Near East

provided the

sonic of the earliest rcprcscmaiioiis

fig. 34).

die blaniic art

The

of die

Samarra, in the ninth century.' The heavy concentric folds of the

garments of the two dancers in the 'Abbasid mural from Samarra are characteristic
for the

Samarra wall paintings, and appear therein the representations of a hunter

or huntress
10. E.

shown grappling with prey."

Hcrzfcld, Die Au^grahim^cii

(dancers from the Jausaq,

I'tvi

m dw Tui&i fieieocs,'* See ilnit

It.

SmiiMri}

III,

Die Malfniai

I'on

Samarra (Bcrim 19^7), pi.

II

larcm). According to Ettughaoien, " The arched curls, shaved comett of

the coiffiiic, the lo^ braids and wide

HeizfUd, ZXeiliifpariiHyn

collars,

have eaitem parallels in the Sawmian

mmor aits rod

Annft'ff;, 42.

m SiiMm

Uupyiiyliiea rnatcnal

Continuity of Tradition

Figure 62. MmiicUaeau

aiif^efs

from a

detail

saoll with a Sogdian text, datable to

century.

By
legs

Museum fiir

Ca. 22

Berlin.

of a Turfanese

a.d. uittih-tenth

iiidische Kuiist, the Stale

Museum,

21 an.

on the

contrast to the clarity and simplicity of the heavy concentric folds

and abdomen of the Samarra

figures,

drapery folds

Manichaean paintings

in

of the ninth century from Turfan are elaborated into complicated knots and
cate ribbons.

Turfanese

and

The garments of

scroll

with a Sogdian

light swirls

the

text, in Berlin, are

as

Central Asian as well as Chinese

style

two Manichaean

of cluudlikc folds that curl up

Turfanese draper)- convention,

is

rendered by means of ribbons

at the

hemlines'-

12.

figures,

as

stylistic traits (hat are

absent

in die representation

Lc Coq. Btiddliistiuhe Spatantike

in MitttUsien

from (he

stj'lc

standardized in Turfanese murals where

found

(fig. 62).

The

exemplified by this miniature, has incorporated

rigid concentric bands arranged in antithetic oval-shapcd

some

deli-

on a

angels, represented

of Samarra. The shredded and loosely knotted drapery

chaean miniature

173

it

is

reduced to

forms on the sleeves of

of the Tantric goddess

II, pi. 3, cf.

artistic

of the Mani-

also pis. 5

c,

in

New

; idem, Cliolsdto, pi.

3.

174

The

Piaorial Epic in Orieiitai Art

Continuity of TrmbHoH

175

Delhi (hg. 63), and in that of the kneding male figure with a hucner, in
Jicrli!i.'i

Tlic ultimate prototype tor the

urtanesc drapery convenlioii

may

be sought in

the playful eayerimentation widi drapery eSects oocatioiully noted in Sogdian

paindng.

The gannents of die seated banqueters on the diapel wall rom Panjikent

XVI: io (pis.

29-30), are rendered by means of concentric bands

swirls diat translace the loose folds

on die

and

sleeves

of light drapery

legs into senu-abstract

patterns.

ratlicr

mechanical rrpcruioii of such semi-abstract tolds combined with the

influence of Chinese art diitmguishcs the treatment oi drapery in the ninth century

art

of Tur&n Scorn

in

Arab painting in die

diat

doudlikc swirls and

frontispiece

late twelfdi

(kitah al-tifilhvii), in

Scliool oi Mosul.'*

The hnal

the " scroll " or vermicular told in Islamic art

of it in

later

or vermicalar felds that appear

"scroll*'

century oondnne die Turfin style in the

produce an all-over pattern,

ripples that

of the Book of Sonos

Mcsopotamian

nortli

of Samacra. The

is

staj^c in

found

as

found on

tlic

Istanbul, attributed to the

the development

of

ni the standardized versions

Arab miniatures of the Mosul, Baghdad and Mamluk Sdiools where

the folds have a metallic appearance (c die fir<Hiti^ece of the fourteenth century
miniature from zfrHaacixCsAssembUes [ffMjJmft], probably painted in Egypt,

Vienna Nationalbibliothck)." The vermicular

in the

the Lilah

ducc

al-ii(>}iaiii

tlic crtect

other surfaces

frontispiece miniature

and elsewhere

of surface fluctuations of sheer

sucii as

water or

tree bark.

13.

in reverse

now

of drapery depicted in

in Islamic

miniatures (HTO-

silk,

occasionally used to suggest

The model

tor the representation of such

vermicular folds b not found in Sasanian

method of shading

folds

Bishr Farb supposed, but in the

art, as

found in paintings fiK>m Turfan and China.*'

M. Bussagli, Paiiiiiu^ of Cini(nili4sfd(Eilitioiu d'Art Alixrt Skira 1963), 102 (ktieeling male
M. Dussagli, C. Sivarainamurti, 5000 Yfort of Art of India (New York, ii.d.), fig. 177

figure);

Coq,

(Tantric figure); Lc
14.

D.S. Rice,

Chotschp,

pi.

J4 (Tantric goddcs),

"Till- Aphaiii Mini.itures

and RcligimK

pl$. 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24.

P.. mini.:

in Islam," Bw/ii/,;.'i"J

A/jii;.Jci''if

95 (i9i3)> 128-2J4; ttuighauscn, Arab Paiitting, 64. The iiuiuacuies from this manuscript were
attribaied to a Penian scfaool by A. S. Mclikian Chnvani, "Trois manmcria de linn aeljoukide,'*
Artf

.icwfi.jtd--

Eilipsc

5r.it'.i>ii

XVF
nil

(nX'?), 3-35- Ai;aiiist

An,"
16.

Syria

tliis

sec

iittrilntti mi,

.m Ar.ibic rroiitispiccc-Mini.itiirc,"y.405

15.11. Buc htlial. "

The

Painting of the Syrian Jac*obites in

G. Azarpay, A.D. Kilmer,

<)l$:4

Its

"The

(lyyS), 369.

Rebtion to fiyzaadnc and Islamic

XX (19J9), i46.; Eainghauscii, Arab Paitttiug, 14S.

The INC of the rippled drapery cfica in bhmic miniature panning was seen by

a rcf1tiii<*n nl rlic iiitluciicc

of inlaid mctalwork, sec Arab

the wrinkled drapery patterns of Sasanian

art,

sec "

Unc

/'jdiifiik',

Ettinghausen

64. Bishr Tares derived

it

from

miniature rcligicusc do I'ccolc arabc dc

Copy [iyt lied

material

176

The Piclmal Epic

in

Oriental

An

This drapery style and the Mongoloid

Turkish dress appear simultaneously

facial

in the art

of the Scljuqs and other Turkish dynasties

type with stritigy braids and

in the

eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Although the moon-shaped face and Mongoloid

Figure 64. Mtilc

mvid

fif>urc

painted

oti

full

of the Near East under the patronage

features occur in exceptional

n pillar from the Gluiz-

palace at Lashkari Bazar, Afj^hamstan, datable to

A.D. eleveuth century.

Height

of

head

ca.

Bagdad," Mcmoires

The Archaeological Museum, Kabul.

18 cm. Photo courtesy Josephine Powell.

Je

I'liislitut

J'Egyptc LI (Lc Cairc

56.

The

use

of

arbttrar)'

shading in

Chinese art was evidently inspired by cffcas of plastic modeling introduced to China from the arts
of India and Central Asia. The use of shading in reverse in Chinese art oi the T'ang period is exeinphficd by Buddhist murals and pauitcd silks from Tuii-!iuaiig, sec L. Sickman, A. Soper, The Art and
Architeatirc oj C/iiiiiJ (Penguin Books 1956), 65A, 66. However, the technique apparently went back
to the Han period when "the wcsteni manner " of painting was introduced to China, sec M. Sullivan, The Birth oj Landaape Painting (Bcrkclcy/Los Angeles 1962), 38.

177

CmabtuityofTniition

and

cases in Islamic art as early as the ninth ccntur)', as at Nishapur, Turkish dress

accoutrements and the Mongoloid

trolled

hy Turkish

dynasties, as

in die ait

tlie

type arc the rule

by the Ghaznavids

at Laslikari Bazar, built

trend found in

facial

Islamic

of areas con-

in the art

demonstrated by the murals from the royal palace

in the eleventh century (fig. 64).

The

world in the tenth and elevendi centuries uras antidpated

of Ttanscodana where Tuddsh

habits

of diess, aoooatrements and die

Mongoloid fadal type were introduced in the wake ofTuikish political expansion
from the seventh century.
Panjikent and Samarkand

Sogdian murals of the

(figs.

late

Bilga and Vargoman, demonstrate the adoption of the

facial

seventh century from

51-52), associated with the reigns

of Chakin Chur

somewhat Mongoloid

type and Turkish arms and articles of dress. However, the adoption of these

features

which reflect changes in fashion associated with the new pohtical power in

Centtal Asia did not

the

aflfect

bcm and content of Sogdian

art.

Sogdian art

followed a consntent pattern of development down to die Muslim conquest. The

refinement of the continuous pictorial narrative and the perfection of its

idiom
social

in the early

and cuimral patterns

in

urban and agrarian communities.

Early Islamic murals have not so far yielded evidence of borrowing

Sogdian tradition of the

die Lashkari

artistic

eighth centur)' reflect the continuity of Sogdian idcolt^ical,

Ba^

pictorial epic. Despite the stylistic rcUtionship

from

tlie

between

murals and Sogdian pabtuigs of the pre-Ishunic period,

observed by Oleg Grabar, die pttrdy conrdy and ceremonial concent of die

Ghaznavid murals place them stricdy within die cnltunl and sodo^litical
context of the early Islamic world.'"

connection between Arab painnng of the twelfth to fourtei-nth century and

Sasaman

art has

been generally assumed for the heraldic and symmctncal coniposi-

dicms diat depict courtly scenes in

17.

Arab

By

painting.

contrast to the rigid

sym-

K. Holtcr. "Die Galcn-Haiidschrift imd die Makamcn dcs Hariri dcr Wiener Nationalbibliokuii^sliismif^clicii S<miinhiii<^ai in IViat 11:2 (Wicn 1937), 11; K. Otuv-Dorn,

thck, " Jahrbuch df<

"Twkiscli-islainixhcs fiildgut in den Figurcnrciicfs von fidtiiumai," Anatolia VI (1961-62), 1-69;

ijjf.; M. Roten-Ayalon, "The Problon
eaikm, L'Art de Tidm, L'Art dam monde (Paris
of the 'Bagdad School' of Miniatures and Its Connections with Persia," Israel Oricnial Studies III

(Tel-Aviv 1973), 159-171. For the "moon-shaped" face in the inurals from Lasiikari Bazir and
Nishapur, sec D. Schlumberger, "Lc palais gluznfvtde dc Loshkan Bazar," Syria XXiX (1952),
a6if.; C.K. Wilfcimon, "Tlte Innian E]^edttiaii 1937, the Museum's Excavations at Nblupar,"
BM&tin
the MetropolilaH Mustmi <^ Art "XXXJB-.ii (193X), 9f., figs. 7-9, 17 (head from Sain

FQriun).
18.

O. Grabar, "The

Visual Arts," The Cambridge Hisiory

19. Bishr Fares, "Distinction dcs

Yieok de Baghdad . " Aaes du

XXk

<>/

deux tcndcnccs syricnnc

Irmi 4

(Cambridge

et iranicnnc

dans

1975), J59.
la

miniature de

bUmmtioutA Ja Orimudistes (Pads 1949), jjar-jj].

Copyrighted material

The Plaorid^

17B

mctry and

in

Orieaud An

tightly controlled compositions

daily life and fblkore in

and Stfby an

of die courtly

scenes, reprcsciitatioiis

of

Arab painting have relatively loose compositional schemes,

interest in

spontaneous action and incidental

detail that

has been

attributed to a native Aiab origm. These two types of compositions are frequently

juxtaposed in the same miniature, as shown by the tcxt-miniatiirL

same

piece of a slightly later version of the

text in Vienna. -

have noted that whereas courtly scenes such

as

of the Mcsopotamian school might be regarded

die Sdjuq aristociacy, lepresentatioas of low

early Islamic painting

from

ftlic

Some

investigators

as expressions

life

of the aspirations of

and felkloce in the same manu-

official

Nor was

This didiotomy in Sogdian painting

fimctions

of die two composidtmal

tained fer die juxtaposition

tions

of genre scenes

in

it

feund

court style prevailed until the Muslini con-

lowcvcr, a dichotomy ot the sort found in Arab painting

is

observed

Sogdian juxtapositions of hieratic nnagcs of divinities and the continuous

epic.

Book of

those depicted in the frontispieces

Persia tinder Turkish patronage.*'

Sasanian Persia where the

quest,

teqtonded to popular demand.'* This tendeticy was ^ipatently absent in

scripts

in

and on the frontis-

Antidotes (kitab al-dirydq), in the Bibliothcquc Nationaic, Paris,

types.

in tlie

pictorial

explained by the differences in the

is

A similar explanatirai may be enter-

of die hieratic courdy scenes and the looser composi-

Arab

painting.

Although the Sogdian continuous

pictorial epic finds

no known

reflections in

Islamic murals, Sogdian representations of tables and folklore, depicted as small

panel coiiipositions, find formal and thematic

ao.

it la "Diitvufie, Art hkadqte II (Le Caite 1953): EtungfaauKn, Anh

"Trois m.inii>.rnts Ac I'Iran scljinikidc," Art-!

BiAr Fnb, Lt

also A.S. Moliki.in Cliin.'ini,

Painting, S5, t)l;

Asiatiques

XVI

(iy<)7),

Miniaturc," op.

with Arab miniature painting.

tics

cit.

3-51; Azarpay, Kilmer,

"The

Eclipse

Dragon on an Arabtt Frantispicccin Arab paiiKing, see

For other instances of the occurrence of princely themes

0. Gcabai, "The Bourgeoisie and the Ans," lite Islamic City, a CoUoftium. P<^sonlsUmkHuiory
1, cd. A.H. Hotirani, S.M. Stem (Oxford 1970), 219-220,
Arrs": Roscn-Ayalon, "file Problem of die 'Baghdad
z\. Gr.ihar, "The Bonrgc<iisic -iiuJ
School' of Miniatures and Its Conncaion with Pcnia," i6$Hi70.
23. A. S. MeHdan-Chinnmi, "Le rooim de Varqe et GoOBdi," Am AskHqua XXO (1970). 39*
r>7f Z. Safa, V'arqah va-Cuhhiih-i Ayyiiqi {Tvhcrm 1964), 6. The miniatures from the thirteenth
;

'

Vjrqj and Ciolsah inarivhcnpt

ccnuir)

I'crsiati

j-K-rhaits

from the

are.i

.iri

mnd Khoy,

the

artist's

ui Istanbul

home town

appear to belong to a regional style

in

northwdtem Iran, bi

his valuable

Vanja and Goliih miniaiutet, Melikian-Chirvani conoentratcd on the

identification of what he believed to be Persian traits in these miniatum. The miniatures, however,
are pernicatci] by Turki^li pjiteius A Jrcss. .iccoutteincht. gesture ,uid ficial type. The iverwhclm-

and

detailed analysis of the

ing inipicssion gamed from these ininiaturcs

is

of an

eclectic school that translated

Mcsopotamian,

Ttarldth and Penian {nttenu acooiding to die limiled aiid picscribed

Copyrighted matsrial

Omtmmty^'nadithn

The lowermost

register

on the wall of

{Paujikent VI: 41) (pis. 10, 12, 13)

is

the

iiall

that yielded the

"Rustam

179

cycle"

divided into small pands diat depict indepen-

dent scenes ofdaily life and familiar faUes identified by their excavator, Bdenitskii,
as illustrations

into Pahlavi

al-Muqaffa'
life,

of talcs from the Indian

Paucataiitra.-'^

These

tales

were

translated

by Hidpai, and subsequently from the Persian into Arabic by Ibn

(d. ca,

759) as Kiilila wa-Dtiiiiia. Such

well as scenes of daily

faliles, as

of many of the

arc depicted in small abbreviated panel compoiUiuiis at the base

major cycles of painting from Panjikent

(c also Pmgikait

(pi. 25, figs. 54, 55)

XXI: pL 25, fig. 54, the dancers from Pmjikeat VU: 2, die wrestlen ficom Pagikent

XVB),

In such panel compositions, the story

composition that indudes

all

the basic elements

often unfolded in a synoptic

is

of the

man who slaughtered the goose

down nito three episodes that show

and

tale

moral. Thus in

its

the fable about the

that laid the golden egg, the

story

first,

and

IS

Its

bri>ken

golden egg, then, the slaughter ot the goose, and

at the realiiation

of his

folly {Paujikent

dever hare, familiar from die

Katila

XXI:t, pL 25,

XXI: 1,

fig. 54a).

same

The

fable in

illustrative clarity

fatal

with

ftg. 54).

In the story
is

shown

of this scene

diat are characteristic for the

tinguish diis categcy of pauiting

interest in

of the

first,

is

recalled in the treatment

the Arabic version of Ibn al-Muqaffa', represented in

(see

in

Sc^ian

of

Arab

above, p. 119).

synoptic and seI<ontained compositions, eloquent gestures

of formal means

goose

his

man's remorse

plunge into the well {pmjihent

miniatures of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries

The

man

uw-DimfM, the greedy lion

conversation -with the hare, and then in his

the

the

finally, the

and economy

panel compositions dis-

Smm the monumental friezes of epic or religious

Sogdian painting. The compositional and formal particulars of the small

panel compositions

would appear

to link

them

rather with

book

painting. If these

panel compositions are taken as an indication ot the existence ot a tradition of

Sogdian miniature painting that accompanied some Sogdian written

the S<^dian artistic style
the West.
texts

Only

would have found a

texts,

dicn

likely vehicle for its transference to

indirect material evidence, in die

form of ilhistrated

religious

vmtten in Sogdian, from Turfrn, may be cited at dib time in support of this

a^ument.**

23. A.M.
Manhak, in

Hclcniiskii, V.I. R.ispopov.i, Drcviiii PciiiUhikfn!

Arts Asiatiqucs

isLmisdicn

XXIII

(Dushanlw

ff)7l),

21-22;

BL-icnit&ki,

(1971). i^tT.

"The Mamiuk llititninatcJ M.-inuMTip(s of Kaiik y/^Oitaia," Aut

JGmbT, ed. R. Ettin^uscn (London 1939), 195-206.

24. S. Walzcr,

der IVebJer

TfuPkuHal^ in Oriental Art

180

It

may

be concluded from the foregoing study that some Sogchan srvhsnc

patterns continued into Islamic tunes

nmth

centiuy,

and contributed

of blamic wall paintrngi

tdiool of Ttn&n

artistic

mtist be stressed,

at

to the development, in the

Samanra on die one hand, and the

on the other. Yet Sogdian oontributUms

were more femul than

substantive.

Whereas

to blamic act,

the

it

monumental

aspect of the Sogdian pictorial frieze apparently did not affect the direction of early
Islamic painting, secondary Sogdian paintings that depicted fables and folklore

found ramif ications

(hemes

in

of the Arab world

that

and aniveml humor

the Iranian epics.

between

from

fable

may

be seen as an expression of socio-political conditions

was more recq>tive, understandaUy, to die secular appeal

the genre dian

The popular view

and epic

is

it

was to the somber and patriotic mood of

held

in the

reflected in the talc

the Thomatid ami Otie

compared
*'

book painting of the Arab world. The popularity of such

in Islamic times

.\Vt;/if>-

his story to an epic

(nts.

'Abbasid age on the difference

of Seyf-el-Muluk and Bedi'-el-Jemal

756-778). I'hc teller of this talc apparently

when he agreed

to

tell it

only on condition that

dlou relate not diis story in the beaten way; nor shalt diou reUte it among women

and slave-girls, nor among nule black staves and stupid persons, nor among boys;

among

but thou shalt only

recite it

knowle(%e, such as

cacpostiots

26. B.

emirs and kings and wezirs, and persons of

and others."

W. lane, Tlu AraUm f^^' Buertahmiailt III (Londaii 1914), 323-324.

Copyrighted matsrial

Conclusion

7.

To outliiie the oondusioDS dnwn from die foregoing study of Sogdian paiii ling it
is necessary to Ktum to the basic premises of this invest^tioii. These centered
around questions of the

originality

and independence of the Sogdian painting

school, the particular stylistic traits and thematic objeaivcs

contribution to the tradirions of miniarure painting

The

Graeco-Iranian

revitalized

and given

artistic traditicni

new

of

tlic

in the

new

of that school, and its

Islamic age.

Iranian dynasties that liad

direction to the late Hellenistic

an of Western and

Central Asia had provided a rich CbundatiQn fer the Sogdian tradittcm of painting
(chapter

i).

If the st^istic conventions

with greater

fidelit)' in

of the Graeco4ranian

the subsequent Buddhist art of Central Asia, traces

content continued in the non-Buddhist

fimerarv'

and ancestral

cult betrays

art

in the

3).

The

of its

of Transoxiana. Thus the Sogdian

elements of the dynastic cults that flourished in

the earlier Kushan, Khwarezmian and Parthian states

Christian era (chapter

style were preserved

earliest

the early centuries of the

Sogdian school of wall painting, uncovered

two public temj^ complexes at Panjikent, preserved also fiinnal and icono-

graphic links with the earlier Graeco-Iranian style (diapters 2-4). These fbcnial and
iconographic connections with the past are

Sogdian

art

(Appendix), best

know n

frtMii

less

evident in the later development of

murals of secular interest uncovered in

the private residences of Sogdian city dwellers.

The formulaic

stvie that

was

gradually pertected in later Sogdian painting evidently responded to the distinctive

quality

of the secular themes

in die seventh

and dghdi

Murals of secular
covered

that

dominated the repertory of the Sogdian painter

centuries.

interest constitute

in Sogdiaiia.

prove that tluy served

The
as a

by

ir the latest

richness, diversity

primary

body of paintings un-

and prevalence of secular paintings

medium of artistic expression amonu

.Sumliaiis.

Representations of narratives ot heroic and epic content receuc prctLrLiitial

treatment by their advantageous allocation on wall surtaces, their inonumcntal

181

ThePUlorial^inOriaaalArt

182

dimensions, narrative conrinuit)', and rich colors.

With few

exceptions, the content

of such heroic narratives pertain to epic cycles that circulated

iii

Sogdiana

in

pre-

Islamic tiuics. Like the oral poet of the heroic age, the Sogdian painter of the
pictorial epic

aimed for a clarity of exprenioD and dcamadc action. Agam

tional devices,

on

action,

and by the establishment of a given mood. Sinoe

he developed

a ciuisistent

interest centered

language of gesture and proportion that

heightened the drama and eloquence of his message {chapter

2).

Legendary and heroizcd individuals are frequently distinguished by

marks and

attributes.

in "sptendor.**
tioii

like die

he achieved diese ohjectives through a sdective use of a few composi-

oral poet,

specific

Such individuals receive divine support and arc enveloped

The format of the heroic

epic

is

loosely followed in the r^iresentSH

ofhistoric doctimentariea, in whidi priority is given > descriptive and real^^

detail.

Rqnesentadons of Sogdian

folktales

and the genre, identified by their

pedestrian content and formal conventions, played a secondary role in Sogdian

painting where they

section

were represented

as a

form of diversion along the lowermost

of the walls.

Themes of epic and

secular interest are clearly distinguished

ioQn(^;raphic formulae

from rdigious imagery

by

(chapters 2, 4).

stylistic

The

and

vdtgious

imagery from die second temple at Panjikent suggests a synthesis ofa nadve dynastic

and

ancestral cult

and a Sogdian version of a funerary cult of Adonis. The

Sogdian version of the goddess Nana, a major goddess of Transoxiana, represented

the latter as a superlative creative

power who apparently combined

of the Mcsopotamian Nana with those of

the Iranian earth goddess

the functions

Armaiu. The

iconography of this goddess dearly distinguishes her from a lesser goddess, a river
deity dc{Mcted in a small

diapd

The iotmogra{^y of a male

temple

in the precincts

of the second temple at Panjikent.

deity associated with the funerary cult in the second

at Panjikent suggests his identification as the Iranian

attributes

of the

latter figure,

in a closer relationship to

and

his clearly

god Mithra. But the

funerary association, place the image

Roman provincial models than to Kushan representations

of that god. Besides references to gods of the native Iranian pantheon,

Sogdian paintings occasionally depict images of Tanttic
represented aooirdtng to Indian

stylistic

later

divinities diat are

and iconogtaphic conventions.

in the use of materials and techniques of painting the Sogdian murals display an

economy and
(chapter

5).

consistency that resulted

from the

limitations

of native resources

By contrast to the opulent realism of conteinporaneous Indian painting,

the Sogdian style of painting

is

distinguished by

its

formal abstraction and a

CopyiiLjdted material

CMKbniMi

modicum

183

descriptive detail. Compositional categories arc there generally

(it

dictated

by the thematic content of the painting. Thus whereas compositions of

religious

images arc characterized by their monumental dimensions, hieratic

and symmetry,

ritoal scenes

and doaot

scale

figures are idegated to smaller bteial

fixzes that often flank die divine image. Compositions of narratives

tjf q>ic

and

heroic content are distinguished by the juxtaposition of a sequence of episodes

ananged

oontmuous

as a

superimposed

firieze

and frequently distributed within two or more

and genre scenes arc generally rele-

registers (chapter 4). Folktales

gated to small contiguous panel compositions arranged

on

the lowermost register

die walls.

The spatial

integrity

and tdatively

proportions of the earlier paintings

realistic

are gradually replaced in the later sdioc^

of Sogdian painting hy a ooncqitual

of the human form,

and two-dimensional

space, hieratic scale, greater abstraction

and the

of definite standards of proportion and beauty (chapter

estahlisht-.icnt

human form

If the slender and elongated proportions n( the

consequence of

tiic

evolution of the Sogdian

artistic style

4).

arc understood as a

and the establishment

of native aesthetic standards, the slightly Mongoloid cast of the features of standard
figures in later Sogdian painting

cosmopolitan

tastes

leadmg politkal

of a

later

must surely be seen as the reflection <^ the more

age

when

roles in the a&tts

die Turks and die

Chmese came

of Sogdiana. However,

to play

in the prc-Islamic

Sogdian"agro-tiry," the Turks never gained the monopoly of political pow cr

they assumed

111

the post-'Abbasid period in Central Asia and the

Turkish influence on Sogdian

in the

more or

less

art is traceable

only

in details of dress,

Mongoloid physiognomy adopted

in later

Near

that

tast.

armor, and

Sogdian painting.'

Despite evidence of increasing &miliarity with odier cultures and artistic patterns,

Sogdian painters remained stricdy bound within die confines of their own artistic
canons.

The world as envisioned through die highly

Sogdian painting corresponds to that portrayed

in

selective artistic

vocabulary of

other media of exprasion in

Sogdiana that record the ideological conceptions of a heroic age.

Finally,

it is

postulated that the secular and heroic pattern of Sogdian art provided

later traditions

Eastecn Asia.

with a viable alternative to

Thus whereas Indian

art

tlie

found

religious art

its

of Buddliist India and

ramificatiotu in die Buddhist art

of Eastern Ttitkestan and the Far East, the secular thrust of Sogdian art was more
I.

A.R

Houiani,

CcUoquium, Paper: on

"The blamic City

IsLiwit: Hi>ii'ry

"lmcnu poui I'^ude

I.

in the Light

ed.

A.H.

of Recent Research," The bbmu City, a

M. Stem (Oxford 1970), I7;J. Aubin,

Hoiirjni, S.

dcs agglom^iatiom uibaincs dans I'Iran medieval,"

ibid.,

69L

TheKttorial^pkmCMenttdArt

184

likely to find acceptance

among

artists

tained that the arrival in the Islamic

of the Islamic w oriel (chapter

world of Turks

cultural pata*rns contributed to the transmission

aidstk convendons in the West.

who

of which

is

found

murals from Panjikcnt.

latter

and

later

in the

small panel

The formal and

book painting, a

compondons uncovered among

influence
to the

on

and

Arab book painting cannot be

attributed to chance. Chance, as

art

is little

in crcnting the

evidence to support the

ofa regiona] school of miniature pauuing datable to the

fifieendi centuries,' questions

of Sogdian

the

substantive correspondence between the

lacuna in the material evidence. Although there

fbuiteendi

ascer-

and distribution of Sogdian

well as the perishable nature of painted maiuistnpts. played a role

attribution to Tiansoxiana

is

A more direct vehicle for the transmissiQn <^Sog-

dian aitisdc conventions may have existed in die form c^S<^;dian

leflectioa

6). It

had assimilated Sogdian

on

later traditions

still

remain about the extent of the

and about the media of its transmission

West. The foregoing study offers merely preliminary and tentative thoughts

these quesnons.

a. For a leview of the literature on die subject, lee A.A. Ivanov, "litaaia izuchciwij Mavenmnakhnkoi (SnedoeaziaBkoi) dikoly miniatury," SrakiamAzik v dmnmti i SKdnevekniyi (Modtva:
SSSR, Imtitiit Voatolamdeniia, 1977), 144-159.

AN

Co(.y

uod material

Appendix
The

The

Classification

eazlien

known

temple precincts

of Sogdian Painting

Sogdian murals have been mooveied within the confines of two

dntcd on stratigraphic t^roimds to the bccinning

it I'anjikcnt,

urban development of that town towards the end of the

of the

century A.o.

fifth

The two temple complexes weie sitoattd widiin die nordiem part of die irregular
fijrtified town {shaliristSu) of P^jikent, toughly between the ruler's citadel {kuhmidiz) on
die west

(pi. i),

and the necropolis beyond the soutlu rn

two contiguous ccmples

vated since 1947, the

sanounding

residential buildings

omamentation'

The

{ih,.

by

portico to its east wall.

ded on three
fourth

side.

sides

(fig. i).

Exxa-

from the remains of the

distinctive plan

and

11).

nucleusi ot c.uli tcinpk'

complex was

a centra! tetrastyle hall

with an adjoining enclosed sanctuary connected to

cast,

of the town

\\

arc distinguiiihcd

their larger dimensioiis,

by

its

oriented towards the

west, and a hcxastyle civan or

The central tetrastyle hall in both temple complexes was surroun-

corridors or open galleries;

it

faced a large

open courtyard on

its

Surrounding walls and ancillary buildings defined the rectangular confines of

each complex. Temple

II,

the larger of the

two complexes,

located inunediatcly to the

north of Tmpk I, hastecently yidded evidence ofextensive leconstniction in the seventh

century when its surro nKiing walls were erected at die expense of an earlier shrine within
precincts (the norcl; ch.ipcl).

its

throughout the
tion

tetrastyle hall

the

life

Both temples were apparently maintained and renovated

of the town, and were briefly occupied even after the Arab destruc-

of ^njikent in the latter part of die eighth century. The

initial

and

its

finnidation

of the

central

surrounding corridors in both Temple I and Temple II dates from

construction of the

two complexes. However,

the corridors

Tmpk H preserved

subsequcndy converted into enclosed buildings, whereas those in

ori^al plan.
The fire that destroyed

of Tanpk I were

dieir

against Ocvashtich, ruler

used in the

eitnAis

halls evidently

the temples in

^.

M-

7:2, at the time

Brlcnir^kii,

"O

of the Arab campaign

of Panjikcnt, preserved carbonized remains of wooden columns

and the

tetrastyle halls.

The four wooden cohimns of tlie

supported rafioed or "lantern" roofs (cf

bride stroctnces. Brick vaults supported

I

.^.n.

on

fig. 3} that

walls built of blocks

ptaridzhikL-tnskikh khraiiKikli,"

" Raskopki sogdjukikh khramov v i(^H-\giO gg.,"

MIA

tetrastyle

covered the adobe

of beaten day or adobe

KSIIMK XLV

(1952), 119-116;

idem,

37 (1953), 21-58.

185

Copyrighted malBrial

186

Appendix

brick

were generally used

to roof passages or corridors. The mud plastered walls were

murak that covered die entire wall nuface and occasionany also
The interiors of the niches that flanked the entrance to the nclosed

usually decorated widi

the vaulted
sanctiiarv'

oeilillg.

on the west walls of the

tetrastyle h:ills

wt

ri'

also ilecorati.

murals preserved on the walls of the central teirastyle

Tempk n, and

and

hall

those from an ancillary bnikling within the

from

Ti'tiiple I

and

two

oldest building

il

complexes

life

with murals. The

adjoining eivan in

Tmpk

evidently restored and repainted at subsequent periods within the

In their association with the

its

were

I complex,

of the two temples.

at Panjikcnt, the

mur.iK

Tmpk II might be expected to represent the earliest preserved

btnly

at that site. The repreientatioa of the divine pair in the mnial

Room g. is stylistically related to the sixth century murals from Temple II
An early seventh century date is suggesti d i>ii stratigraphic grounds for

of Sogdian wall painting

from

Afrasiab,

at Panjikcnt.

Panjikent VI: 41-42

and

XXUhli^

Historical

and iconographic considerations suggest a

date in the third quarter of the leventh century for the nuirals from Afiaiiab,
stratigraphic

suggests

evicleiici'

date in the

first i]itartiT

Room

1,

and

of the eighth ci-ntury for the

murals from the Panjikcnt citadel and for Panjikcnt III and

V'li (sec Part

One, pp.

46f.,

37f.).

maintenance and

If the

testify to the durability

that early date

may

later

of tlu-

expansion of the two temples

loci!

i iilt,

.c^A

tli< ir

then the loss of murals from

nutrals at Panjikent
si i

ul.ir Iniililings

of

be attributed to the temporal function of domestic architecture,

bdeed, the overriding sentiment diat contributed to the preservation of the two public
temples eviilLntIs
not extend to the maintenance of even private shrines that lasted
only

as

The

long

as iht tlu

llings that

housed them.

majorit)' of the murals excavated

111

more than

titty

rooms

at

Panjikent'

is

assodatod with buildtngs diat fiinctioned as private residences in the seventh and eighth
t"I'ntnrii's.

Systematic and thorough catalogues of the

prior to 1959 arc oficrcd in the

in 1954,

two major

and by A.M. BelenitdcH

be hoped, therefore, that

the last major publication

immediate

by

iM.i\.ited at Panjikent

publications compiled by A.IU. lAkubovskii

in 1959.'

years are discussed in short reports

p.iiiurntrv

Some of the murak excavated ki

subsequent

the excavators, others remain unpublished. It

compri heiisive

cat.ili)gm

of all

tlu

on Panjikent can eventually be prepared by those

access to the material evidence

may

paintings uncovered since

who

have

from the excavations.

The nmfak listed below arc arranged in the numetkal order o{ the buildings in vdiidi
The chronological sequence of the paintings .lisrrsM .iI-on c is mon- fully
documented in Part One, pp. iz-szL by A.M. Belemtkii and U.l. Marsiiak. iic uuirals
are Kned according to sector (Roman numeral), building number, and pcodse location
witUn the building.
The list of murals from Panjikcnt is inclusive of the murals reported in publications.
The list is by necessity selective and limited to major cycles and individual panels of
they appear.

,1

2.

A. Bclcmcsky, CcntrtiAsia, Atchacologia Mundi (iy68}, i$6f.

3.

2Miwpf(* (i9$4}: ShuS^ttum (i959)>

Copyrighted material

187

Cka^fietdou

unusual interest. This selectivity

amples

listed,

by the inherent interest of the exThe aim of this list is to provide a

dictated not only

is

but also by their availability for study.

leady loazoe of cefixence for examples quoted in

nical, stylntic

VANJIEENT

The

i:

{bregomg daaadons on the tccb-

and thematic aqectt of the Sogdian mucab.

DVSn

principal hall

and

eivSn

of Temple I (fig.

1) prcscr\'ccl traces

uf mutab diat dated to

the earliest building period in this temple complex. Shortly after the construction of the

of the temple in the sixth century, the murab in

eivan

its

north and south wings

fell

into

dinepair and the temple underwent radical reooutmction. Ejccavations conducted in

1971 uncovered fragments of these early murab in the nordi and foudi wings of thceivan
vkrhich evidently ilatc to the sixth

century

(fig*;.

comprised ceremonial scenes depicted in tlucc

without dieir weapons. These

figures,

14. 25, 33).

registers

two of whom

Thoie&om

are identified

by

wing

the south

of standing and seated

men shown

inscriptions

dut

had been wnttm next to them, arc believed to represent portraits of donors or individuals
who were instrumental in the construction of the temple and its decoration.* The south
wing

mythological themes depicted on a larger scale than the ceremonial

also contained

scenes,

notaUe amcmg which was the

COnfionted

by a

representation

bridled but riderless horse

occupies the center of this composition

(fig. 14).

of a god

in a faoav-drawn chariot;

conventional mountain landscape

and a border of "accordion" moti6

defines

its

ground imc.

The early munds (com die nordi wing of diis eivSn also depicted mydidogical scenes*
in this instance could be identified as a reference to a story preserved by Hrdaim

which
in
IS

.1

form.

Liter pL-ni.in

The protagonist

repeated in different episodes from the same story

here idenutied as Dahhik, idcnuiied by the pair of snakes that

PANJIKENT

i: J,

grow from his shoulders.'

NORTH WALL

This fragment originally decorated the north wall of a small unit built on the southern

of Temple

side

I,

discovered in 1949.

dut probably coveted

/.'.S.*

The fragment

the entiie

It is

waU

a small section (i.j

0.$

m) of a

larger

to the right towards a fourth larger figure represented in thrce-tjuarter view.

figure firom the
4.

left

The

third

appears to hold a spiral-sh.ipcd object, representing a flaming torch,

For a report ot the excavations conducted

Aiarshak, in

mural

sox&oe and die interiors of (he two niches in

depicts three male figures widi frontal torso'> and profile heads turned

SG XXXVII (1973).

53-57.

in the

fwSn of Temple I in 1971,

see fielenicskii,

%.

A. Bclcnitskii, B. Marshak, "Stennye rospisi, obnaruzhennye v 1970 godu na gorodishche drevnego Pcmizliikcnta," SG XXXVI (1973), 58-61. The central tetrastylc hall in Temple U
5. Ibid.,

measured

10 in,

thi; lic.xastyle

long and 00
Tentpk II measured

75-jio

civau

measured xo

in loni;, 5-0

m wide, the open court)'ard was

m wide. The snull sanctuary on the west end of the central cctraitylc hall hi

7x4m, and contained a oondnuous waU bench (ju^) on m three cndoied

sides, sec Bclcriiiskii, in

6. Sec

M.M.

MIA

37 (19S3). 23.

D'iakonov, in Zhivopis', loj, n.

3, 104, pi.

VI; P.I. Kostrov, in Zhivopis', iSj.

ApfmSx

188

and is followed by

a figure

with a raised light hand turned towards his fioe. The ohjett of

the attention of die duec figures

is

the larger figure

on

t^t shown iridi shoulder

the

flames, flamil^ corona nnd n black nimbus.

Ute painting was executed on a thick white plaster ground (the "alabaster" ground of
the Ruaian sources) in a red preliminary skctdi, filled in with colors. The modulated
zeddilh color tones of the faces produce the cct of plastic modeling enhanced by the
denser color of the shaded areas in the

final

contours of the figures. The profile heads are

represented with black moustaches, straight black hair cut and gathered behind the eai-

and

lobes,

frontal eyes.

PANJIKFNT

FAST NTrilE

1: 5,

Small fragment decorated with a Hcur-dc-lis mutii

circles

tn<>cribed in a

roundel ot alternating

and leaMiaped motifi.'

PANJIKENT
Building

i:

J f,

10,

HAST

WALL

a small unit

on

the north side of the Temple I court,

a small and simplified

is

version of the central tetrastyle hall with four columns, here reduced to two.

imposed

showed

layers
a

of

piiintinp

were discovered on the

bearded frontal head of

The

{Patijikaa LioP)."

east wall

of

1: 10.

second, or top layer of painting

Ac

on

Throe

seated in a cross-legged position, with bearded heads in three-quarter view

on

white plaster ground. The absence of

layer

first

cast wall was part of a

larger compositian that spaniuMl the entire cast and north walls.

are painted

Two super-

The

haloed man, executed on a white plaster ground

frontal figures
(i .S

the effect ui plastic

1.6

m),

modeling

and the two on the north wall of the same room* from dioie
depicted in die wall paintii^ fipom Pa^Umt I:y

distinguishes these figtues

PANJIKNT 1:10, NORTH WALL

The two seated figures on the west pier ofdie north wall (i.i x
fiK>ni

(1.3

1.6

m)"

(fig. 48).

The

five attendants sketched in black outlines

this scene contrasts

pier

1.4 m},'" like die

the cast wall, are associated with the sacrificial scene depicted

north wall

sacrificial altar is

on

a red

on the cast

pier

duee

of the

here tended by a priest and

ground.

The

limited color range of

widi die rich palette of die row of doas-leggcd figures on die west

of the north wall

ar.d

on the

cast wall.

Yet the two groups are connected in

Style

and iconography. An ornamental border consisting of interwoven rectangular shapes

decorated the upper limit of the mural
7.

wall cBuitng 10."

V.L. Voranina, "Arkhitektumiye pamiaiiiiki drevnego Piandzhikcnta,"

Leningrad 1953), figs- I. 21.

8. D'iakonov, in Zkht^', 106,
9.

on the nordi

lybkonov,

12. Ibid.,

pL

MIA

37 (Moskva/

XIU.

in Zhivopa', i04r-io6, pis.

10. Ibid., pis. VII,

ii.ibid.. pis.

pi.

VD, X, XII.

IX.

vu-vni.

XL

Copyrighted material

OautluatiM

189

KANJOCBNT l:iOA, NOSIH WALL

TlieniuOeiidosed room
traces

of painring on

fragment

(0.3

(3.5

m) that opened into die nordi aide of J: jooontdned

The male dancers and musicians depicted on this

north wsll,

its

m) were

o.j

treated in a linear

and two-dimensional
1: 10J*

style

on a white

murals from die adjoining building

plaster ground, as in die

PANJIKENT 1:14, FROM A HEAP

ON THE FIOOR

This fragment depicts a man's head in a linear and

flat stj'lc

executed on a white plaster

ground ookxcd Une.'*

FAiqiKENT n: northern

nacmcT.

fast wall of chapel

This small chapel, situated in the northern part of the Temple

complex dut was bridced over at die

late

V. ill (fit;.

VeH>^ ^ ^

U courtyard, was part of a

oentniy by die masonry of a

Excavations conducted in 1970 revealed murals on the walls of the

11).

small chapel which was presumably constnictcd in the fifth ccntunr', after the completion

of the eivan and the central

the

tctrastyle hall

of Temple

II.

Unlike the

Tmpk If sanctuary wfaidi had not piesetvicd traces

the northern chapx'I prcservet! cviilmcc of

century murals.
seated

on

The

rlir u<.c

earliest

murals ftom

a plaster piimecoat, diose from

of the plaster priniccoat

in these fifth

mural was a crowned and haloed woman

by a winged dog-headed creatoic, and attended by a smaller
left. The enthroned figure is represented with a banner in
with ribbons in her right hand. The right hand is placi-d next to a

central figure in this

a throne supported

standing (male?) figure on her

her

left, .iiui

.1

rown

( ?)

musical instrument in the shape of a rectangular frame with bell attachments

Afier a lacnna of 1.5

beaidless

m,

male donors

this

(figs.

scene

23-24), and a fragment of a

B^fxt on

accordion p.ittcrn decorates the lower border of the donor frieze.

dunotb,

till ir

dress,

and the

effect

(fig. 34).

followed by the reptesentaticm of four standing

is

Hon throne." An
The profiles of the

of plastic modeling produced by the use of shading and

highlights on the tux ofthe cnthroixd female figure suggest comparison widi the murals
from Temple I {Panjikent Ls) and Teti^k II.

panjiksnt n: nokihbkn raBONCT booms 5-6: tncra

ibb
WEST WALL OF THE MOITRBRN CHAPEL AFTER fTS GONSnillCnON
T!i;' iiortlu rii

chapel in the precincts of Temple II was reconstructed at the end of the

htth or the beginning of the sixth

13. Ibid., 106-107, pi.

gg^"
14.
1

XIV. See

MM 37, "TTAS n

iuury.

also ficknitsldi,

deep rectangular niche

(1.5

deep,

"Raskopki sogdiiskikh khramov v 194Sof dancers from Pm^ihettt I:toJl).

(ipsj), 43IF., fig. iS (iliich

Kostro?; in ZArivpn', ik^.

west wall of tills room preserved traces of a figure seated on

5. 'Ilic

ly dccoraicd with a lion's head, sec Dclcnitskii, Marhak, in

throne which was apparent-

SG XXXVI (W3).

5H, 61;

A.M.

Bcknitskii, " Raskopki na gorodishchc drcvncgo Pcndzhikcnta (1970 g)," Arlduologkheskie robotj v

Taidtilustme

(Moskva

X {1970 ^>d),

Akadcmiia nauk tadzhikskoi SSR. Ins^tut

istorii

im. A.

Donidu

1973). lofiC

Copyrighted material

AfpaUx

190

I.I

m wide),

constructed in the passageway of the west wall of the reconstructed hall

entrance, contained murals

of the chapel. The oentral

creature

(fig. 13).

tliat

figure in the

with shoulder flames, nimbus and

were executed

mural was

at the time

of die renovatioii

four-armed female figure provided

throne composed of the

of

coils

a fnnt,istic reptilian

Like the representation of the two-armed enthroned female figure

fitnn the chapel wall in die Temple II predncts, this figure holds a banner
left

m one of her

hands.

Donor

figures,

executed on

on

Style, are represented

wliite plasn r

ground

the lateral walls of the niche

pans of die bodies of the donois are colored a

in a linear

The

(pi. 27).

biigjht

and two-dimensional
faces

liberally applied as a local color,

plaster

and the exposed

pink or a stadc white widiottt the

indication of depth or highlights. Sharp color contrasts arc provided

and by the occasional use of gold

by

pigment

a black

leaf attached to the

ground."

Temple II at Panjikent, excavated from 1948 to 1952, and again in 1971, preserved
murals on the walls of the centra!
eivSn).

No murals

civ.lti

and the

tetrasrv lc hall

were preserved on the walls of the sanctuary

(fiu;.

at the

12.

north wall of

back of the tctra-

itylehalL

PANJIICBNT n:A, En'.AV

Excavations conducted in the eiuSn of Temple II in 1971 yielded murals that dated to the
earliest

of that temple

period of construction

in the late fifth century.

The

die walls of the eivSn showed traces of renovation, evidcttdy cartied out
century.

A frieze of larger than

decorative and complex Horal

cavatoit

on

stylistic

grounds

life-size

The

scroll.

is

male

figures, seated

late fifth

would suggest

Hoewmen

their identification as a

ase depkted

possible

shown

of pigments applied in several

a light or a dark red.

at

some date

in

the lixdl

above a

seated cross-legged

mud

II,

plaster

tttrastyle hall.**

On a

As in

the preliminary sketch here

without the use of

white

however, that exposure to moisture may have caused the

disintegration ofdte plaster primecoat The effect of modeling

intensity

on

p.iintings

pl.Kctl

group of ordinary Sogdiatu."

moving towards the entrance Co die

appears to have been applied directly on the

It is

wa^

century date suggested by the cx-

other murals from the eivSn and tctrastylc hall of Temple

plaster primccoat.

a nip,

evidendy confirmed by palaeogtapldc evidence. The

absence of thrones .ind the posture af the m.ilc figures,

rug,

on

layers.

is

Pigments of the

produced by the varying

final

contour are variously

he mural was evidently restored and its color contrasts heightened

after its original execution.

16. fieleoitsky. Centrai

Ask.

figs.

la?. IJJ;

A.M.

Belenitskii, D.I.

Manhak. "L'Art de

% 3
Belmiti rii,

Piandjikent \ la lumifcre des demifcres fouiUes (i958-rs>68)," Arts Asiatiques XXIII (i970> i^-'
17.

For

report of rhc cxcivations condiiaed in 1971 in the fiiwi

SGE XXXVU (1973), 54-5:

iS. 2^npb\ pk XV-XVI.

Marshak, in

Zhivopis'. pis.

of Teufk U, see

XV-XXlll.

Copyrighted matBrial

191

CUssifiiatim

conoR OF WBT WiUX)

KUgiKENT

n:B. EIVAK (sOimTERN

Man with

bene head (unpublished).

PANjmNT n:K, eivan (north wall)

Procession of female figutes

moving toward

the entrance of the tctrastyle hall (unpub-

liihe^.

PANjiKENT n:it EnrlN

Mural not prMc

(NonBinN oouim of thb wbt wau)

d.

rAiqinm ii:v. msAsnru

scene of

mu (south wall)

mourning for a crowned and youthful male

composition, preserved to a lengA of 8

fbnenl bier it
alongside

and

six figures

^mkr^ by lateral

bdow the

bier.

represented on

The heads of the

The two

on the

cast

four

end of the

is

m'*

depicted in a large

(figs.

49, j6, $7).

The

rows of numroeis arranged

finir

groups (each

lateral

a relatively large scale, the

three large figures

figure

m and to a height of

groups of figures and

ca. 1.20

large<.t

1.25

m) contain

of which arc haloed.

bicr arc represented

m thrcc-

qnaner view and are tuned towards die fimeial bier in the center of die composition.

The figures

in the

group to the west of the fimeral tner arc turned away from the central

scene and face the western side of the composition.

each of the

lateral

groups.

A small scene,

four-armed goddess figures in

depicted inuuediately below the large figures

in the group to the west ofthe fimeral bkr, depicts a fortified boildii^; from dw lampaits

of which appear
scale.

figures

to topple loose bricks and a

jagged red streak

and the

is

number of figures

represented

on

small

represented vertically across the fortress. This group of

larger figiures directly

above

it

remain unpublished.'"

PANJIKENT n:G ANT) D, T^THASTYIP HArr (wBST WALL, SOUTHERN FNn)

Bxpresentation of donors flanking niche. Three standing male figures, on a relatively

small scale, are represented on wall D." The moral fiom wall
is unpoUished.
An ornamental border on the lower fuffa walls C and has preseived traces of two

different Livers

of painting. The

was subsequently superimposed

first

or earlier layer >>liowt an accotdion pattern cnwhidl

a knotted leaf scroll.'*

PANJIKENT D:ZH

AND B,

StaiidinL' figure

of a male donor holding a p<rtable

mural from wall Z//

19. ihi.j.,

ph.

is

TETRAST^'LE HALL (wEST WALL,

NOSTHERN END)

fire altar is

foimd on wallf." The

not preserved.

xix-xxm,

20. Ibid., i6ig.

21. Ili&L,

pL xvn.

22. Ibid., pi.

23.

XVIII.

A.IU. lAkubovskii, "Itogi rabot ckipediuu v 1948

g.,"

MIA

J (l9Jo). 54, pi. 57.

Copyrighted malBriai

192

ApfetuHx

PANJIKENT H:

HAU

TF.TRASTYLE

Z,

(nORTH WALL)

RidedcB nddled faoise, with crenelated mane,

dun life. (Hot mural is unpablislKd.)
PANjnCENT

by groom and

represented laiger

This sector comprises

a vase

and rcctan!ular

The

halls.

a continuous wail bench

opposite

led

tlie

entrance

quarter of die

(cf.

oinplcx of dwellings consisting of vaulted rooms, passages

principal
(siiffii)

room

in such complcxe^s

is

the rectangular hall witli

provided with a projecting section on the

Panjihaa 111:6 and

ci^di century (see Part One, p>

7).

De^te

its

37), this sector

altar wall

oonstractKm in the

first

shows signs of repair and

teconstnicdon.**

PANIIKBNT m:6. NORTH

On
a

the cast wall

AND BAST WALLS

of this square

group oi four overlapping

menul

borders.

hall

{7x7 m)

were found fragments of a scene showing

figures seated cross-legged

battlenient

a frieze

decorated with oaut-

motif decorates die upper bonier. The lower bocder

is

decorated with the motifs ofa bciibboncd bird carrying rings, framed in a pearl pattern,

superimposed over other decorative bands/'

battle

between gods and demons was

also

(fig. 32). A group of equestrian warriors in heavy armor arc all

remams of the battle scene on the n<wdi wall.** Figures grouped aromd sacrificial
placed on a throne, were depicted on the west wall (fig. d).

depicted on the cast wall

diat

altars,

These murals were executed in a

ground. Since

this

linear

method of execution

and two-dimensional
is

t)'pical for all later

style

on

a white plaster

murals from Panjikcnt,

only emxpdons will be noted.

PANJIKENT in: 7, NORTH WALL

This

is

a faoge square hall

x 9m)

with a continuous wall bench (04

m hif^) widi a

projecting section in the center of the north wall opposite the entrance. Traces of the

murals on the walls indicate that the center of the compositional scheme in
a large bare-footed personage seated

on

this

room was

golden animal in the center of the north wall.

Only one foot and parts of the aaimal irducle and dirone cover are preserved (2.5 x
I in).-- An altar represented to the left of this figure is tended by a kneeling priest. A piarl
border separates tliis scene from the narrower lower register composed of a scries of
small independent panel compositions (the figures here meaiuie ca. ai5 x OJt
ead)).

PANJIKENT

III;

17,

WEST WALL

This was a lotig vaulted

room

that preserved fragments

of murals

in its

southwest comer.

24. Sec Zhivopis', pi. IV. Tile murals ixoiu Prnjikatt 111:2 are unpublished, sec D'iakonov, in
20rivcipis',

2y

1 1

J.

Zlur.'p,/. pi.

26, Ibid,, pi.

27. Ibid., pb.

XXIV.

XXV.
XXVI-XXXn.

Copyright(xl inalenal

ChtttifittthH

pair

(pl.

of male and

fcni.ilo ritiors

is

represented below a horizontal band of latticework

26)." Other riders urc pariially preserved behind

PANJIKENT

6.7 tn) included a fuffa with a projecting

entrance."

1.5

m).

NORTH AND SOUTH WALL

Vl: I,

this pair (1.6

This sector was situated near the southeastern corner of the town.
hall (6.8

193

Of the

Its

principal rectangular

bench on the south wall opposite the

twenty-five meters of painting that originally decorated the walk e

hiw

this hall, cipht meters

been

on the north and south walls and

prt-?crvi.'d

in the

comers

on a golden
mimal, that was depicted on the entire face of the sonth wall. The remainidg walls weie
ofiginally decorated with at least two horizontal registers, of which only sectkMts of the
(to a height ot 1.36-1.40 in).'" Little remains oi the central image, represented

lower

have been preserved" (up to

register

height of

i.

05-1. 15

111).

Immediately to the right of the enthroned image on the south wall was depicted a
ttandingfemale figure widiaharp (1.32 x o.56m}''(pl.28).ThisfigureisfoUowedby
duel between three

wall (1.8$

walL'*
(2.3

tn

men m lieav>- armor

An

long)."

m long)

is

on

the soulh

m long) continues this frieze on the

west

depicted on the southwest corner of the north wall"

A downed and seated banqueter catties this theme over to the

(fig. 53).

west wall (0.73

represented in the lower register

equestrian battle (2.08

of banqueters

series

long)"

(fig.

53).

The remaining mntak on

the vreit wall have

perished.

Immediately to the

of the enthroned image on the

left

by a scene showing three

vAadi emerge

the oast wall are

lower

fiieze

PANJIKENT VI

8,

(1.7

m long).'" A

NORTH WALL

x7 m)

with

its

four columns, and

known fim

n0a

XXXIII.
1,

L.

m-VIII, L.

31. lyjakonov, in Zhivopis', iigff.; Kottrov in SkuTpOtta, tsiS.

)2. Kostrov, in Skttrptura, iszS., pis.

XIH-XLIX.

pl. III.

34. Ibid.. pU. VI-VII.

pis. XXXVI-XXXIX.
XXXVi. XXXIX.

VIII; Zhivopii,

3 J. Ibid., pl.
3A. ZMvopis', pis.

37. Steul'ptura, pis. IV,

38. Ibid., pU. IV, VII.

39. Ibid., pis. V, VIII.

VH.

widi a projecting bench,

Vaitjikent in

29. For the gcoiuid plan of tlus siruauru, sec Skurpiura, pis.

33. skurptw.1.

wide pearl band separates

p^.

difired firam other tudi structnies

30. Ibid., pis.

a lacima followed

wheeled vehicle

fiom the

This square hall (7

2i. Ibid., pl.

is

fion
long).!^ At the comer of
and a bovine creature (1.5
found fragments of two standing male figures'" followed by a scene
wartiois before die open door of a towerlike structote

a small male figure

showing warriors and

this

soutli wall

its

use

of a

bent-axis

ApptmSx

194

The entrance

entrance.

in this instance docs not face the projecting

OppoMte the mtranrti on

were

In the upper register

sented naked above

lijr

die

odiiilateJ

tiie

the north wall were found traces of two rcgistcia

color of tlie bhie floh of die laiger figure

tAvjamn ^1:13, north and

scenes are depicted

is

eao^tioBal and does not

this scene.**

wm waus

half of dus tiige quadzaognlar

slightly higher level so ns to

have been used for

of mdnh.

di-pictcd three figures kneeling before a larger figure repre-

waisc arui colored blue. The eitecc of plastic modeling produced

extend to die tRatment of flesh of other figures in

The southern

bench in the

form

.i

room

(11.25

lirpc pl.itform, believed

theatrical or musical performances.'"

7.25

m) was

by A.M.

Two

built

on a

Bclcnitskii to

apparently unrelated

on the nordi walL On the right is shown a group of seated instmby nmaing figutes &om a group of wairiots depicted on the left

mcntalists separated

end of the north

The west

wall.^'

wall of this

room

preserved a large panel of evidently narrative interest.

Hiis panel is composed of three looa^ defined superimposed fiicxes containing separate

compositiom that

are interrelated in dieir subject matter.

Two

protagonists, identified

by their distinctive licaddrcss and costume, appear in different situations in at least two
of the three registers in tliis panel. The (wo figures arc shown on horseback before a
balcony of a large stmctime, at a board game, and then in convemdon widi a diird
individual.*'

After a considerable lacuna to the

left

of this panel follows a representation of a warrior

in annor.** The fiagmcntary figure of a man with bound arms found in a heap of plaster

of this room may have bdonged to dds section of the wall.** A second
fiagmcnt found in a heap of plaster on the floor shows a crowned male head in profile

on die

floor

and part

ot a

emale protilc with softly curled reddish

SOUTH AND EAST WALLS, THE VAUtT

The arched south wall of this small vaulted two-room

hair.**

PANJIKli.Nr Vi:26,

was
pied

entirely covered

by a female

by

a single composition.

figure reptesented

on a

40. Bclcnitskii. in Slail'ptura, 16-17, pIs.

41. Ibid.,

The

structure (measoting 9.5

center ot this

large scale widi

2.5

m)

con^odtion was occu-

nimbus and shoulder

flames.

IX-X.

lis.

42.Ibid..pkXI-XIL
4J. Ibid., pis.

Xro-XV.

44. Ibid., pi.

XVI.

45. Ibid., pli.

XVUI. XIX:b.

46. Ibid., pis.

XVn. XIX:a; A.M

turcs iinirjlc5 a Piandjikcnt,"

" L'

Beknitski, "Nouvelles dfcou vertes de tcnlptnres et de peii^

/lr/.< .4.<iiJfiijwo

III fiiysS), fic>.

6,

A.M.

ni lcnirik;, Ti.I. M.irsh.ik,

An dc Piandjikcnt a la lumibc dcs dcmibrcs fbuillcs (195^-1966)," Aits AsuUtquci XXIII (i97i}t

14-15.

Copyrighted material

OMS^taUoH

195

bi her extended hands the figure holds the solar and lunar symbols consisting of circular

dixs decorated with heads in red and blue

this figuro nrt-

found

trace?

of smaller

Fragments of murals from the

Ae entire room was originally

that

The

To the right and left of

figures.-"

and the vaulted

of this room indicate

The torso of a warrior m

ceiling

decorated "wiih paintings.

black*' and an angular male profile'''

cast wall.

rcspectiviely (fig. 58).

human

east wall

were found among die mural fragments on the

modf inscribed in simple leaf patterns altetoadng with cttdcs

iir-de-lis

decorated the ceiling.

PANJIKENT

VT 4
:

Excavated between 1956 and 1937,

trance, four ooluinns

on

and

this

almost square hall (8.50 x 7.35 m). axial en-

fuSb, felloved die floor plan typical (or such halls.

the four wallsoflhn hall were uniisu

along the upper parts of the walls and

..II preserved

Jl;.

l.irs^c

111

sections

The decorative scheme here evidently centered around

tlif

south and west walls."

the representation ot an enthroned

dK wall Opposite the entrance. The central image was flanked by four saper-

dhnnity on

imposcd

friezes separated

by

pearl borders and consisting

of three upper

equal width (each one meter high) and a turrower bottom register (0.6

The fevdl or uppermost

%aies. Almost 7.3

register is

damaged and

The second

consisting

of a

battle scene

register

all

and

right.

The

of the

third register.*'

preserved to a lengdi of about eighteen nieten, covering almost

is

principal figure in this group, represented in at

contest with various antagonists has been identitied by

A.M.

die hero of die Persian tutiooal epic." (Pk. 4-13.

43-44. 55.)

The first and narrowest renter,

is

figs*

!i.

;>st

move from

vix situations

served

preserved to a length of about twcnry-two meters,**

12-13, fig- Si)- The murals from this room

on strat^rapluc grounds (see Part One, p. 43}.

(pk

47. Belenitskii. in

49

xxm.
XXIV.

50. Ibid., pi.

51.

A.M.

5a. Ibid.,

pr^

arc dated to the early scvendi

SkuffUm, at, pU. XX-XXU.

pL

Ibid., pi.

4S. Ibid.,

of

Bclemtskii with Rustam,

divided into small independent panel compositions, twcnt)' of which have been

century

rf

of standmg

group of figures encircling

that remain

half the perimeter walls. This register begins widi a group of four riders that
ti>

registers

m high).''

preserves only traces

m of murals were preserved from the third register from the bottom.

Two crowded compositions,

a small female figure with a nidsical instrument, arc

left

The murab

but showed extensive damage

of

XXV.

ficlcnitskii,

"Drcvnii Pcndzhikcnt,"

SA

(1959), 209, fig. 17.

6^ 18.

53.1bid.
54. Bdenilsky, CaUral
JbcMAi

(Moskva

(1956

g-}>

pk. 13-17.

A<iti, figs.

136-138. A.

M.

Bclenitskii,

Momnneniai'iuT

iflcussivo

Pmdzhi-

1973). pis. 7-14.

55. Bclenitskii. in

SA

(1959), 3l6; idem, in Tnidf/ ofiAeohgulhaide nAoty v TtdxhikisUne IV,

(Stalinabad 1959), io8f., fig.

i j.

Bdenirdfit,

Mommaiurnu iskastvo PatJzkihenta,

196

^ffutMx

PANjmNT

Vi:42,

Uiis vaulted

NORTH WALL
apparently a vestibule of Vt:4i, was richly decorated with murals,

hall,

of which were foutu! on

traces

divided into at least two

its

north, \vc\t and south walls.

registers, the

The north

upper one of which showed a

scries

wall

was

of standing

female tnuskians and dancers (g. 26). The figures wear 1<m^ skins ynth vertical pleats
and lugli waistlines. The lower register showed a larger dian life figuie of a wacciar in
he.iVT arnior (unpublished).

Two layers ot paintings were revealed on the north wall of this bmlding. In the first or
earBer layer wcic depicted rows of standing male and female figures and the representation of a male figure with a bovine animal
their hairsrylis whicli

(fig. 15).

These figures are distinguished by

have been associated by Bclenitskii with Chinese prototypes. The

and pouch suspended from the

of a male figure from this group

from Chinese models by the same author." The morals from this
room aw dated to the eaily sevendi century on straligrapliic ^oimds (see Part One, p. 4SS^.
fan

(?), sleeve folds

were

belt

also derived

tiaqtam vi:55, norm tarn sooth walls

room was connected to VI: 41 and VI: 43 with which it
The entire wall surface and vault of this room was origin-

Ulis quadrangular vaulted

formed a

unit within stctor VI.

ally decorated

of a warrior

with murals.

in

On the north wall was found a larger than life representation

heavy armor

fenialc w.irrinr rrprcsentcd

(fig. 46).

similar scene

(2.5

m high) agaimt a dark red background (f^. 45). A

on an equally large

was represented

also

sc.ilc \vn<.

on

di'pictfd

on

ilir

a lapis lazuli blue ground (0.4

rANjiKBNT vn:i4. niche, its

figure

flanked by

is

two columns.

On

The

figures against

m high).

uxsial wall

A la^ male figure with bare torso and

position in the center

sontl; wall*'

the southeast wail (unpublished).

upper register on the east and west walk showed a narrow friexe ofseated

leg,

of the mural painted

two smaller knechng

colored blue,

inside a niche in a

figures

and

is

is

represented in a dancing

room from

icctor VII.

This

framed by an arch supported by

the lateral wall to the ri^t of the niche were foiuid traces of two

superimposed rasters of murals depicting a kneding musician

on the top and

a donor

on the bottom register.'*

56

Trudy

/,',

Marsluk,

ndcnitskii,

11/11.'!!

"Oh

.2rkfi!-oIo[;irlii-sJ;ilch

r.ahonkh ]>cndzhikcntskofo Otriada v 195S g ,"

Akhmdda Doniilid X.XVIl (Dmlunlx- iy6i), H7, goff., fig, 5; Hcicnmkt,

XXin(l97l), 27, fig. 22.
TniJy bistima itiorii im. AUmaia Domdia XXVU (1961), 94, fig. 6; Belenitski.

ii/i>ni

im.

in Arts Aiialifics

57. Bcleniiskii, in

Manhak, in
5S. A.M.

Arts AsiaH^ues XXID (1971). fig. 10.

rk-lcnickii, " Rcsul'r.irv r.iski pok ii gorodishche drevnego Pcndzhikcma v i960
i

s;.,"

1 7//, (19^ j.), XXXIX, Akadcnuia nauk tadzhikskoi

SSR, Institut istorii im. Akhmada IXinisha (Diubanbe 196a). los-to^ figs. 15-16; Beknltiki
Manhak, in Arts Asiati^es XXIII (1971), 2], figs. 11-12.
59. A. M. Belenitskii, " Iz istorii kul'tumykk sviazei Srednei Azii i Indii v raiwem sicdncvcko'c."

TmJymkiKolcgUluskif raboty v Tadzhikistanc

KSIA 98 (1964), 37f. ; Mrnitih, Mardiak, b ArtsAaatifia XXin(i97i), 9^ u, fig. 4. Small figuns

Copyright(xl inalenal

Cbss(/!Mtfm

197

PA14JIKENT XVI : 10, CHAPSL

Sttuated in a private residenoe near die haXMU district of die Fanjikait JihifoufAt, diis room

was provided with

a fixed altar

usually reserved for the divine

boik of baked brick

image

in larger halls.

in a part

of the wall

vriiidi

was

Divine representatioosaic evidently

absent in private chapels with a fixed altar of this type at Panjikent.

Hie

projection

diowing a male

of die waU next to die

XVI: lo was decorated with a mural

on a cane. This figure was followed by a

altar in

figure dressed In vdiite leaning

raw ofeigjbt richly dressed banqueten on the adjacent waU* (pis. 29-30, fig. 36).

AM|IUNTXVD:t4
Hlit rectangular

hall ut a private residence iiad

luur central colunuis and an entrance on

on the west wall depicts a wrestling match between

two male contestants in shorts. The figures are placed against the irregular outlines of a
Stream of water, painted blue, and strips of shoreline decorated with stylized vegetation.
the east wall. The fragmentary mural

Two female torsos arc represented in the foreground above a border decorated with an
aooudion

pattern.*'

PANJIKBNT XXI:

196s Patijikful XXI. the largest residence at Panjikent. yielded almo-.t fortv meters

III

from the nearly seventy meters

of murals

the wall opposite the altar {XXI:3)

that originally decorated

a canopy.'^'

of two st.mding warriors, and

feiiKiK dancers

Two
XXI: i,

with long

The

principal fiieze depicted a sequence

(fig. 18).

in the

main

hall

(pis.

of dancers, rcpfocua J

ktM

Muall panel composition

Vll:2, arc found u> die

same complex,

from the bottom

see Belenitski,

register

man who

of a mural from Panji-

Marshak, in Ant Asiatifus XXIll

The siae of die fiagment diowing the blue figtne b not repotted.

figs. 143-145 Bclcnitdd, Manhak. in Aits Asktupits XXDI (1971).

V. I. Raspopova, " Utchct o raskopkakh XVI ob'ekta gofodishcfaa (bevnego Pendalu*

6a. Bclcnitsky, CtHtnAAsia,

18, fig. 8

kcnta v

i<;70

"Nauka."

(9x9 m)

14-20). Tlic

was composed of contiguous panels of small independent

frieze

compositions, illustrating popular stories that included the tale oi the

(1971), 27, fig. 2}.

On

of battles between male and

female antagonists, described by Relenitskii as an amazonomachy*'

narrow lower

walls

tresses.

superimposed registers of paintings were uncovered

in 1964.

its

was found the leprescntadon of a male and faaak

Next to this scene were finrnd tepftientatioas

couple seated informally under

Ark-luvhgicheskle mitffy

lyii). ijoff..

pi

T&fcifc&(e

X{tffc

goi^ (Modcva: bdatel'ttvo

18.

61. Belenitski, Maishak, in Arts Asi^ques

XXIII (197 1),

27, fig. 24. Thesize ofthtsfi'agment isnoc

reported.
Oa.

A.M.

Ik-lcniukii, V.I.

Raspopova, Drtvnii

I'cndzhiktnt (Dutluiibc

Bdenitski. Marshak, in AntAnil^fie$ XXIII (i97i). iXfT.

1971), ai-22, fig. 6;

fig. 9-

<]. Belenitski, Marshak, in Arts Asiatiques XXIil (i{r7i)> ^4.

fig- 1 3

Bdcniisky, Centui Ask, fig.

Ija; Bclcniokii, Motmmenuirnoe idauUvo AwrAifcenM, ph. 23-32.

Copy [iyt lied

material

Afpm&t

198

slaughtered the goose that laid the golden egg, and

hafe*

of the lion and the clever

tlie tale

(pi. 2s, fig. 54).

PANJIKENT XXTI:I. NICHE FROM THF PRINCIPAL HALL

In is)67 and 1968 murals were uncovered in the niche of the alur of the principal

sttim

right and left respectively

nicfae (fig. 27).** In
altar.

(fig. 5).

nilminatc

in the victorv

Sogdian inscription on

tlic

hall

of one of the

door of the

depicted in a sequence

protagoni'-tv Stfiirc the gates

castle identifies the protagonists as

(fig. 60).

PANJIKFKT XXIV 12, VAULTED

ROOM AND FRAGMENTS OF

13,

of a

of

castle.

Swynk and

and from A second story (xxivij)

on
An enthroned male and female

Excavations conducted in diii sector since 1969 have uncovered morals

back wall of

head to ill

had yielded mtirah flanking the niche of the

i^, and explains tlK story'^'^

MURALS FROM xxiv:

a blue leonine

Kneeling figures were depicted on the wall next to the

1966-1967 the same

The dramatic moments of an unknown legend ate there

5CL-nrs that

haU in

XXII ft. The nidie in die center of the north wall was decorated with a tcicephaUc

personage \vith a male central torso flanked by a feminine and

a vaulted

room {6^.

4,

19).

the arched

couple are

represented under a vault, supported bv columns, that follows the arched contour of the

end wail

(tig. 7).

by two small
XX/K. jj(fig.
figure

The throne

is

supported by

camel and a ram and the couple

is

riankcd

kneeling male figoces." Anodier similar componiiain was unoovered in

8).

Fragmcntsofmurakfirom the lateral

walls ofthc vaulted

room show

the

of a youthful groom leading a horse towards a richly dressed seated male figure."

Fragments believed to have belonged to a room on the second floor were found

heap in

At

ehSn of this complex. Hiese depict equestrian aichen aooompaiued hy a

flying bird bearing a necklace (fig. 47). Traces

of an upper register and

border were also found on

A monumental

qoetcrt

was

in a

this

fragment.'^

discovered in the same sector

64. Bdcnitski,

(fig. 17).

frieze

lower omnnicntal

showmg

seated ban-

"
'

'4'^ S B<:icnicskii. Raspopova,

Manhak, in ArtsAsialufMS XXIIi (i97i)> ^4ff->
op. dt, aoC,
si BcJentddi, MomimauFiioe iAuatm AemfeMbnto, pis.
'>

DiemU ftisfefeltntf.
33-34-

65. A. Belenittkii. B. Maiduk. V.

123;

Ra^opova, "Penddukent," NwIm i Zhbaf t (Jkbdbn 1971}.

UAa n^kx,lAuAik,iaAmAtMfiaiaQn,{iVfl^

not reported.
66. Beinitikii, Raspopova,
Arts

Asiaiitities

XXHI

Manhak,

in

Nadu i ZMei^

8 (i97<). 134; Beknitxki, Maishak.

(1971), 26(f., figs, 19-20.

67. Belcnitskii. Marshak,

m SC XXXVI (1973), 61-64,

fig.

on

p.

62;

A.M.

kopki na gorodishchc drcvncgo Pendshikeilta(l970g.),"ilfiUlKiliyftAdki^

(Moskva 1973), 111-116.

Bckmtskti, " Rat-

TtubMtlslaiu

(l97jp/)

68. Ibid.,

fig.

69.IbkL.

fig.

on
on

p. 64.
p. 65.

70. Belcnitskii, Raspopova.

Manhak,

in

Nmka i Zhizn

S (i97i}> detail

die bottom of die back cover; G. Aaaipay, in bmdu Aiitifu

reproduced in color on

XI (197^. fig. 7,

Copyrighted matsrial

199

CUtdfiathit

A fia^nent showing a wanior m annor (unpublished)

was uucovBinl in

debris

ofooe ofthe vaulted rooms in this sector in 1971. Among the mural fragments uncovered
in the ehan of this complex in the same year were haloed female heads with shoulder
flames, and in one instance, with a crescent around the lower torso. The turbancd head
with ade lodes and lunar crescent was in erpieieJ by the excavators as a reference to one
ofdie phases of the moon. The other heads were thus r n l1 as manifestations of other
i

'

lunar phases.'"

freer srvK-

pomegranate hlo&sonu

was appareiitlv adopted

directiy

below the heads

a fir^mentaiy haloed wairior weie also tmcoveied

a frieze

of humanJieaded birds widi &Iiate

(lig. 20).

tails

'.lu

of vases of

reprf^^-ntation

A male cupbearer (fig.

m die

die cotnice of

depicted against a

zi)

and

wl^

Uadc bad^roandf*

(fig. 22).

FANJIKENT OTADBi: MIUR's fiUACB (kOHANDIZ)

Tlic ruler's palace at P.injikent was sininted
It

was

a towerlike structure

dor

a hill

to the west of the

town (pi.

i, fig. i).

Fragments of murals evidendy datable to die first quarter of die dg^di centDry

passages.
(see Part

on

with two large adjacent complexes comiected by vaulted

One* p.

4, hall

2.

6s(.)

have been uncovered

in excavations

conducted since 1964 in corri-

and "outer court" 5." Those from corridor 4 are unpublished.'*

x 11m) depicts a
row of beiibboned Inrds in peari roondds. Ilie mnxals discovered ui a heap on die floor
of the large throne room, or "outer court" 5 (18.5 x 12.5 m) included rcprcsenutions
published fragment from the west wall of the quadrangular hall 2 (11

of a crowned personage, flying

miniaturisdc delicacy

figures

and other individuals rendered with an almost

These fiagments arc distinguished by

and a subtle and limited color sdieme composed of greyish

(figs. 30, 31, pis. 23, 24).

exquisite drafismanship

white local colon oudtned in hiack with gold highlights i^ainst a dark blue lapis

lasnit

ground."

A tnrbaned male figure m a long

shoulder belt in the

shirt (cf. also fig. 31, left) and a sword worn on a

manner of the Arabs, uncovered among the murals at the Flujikient

citadel in 1069, suggested the identification

reference to an

Arab

dabocate siege engine

(figs.

28-29).

destroyed the Panjikent pahe

71

Bclcnitskii.

of

when

fragment of painted
the Arabs took

Marshak, in SCfi XXXVII (l974)> 54

72. Ibid., 54-55. fig-

mural uncovered there

in

1971 as a

of a Sogdian city. A fortress defended by warriors in armor is

by an enemy finoe consisting <^nien in long shirts indio operate an

siege

tbeie diown besieged

plaster,

it ca.

722,

baked

in the fire that

shows helmeted beads

fig>

7J. For earlier excavations of the Paiijikctit citadel, sec B.IA. Scaviskii, " Raskopkt zhiloi bashni

kuldiendize Pendzhikentskogo Vladctdia."

kukhcndize Pendzhikenta,"

ibid.

Marshak,

SG XXXVU (1973).

74. bakov, in Sirmif i

iHA

1$ (iffSO): A.I. Terenozhkin, "Raskopki v

" Dvorcts
site, sec A. Isakov,

For die neent emvttiaits of diis

pravuclci drevne^u Pendzlukcuta,"

Sirmf

ntn^ MUgJb X (Motlcva S97l)i

76-te: BdoutAil*

ST-Si-

ntnfy vmhka X,

to.

7S dniL. 80-S1 (hall a); BflmitiHi, MttmrneHl^Hce

mkmiro JWdUkHfa,

1973, figs. 3i-39.

200 Afjfenx
depicted accocding to the stylistic standards of later Sogdian painting, and embellished
'widi htghlig^ti and cfaiavoKUfo efiectt.**

SAMARKAVn

(aFRASIAb)

In 1913 the excavations of V.L. Viatkin at Afrasiab, the ancient quarter of Samarkand,

uncoveved a fragment of a mural

slummg three figoies, rfwhich only dcetdicd copies

are preserved. D'lalcoiunr has aacrifaed this

mural to die sixdi to sevendi century on

grounds.

stylistic

Excavations conducted at Afrasiab since 1968 have uncovered several aristocratic

residences

-^di woe

fint noted in 1965.

One of these

contained a large square hall

{Room /), II X II m, with a continuous w.ill bench and ,in eastern entrance. This hall
was found to have been decorated with four independent friezes on each of the four walls.

A bridal cortege is depicted on the soudi wall, hondng scenes on the north wall, scenes
&om life in distant lands on the cast

wall,

and an enthronement scene on the west wall

opposite the entrance. Sogdian inscriptions written directly on the murals explain the
last

scene as a procession of emissaries sent to the king of

(a principality in

Samarkand from Chaghanian

nofthem

the basin of the Stirkhan Dar'ya River, in

Shash (the Tashkent region) and other

districts'* (pis.

21-22,

figi.

Ttilcharisttn),*^

5<^52).

Tocks are

depicted with long braided hair and Mongolian features in the center of the west wall
(fig. 52).

Another group of

tinctive dress

ruler

of S miarkaiid

of male and

figures represented with

on die west wall

paintings are associated

is

identified

by

Mongolian physiognomy and

Al*baum

L.I.

Chinese mission.

as a

by Al'baum with the reign of Vargoman

;iiul

king of Sogdiana {ikhahhl)

tcniale deities, each holding a small

in tlie

mid

image of

si

{^rywrn'ti),

vetuh cenriirv."'

camel on a platter

One, p. 47), was uncovered on a wall from R00m 9, at Afiasiab, dated on

dis-

The

who was

stylistic

pair

(see Part

grounds

to the sixth century.*"

76. Beleniiskii,
77.

Manhak,

V.L. Viatkin,

5GE (1973).

57-58,

figs. 5-6.

Gorcdishclu- Afrasiab (Tashkent 1927);

V. A. Shishkin, Afrasiab,

iokroi'ishclmitsii drcvnei

D'iakonov,

in Zhivopis',

91-92,

fig.

kuftury (Tashkent 1966) ; idem, " Novyc painiatniki

(Moskva 1966), 62-46; L.I. Arbautn, "Novye rospisi Afrasiaba."

Stnmy i nandy vostoka
(Moskva 1971), 83-89. Additional pancb of nuiiab diicoveied in the
principal room in the place at Samarkand, fint uncovered in 1965. have now been pnUislied by
Al'bautn. Since this pnMic.itit^n .ip|x~.irc:l .ifter thf rnniplction of the prcsrnt jii.miisrript .iiid it was

iskusttva

Sogd," bkusslvo

therefore not possible to include a detailed study of these murals in the present discussion, sec

Al'baum,

Zliivopis' Afrasiaba

I.. 1.

(Tashkent 1975).

V.A. Livshiu, "Nadpisi na freskakh iz Aftasiaba" Teztsy JaMadov sessii, Cosudarstvennyi

crdma Lnina Emitazli, Laiin^radskoe otielenk {nstflHta arUmfogt ANSSR^ November 1 5-20 (Lcnin
^rad 1965); R..N. Frye, "The Sigmfieanee of Greek and K jsh.iii .\rchaeology in die HtStOry of
78.

Central Au," Journal 1^ Asim

HiMry Ui (Wiesbaden

1967), iJ-44.

79. IksricpiadnctioTNofdetaibofihepaiiKBigontlieweftwalldiowifigiheTi^
types, see Arh.ium, in

tec

ATbaum,

80.

Stnwy i luimly

ibid., ISM,

cirtfiiA'a

and O.I. Sinimova,

X,

SH, figs. 011 pp.

Ociierki iz

istorii

<*(\

Si<gda

S7.

On

the date of the paintingSi

(Moskva

1970), 275.

Al'baum, Zlrfwyib' Afimbiot pL 0.

Copyrighted malBrial

Quajuadoa 201
THE BUKHARA OASIS (vARAKHSHa)

The Bukhara

oasts is situated

on the ancient delta of the Zanfshan River that now runs

scat of the Sogdian dynasrj' of the kings of Bukhara

dry in the Kyr)'lkum Desert. The

(the hukhdr khuilHh)

v,

:n nt

Varakhsha, just nonhwest of Bukhara on the right bank of the

dry bed of the Za^a^slun. The palace of the kings of Bukhara was located in a
citadel diat

fortified

overlooked die flouridiing early medieval town of Varakhsha watered by a

network of

irrigation canab.

built in the vicinity

Muiab have been uncovered

of a large open court with a ipadous

in at least three laigp balls

txiplc-arched WvAi.*'

vmaxhsra:!! (the ud hall)

This large quadiangular

iiall

The

first Irjezc,

m) with a continuous wall bench on three

two superimposcii registers placed above the

(12

contained two meters of murals

7.85

in

walls
suffa.

with a lower stroll border, shows a sequence ot hunting scenes in which

hunim seated on elephants attack felines or fiuitastic willed aeattires depicted agahut a
bright red background (l^J to 1.30
frieze depicts

m high).

The second and only

partially ptesetved

an animal procession that includes real and fantastic oeatutes, some ofwhidl

are harnessed with saddles and trappings."

varakhsha: 6 (east nAii)

This hall preserves only iu southern, western and a section of its eastern walls.

plan was altered in die tendi centuxy when

agatmt its notdiem and wetiein

sides.

The

of a mural depicting equestrian warriors

the

same

hall preserved parts

trousers,

sword and thnnu

as a

nf tin

five kneeling figures.

throne.

The row of bakxd

fire

tiwsf

against

first

figure

7-10,

Its

ground

were buih

wall of the "cast hall" preserved traces

:i

blue background."'

The

s-.^tith

km// of

of diiee meten. Only the feet, part of the

image are ptexcvcd. The throne leg was

jirincipal

The

first

figure

figures to die

is

left

turned towards an alur

of which were

on

the left of the

i^t of die altar are shown on a larger scale

and are arranged in a raw headed by a male penonagetendii^tfae

on the altar.'*

VABAXBSRAtT-IO (bASTERN StHTB)

Three nnir.il fragments found near the entrance of this
slio\\

81.

hunters represented in reddish

V.A.

Shislikiii,

(1947-53 gg )." Trudy

istorii

TIk

Rmma

winged camel, colored yellow with red contours, to the

shown

than the

"eattetn suite/'

of a monumental composition depicting an cndironcd

personage, preserved in parts to a height

depicted

ilie

"Nekotorye

lliitory oj liukluua (C4iiibriilgc,

83. Ibid., pi.

84. Iby.. pis.

a blue

of rooms, Rooms J-iO

background. The figure

na gocodishdie Varakhsha
lumk Ifabdcskoi SSR, Institiit

Itogi arkhcologichcskikh raboty

Inst'ttuta isterii

.irkliiMli.en (T.ishla-r.( i.;5f.),

<a. Shishkin,

later suite

brown pigments on

aiiheelogU VIII, Akadeoiiia

4;; idem, Varakhsha

Mass. i9M}t

{MoAm t^S^, lS9-t65i

fPfC,

*t I?.

VarMAm. pis. I-OCm.

xvn.

XIV-XVL

Copyrighted matBrial

202

Affen&x

of a hunter on horseback turned around

details ofthis

dated

to shoot backward, like the other unpublished

mural, is represented on a small scale in a miniaturistic style (0.21

on stnt^ni^c grounds

0.27 m),

to the tenth to eleventh centuries.*'

USTKinHANA

The Sogdian principali ty of Ustnnhana had its early medieval capital at Bunjikat, sltoated
on both banks of the Sharistansai River, near the modem Tajik town aS Ut-T]mbe,
north of Panjikcnt.

was

first built

up

The

principal scat

of the

afshins

or princes of Ustrushana

in the fifth or sixth century at the site

at

of Qal'a-i Qahqaha

I,

Bunjikat

near the

modem town of Shahristan," in nordiem Tajikistan. Despite the damage caused by two
files,**

the palaces yielded a wealth of murals and woodcarvings comparable to those found

at other

Sogdian

sites.

The murals from

Ustru^haiia, reported chiefly in Tajik publications

by N.N. Negmatov (Nc'raatov),'* display colors and a thematic repertory that

guish

distin-

them 8S products ofa local attisticschooldutwas independent of Oilier Sogdian

oentcES.

ustrushana: qal'a-i qahqaha

room

i:

ii

This residential tmic uncovered between 1967 and 1969 contahwd a muia] six meeen

long on

its

The mural

cast wall.

from the edge of

the fuffa

by

is

a pearl

Negmatov

mural, described by

preserved to a height of about 0.85

as

band over

a leaf-scroll border.

m, and is separated
The theme of the

"she-wolf suckling two infants,"

in rcahty a

is

sequence of episodes possibly from a single legend that ends widi die scene of a she-wolf

two naked

suckling

infants (fig. 59).

From left to right,

the mural contains a scene

showing

a bare-lcggcd enthroned male figure approached by a kneeling half-naked female figure.

seminudc female figure (perhaps the same

kneeling before a

man

dressed in black

who

as in the

previous episode)

is

next shown

appears to cradle a bundle in his arms.

standing figure separates this scene from a river flanked by standing and walking figures.

The

last

episode on the

left

of the mural involves the scene in which a she-wolf is shown

suiting two human infints, approached by

a figure

with a mass of crinkled drapery.'*

when it was

divided into thicc sectoKSt uuuiprisiiic

85. Ibid., pi. XVIII, 164-165.

86. Bunjikat flourished under the Samanids

die kuhmihz (Qal*a-t Qahqaha

sector, sec

II),

N.N. Nc'niatov, Aron'

earlier palaces

shakriim (QiPa^ Qahqaha

Uilarai>fliii>i

I), and a cnfeinen's and worken'

(Dushanbe: Nashriyori "Irfon," 1972), 8. Thus the

of the Sogdian princes or aphim were situated

ui the area

of the

later

Samanid

dmhristSn.

The first fire of the palaces of the tfskua of Bunjikat is associated with the titne of the Abbasid
conquest of the town in 822, The second fire dates from the time of the death of the last afshin when
Ustrushana was annexed to the Samanid sute by hma'il (891-907).
M, Ne'matov, Atrori Usmrwshm, itS.; idem, in IzvestiiaAkademii mutk tadzkAdtai SSR, 2(52)
87.

'

(Diidianbe
89.

21-32.

Ne'matov, .'l^ron

SA J (1973).

183-202,

U5{irrffl>ijhfli^iofi|.fig.8;idem,

"OiliivupisidvoitsaafilunovUstn^^

fig. IS.

Copy [iL|[, ted

material

Ctas^fica^
Ulis sequence, identified by Ncgmatov

Remus,

is

as a reference to the

legend of

depicted skillfully and in a careful style associated with the

203

Romulus and

sixtii

or seventh

Most of the oolots, with the exoeption of die bpis lazuli Uue, have feded as a
result of thdr exposure to the two fires.
oentnries.

ISTBUnUNA: $MAU.

HAU

shabiistan: qal'a-i

QAHQAHA I

Excavated since 1970 the

OF THE PALACE AT
of

cast wall

this sm.i'l

h.ill

register

were lepreseoted warrion engaged in a

personage, interpreted by

known from

variety of themes.

the Persian national epic. Another register evidently

have been held in two additional hands,

The

ill

the shape

figure

is

is

of a leonine

lieu!, uul

now

virhite,

^v,\^

staff in

same hall (i x

two of her

in

0.8 m).

and the

same

and with

wall.

of bells,

crowned
silver

colon

tised are ultramarine,

sjo

'.

ss.

with solar and

four hands, was discovered on the north wall of the

grey body and yellow mane, represented widi

a string

white plaster primecoat. The face of

principal

Here the goddess is represented astride a saddled lion.

demon with a greenish

his head,

showed

one hand, and a

damaged. The goddess was seated on a

surrounded by two nimbus rings.

depicted in fine black contours on

painted a greyish

emblems held

lower

A solar disc and a lunar crescent may

yellow, and green. In 1971 another version of the four-armed

lunar

murals,
a

battle against a diiee-headed equestrian

object temunatuig in a leonine fimn in tbe other.

throne

On

Negmatov as an aUusion to the legend of Pabb^k and Faridiin,

goddess represented frontally, holding a gold bird-shaped

the goddess

number of

yielded a large

described as part of superimposed registers that depicted

A three-eyed

skulls attached

to

depicted in a dancing posture in a fragment from the

is

Another fragment shows

.1

animals consisting of lions and jackals

siii^ilar

demon, but without

the skulls.

troupe of

w as evidently represented in motion from right

to

left

around and over the main portal Tlie leoonstiuction of these aiid other fiagments is

still

in ptogiess.*"

trsmmnANA: cm'kHugvA CAms, shahbistan akea

The north wall of a small hall destroyed by fire yielded traces of murals consisting of a
double frieze separated by a pearl border. The upper register preserved traces of a frontal
female head in yellow ocher and cinnabar red against a dark lapis lazuli background.

Traces of rideis and horses, also painted against a blue badtgioinul, wcve fijund in the

lower

register.*'

90. Ibid.; idem, in Arkheohgidteskk nietf v

N. Negmatov, V. Sokolovskii, "Dva

bogini

iz

Shakhristana,"

Td&Mtetmr

X {1970 god)

fragmeiita stcnnoi rospisi

SGB XXXVII

(197J), 5S-60; idem,

(Moskva 1973). 99!^;

i/ubmzhcnniem ninog<5nikoi

"Raboty ScvcriWI'atizlukmanogo

arkheologichcskogo otriaJa v 1972 g.," ArkheolfgUlifiiiif

rtihoiy v Tadshiliisianc XII (rp/i g.),

Akademiia nauk tadzhikskoi SSR,Iiutinitistoriiim. A. Doiiiiha,<!dL B. A,Utvinskiietal.(Ouslianbe

1976), 127-13191.

P P

il

l!

V,

Tr.igmciu

ro^^isi iz CM'ldiii(Uity,"liiefltidilJM4emtf

a(s2) (Dushanbe 1968), 102-106, fig.

i.

(wA

5SR

Index

Abbasids,

Chaghanian,

ifl

Abu Muslim,

18,

Aclucinaiids,

from China, 63^

Adbap ("SS^y). 2^ ih

Anahita, Si,

12

Adonis: Sogdijii funerary tull

Aciop's

IM.

of,

L&2

center of inontiinaiial art, y_i depiction at

of siege

mentioned,

nuiral

at,

200:

I'anjikcnt

j|2x

i8<S.

aoo:

and Varakhsha mural

subject nutter, 6i-6j.

16-

2201 depiction of military equipment, 124;

17,

use of Color,
facial

adoption of Mongoloid

t6j

type and Turkish dress, 177

(princes

of Ustrushana),

Ahura Mazda,

gestures; l<4n: use

of yellow undcrpaiiiting,
of stock scenes and

style,

82i use of white plaster prime-

oT, LiJi,

the

L Hii 20a

111.

nan

^^^
201;

IL

horses, 28.

6^

jackals, 20j

56. 521

101.

196;

200: deer, J2; elephants, 28,

201; griffins, ^ij

felines,

105. 108. 121. 187. 192, 198. 203;

leopard, J2^ lions, 30, 12,

lion-bird, 111, 112;

22^ vulture,

12

Jjj,

ixt.

mountain goat, X2:

See alto Creatures;

Archers.

2, j, 18.

j?

Architectural motifs, aii lAAi '^7- 142

domestic,

Architecture:

UJL 18s: decoration

Ard -Vikhsh,

iM.

cycle, 160
" Amazononiachy," 1 16.

dc*piction
ruler, 42i

lilL iSii ISli

n,

mn

137,

32-2^.

J!ii

H,

com-

LS<L 127.

iM

n4Ji. ngji, lii

1^
1

20. 2^. 26, 98.

jS,

Armor,

105^ lis^

Arnold.

Sir

Artemis,

ly?

of reception

^^^

of,

H9, 1K2

90

See also Nana-

Armaiti

"Amazon"

Samarkand

10

too; bos-incs, lit.

198,

192,

12.

camels,

Armaiti,

Alexander the Great,

Ambassadors:

6.

201

Aristocracy, iS^

\o-M,

<.

of gods, 20; function

representations of in Sogdian painting:

ARDOXSHO,

coat, irto: ineniioncd,

Altars,

attributes

in heroic representations, ill; processions

mercial, 21-22. 26: religious, 22,

Ak-I)cshim,
L.

200;

j9. 140

Arab painting. See Islamic painting

Ajina-tcpe mural paintings: depiction of T'ang

Al'baum,

Arab occupation of Sogdiana,

i_j8

144: postures and

style,

color, 16<; repetition

48;

zoo:

Thrones: animal-shaped

2D2

figures, liiS

silks,

of

tiger.
l<i^

n7,

^r, 12611.

Aion, 142
Ajanta cave paintings:

161

j4.

"Ancient Sugdian Letters,"

203

Afrasiyab (Turanian king). L2a

afshiiis

general and unspecified, tl-<2; birds, ilj ill,

from

paintings,
1

6^2 excavations

of,

paintings: dates of, ii,

diricrcnt

fii,

20a.

jjw,

Animals (animal)

fables, (iS

Afrasiab (the anricnt quarter of Samarkand):

I'anjikeni

200; from Shish,

fii,

representatives of Turkish dynasties,

12
i_j

of by

200L from

LiL iSiii Ifi^i

Thomas, ijOj vn

ts,

ISS.

1^6

Artemis-Nanaia, n<.

j6

Avcita, 2^ 22

205

206

Indvx

Background elements

1^.

88. 102. io<.

in

Sugdian painting, 7<.

1^0. i<<.aoi.aoi

Hi

Bukhara: and Siyavush, 129.

131. See also

at,

cult practices

Varakhsha

Bussagli, M., 14811

Badaklishin, 164
Biditnii painting): color, i6s. 167

Bazaklik mural paintings:

primecoat,

um

of white

plaster

Bagh cave

paintings:

liA: color,

style,

165,

H.W..

example of nun-Buddhist secular

with Sasanian secular mural paintings,

BSmiyan,
;

88^

87-

Chil'khujra Castle, 203

8<j

com-

Buddhist cave paintings from

with

pared

^
art,

compared

88; subject matter, 88j style. 88j 82;

depiction of military equipment,

jjjj

mentioned,

Bamiyan cave

paintings:

example of Graeco-

compared with Balalyk-tepe

mural paintings, 92-93 ; donor

portraits, jja^

o;: use of white plaster primecoat, 160; use of

ultramarine

(lapis

lazuli)

mentioned, 1^

Banquet

scenes,

162, LZli ISli

52i

blue,

^^

164.

167:

n?.

SSj Sli

sj^

io>.

of gixis and mai against demons.

w.

of male

and female adversaries, IK. 116. 107: Faridun's

triumph uvcr Pa|il.ilk, aot
Belenitskii. A.
1

M.. 2ii 116. 117.

I3li, 14311, 166.

paititings: use

of white

plaster

primecoat, iLn

Mud

plaster

Coins: Graeco-Bactrian, ii Sogdian (in general),

6j 16, 1 34: issued by Turkish khagans, Khware-

zmian kings and

rulers

of Tukharistan and

Ferghana, bearing Sogdian inscriptions. 17-18:

found

at Panjikent, 21, 16. 22. 32,

112.

30. 84,

40; Kushan,

134. 141. 143: of Turgar, J6;

Vargoman. 22j of Chakin Chur

Bilga, I2i archer scries, 2<ii found at Balalyktepe, 88^

and unspecified,

67. 76-77. 102: equestrian, 108.

36:

of Khingila. 21; Seleucid from Susa.

of Mithradates U, 136: of kings of Elymais,

U6
Color: remnants

of, 36; loss of, J6j forms distinguished by, 25: use of by Shahristan masters,
loS. ii6,
77. aoa, aoi brilliant, vivid, rich,

182; contrasting, 108. 148,

s6, i68, 190; use

ofas an artistic device. io8. 148 monochromatic

86. 104. IPS. 196. 197

Bernard, Paul,

I2i

Ching-Ling mural

Arab, 22j

12L 12*

flattie scenes: general

169, 19S. 198;

Chinese influences on Manichacan painting, 173,

Clay coating: See

Buddhist tradition of southern Tukharistan,

86: dates of, oi

170.

2<:q

Chakin Chur Bilga, 22. 177

Chiaroscuro, 8s. 20a

112. 118

Balalyk-icpc mural paintings: dates of,

123

Chaghanian, 61^ 62,

lahSr laq, 127

i&L
Bailey,

Cautopatcs, 142

Cave of the Painters. See Qumtura

Ceramic complexes, J2, 40

l^Sl

mn

Bag-Ard.

1^

palette, II7. lOO: in small panel compositions,

Bharatj,

wo:

al-Diruni, 26-27, 21

coat, i6o. 162.

Bol'shakov, O. G., 4a
B(H>k painting, 104. 170. 170. 180, 184

painting at Panjikent, 161-163; symbolic use

Brushwork, 261 168. 160

qi

in

and the three stages of

Pigments

devices,

pictorial

182:

lo<.

epic:

categories,

distinguished

from

reUgious compositions, 2I1 178. 182: distit>guished from small panel compositions, o<.

in Sogdiana, 28. 28-20. 20. 30. ji. 3 s.

Chaghanian. Tukharistan, Ferghana,

Semirech'c, and China.

68. 188;

147-1 <8. 179. 183: schemes. 149. 178

Continuous

Buddha,

(ill

of, 16S-167. See also

Compositiom:

Boyce, Mary. 22
Brahma,
LiL i^Z
Brahma-Zrvan, 20-30

Buddhism

application of over white plaster prime-

Buddhist cave paintings: compared with secular

paintings of Transoxiana, 91.92

Buddhist influences on Sugdian

179:

art,

defined,

different

from

of the Early Christian and

periods,
stylistic

156

102:

pictorial

narration of Buddhist art, Jewish and Christian

art

62.

ICS.

and Hellenistic and

Byzantine

Roman

art,

tot

formulae, los, 108, 149. 182; themes,

140.

182: rcfmcnicnt of,

177: lack

of

Copyii,^

207

Index

influence

on

early hlaniic painting, 177. 180:

juxtaposed with

Continuous

narration:

method

of, 102: distinguished

incth<xi

of rendering

of

use

for

116

from "cyclic"

literary contoit, 104

Creatures: flying, 22i "o.

112: fantastic,

winged dog-

201

s8,

headed, 182

m6.

IX-nu>n$, 2 los.

igg.

of, 18, 20.

defeated by Arabs in 722,

l8<. too. .Srr also

;6.

ifi.

Dewasuc

DcwaStic (ruler of Panjikcnt), 2, i, ti7n. Ser

also

Dcvaslitich

Dcmom

dai's, 6, 2, !52i 22i

MO.

Crowns. 6^^ 2L 22i ^V-

iq2. 20t. See also

dews
Dcvashtich (ruler of Panjikcnt) palace
t8. 64. iqg:

LL2 117: reptilian,

i.

'

of in Sogdian iconjigraphy,

IO<. 100: function

III,

sentiments and colors, 166-167

coinptwititm*, ijS

reli};ii)us

pictorial

dqiiction ol epic and historical themes,

IQ4; Indian deities associated with

i6<.

of,

D'iakonov.

M. M.,

1470, 14811,

W.

15IM, 2fla

D'iakonova. N. V.. ijo

Cult scenes, ii. ^6, ig. Scr

also

Religious rituals;

Donors: representations of

Sacrificial scenes

"Cyclic"
lOi,

nicthtxl

Dilberjin-tcpe nmral paintings, 14. so. 61. 92

of dq>icting

themes,

literary

of on wall

sentatiom of

pahhak, 62, 68,

Daily

life:

2L

'Ol^.

scenes of (genre scenes), ii7.

iB.

uq.

of

178. 17q. l80. 182. 183

paintings,

Dancers. 180. 196, 107

187.

200: Varakh-

sha, 42, 202: Balalyk-tc-pc. 4a, 88, 21;

Shah-

Tukhjri&t.^n. jOi Eastern Turkestan,

Kluichayan

<o:

t<-46

passim. l8<. 186-

iqo. IPS. iq6: Afrasiab. ^2,

ristan.

relative social

Palace,

rank

motifs. S<v

Kij

KiiH-i-Khwaja,

Ornament

Deities: Iranian. 26, 84, I26n. It7. ix?

Sogdian

26.22. 14, fiJL 126: Indian, 22, 32,

182; Indianized iconography of Sogdian

(in general),
t<.

gwls. 22i 2g-l0. to. u. l<6. 166: tlircc-iieadcd

g<Hl (Veshparkar), 30, 1 s6. |6<. i<j8: Bnclrian,
10:
1

four-armed goddess (Nana), jo, 132,

W".

m.

140. ISS. i<6, l6t. igo. IQI. i<>4-ig<.

202;enihroiicd. 30,fiL,63^
193. ISix

of, is8: representations

1^

172.

175,

Islamic.

Drdha

202: Manichaean,

Uaj

I'rthivi.

171.

liiiiC,

LiSi

fiL,

aiL 22 122.

of, 30,

t2-^t.

Hi. LU>

liOiUi, lAL i-i<7.

187. 107. 200: statues of. i2i

"lestial.

178.

Dress (ctKtmne): Sogdian, 41-44. 47. IPS.

14Q. 1<<-1<8 passim,
1

<2.

.16;

112,

m:

I2L

L82i

i*)*"-

i<s,

40.

Bamiyin

cave paintings, 211 Chinese Buddhist,

9211:

depiction of specific ethnic types, isi.

l<2.

167; Chinese. l<2. iq6. 200: Turkish, 176-177.

I78>i. l8i

Dukhtar-i-Nushirviin mural paintings, 82, S3

Dumezil, CJeorges, 100.

uu

Dura Eurojios: temple of Artcini-Naiiaia, n<;

mural paintings,

1^

m7.

s.l.

Emotion: expression of in Sogdian painting, lu.

11s.
I

a;

i6i. 180;

of color blue for

Eastern Turkestan mural paintings: dating, 50

Eiwan-i-Kerklia mural paintings, 8o

blue god, f<6. i6<. 104; blue dancing god,

IS6. IjSfJ, l6<, ltf6: use

Arab, 64.

100: Iranian, 84; in Balalyk-tepe mural

Uti

70: river.

C;racco-Roniaii.

Indian rules for proportions of,

two-armed goddcw,

17S:

102

lili.

70. 140. 1821 animal attributes of, 30^ solar,

112: flame,

171.

17<. 176

13611, ij8, i<s. i8q.

13L 20i: depiction

ti-ts. 42i S6,

of

s8; depiction

paintings, 88, 2ai Sistanian, 2L>

Dccoratiw

i8i: reprc-

Sogdian, 2ii Llij 1^6, 171-172.

Buddhist,

H9-l6t

Panjikcnt paintings of

Drapery, treatment of: Hellenistic. 83: Graeciv

83

Dating of mural paintings: Panjikcnt,

pastim, I58,

later

and donors, iss. 1S7.

of at Varakhsha,

Dalverzin nuiral paintings. 82

Damghan mural

deities

surfaces,

B'liuiyan. 211 21i '4o: use

.it

hieratic scale in

L52i 121

at Panjikcnt, i2 iSi

147. i<<. 1S7. LIS. i6ij 182, 182, !22i iSiLi "J6;

allocation

(Hit

flesh

152

Epic themes: depiction of, 62, 2i 2ii *02- !24i

108. 148. 14Q. iSSL

iSi

Epics: Sogdian, 6-7. 28. q<-97; Iranian, 81, q6.

97.00-100. 108. iSa

Er-Kurgan, i^

Eye movements,

58, 108. 15411

Copyii

208

Index

Fables: depiction of,

68^

60j,

uSj

^^
^

Fabrici: depiction of, 1^

168. i6o.

Faces

.SV'

(facial)

fcatum,

expressions,

io8.

Ml. 176-177.

I49-'5J pdssim; con-

Gracco-Roman

so,

IM; Mongoloid

features,

5^1^

Gupta

ZL

< Sec

'

Hadda mural

uo.

llj,

114.

141

lis.

146.

i68.

169. 199: artistic formulae for, I4S. 146

Folklore, 118, 1421

2QD

nimbus or

nii li^

i4t.

112-113. 114. 188. loo.

disc.

and unspecified, is8. I9i.

Headgear: helmets, 61, 122, 12s, lOO: caps. 62,

64. 141 diadems, 6^21: turbans, 6^ 1S2. 199:
:

headdresses, 140. I94

Foreigners: depiction of Turks, 42-4 1. 62. isi.

200; Chinese,

62,

fiOj

S2. 200: Arabs. 64^

Heads: three-quarter views

187. 188. igi

views
Foreshortening,

M4

Tempera
<.

JVC

B6, ^Li

S7i 187,

1821 Nana's auuciation with,

12.

Mithra's association with, 141. iSi

ritual,

130-132

of,

attributes, 109.

ou Sogdian

loB
1

icicntiticci

10,

14, 1S2:

2^ 103.

art of,

84-8 <. 87;

104

Gatlus, 22i L12

(Jcnrc MtTict. .Sir IJaily

of

iiieaits

i"**-

17, 181. 1H2

l^i

17811. 179.

I48. i49-t<2

lS2

and subject matter. Km, 90-91

plaster

style

dates of. 90:

top coat. gOj

2L

distinguished from Sasanian court art, 2i

Gift-beircn: depiction of, <6, 62. 6x

160:

2ii

form: depiction

mud

16.

17.

<2.

plaster, i<V>-ifii

of, 2i 2^2^ 2ii

S4, iss, i83 ;standajdi?jlioii

92,

Chagha-shahr mural paintings: Hellenistic

6^

lUiddhiM temple mural paintings:

Ssii

use of top coat of fine

Human

life

Gesture, 88^ 105, \si^

mud

by

accompanied by

>

is6, ifii

Hua Yai

Conventions. Hi, 2ii LSI

lu,

'

Heroic age, 22t 101. 102. lis. 1B3

Heroic themes, dj^
101. 102, los.

Historic documentaries,

use of

art,

and iconographic conventions,

flying creatures, iif>-i

passim,

Gandhara; Gracco-Buddhist

passim,

ss.

Herzfeld, Ernst. in. 8j

30

stylistic

194

82,81,86

ittctititit:!

21

It J. 141. 181. 182: Adonis's assncialion with.

of. 81, 22, iso.

idealized, 2I1 iso. IS4; profile

I

2^ 01* U2. LiL l<k

Heroes: depiction of. 62^ 10s: discussion of, aa;

|>jiniiii(;s,

Funcrar\' and ancestral cult: at Panjikent. 128.

HI, H9.

so.

Hcphthalitcs, i 16,

Frontality. 1^6, LIZ, 182

FuiKrary

Hellenistic stylistic

Fresio technique ("fresco buono"), 161. S<r a/jo

FuiiJukistJii

of,

Hellenistic iiiflucnces

fravaii cult, IJ2

Furod.

'^8.

braided

t88:

isi,

100. 2QI

140

Foreign lands; pictorial representations of. 281 6^^

Hq:

23

LiL

8ij2ii2i

I.so.

Halos: rayed aureola or flame, 112,

194, 203: general

tio. 182, i8j. 197-198

4^

Footwear,

hair,

facial

194;

188:

12L

arc,

(Turkish^, l^l, 136, 200: Chinese. 136

i88. loo. 104. l>0

Foliage: rcpresenutiotis of,

Folktales,

<8

paintings, 8^

Hairstyles: depiction of.

and shoulder,

head

on Sogdian

artistic influences

also Iwamali

Firdausi, 6-7. 129. 130. 1S7

shoulder,

88, 147. 148,

gumbad, izj

Ferghana, 14, 18. 6a

Flames:

89

l<

3.

2*1 Lii

Grouping of figures,

lzS

20 ^

/<mi (prw). 22i

line.

82-84. 8g. i<0. iss,

artistic style, 82. 83. 8s.

in Soi;dian history.

Ground

Bishr, ui,

Faridun,

Greeks

Sj-87 passim,

art,

artistic style,

156. 172. Ill

I78n. iSl^aOQ

(letrastylc temple),

Farfrj,

Graeco-Uuddhist
Gracco-Iranian

H4,

l6t);

Sj, 88,

147,

tortiom. io8. ist.

fayn

Gods. Set Deities

r22i LSq

48-49. 42i "7.

aha Silks

IS2,

149.

imagery,

Sogdian

iss:

S2: Indian rules

ideal type

'

so-i S2,

of physiognomy.

prototype

for

divine

of proportion,

compared with

Indian,

S3;

S4.

See also Proportions

Humbach, H^
Hunting

lo,

scenes. 27. 4 s. 48. 63, 171. 200. 201. 202.

209

Index
See ako /am (prn)

hvarnah, Il2.

Kuh-i-Khwija

mural

paintings:

Sj^ dates of, 84

stylistic features, 8in,

lAkubovskii, A. lU., 13 in, lS6

Iconography. See

Kushans:

imagery;

Religious

Secular

imagery
Icrusalimskaia, A. A.,

63

manuals on, LSi

161. 162;

'44. 149. 182,

16^ 16^

symbolic use of color, 166-167; sketch, 167-

Lapis lazuli mines, 164

168

Lashkari Bazar mural paintings, ijj

Lc Coq, Albert von, 164

Light symbolism, in. 114

Indigo blue, 162-16S passim

H,

Indra-Adbag,

Literary themes: representations

to. tl. t1

Indra-Sabha temple cave paintings at Ellora,

14511,

mural paintings,

of

ia

JL2ii42i42,S26l*$2ifil ISL

Inscriptions,

Islamic painting: origins of,

170; Manichaean

contributions to, 170. i7t

of drapery,

in

Roman,

JSq.

122^

i^li

125,

176;

treatment
Sasanian

on, 177; comparison with

artistic influences

Sogdian painting, 178; Sogdian

stylistic

con-

4^

56,

log;

torques, ga

paintings:

depiction

chromatic fabrics from Zandaniji,

SO,

1)1

example of Graeco-Buddhist

of southern Tukharistan, 86;

of poly-

wa-Dimna,

Kaolin,

8^ 68^

Zoroastrian, 22i heroic, loi. 109.

Litvinsky, B. A., 82
Livshits,

Mahabharata,

stylistic

painting,

drapery,

I2L I2L 121

Manichaeans, 6^

2L

^oon> loin; heroic

treatment

of

L ^2

manjaniq siege machines,

6^

Maracanda (Samarkand),

Marshak, B.

Mazdaism
Military

ii7.

II2

iM

in Sogdiana. 62,

equipment,

l26n

120-121.

Armor; Weapons

Koi-Krylgan-kala mural paintings: use of white

plaster priinecoat, ij6q

160M, i6o

T., so

contributions to

I7i:

170.

Manichaeism, 62. I26n

iOl

liSfl

Magians; Priests

114^

Islamic

Khwarcztiiians: dynastic lult, 82^ mural paint-

Kostrov, P. ly

also

Manichaean painting:

12a

"Majiis"; Priests

alsc

2h.

Mandel'shtam, A. M., 12

Khalchayan mural paintings, 8^ 8^

Kiuglikova,

108:

Mahadeva/^iva, 22^ I41

Mahadeva-Veshparkar, jo

tradition

tuentiottcd, 1

cycles, 97, 100, loin

ings, 8i,

96-101

IQ3.

H4-ii<

V. A., jo, 6z

Mandorlas,

i6i^ 16^

Kavi, 2ij 22i

Kayanians: dynasty of.

Sogdian

secular, 6. ji 9i-96, 97: Iranian oral,

dates of,

Kala, 162
Kalila

Graeco-

2j Si

passim; of aitertainment, 22i 22i

"Majus," 22; Set

cave

fi.

4fl

2^1 tS. 117. 149. 167;

bracelets, 4^, 22^ necklaces,

Kakrak

Sogdian

in

8l_;

loj

Magians, tag, 118. See

omimentt,

of

62^ 68^ 2i; depiction

Lord, A. B., 103

tributions to, l8o. l4

Islamization of Sogdiana, i8, 37,

Jewelry

6^

mural paintings,

Iranian

Literature: Sogdian religious,

187. 198. 2ia

stylistic

of

126, I22 201. See also

Ultramarine blue

29,,

use

122

Lapis lazuli blue,

161. 162. 166. 168: pigments, i6lj 162. 165:

Indra,

i<7:
8j_^

Landscape elements in Sogdian painting, los.

i<6.

140.

contributions to

stylistic

art, 28^ 10.

Indian painting six principles of, 144; techniques

of,

and

Parthian and Sogdian art, Jh. i>

dynastic cult.
mural paintings,
Hellenistic stylistic features, 8^

on Sogdian

Indian artistic influences

artistic

Hellenistic

Military tactics, lao-tii

Miran mural paintings, 26, 8&

;Jo, izfai, 141, 1&2

Mithra.

Mongols, j

151.

5rf

aiso

210

Index

Mood,

lojj loSj

Ostraca, (L IJ2

Moshchcvaia Gorge, northern Caucasus,

Mount Mugh,

Mourning scene from

132 passim.

rj, 6j

I'anjikcnt, 67-^8, 76, 128-

ui.

;Qn.

Movement of figure),

Musical instruments, 22i

PaAcmaitira,

specified, iSsj,

i8o.

19'i,

Panjikcnt mural paintings: excavations of,

185-190 passim, io<. 108. 109: dates

20.

121; orchestra of

196;

(io,

L 6L 122

Panel compositions, to, 2ij 119. 149-1 so. 178179, 180. 182. 183, 184, 19?

i6<.

'40,

20J
Musicians: harpist, j6j 162,

Muslim

general and un-

187. 190. 19S. 196: restoration

of

silks,

16- H7.

in battle

it>:

of gods and

mortals against demons, 622./'"" of.

Sogdian cult of Adonis,

tl.

ZU

-fd

19: association

with Sogdian luncrary and dynastic

cult,

H2.

139; association with Artemis, Aphrodite, and

Tyche or Fortuna, n<;

principal deity of Susa.

n<-l 36;

of Nani-Armaiti,

to.

182:

Nana

in

syncretic cult

NANA,

M.

resemblance between imagery of

Transoxiana and representations of

the Saka ^sandramata,

ij^

Nana-Armaiti syncretic
:

86. 190; depiction

ia8-'ll. 140. 141. 143.

182: characteristics of earlier paintings, 2ii 147.

KO. MS, 161-162.

l68. 172. tSi: depiction

of later paintings, 1^0, l<<. l<6.

168. 177. 181

technical analysis of, 159-163;

cult,

8^ 8^

dynastic

S2

Parvati, jo

Pfi shih. Li

Perikhanian, A. G., 25

lii

Pictorial epic. .Sfc Ci>ntinuous pictorial epic

cult of,

lii

1^

Pigments: application

of, i_S2i 160. 190; addition

of adhesive substances

Nanaia, 30, jOj Ij^ IJi,

analysis of, 161-163

Nanaifamd, 21
NJrayacia, 22

165: use of in the sketch,

Pilgrims,

Narrative paintings, 27-28. 9<. 102. 104. 147-1 50,

Ping-Yang Fu mural paintings,

to. t6i. 162: technical

of foreign origin, 163i<SS

See also Color

fii

Plaster primecoat,

181-182. i8i. Ig4

Narshakhi, 122
b. Saiyar, lS

158. 161-162,

symbolic use of color, 165-166. 167

Parthians: mural paintings, 8ln,

Nanai, the Lady. I2<n. tl^. Ijjn

Nasr

of

military equipment, 123. 124: characteristics

PHARRO,

n8-H9

njn

vjn.

48-49; secular themes, 63-64. 67, gs.

(hemes. 68, 20,^21:

116-H7,

140. 14}', Indian features in the iconography

of.

of.

of in antiquity,

I04-I0S. iflL 1K-II6. 117. 181-1821 religious

n2-m.

attributes of,

I2i

3S-46 passim, l<8n. l<9-l6l passim, l8<. 186.

42. 46. I48i, ito. 161. 162.

126

painting. Sec Islamic painting

Mythological themes, 272 52. ijH

Nani:

lL 1S3

figures, l<<, l<7

OXSHO. UM, tun

14S. is6. 161, lai

li7. 148

Mud plaster, li^ 22i 2Li '5-i6l, 130

Muuh documents, 2, 6, 18. 19. 20. 21

Chinese women,

167-169.

Outlines, 8^^

Overlapping of

2. 5^ li 63

ifii

159-162 passim, 188-192

passim, 203

modeling, 36, 2it 2$ L ?ii

155-156. 188. 180. 190. 194

Plastic

12

Natyasastra,

Negmatov (Ne'matov), N.
Ncstorian Christians, 6j

N., 421

'08*1.

202. 20J

L 22

Plumb

line,

2L

Hi Ii2i

LiL LSI

Po$ture{s), 8^1 21.

li?. I42i '<'-'<8 passim,

188, 190. 192.203

OESO,

Pottery,

Orientation of figures, SS^

Oniament

(decoration),

Pramathas,

^6o^21i

t47. 187-192

passim, I2ii I22i

from Biia-naiman,

from Khwarczm,

Priests, 22.

iM. I2i

^e also

Magians; "Majus"

Processions, iE j6j 52. ^i. $2, ^ii 68, 117. 147.

Orpinieiit, 162, 161, 165

Ossuaries:

^ 38-40

m>-n i

157-158. 191

142-143. 1510;

Proportions: of figures, 48, 76, 83. 85. 88, 91.

105. 116, 132. 150. 152.

J7, 182. 183:

Sogdian

211

Index
canons of, 15^-153.

Indian caiiotit of,

Secxilar

imagery, 63-64, 67, 68. 73-74, 87-89.

90-91. 95. 102. 104-lOS. I08. 117. 168. 181. 182

C,

Pugachcnkova,

Semirech'c, 14, 17, j4. 62

is

sfmnurvs, 62^ 21. 132

Qal'a-i Kafiniihan, 14

Scrindia: early medieval Buddhist art of,

Qahqaha mural

Qal'a-i

202-203.

'*>Vi' <'j<'

Qunuura rave
Qutayba

b.

paintings, lo8n,

l<8.

Shahristan

tion of

patiicings,

1<7.
1

m.

Religious

Silk

J2. 122. i^l. 20^

influetires

28. lOSfl, 141.

Royal portraits,
Rudra,

m.

6^

62.67.

Rustam,

141-14}

Siva, io,

too

and Sasanian, I2i Sogdian, 27.

Khwarcziuian, rj^.

5*"

lii 162

Siyavu-sh, 129-13 1

Smirnova. O.

27. 84. 91. 01

17; depiction of,

L.

00. IOOi, I^J

of, 2^22^ '><-<;7. loS-i

2Jj,

2^

2S1

2A2 los. 140. 182. 202:

of scenes on wall

allocation

passim, 150, 179

Si

Sogdian painting: subject inactcr/thcines,

47. 61-71 passim,

i_i2

110

t^,

Sogdian language,
1

6. Zi i!L fiS.

Rustavcli,

<2.

6t

Sketch, 36j Z4i Zii 167-169. 188. 190

202-20J

Rustain cycle: depiction

ii7.

17

3, 8. 15,

Silver: Byzantine

141)1

art,

legend: depiction of, 27-

Rulers: Sogdian, 19-20, 47.

iUj,

Route,

Silks, 17, 48.

103. 171

on Sogdian

Romulus and Retnus

Qal'a-i

also

Shishkin, V. A.,

Siege iiutruments,
rituals: rcprcsciuations of, 56, liL 183.

5rr d/ic Cult scenes; Sacrificial scenes

Roman

202. 201

141. is6, 156-

Qahqaha

<6.

Shjsh. 61 lOQ

Ridcn,

legend, 27-28.

i64>i. 16s,

mentioned, y. See

201

Religious imagery, 22i ^9-3^ piudm, 68j 22, 7j.

0I-Q3. 114. l^6-I4^ pwjmf. 1421
<7. 182.

Resurrection: cult of, 120.

82

10

of, 421 2^; distinctive style of,

76-77, 202: colors, 77. i6i.

depiction of deities, 126.

Raspopova, V. L, lil
Realism, 7^-74. U7. Ml.

Romulus and Remus

202-201 : dates
164. 167

i<So.

toon,

62iM26j

Shahristan, Ustrushana. mural paintings: depic-

Muslim, J8,

Qyz>'l mural paintings,

ShSlmSnia, 6,

surfaces,

so-60

^^

magical role of,

2ij 181
realism in, 73-74. 117, 152, 156, 182: style,

passim,

UL

Ui

71-77. 24i LU.

I47. 148/1. ISO. KS. ilL.
182-181. 181, 189. 190. 192. 199. 200. 202. 203
!

Sacrificial scenes, 6^, 117. i<>3. 'in.

See also Cult

Saka,

<j6,

100.

passim; aesthetic norms,

Samarkand. See Afrasiab; Maracanda

artistic devices,

lila

s9-i6s.

8a. See

art. 22,

2ii

form;

alsi'

so.

si. 183; tech-

Color; Continuous pic-

Dating of mural paintings;

torial epic;

221 subject matter,

on Sogdian

27, 67, 89; influences

niques of, 159-161, 16S-169. 182; materials of,

Samarra mural paintings, 172. 173. 17<.

San Ap]M>linarc Nuovo, Ravenna, 147
Sasanian art:

Stages of dcvclotMnciu. 76. 93-94, 147-1 S2 passim, i6t-i6i. artistic formulae los. io8. i4S-i<5

scenes; Religious rituals

Ornament;

Pritportions;

Human

Religious

imagery; Secular imagery

conventions,

Sogdian primary sources. Sec " Ancient Sogdian

Sasanian mural paintings: compared with non-

Sogdian society. 10-26 passim, u^Mifi. See also

US

iconography, Sgj 21;

stylistic

Letters";

Buddhist secular

art

of Balalyk-tcpc,

Sa>

90-

Sogdiana: location of, 2^ history of, 2-1.

2i
Sasanians, 5^
Scale:

Mugh documents

Aristocracy

fi2i

of figures, ii

IS8, l8l, 191. 201

2,

4-l9, 64; religious history of, i6. a. 62, Lid

i2i, i43

22i

of scenes,

Schlumbcrgcr, Daniel, 82. 83,

2i iiL
187,

8^.

202

iiiiiiZ

Spatial

depth rendition
:

Spatial relationship

'<8.i8i

of, 26^

between

Ij6
figures,

iss. i<7.

212

Index

Spendannad, 118

the kings of Bukhara, 211L

mural

HQ

Spcnta Antuiti, n?. n8.

Stein, Sir Aurcl, S iw. yo, gi

Zoro-

Susa: Sasaiiian mural paintings from,

temple

astrian

at,

of Nana, IJ5-

126. 127: cult

1 1

Tempera ("fresco secco"), 2L

Tcnncz mural paintings, 8^
Thrones: animal-shaped, jOj

m8, 201;
i<8.

I2<ii

Vcshparkar, 29-11.
lii,

iOLi 2211

yo
3

later

use

painting,

of

phave

of white

cast

plaster

of Nana

102; cult

L., ij

women, 1K-116.

sites in,

in,

1^

j.i.

37,

j9

Sogdian inscriptions on

106: nomadic, lai.

122; Arab, I2<; depiction of, 192-197 passim,

Weapons, 4^1

l7

Buddhist art of. 82i non-Buddhist

vccular art of, 87-94 /><mii, lii; heroic age in

Tukh.1ristan

Warriors:

199, 201, 203

12, 132. 141,

:

iL

2ii los.

im(OF.SO),

io. .Scr aln>

White

ground.

plaster

Wrestling match, 102, 179. 197

in the paintings of, 164;

niimalurcs

from,

170.

stylistic cinttributiotu

Turgar, 36,

I7I.

lapis

lazuh

17.

120-

in

priinccoat

Sogdian s<Kiety, iis-116

Wysprkr, 143, l6s. Sec also Vcshparkar

Manichaean
Sogdian

I7t;

Xurasan-xurra, 21

to the art of, iSa.

Yania,

i-i7>i

Turkish influence on Sogdian

161 12,

OF,SO

.SVr piaster

Buddhism

Turfan: religious texts Ironi. 8^ 179;

16.

K.. 101. ]04

Women

in, 62.

125 passim, 177

Wcitzmann,

coins of, 17-18; paintings of, 50, 86-87. 91

pigment

abo Wy!prkr

influ-

priniecciat,

Transoxiana

62 70. See

ifii

yi,

Voronina, V.

3"

example of

2!l;

Iranian

Viaikin, V. L., 2aa

Vijiju,

Visnudharmcitlara, isi, 1^4. 162, 166, iliB

Tolstov. S. P., I2 iL.

ences,

'33.

22. Zli

L42i liii l82i

ivory,

i26rt

Ves-^iva, jO

l&i

Toprak-kala mural paintings: Hcilciiiuic

Turks.

fil^

7. 177, 200; depiction of, 6^,

Vcrethragna, jo^

Torches,

Hall, ll-tl.

u-33. 48-49.

201-202; dates of, 421 iHi Z02; color, iCj

Vargoinan: ruler of Samarkand, 17, 47-48. 61-62.

Vayu, ii

U6

34.

Red

paintings:

subject matter,

Uii I22jI2^

art.

hi.

177. i8i

Yaits. gfi

1^ 111. 176-177.
Zabulistan, depiction

181

of ruler

of,

Zandaniji: polychromatic fabrics of, 48-49

Ultramarine blue,

i6z-i6< passim. See

aSso

<.

39,

40

Zcravshan: goddess of the

Lapis lazuli blue

Ustrushaiu.

Zeimal', K. V.,

Zcymal, T.

I2i

river,

30

L 82

Zoroaster, 99
Vai^ras'aija.

Zori>astrianism, 26. SZi 22i '37.

29

Varakhsha: center of monumental

art,

seat

of

Zrvan ('zrw'),

29, ji^ 33-34, \26n,

n8. 143

Ui

Copyr

Designer.

Compasitar
Printer:

Binder:

Icxc
Cktih:

Paper

Thcojung

WBiam Clowes
("arcy C^olorgraphit

Roswdl Bookbinding
Monotype Bcmbo
HoUitton Roxiti- C 575fi5

80 lb. Luster Offset fnamelDidl

Copyrighted malBrial

Color Plates

Copyrighted matsrial

Color

t.

The

Plates

dtadel of

tesidence

Old

Panjikent showing the temains of the Sogdian royal

and die Zatafihan Rivet, Tajikistan SSR.

2.

Khwarezmian mural showing

tan

SSR. Third

3,

Detail

century.

of a mural deleting

residential

complex

a frieze

Tukharis^,

Head of figure,

ca. 18

cm,

in Uzbekistan
total height

SSR.

of mural

m.

4-i3.

Detail

from

Panjikent VI: 41.

i4-20.

Detail

Patyiltent

Si.

from Toptak-kala, Utbcki^

of banqueters from the west wall of the

at Balalyk-tepe, northern

Sixth to seventh century. Copy.

1.8

a standing figure,

Copy.

a Si^dian mural depicting

the

"Rustam

cycle" from

Photo courtesy D. Belous, Moscow.

from

a Sogdian mural

XXI: 1. Photo

courtesy

d^icdng

the

"Amaz^m cyde" from

D. Belous, Moscow.

Deuil of a Sogdian mural depicting members of the Chaghanian mission to

die royal court at Samarkand. South wall of

Room

2,

Samarkand.

Mid

seventh

century. Copy.
22.
r1ir-

Detail

century. In
23.

of a Sogdian mural depicting members of

rnvi! rnurt at

Samarkand. Soutli wall of Room

Detail of a Sogdian mural

from

laid

Mid

seventh

the royal residence, die Panjikent citadd.

Detail of a Sogdian mural

from the royal

Early eighth century, i'hoto courtesy D. liclous,

25.

Samarkand.

situ.

Early eiiiluh century. Photo courtesy D. lielous,

24.

the Chaghanian mission to

i,

Moscow.
residence, the Panjikent citadcL

Moscow.

Detail of a Sogdian mural depicting the tale of the sl.uhrlucr of the goose that

golden eggs, from Panjikait XXI: i. Photo courtesy D.

lielous,

Moscow.

Copyrighted matBrial

26.

Sogdian mural depicting male and female

riders,

from

Paiijiketu

HI: 17.

Photo courtesy D. Belous, Moscow.

27.

four-arincd goddess and donors depicted in a Sogdian mural from the

northern chapel, \n the precincts of TanpU'

II, I'anjikent.

Photo courtesy D. Belous,

Moscow.
from

iS.

Sogdian mural depleting

29.

Detail ot a Sogdian mural depicting a frieze

XVI: 10.
JO.

a harpist,

Plioto courtesy D. Belous,

Detail

courtesy D. Belous,

VI:i.

of baDqueters, from

Patijikait

Moscow.

of a Sogdian mural depicting

Xyiuo. Photo

I'anjikciit

a frieze

of banqueters, fcom PatijikaU

Moscow.

Copyrighted malBriai

Plate

The

of Old

Paiijikeitt showiti^^ the raiuiins

of the

Sogdian royal residence and the Zarajsluui River, Tajikistan

SSR,

1.

citadel

laterial

Plate

(above).

Khwarezmiati mural showing a

suvniitiji figure

from Toprakkala, Uzbekistan SSR. Third cemury. Copy.

Plate

.i

(right).

Detail of a mural depicting a frieze of hatiqueters

from the west wall ofthe residential complex at Balalyk-tepe north,

ern Tukharistan, in Uzbekistan

Copy. Head offigure,

ca.

SSR. Sixth

to

serenth century.

18 cm, total height of mural 1.8 m.

P/iJ/f 4.

Detail from

ii

So)>tluvi

mural dvpictiu^ the "Rtisttim cycle

from Paiijikcnt VI:41. Photo courtesy

Bclous,

Moscow.

Plate 5.
Jroiii

DvMil froin a

'

Si'jji/wm inural lU-piaiiig the

"Ritstam cycle

Panjikcnt VI:41. Photo courtesy D. Belous, Moscow.

Cr

I'Lac fi-

iJi iatl lioin

a So\^duiii iiiuuil

liw

"Rihhxm

lielous,

Moscow.

iitpuiiii<^

cycle"jrom Faitjikciu VI:4I. Phoio lOiimsy

D.

laterial

a.crial

laterial

laterial

laterial

aterial

aterial

laterial

laterial

material

Plate 22.

Detail of a Sogdian mural depicting members of the

ghanian mission

Room

1,

to the royal

conn

Samarkand. Mid seventh

at

Cha-

Samarkand. South wall of

century. In situ.

laterial

Plate 23.

Detail of a Soj^dian mural from the royal residence, the

Paiijikeiii citadel.

Early eighth century. Photo courtesy

D.

Belous,

Moscow.

laterial

Plate 24.

Detail of a Si\ndiau mural front (he royal residaice, the

Panjihetti citadel. Early eif^hth century. Photo courtesy

Moscow.

D.

Belous,

Plate

25

of the

slait'^hter oj the j^oose that laid {^oldeti e^i^^s, front

(lilhu'v).

XXI:I Photo
Plate

from

26

Detail of a So^^duin niuial depicting the tale

totirtesy

(right}.

Panjikctit

Sogdiati mural depictitig male

111:17.

Panjikent

D. Belons, Moscotr.
andfemale

Photo courtesy D. Belous, Moscow.

riders,

Plate 27.

fom-amwd

muralJrotu the
jiktnt.

fioddcss

ami tUvwrs depicted

iionheiti cluipel, in the precincts

in

a SofidiiVi

of Tctnplc H, Pan-

Photo courtesy D. Bclous, Moscow.

laterial

Plate

28

(leji).

Sogdian mural depicting a harpist, from Panji-

kcmVI:l/
Plate

29

Detail of a Sogdiau mtmil depicting a frieze of

(above).

banqueters, from Panjikcnt XVI:1(). Photo courtesy

D.

Belous,

Moscow.
Plate

30 (overleaf)

Detail of a Sogdian nmral depicting a frieze of

banqueters, from Panjikcnt XVI:1(). Photo courtesy

Moscow.

D. Belous,

Copyrighted matBrial

Copyrighted material